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Council for Research in Music Education
Utilizing Elements of the Historic Jazz Culture in a High School
Setting Author(s): Andrew Goodrich Source: Bulletin of the Council
for Research in Music Education, No. 175 (Winter, 2008), pp.
11-
30Published by: on behalf of the University of Illinois Press
Council for Research in Music
EducationStable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/40319410Accessed: 11-05-2015 08:12
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Utilizing Elements of the Historic Jazz Culture in a High School
Setting
Goodrich Jazz Culture
Andrew Goodrich Northwestern State University Natchitoches,
Louisiana
ABSTRACT This qualitative study is an examination of the
incorporation of elements of the historic jazz culture in a high
school jazz band. Ethnographic techniques were used during one
semester of instruction to explore the role of a director and
students in learning jazz music via traditional methods. Data
analysis revealed that elements of the historic jazz culture can
occur in a high school setting under the supervision of the
director. In this study three themes emerged which served as the
filtered elements of the historic jazz culture utilized by the
director of this ensemble: (a) listening for style, (b)
improvisation, and (c) learning the lingo.
Jazz, created in America through the blending of the music of
many other cultures and hailed by Europeans as the one "truly
American" gift to music, has progressed from the bars and bordellos
of New Orleans, through the speakeasies of the twenties, across the
dance floors of the Glenn Miller era, into the nightclubs of today
(Murphy & Sullivan, 1968, p. 17).
For the first half of the twentieth century the performance
context of jazz music resided primarily in dance halls, clubs,
brothels, and via the radio and phonograph recordings (Gottleib,
1996). The informal learning environment for jazz most often
occurred in these locales and media late at night and provided the
primary aural con- texts for jazz consumption. Historically,
mentoring in the jazz culture served as the
primary medium for learning this music. Musician Sam Price
recalled his experiences with jam sessions in Kansas City, one of
the cradles of early jazz:
I remember once at the Subway Club, on 18th Street, I came by a
session at about 10 o'clock and then went home to clean up and
change my clothes. I came back a little after one o'clock and they
were still playing the same song (Shapiro & Hentoff, 1955, p.
288).
Performing in these locales with patrons of questionable
character formed a key com-
ponent of the jazz lifestyle. Mary Lou Williams reminisced about
life as a jazz musician in Kansas City in the 1920s:
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Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Winter
2008 No. 175
Now, at this time, which was still Prohibition . . . most of the
night spots were run by politicians and hoodlums, and the town was
wide open for drink- ing, gambling, and pretty much every form of
vice. Naturally, work was plentiful for musicians, though some of
the employers were tough people (Shapiro & Hentoff, 1955, p.
288).
With jazz performance came a lifestyle of living on the road,
playing in clubs, and learning a whole new language of phrases. As
jazz music evolved, verbal lingo also formed an integral component
of the jazz experience. In addition, jazz "unlike some forms of
Western music . . . has been based primarily on a tradition of
listening and
performing" (Horowtiz and Nanry, 1975, p. 25). Jazz music,
spawned in these less than desirable venues, quickly transformed
into
the popular music of its day. Writers, including F. Scott
Fitzgerald, helped to sum up this lifestyle in the 1920s as "The
Jazz Age" (Horowitz and Nanry, 1975). How then, could a music
forged in the depths of prostitution, gambling, and alcohol have
found its way into the school environment?
The purpose of this study was to examine a successful high
school jazz band and to gain insight into which elements of the
historic jazz culture occurred in this particular jazz ensemble.
During the course of this study it became evident that elements of
the historic jazz culture were present in this ensemble. Questions
that guided this study included:
1. What elements of the historic jazz culture occurred in this
high school jazz band?
2. How did the director in this study filter and incorporate
these elements into a high school setting?
The inclusion of the historic jazz culture will be discussed in
the following sections with the following headings: History of Jazz
in the Schools, Definitions of Culture; and Studies of Jazz
Culture.
History of Jazz in the Schools Jazz music entered into the
schools via extracurricular routes (Suber, 1976). Students at
historically black colleges including Fisk University and Alabama
State performed in dance bands at their schools during the 1920s
and 1930s (Ferriano, 1974; Goodrich, 2001). These extra curricular
dance bands, often referred to as "stage bands" to avoid the sinful
connotations of jazz music in the South, provided an opportunity
for students to hone their jazz skills in an informal learning
environment (Suber, 1976).
During the post war era jazz ensembles entered the schools at a
swift rate, and in 1947 North Texas State College became the first
college to offer a degree program in jazz (Scott, 1973). This
proliferation of jazz ensembles paralleled the growth of concert
bands in the public schools earlier in the twentieth century (Mark,
1987) and can be attributed to two factors: World War II and the
evaporation of the professional big band scene in jazz music. World
War II veterans, many of which had jazz experience,
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Goodrich Jazz Culture
attended college on the G.I. Bill, graduated, and became music
educators (Suber, 1976). Concurrently, the demise of the popularity
of the jazz big bands sent many jazz musicians looking for other
means of employment, which they found as secondary and
college level music educators, forming jazz bands in their
school music programs (Hall, 1969).
As jazz music moved from functioning as an art form within the
larger culture to an educational medium within the schools, certain
elements of jazz were either lost or
homogenized. Music educators who were World War II veterans
retired, and teachers trained in the formal procedural knowledge of
concert bands became the new jazz band directors, possessing little
or no jazz experience. With this transformation, many music
educators no longer taught their students how to perform jazz music
via the informal traditional aural methods - learning songs by ear,
modeling a favorite player or players, or by listening to jazz
groups. Instead, a greater emphasis was placed upon learning how to
read music and play the correct articulations from a printed page.
