Elements of Orientalism as a Socio-Historical Literary Translation Model: Tracing Sa'di in European Renditions

Translation Studies, Vol. 12, No. 48, Winter 2015

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Kharmandar, M. A., & Nemattollahi, F. (2015). Elements of Orientalism as a socio-historical literary

translation model: Tracing Sa‟di in European renditions. Translation Studies, 12(48), 43-60.

Elements of Orientalism as a Socio-Historical Literary Translation Model:

Tracing Sa'di in European Renditions 1

__________________Mohammad Ali Kharmandar 2 & Fatemeh Nematollahi 3

Abstract

Over the past five centuries, the West has experienced parallel yet integrated

developments that have led to profound asymmetries in world histories. Colonial

ideology, coupled with a (pseudo)scientific anthropological and ethnographical

underpinning, has resulted in the establishment of disciplines such as Orientalism

which positively or negatively “represent” or “translate” the Eastern world

within a Eurocentric paradigm. The purpose of this study is to propose a causal

holistic socio-historical literary model of Orientalist translation. Primarily, the

theoretical foundations of the study are explored, and then an actual condensed

literary history (European renditions of Sa‟di) is presented. Following an intensive

comparison of theoretical considerations and the actual sample, four elements

were extracted: scholarly agency, continental translation, industrial/scientific

superiority of Orientalists, and literary richness of Eastern cultures. The study

proposes implications and suggestions that contribute to, among others,

philosophy of history and translation, critical Occidentalism, comparative

literature, and Persian Translation Paradigm.

Keywords: translation, history, Orientalism, translation models, continental

translation

1. Introduction

As a consequence of certain parallel yet integrated developments in the Western

world over the past five centuries, world histories have lost their former balance

and are characterized by a state of “inequity”. Europe has relied on its sources of

1 This paper was received on 11/11/2014 and approved on 29/12/2014. 2 Health Policy Research Center; email: [email protected] 3Department of Translation Studies, Islamic Azad University, Marvdasht Branch; email:

[email protected]


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knowledge and technology to scientifically study other cultures, while one of its

active instruments has been translation. Disciplines such as Orientalism through

their Eurocentric continental translations have “represented” the Eastern world.

Unraveling mechanisms of representation in retrospect, however, demands a

critical philosophy of history, although this notion appears to be underdeveloped

in translation studies (TS), and the existing theories with incidental historical

components usually report a Western perspective.

The purpose of this study is to propose a holistic socio-historical literary model

of how Orientalist translation works. To do this, primarily the theoretical

foundations of the study are explored, and then a sample is presented of

European renditions of Sa‟di‟s works since the seventeenth century, serving as an

actual condensed literary history. Results of comparing the theoretical

considerations and those of the actual sample helped construct qualitative

themes as factors shaping the causal model. As a result, four elements were

extracted. The study proposes implications and suggestions that contribute to,

among others, philosophy of history and translation, critical Occidentalism,

comparative literature, and Persian Translation Paradigm.

2. Theoretical Foundations

2.1. Philosophy of History and Social Development as a Possible Trend of TS

Qualitative Research

Although usually perceived as a chronological succession of “dead” events,

history, contrary to popular belief, involves a plethora of reflections that can

envisage the possibility of future events. Highlighting this fact, Wyche et al.

(2006: 36) state:

Why study history, if our goal is to design the future? One answer can be

found in philosopher George Santayana‟s famous proclamation, „Those who

cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it‟ …. This quotation is


45

widely used to argue that exploring the past helps us understand who we are

today and where we are going.

Yet, constructing links from the past to create future events is itself an

intrinsically complicated task, because history is normally regarded as a

progressive, but not necessarily rule-governed, sequence of events. Ibn Khaldun

(1332-1406), as the most renowned Muslim theorist of history, endeavored to

put historical events into a meaningful development of human civilization (Salama,

2011). As Ahmad‟s (2003: 159) condensed description reveals, Ibn Khaldun, in

his seminal work Muqaddima, conceptualizes socio-economic development of

human beings in a series of sequential stages including psychological/philosophical

functions, formation of a civilization, development of crafts and sciences, and

institution of the education system.