Improvising became an art form relegated to reading written solos,
or at best reading chord symbols, instead of relying solely on
developing ones ear. Jazz lingo was replaced with a new terminology
borrowed from the concert band idiom including, "Be sure to release
this note on the third beat," or "Use the proper amount of air when
articulating this quarter note." Jazz culture historically is
different from school culture. Today, jazz ensembles are prevalent
in
public schools, colleges, and universities. The International
Association for Jazz Education
(IAJE) boasts an active membership of 8,000 teachers, musicians,
students, music indus-
try representatives, and enthusiasts in thirty-five countries
(www.iaje.org).
Definitions of Culture Beattie (1964) defines culture as "the
whole range of human activities which are learned . . . and which
are transmitted from generation to generation through vari- ous
learning processes" (p. 20). Ortner (1990) describes the
interactions involved in cultural transmission [informal learning]
that can be structured "with the sponsoring person(s) defined as
the host(s), [and] the recipient(s) of the largesse as the
guest(s)" (p. 60). Rogoff(2003) cites Vygotsky who identifies
components of a culture in which "Cultural-historical development
changes across decades and centuries, leaving a legacy for
individuals in the form of symbolic and material technologies (such
as literacy, number systems, and computers) as well as value
systems, scripts, and norms" (p. 65). Rogoff (2003) explains the
participants' perspective in a culture as "People develop as
participants in cultural communities. Their development can be
understood only in
light of the cultural practices and circumstances of their
communities - which also
change" (RogofF, 2003, p. 3). For the purpose of this study jazz
culture is defined as the transmission of knowl-
edge of historical jazz practices (both informal - mentoring;
and formal - private les-
sons) through interaction between the teacher and student via
guided learning. The goal
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Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Winter
2008 No. 175
is for the students to become participants in the jazz cultural
community which may include an "accumulated store of symbols,
ideas, and material products associated with a social system"
(Johnson, 1995, p. 68). Jazz music includes symbols (e.g.,
notation; his- toric personalities; musical gestures), ideas (e.g.,
performance practices; improvisation; cultural, ethnic, gender
stereotypes), and materials (e.g., charts, recordings).
Studies of Jazz Culture Researchers have examined the cultural
impact and uniqueness of jazz music in American society and argue
for its inclusion in the public schools (Arnold, 1979; Hall, 1969).
Horowitz and Nanry (1975) describe jazz as a social phenomenon, a
"manifesta- tion of collective behavior" that is not "bounded by
individuals" (p. 25).
Jazz musicians form their own communities (Stebbins, 1964) and
need to be open to new identities in jazz if it is to remain "a
vital ground of social and cultural renewal" (Ake, 1998, p. 273).
In his book, Thinking in Jazz, Berliner (1994) interviewed numer-
ous well-known jazz musicians to discover their opinions and
expertise on how they improvise in jazz.
Students who perform in a school jazz ensemble learn the
procedural knowledge of their instrument from their participation
in a concert band. Leavell (1996) reflects on this issue, noting
that students have to accommodate musical techniques in jazz band
that are different from those used in concert band from both a
cognitive and physical standpoint.
Evidence exists to support the notion that students emulate
professional jazz musi- cians through interaction at clinics,
festivals, listening to recordings of professionals, and by
performing their arrangements (Ferriano, 1974). Researchers have
examined the teaching of improvisation. In his landmark study,
Payne (1973) discovered that the most common method for teaching
improvisation included guided listening and improvising using
chordal and blues approaches. Jazz instructional aids including
play- along recordings do provide a benefit for learning jazz
improvisation (Flack, 2004). Bash (1983) reminds practitioners of
jazz education "that jazz performance is an aural experience" and
that guided listening is essential for developing one's ears (p.
110). Directors need to encourage all of their students in the jazz
ensemble to improvise (Mack, 1993). Developing musicianship while
improvising contributes to a higher level of learning and
performance (Di Girolamo, 1974) as does modeling jazz innovators
(Carlson, 1980; Moorman, 1984; Williams & Richards, 1988).
Teaching improvisa- tion can include jazz theory, how to imitate
melodies and solos, and listening to live jazz performances and
recordings (Madura, 1996), in addition to experimentation with
melodic and rhythmic development and manipulation of expressive
elements of improvisation (May, 2003).
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Goodrich Jazz Culture
METHOD Site and Participants The site selected for this study
was Crescent Valley High School in the northern suburbs of a large
metropolitan area with an enrollment of approximately 1600 students
for the 2000-2001 academic year. Criteria for selection of a high
school jazz band for this study included the reputation of the
director and jazz band, honors and awards earned by the ensemble at
the state level, and a high performance level and dedication from
the student members. The Crescent Valley High School Jazz Band I
has a reputation in the state as an exemplary high school jazz
band. A director of jazz studies at a university in the area along
with public school educators helped to confirm that this program
war- ranted study. The jazz band has won superior ratings at a
nearby University Jazz Festival and also at the district and state
level. Participants in this study included the director and
students in the Crescent Valley High School Jazz Band I.
Ray Hutchinson, the director, has earned a bachelors degree in
music education and a masters degree in music education. Hutchinson
has taught at Crescent Valley High School for six years. Prior to
teaching at Crescent Valley, Hutchinson taught in Ontario, Canada
for four years. Despite ten years of teaching experience,
Hutchinson remarked, "I don't really consider myself a jazz
musician. I'm more of a jazz experimen- talist." During the year of
this study Hutchinson held the office of president-elect for the
state chapter of the International Association for Jazz Education
(IAJE).
The Program The jazz program at Crescent Valley High School
consists of three jazz ensembles. The
top two ensembles are big bands comprised of 21 students each,
utilizing traditional instrumentation: five trumpets, five
trombones, five saxophones (two altos, two tenors, one baritone),
and a four-piece rhythm section consisting of drums, piano, bass
guitar, and electric guitar. Two drummers and two piano players
alternate on each song. The third jazz ensemble is a lab class for
students to practice improvising. The instrumenta- tion and size of
this class varies each semester.
The rationale for studying Jazz I included criterion-based
selection to allow for a rich data set and thick description
(Maxwell, 1996). In addition, I utilized purposeful sampling to
help select an information-rich case study and chain sampling - I
sampled people who knew people who knew which jazz band would yield
a plethora of informa- tion - to help determine which school jazz
ensemble I should study (Patton, 2002, p. 243). Participants in
Jazz I range in age from 14 to 18 years old. The gender and
ethnic
composition of this ensemble included nineteen males and two
females; three Hispanic students, and 18 Caucasian members. The
majority of the students began playing their instruments in the
fifth grade, and many of the students in this study reported as
having prior performing experience with a jazz ensemble in junior
high school. All of the Jazz I members perform in one of the
concert bands at Crescent Valley High School and
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Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Winter
2008 No. 175
are required to participate in the marching band, including
members who do not play a traditional marching band instrument.
Rhythm section members (piano, guitar, bass guitar) are encouraged
to join the percussion section if they do not play other instru-
ments. During the time of this study the pianists played marching
French horns and the bass guitarist played the trumpet. This
requirement does not apply to the lab class, which is an
improvisation class open to any student in the school.
All three jazz ensembles met for course credit. Crescent Valley
High School is on a four period block schedule. Jazz I rehearses
daily from 6:30 a.m. to 7:30 a.m. during "zero hour," Jazz II
rehearses after school on Tuesdays from 3:00 - 4:00 p.m., and the
lab class meets during fourth period of the school day.
Data Collection Data collection during this study adhered to
ethnographic techniques including field notes in rehearsals and
sectionals observations, audio and video recordings, formal inter-
views, informal conversations, and collection of artifacts. In
accordance with Creswell (1998) who states, "An ethnography is a
description and interpretation of a cultural group or system," data
collection methods utilized in this study also aided in helping me
to "examine the group s observable and learned patterns of
behavior, customs, and ways of life." (p. 58)
I chose a non-intervention protocol for observations, which
allowed for minimum distraction on my part with the participants
involved in this study during rehearsals. I observed eight
rehearsals of the Crescent Valley High School Jazz I over a
two-and-a- half month period during the fall semester of the
2000-2001 academic year. Field notes were written by hand on a
yellow legal pad during rehearsal observations with times indicated
in the left hand margin to indicate events in a chronological
order. Field notes were retyped in word format for ease of reading
and coding of data.
I developed an interview protocol at the beginning of this study
to aid in my field notes taken during the interviews and to
organize materials including headings and concluding thoughts at
the end of each interview. Interview questions were designed to
discover information relating to the learning culture of this jazz
band and whether any elements of the historic jazz culture were
present. I interviewed five participants based on the directors
recommendations in addition to my observations of student leader-
ship. Interviews were conducted on a one-to-one basis, audio-taped,
and occurred at the school. Interviewees included the director, who
was Caucasian, and five students of which two were Hispanic and
three were Caucasian. No African Americans or other races were
represented in the ensemble.
I collected data via informal conversations with the
participants in this study. The use of unstructured interviews
allowed me to remain flexible and open to individual differences
and changes throughout the study (Patton, 2002). For example, I
often gained information from the director as he walked around the
Fine Arts complex in the
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Goodrich Jazz Culture
morning unlocking all of the doors. I also spoke with the
students as they entered the
building and occasionally during a break in their warm up
process before rehearsals. In addition to observations and
interviews, the collection of artifacts provided
an additional contextual dimension of data collection for this
study (Glesne, 1999). Artifacts included concert programs,
recordings of the ensemble, and hand written notes (e.g., ensemble
rehearsal schedule for the next week) from the director.
Data Analysis and Trustworthiness Data analysis occurred
throughout the entire duration of this study and contributed to
a
systematic and in-depth interpretation of the data collected
(Patton, 2002). Procedures utilized for analyzing data included
transcribing and coding the data. Themes and
concepts grounded in the data emerged from the data analysis,
and I developed these
concepts in the writing process which resulted in a rich data
set and allowed for thick
description in the final report (Maxwell, 1996). Trustworthiness
in this study was
accomplished via the triangulation of data, conducting member
checks, peer review, and external audits in addition to the
reporting of my biases.
Field notes from the observation and interview protocols
revealed three types of information including the descriptions of
the site and participants, rehearsal activities and materials used,
and interactions among the director and student participants. Field
notes and interviews were transcribed the same day upon completion
of the observation or interview.
Once the transcription process was completed I then analyzed the
information for
specific data based upon a system of coding. Coding revealed key
themes that emerged throughout the analysis process. Themes
identified in this study received a two or three letter code
designation.
The letter "D," for example, represented the director of the
jazz band, and the let- ters "DT" signified the director teaching.
I notated codes by hand in the left margin of the transcripts of
observations, rehearsals, and interviews for ease of reading and
identification. I then grouped the coded data in a computer file
using separate the- matic headings (e.g., "JC" for Jazz Culture). I
reviewed each theme file to discover sub
categories (e.g., including listening for style, learning the
lingo, and improvisation.), then further analyzed each subcategory
and wrote drafts of each section. Sections were
gradually revised and merged into this document. At the time of
this study I had several years of experience as a junior high
school
and high school band director of which directing a jazz band,
coaching a combo, and
teaching jazz improvisation comprised part of my teaching
duties. I also had begun my second year of a teaching assistantship
in jazz at [name suppressed] State University. The non-intervention
protocol aided me in not influencing the learning culture of this
ensemble, and threats to validity in terms of bias were identified
with research memos written during and after each observation to
aid in reporting my bias.
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Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Winter
2008 No. 175
The audiotapes of rehearsals and interviews ensured
trustworthiness of the field notes. Data from observations,
interviews, and artifacts were triangulated to ensure further
validity. I analyzed each data record for evidence of elements of
the historic jazz culture, then presented my findings with a local
director of jazz studies to determine whether I was, in fact,
observing elements from the historical jazz culture. Research col-
leagues aided with peer review of field notes of observations and
interviews. I utilized an external audit by a qualitative
researcher in which "an outside person examines the research
process and product through 'auditing' your field notes, research
journal, ana- lytic coding scheme, etc." (Glesne, 1999, p. 32).
Member checks in this study occurred in the form of student
participants and the director offering their comments and per-
spectives upon review of the findings.
In the following sections I will portray a typical rehearsal
which I have included to help offer a description and sense of the
environment for the reader (Creswell, 1998), followed by the
presentation of three themes which emerged throughout the data
analy- sis process: (a) listening for style, (b) learning the
lingo, and (c) improvisation.
A TYPICAL REHEARSAL At 6:20 a.m. only two students matriculate
in the band room. A student with a glazed look on his face stares
at the north wall in a rather trance-like state. The other student
unlocks his saxophone case in a lethargic manner, puts his neck
strap on, and begins to soak a reed.
The morning events appear to unfold in slow motion as the
director, Ray Hutchinson, unlocks the doors to all of the rooms in
the Fine Arts complex. Hutchinson moves in a speed contradictory to
what I just witnessed with the students. With a plethora of keys
dangling from his belt, Hutchinson moves at a brisk pace,
considering the time of day. "That's one of the problems with being
the first teacher here. I have to unlock all of the doors," he
explains to me as he unlocks a percussion cabinet near to where I
am sitting. Upon completing his rounds, Hutchinson goes into his
office to check his answering machine. The bags under his eyelids
become apparent as he furiously scribbles down mes- sages on a
piece of scratch paper while taking messages left on the machine
overnight.
It is now 6:25 a.m. and two more students filter into the band
room. A couple of trumpet players now sit in their chairs buzzing
on their mouthpieces. More students arrive; no one says much. They
walk like pre-programmed zombies as they put their instrument cases
down, take out their music, grab their instruments, and sit in
their chairs. A trombonist plays through some of the current
repertoire of the jazz band.
Hutchinson finishes checking his messages and plays a CD for the
students to lis- ten to. The song is "88 Basie Street" from the CD
by the same name of the Count Basie Band. This particular song is
in the band's repertoire for their upcoming concert.
More students have arrived. I am amazed that within ten minutes
the jazz band is nearly complete. A couple of band members assemble
the drum set while another sets
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Goodrich Jazz Culture
up an ancient Fender Rhodes piano. Electrical tape and duct tape
adorn the electric
piano hinting at years of transport to and from performances.
Three students practice "88 Basie Street" while others play lip
slurs and pedal tones to warm up. It is 6:30 a.m. and Hutchinson
walks around the room talking to students, answering their
questions, and finding out how they are doing. "What are we doing
in marching band today?" asks a trombonist. "We are charting pages
six through ten on the field today," replies Hutchinson. A student
with an alto saxophone asks Hutchinson "Which field are we on? Can
we be in the stadium today? Please?" Hutchinson responds, "What's
wrong with our practice field? You can relax, we are at the stadium
today."
At 6:32 a.m. Hutchinson begins the rehearsal with a blues in
b-flat. Hutchinson counts off the rhythm section and they play a
couple of choruses while Hutchinson tells the band to play "head
number 2" out of an Aebersold play-along book. The band starts the
head, or melody of the song, when the rhythm section gets to the
third chorus. After
playing the head twice the band begins outlining the arpeggios
of the chords in the blues. After three measures Hutchinson stops
the jazz band and says, "You guys need to learn your mixolydian
scales better. It's like a major scale, but with a lowered seventh.
Let's run it slowly." He has the band run through an F mixolydian
scale a few times, first with whole note values, then quarter
notes, and finally eighth notes. Hutchinson counts off the jazz
band again, and they continue outlining the arpeggios. This time
the jazz band sounds much better. Hutchinson acknowledges the
improvement with an
emphatic "Yes!" as they make it through a chorus without any
mistakes. The jazz band plays the arpeggios for two choruses and
they "nail it" the second
time. The rhythm section continues to play as Hutchinson motions
for the rest of the band to quit playing. He points at the lead
alto player, who takes the first solo. The stu- dent stays with the
notes of the blues scale for the first several measures, and then
ven- tures outside of the chord changes. Hutchinson immediately
stops the band and tells him to play the same changes as the rhythm
section. Hutchinson tells the student to
play the correct scales by himself. After the student plays the
scales correctly Hutchinson
replies, "Now, doesn't that sound much better? Use those scales
when you improvise." He then counts off the rhythm section, and now
the student plays a solo that lines
up with the same harmony as the rhythm section. The lead alto
finishes his solo and Hutchinson points to the lead tenor, who
plays next. This process continues with appar- ently no
predetermined solo order. After four students play solos Hutchinson
yells to the jazz band to "Barn house." I am momentarily puzzled by
this term until the entire band improvises at the same time. I
quickly realize that I mis-interpreted Hutchinson's Canadian
accent. He told the band to "burn house," indicating that everyone
in the band will solo at the same time. After the jazz band "burns
house" for two choruses the bari sax player takes a solo. Four
students solo individually, then everyone plays at the same time.
This process repeats until everyone has an opportunity to improvise
a solo. The jazz band plays through "head number 2" and finishes
the song. "Well, what do
you think?" Hutchinson asks the band. "Improvisation is where
it's at. Keep practicing 19
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Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Winter
2008 No. 175
those scales and arpeggios, okay?" he tells the jazz band.
Hutchinson continues, "Get out '88 Basie Street.' I am going to
play the recording for you. We're going to listen to the Basie band
play this again. Listen for where they place their eighth notes in
the groove. They swing better than anyone else. Listen to the style
of the eighth note." The students quickly pull the song out of
their folders and listen to the recording. While the music pipes
through the sound system the drummer "air drums" to the song.
Within a few measures the entire band is fingering along, mimicking
the Basie band.
After the students listen to the recording Hutchinson tells them
to play the last four measures of the song. The jazz band plays the
four measures. Hutchinson tells them, "We're not swinging our parts
like the Basie band does. This time sing your parts while the
rhythm section plays." Hutchinson continues, "This time, exaggerate
to the point where you think you will fall off of the beat." They
play the four measures for a second time. Next, Hutchinson asks the
lead trumpet player, lead trombone player, and the bass trombonist
to play the last phrases of the song. They play through it twice,
and Hutchinson is displeased with the intonation. "Guys, find the
shelf," he tells them. The entire band now rehearses the last
phrase. Hutchinson says, "You guys are starting to play it in tune,
but now you're not releasing together." Hutchinson jokes with them,
"Now let's play it from the top and here's the deal. You will get
$500.00 for playing this song. There will be a $20.00 bonus every
time the band releases together." The band plays through the song
and the releases are much better.
According to the clock in the band room it is now 7:00 a.m.
Hutchinson asks the band to pull out "A Night in Tunisia" from
their folders. As the band takes the music out of their folders the
drummer immediately starts playing an Afro-Cuban rhythm that is
predominant in this chart. Hutchinson tells the band, "Before we
play through this as a group we need to clean up some of the
rhythms and articulations. Go into sectionals for a few minutes.
All of the rooms are unlocked." The rhythm section remains in the
band room while the other sections quickly scatter throughout the
Fine Arts complex to work on their parts. Soon a myriad of sounds
can be heard flowing out of several rooms as the section leaders
drill their sections on "A Night in Tunisia." Approximately fifteen
minutes pass before Hutchinson walks around the complex and tells
everyone in the jazz band to return to the band room so they can
run through the entire chart.
At 7:15 a.m. the band filters into the band room and they
"noodle" on their instruments for approximately forty-five seconds
before Hutchinson cuts them off. He explains to the students that
Dizzy Gillespie wrote "A Night in Tunisia" on the bottom of a
garbage can as he points to a picture of Dizzy Gillespie on the
wall of the band room. Hutchinson counts off the rhythm section and
they play by themselves to get the groove going first. Hutchinson
lets them play for close to a minute before he counts off the rest
of the band. He is immediately displeased and stops. He looks at
the sax and brass sections and says, "Guys, what are you doing? You
are not playing the same time as the rhythm section. You need to
internalize the groove." Hutchinson asks the horn players to sing
their parts while the rhythm section is playing. After a few
repetitions, 20
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Goodrich Jazz Culture
he starts the band again. Hutchinson smiles this time,
indicating he is happier with the time-feel. The band plays through
the ensemble sections up to where the trumpet solo
begins. The trumpet soloist plays a couple of notes when
Hutchinson cuts him off and tells the band "We're out of time.
We'll get to the solo tomorrow. You need to be on the field in half
an hour." It is 7:31 a.m. and the rehearsal is over. As the
students get up to put their instruments and music away, the
trumpeter improvises his solo a cappella. After the trumpeter
finishes practicing his solo Hutchinson tells him, "Tomorrow I
will
bring in ten CDs with 'A Night in Tunisia' on them and I will
let you borrow them." "Awesome," replies the student who quickly
puts his trumpet away. The jazz band scat- ters as they all prepare
for marching band.
Listening for Style Historically, jazz musicians learned how to
play jazz music through aural transmission.
Listening occurred at Crescent Valley High School in two ways:
listening to recordings of professional jazz musicians and
listening to each other. Hutchinson advocated listen-
ing to recordings before and during rehearsals. During the
course of my observations Hutchinson always had jazz music playing
in the background on the sound system as students entered the band
room and warmed up on their instruments. Hutchinson
played music of current repertoire of the jazz band in addition
to music in a similar
style (Figure 1).
Figure 1 Recordings played for the Crescent Valley High School
Jazz I:
Hutchinson referred to these listening examples and to jazz
artists during rehearsals to help the students with style and
improvisation. He guided the students through the
listening process and often offered comments ranging from,
"Listen to how the Basie band plays behind the beat" to "Listen to
how this player leaves space in their solo. Less
21
1 . 88 Basie Street Sammy Nestico, composer. Originally
performed by Count Basie.
I. Hayburner Sammy Nestico, composer. Originally performed by
Count Basie.
5. A Night in Tunisia John Birks Gillespie, composer; Sammy
Nestico, arranger. A jazz standard originally performed by John
Birks "Dizzy" Gillespie.
i. I've Got Rhythm George and Ira Gershwin, composers; Rob
McConnell, arranger. Performed by Rob McConnell and the Boss Brass
on the CD "All in Good Time."
>. You've Got It Tom Garvin, composer. Performed by Maynard
Ferguson and Big Bop Nouveau on the CD "One More Trip to
Birdland."
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Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Winter
2008 No. 175
is more. Leave more space in your solos." In addition to guiding
the students through the listening process in rehearsals,
Hutchinson also stressed the importance of students
listening to recordings on their own. Following one rehearsal he
gave a trumpet soloist ten recordings of "A Night in Tunisia" to
help the student with his improvised solo. These recordings
included versions by legendary trumpet players Arturo Sandoval,
Dizzy Gillespie, Kenny Dorham, and Clifford Brown. Hutchinson hoped
that by listen- ing to professionals the students will learn and
absorb musical ideas that will aid them in their improvisation and
also help them to play with the correct style.
In addition to advocating listening to professional recordings
for style and musical ideas, Hutchinson stressed the importance of
the students listening to each other in rehearsal. He frequently
used metaphors to direct student listening. In one rehearsal he
told the jazz band to "... listen to the lead trumpet player. He's
the leader of the house." In another rehearsal Hutchinson called
out, "Articulations from the bass bone are the foundation. The lead
trumpet is the roof. If its right, we'll have a mansion instead of
a bungalow."
Jazz articulations comprise a very important component of
performing big band jazz music in the correct style and differ
substantially from those used in other styles and genres. These
articulations have their own language. When playing an accented
quarter note in jazz, a performer says "dot" when they articulate
the note. An eighth note is "dit" and successive eighth notes can
be "doo-ah doo-ah." The language of jazz articulations varies
depending upon the length of the note and whether it has an accent
or not. Hutchinson often found different ways to explain jazz
articulations to the band in rehearsals. For example, he told the
band. "Instead of saying dot, you need to say d-o-u-g-h-t to make
the quarter notes longer." Students adjusted their playing accord-
ingly. Hutchinson maintained high expectations for ending notes and
phrases together. To aid in this, he often had the jazz band sing
their parts with the rhythm section accompanying. Jason, lead
trumpet, commented that he thought this was an excellent way to
rehearse.
Learning the Lingo Jazz musicians often use their own lingo when
speaking with each other, and Hutchinson used this lingo as part of
his teaching vocabulary to assist the jazz ensemble in playing the
appropriate correct style and to obtain a better feel for the
idiom. When Hutchinson sensed the jazz band could swing harder or
play with a better time-feel, he told the group, "Let the groove
get established," or "Guys, we need to groove on this chart,"
rather than simply saying "Swing." Hutchinson would tell the group
to "play it greasy, man," when the ensemble needed to lay back on
the beat and when he wanted the jazz band to improve their
intonation he instructed them to "find the shelf." Melody is
referred to as "the head" of a song, a term utilized by Hutchinson
and the group along with "chart," a common name for sheet music in
the jazz world.
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Goodrich Jazz Culture
Although it appeared to me during the course of my observations
that the students understood the jazz lingo used by Hutchinson, I
was curious, however, if they really com-
prehended what Hutchinson was saying. Linda, the lead trombone
player, said the lingo was "... kind of like a visualization. My
freshman year he gave us 'greasy,' as, like, you should play it
like the grease rolling off it. So, okay, lay back." Jason
commented, "I under- stand it. I didn't quite get it at first, but
I don't even think about it now." Eric pointed out that jazz band
"... was all about Basie. It comes down to playing greasy,
man."
Improvisation Hutchinson attended to improvisation - the
original mode for performing this music - when he rehearsed the
jazz band. During the course of my observations every rehearsal
began with improvisation. The jazz band improvised to a blues,
in the key of B flat or F, at various tempi and in various styles
(e.g., swing feel, bossa nova, rock). The blues
began with the ensemble playing the head, or melody, followed by
the students outlin-
ing the chords for either one or two choruses. Upon completion
of this regimen the students began soloing. If a student had
difficulty improvising to the chord changes, or had problems with
musical ideas, Hutchinson stopped the group immediately and worked
with the student. In one of the rehearsals that I observed, the
lead alto saxo-
phonist, Alex, had problems hearing the IV chord. Hutchinson
told the student to
begin his solo again, and every time the IV chord occurred
Hutchinson held up four
fingers and yelled "four" until it was clear that Alex had
learned where the IV chord occurs in the structure of the blues. In
another rehearsal, the second trumpet player, Gottfried, did not
play a solo that went with the chord changes. Hutchinson quickly
stopped the band and explained the importance of emphasizing the
thirds and sevenths of the chords for establishing proper harmonic
rhythm. Hutchinson asked Gottfried to
play the thirds and sevenths of the chords while the rhythm
section accompanied him. Gottfried played through the form three
more times, followed by another attempt at
improvisation. This time Gottfried played a solo that fit the
chord changes and both he and Hutchinson appeared quite
pleased.
In addition to teaching harmonic basics of improvisation,
Hutchinson also stressed the importance of motivic development in
solos. Hutchinson often gave the students
specific practicing directives and strategies during rehearsals.
An example of a practicing directive included teaching the students
how to practice scales used in the blues over the full ranges of
their instruments. He explained that, "Long notes can create
tension. Now, everyone try it ... think about developing your
solo." The students quickly tried his suggestion in their solos and
they seemed pleased with the results.
Although insistent with regards to developing improvising
skills, Hutchinson sym- pathized with individual levels of ability
among the students. He related in an interview
remembering feeling intimidated when first learning to
improvise, and felt he could
"put [himself] in their shoes." He noted that when he saw a
wide-eyed "fish look" on
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Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Winter
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a student's face in a rehearsal, he would have the band "burn
house," or play a solo together until the student gained enough
confidence to improvise alone.
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS If a student participates in a
school jazz ensemble, are they really performing jazz music?
Historically, the jazz culture contained many nonmusical elements
not suitable for a high school setting including drug abuse, drug
dealing, crime, prostitution, and gam- bling in addition to more
desirable elements including lingo, listening, and improvisa- tion
which can result in negative connotations today with music
educators (Johnson in Cooke, 2002). Utilizing the historic jazz
culture, however, allows us to "think about the present
reflexively. And with an understanding of the past, the contours of
the present suddenly become clearer" (Ohnuki-Tierney, 1990, p. 1).
Although not all jazz musicians subscribed and practiced these
undesirable characteristics, these elements did comprise the fabric
of the historic jazz culture. With the introduction of jazz music
into the schools, jazz lost some of its aural traditions and
expressive vocal language. It is the role of the director to choose
which elements of the jazz culture to introduce to the jazz
ensemble. In this study, the director, Ray Hutchinson, served this
role via acting as a filter for deciding which elements to include
in his teaching of the ensemble.
Hutchinson utilized the following elements from the historic
jazz culture: listening for style, lingo, and improvisation.
Introducing elements of the historic jazz culture can aid in
providing a real jazz experience for the students. Ake (1998)
states that students and directors need to be open to new
experiences in jazz. Introducing "old school" concepts including
listening for style, lingo, and improvisation can open up new ways
of thinking, listening, and performing for todays high school
students and provide a deeper connection to this important era in
American history. If students and their directors are open to these
new experiences then students who play in a high school jazz band
are opening themselves up to the possibility of transcending the
performance of mere notes and participating in the jazz experience.
Arnold (1979) states that "perhaps as music educators we need to go
beyond reading notes from the page and teach our students various
cultural elements of jazz music so they can gain a better
understanding of the music" (p. 7).
How did Hutchinson filter and incorporate these elements into a
high school jazz ensemble? During the course of this study he
taught the students to delve deeper into the music, to go beyond
playing only the correct notes, rhythms, and articulations. Elliott
(1995) maintains that:
The kinds of musical knowing required to listen competently,
proficiently, or expertly for the works of a given musical practice
are the same kinds of knowing required to make the music of that
practice: procedural, formal, informal, impressionistic, and
supervisory musical knowledge (p. 96).
24
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Goodrich Jazz Culture
Hutchinson teaches the students procedural knowledge (e.g.,
fingerings), formal learn-
ing (e.g., rhythms, articulations), informal learning (e.g.,
lingo, advocating student
listening, modeling of sounds and style), impressionistic (e.g.,
use of analogies, imag- ery), and supervisory musical knowledge
(e.g., guided listening in rehearsals). Further, Elliott (1995)
states that solutions to realistic musical problems are solved in
relation to standards (musical notation, concert band procedural
knowledge); traditions (band culture and jazz culture); history
(Hutchinson teaches jazz history - "This is how the Basie band
played this" and the lore of musical context (lingo; analogies;
teaching the students where jazz was originally performed - "Dizzy
Gillespie wrote this on the bot- tom of a garbage can") (p.
64).
The students in the Crescent Valley High School Jazz Band I
learn and perform the music with elements similar to how jazz
musicians learned the music in the historic jazz culture, without
the negative cultural traits. Jazz music "constrains, historically,
the behavior of those who would join themselves to the jazz
tradition" (Horowitz and
Nanry, 1975, p. 25). Does a hierarchy exist for filtered
elements of the historic jazz culture? Is pres-
ervation of lingo really as important as the aural foundations
of improvisation or the
emphasis placed on individual musicianship (as opposed to
ensemble alone)? Stebbins (1964) discovered that jazz musicians
form their own community, of which lingo is a crucial component.
Marsalis (2000) adds that the use of jazz lingo is critical
when
teaching this music. If lingo is used, however, is there a
potential for it to be discon- nected from the jazz culture? Only
if it is not first introduced within the context of
rehearsing and performing the music. Hutchinson transforms lingo
into an authentic
jazz rehearsal practice to focus and enhance listening skills
among the students in rehearsals. Further, he utilizes lingo in
conjunction with non-jazz cultural teaching elements including
metaphors, analogy, and imagery, making it more accessible for his
students. For example, when guiding the students to listen for
improved intona- tion, Hutchinson often told them to "put the notes
on the shelf." For problems with time-feel in rehearsals he would
remark "It's gotta groove. Listen. Its gotta get into the
groove." In turn, his students used the lingo when they spoke in
interviews (e.g., Eric, "It was all Basie, man"). By doing so,
Hutchinson places himself and the students into the realm of
creating real jazz music and helps the students connect to the oral
tradition of jazz music.
Listening comprises a vital component of the jazz curriculum at
Crescent Valley High School. Hutchinson guides the students through
the listening process to teach the students to listen to each other
and to develop their listening skills. Alperson (1988) recommends
that one should "listen to live and recorded performances" in order
"to learn the 'language' of the style" (p. 46). Hutchinson exposes
the students to a vast
array of jazz music the moment they enter the band room with
recordings of jazz music either in the band's current repertoire
for a performance or jazz music in a similar style. Ferriano (1974)
discovered in his survey of music educators that students emulated
pro-
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fessional jazz musicians in part through listening to recordings
of professionals. During this study the Crescent Valley Jazz Band I
rehearsed and performed "classics" of the jazz repertoire including
Count Basie and his band, a practice advocated by Williams and
Richards (1988). Hutchinson pays attention to rehearsal details
which Elliott (1988) asserts that uninhibited actions, or time-feel
in jazz, is based upon structure, perfor- mance, and the
experienced listener. Hutchinson sets up the jazz band with high
expec- tations for levels of performance and teaching and/or
creating experienced listeners.
Having the students improvise in the jazz band helps connect
them to the aural tradition of learning and performing jazz music.
Mack (1993) discovered that a stu- dents ability to improvise
combined with a directors encouragement contributes to the success
of a jazz program. Hutchinson stresses the importance of hearing
the chord
changes and playing the correct scales/note choices over the
changes. Improvising helps the students develop aural skills.
Pressing (1998) notes that improvisers learn from
"working with a teacher in a directed situation" (Pressing in
Kenny & Gellrich, 2002, p. 126). Although Hutchinson does teach
improvisation, it is a synthesis of "old school" and modern jazz
methods, e.g., the chord/scale approach, a common method today for
teaching and learning improvisation. Payne (1973) found that the
most common method for teaching improvisation included guided
listening and playing using chordal and blues approaches and May
(2003) recommends that instruction in jazz improvisa- tion include
teaching of jazz scales and chords.
During the course of this study I never observed Hutchinson
improvise in rehears- als. Although improvising is taught, I found
the level of improvising lower than the over- all quality of the
ensemble. Teaching improvisation to all of the students is an
excellent way to develop their ears, but the sixty-minute rehearsal
time did not seem sufficient to both rehearse the band and work
with soloists to develop their playing to a higher level. The jazz
lab emphasizes improvising, but also includes students who could
not make the top two bands. Further, Hutchinson reports that only
40 to 50 percent of the students in the top bands enrolled in the
lab class. The addition of a jazz combo may allow the students who
are serious about improvising to develop their skills to a higher
level. The small group would allow everyone more time to work with
individual students.
If connecting to the aural/oral traditions of jazz music is so
important, why are not more directors doing this? Jazz bands in the
public schools are based out of the concert band tradition.
Although listening skills are taught in the concert band tradition,
it is still primarily a visual based music where emphasis is placed
upon reading music. Johnson (2002) notes that we live in a
vision-based society and that "ocularcentrism . . . traps us in a
particular regime [making] vision highly appropriate to the
dominant epistemology of the modern epoch" (Johnson in Cooke, p.
101). As a result, argues Johnson, Jazz music, "is less comfortable
than conventional art music to the dominant episteme" (2002, p.
100). Music educators untrained in improvisation are often
uncomfortable with teaching this form of music. Hutchinson
recognizes this dilemma and has taken it upon himself to learn and
improve his improvisation and listening skills.
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Expectations of the listener are another factor. Elliott (1988)
discusses listener's
expectations in music where harmonic patterns are the norm and
improvisations are the deviations. This helps to explain why many
jazz bands excel at playing the correct notes but few have
outstanding improvisers - teachers formed in this mold with concert
band
procedural knowledge - and Hutchinson, a self-proclaimed "jazz
experimentalist" pos- sesses a musical background with primarily
classical training. Hutchinson has evolved
beyond his training and sets up an environment where
improvisation is the norm. Hutchinson, a successful high school
band director, understands the jazz idiom, the
lingo, the aural tradition, and the performance skills necessary
for success. Although the
participants at Tanglewood nearly forty years ago recommended
that "Teachers must be trained and retrained and understand the
specifics of a multiplicity of music . . . (includ- ing) . . .
various mutations of jazz" (Choate, 1968, p. 135), Hutchinson
self-selected the
experiences that enabled him success. His formal music training
did not include jazz music as part of the required curriculum in
his education.
The directors teaching in this particular situation worked. But
what about music educators or music education students who are not
jazz performers or have not had similar experiences? What kinds of
experiences do music students need to have in order to be prepared
to teach jazz music in the schools? How do we prepare music
education students to direct jazz bands in the public schools?
Being a jazz performer certainly helps, as there is no substitute
for performing the music. Even secondary instrument
experiences can be valuable (e.g., flutist or clarinetist
doubling on a saxophone). Jazz pedagogy, jazz ensemble rehearsal
techniques, jazz methods, or playing in a jazz lab band can aid
students in becoming jazz educators. Balfour (1988) conducted a
survey of California music educators and found that a majority of
respondents believed that more attention needed to be given to jazz
pedagogy and curriculum reform in the
preparation of music educators. Fisher (1981) suggests the four
most important courses for the preparation of music education
majors based upon a survey he conducted are
Jazz Band Methods, Jazz Improvisation, and Jazz History and
Literature. Studying jazz music can also complement academic
classes in the music curriculum (Dobbins, 1988). In the very least
listening to jazz recordings and attending live jazz performances
will
certainly help. Within the process of filtering out the
undesirable elements of the historic jazz
culture, Hutchinson utilized these filtered elements in
conjunction with the music
making, keeping the musical experience at the core of the
students' experience. This aided Hutchinson in deciding which
elements to filter and utilize with his ensemble.
Although Hutchinson related that he was "forced to play jazz as
a classical musician" at age 16, he has discovered a way to teach
authentic jazz music in an authentic jazz learning context, without
the potential negative sociocultural contexts of jazz music.
Hutchinson kept the musical experience at the core of the learning
experience.
Over the last one hundred years jazz has made the transition
from dance hall to classroom. The school of jazz was originally
held in a nightclub and the bell rang for
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class to begin at 12:00 a.m. Generations of jazz musicians
crafted their art listening to their idols playing in these clubs.
The jazz musician spent time wearing out records as he/she copied
their favorite players note for note. In the middle of the
twentieth century jazz music invaded band rooms at a rapid rate.
With this invasion came a new style of learning how to play this
music. Sheet music became the norm and a whole new jazz language
evolved, a language spoken by articulations, releases, and actually
having to read music.
The Crescent Valley High School Jazz Band I is a syncretization
of the history of jazz. Hutchinson stressed listening to recordings
and learning how this music was played from the masters. He taught
the students how to listen to not only themselves but also to each
other. When the bell rings at Crescent Valley High School, the
school of jazz is definitely in session.
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