Extending such historical concerns to TS can considerably benefit researchers in

the field by expanding their awareness of the historical facets shaping and

constructing pseudo-causal explanations of translation. Research into this area,

however, seems to be underdeveloped, especially from a model-oriented

perspective. There are, of course, some considerable works in TS that have

considered historical variations in the production of texts (see 2.2. below). The

question here is how such a trend of research in TS could be institutionalized.

More specifically, what could be the nature of historical research in TS?

Considering the (meta)narrative nature of historical inquiry (Mcquillan, 2001),

one could argue that such a research trend would be primarily concerned with

“qualitative data”. As such, a methodological harmony could be found in Saldanha

and O‟Brien‟s (2013: 190) description of qualitative research in TS, especially

“qualitative content analysis”, which involves “analytical moves which consist of

identifying themes, looking for patterns, making interpretations, and building a

theory (explanation).”


46

From another perspective, viewing history in its entirety would entail a “holistic”

(non-reductionist) approach to this phenomenon. As MacQuarrie (2010: 441)

states:

Holistic case study designs build a research framework that draws from

an array of stakeholders. The design, implementation, and analysis should

facilitate a synergistic combination of various aspects or elements of the

case study. Thus a holistic case study is composed of various

components, and the challenge for the researcher is to create a credible

synthesis of these elements of knowledge.

These notions collectively yield primary data on the possible methodological

characteristics of a socio-historical model of Orientalist translation (see 4

below). The following sections explore what the “content” for analysis is in such

a model of TS.

2.2. Socio-Historical Accounts of Translation and Literature

Over the past decades, translation as an expanding discipline has been showing a

rising trend toward extra-textual factors that are usually explored in disciplines

such as sociology, economy, politics, and culturology (Pym, 2014). Such a trend

has in turn led to a more prominent role of TS in the Humanities. Studies of

Toury (2012), Lefevere (1992), Bassnett (2014), Apter (2013), Jones (2011), and

many other scholars have jointly emphasized the assumption that translations are

interwoven products composed of cultural, economic, poetic, and political

forces. These studies have implicitly or explicitly addressed historical dimensions,

although history has been more prominent in literary translation.

For instance, Holmes (as cited in Pym, 2014: 66-7) suggests five types of

strategies (i.e. verse as prose, mimic form, analogical form, organic form, and

extraneous form) in the case of verse translation; according to Pym (ibid: 67),

Holmes‟s model is adaptable to “different historical situations”, in which one


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strategy may be dominant over others. Similarly, literary history has been a

recurrent topic of investigation in TS. Bassnett (2014: 90), for instance, unfolds a

seemingly causal relation between time and re-translation:

The drive to translate for one‟s own time is not only fuelled by a wish to

reach as many readers as possible, but also, where a text is well-known,

by a desire to improve on previous translator‟s efforts and to remedy

what is often seen as an outdated language or mis-interpretation.

Equally important, there is the convergence of history and sociology, which leads

us to the notion of agency in translation. As Bourdieu (see Inghilleri, 2005)

explains in his sociology of poetics, social agents actively attempt to influence the

establishment of new literary forms in the literary system. This idea of system

has inspired many literary theorists of translation. As one of the influential

theorists, Lefevere (1992) set a foundation based on comparative literature to

study the agents regulating the literary system.

According to Lefevere, the literary system is shaped by professionals and

patronage who, respectively, normalize dominant literary forms and ideology.

Broadly speaking, as this section indicates, a socio-historical survey of literary

translation demands an acute investigation of many extra-textual factors

involved. This study explores the factors that historically link Orientalism to

Western translations of Persian literature, by tracing renditions of Sa'di‟s works

since the seventeenth century.

2.3. Translation, Orientalism and Eurocentrism

Asad (2010: 8) unfolds a critical interrelation among ethnography as a science,

representation and translation:

And because of the powerful status of the ethnographer, and the fact that the

„translation‟ he or she produces has the status of a „scientific text‟, this textual


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construct becomes a privileged element in the potential store of historical

memory.

Europe has been a center of cultural rewriting and anthropological research over

the past centuries, generating, as Asad observes, “scientific” texts representing

other cultures. Most fundamentally, how Europe has managed to achieve such a

status is rooted in primary forms of geographical exploration and early politics of

colonialism since the fifteenth century (Krishna, 2009; Salama, 2011), as well as

scientific revolutions up to the preset day. In more detail, this process has been

consistently progressing since the era of “The Scientific Revolution” (Hatch,

2000-2002), leading to Industrial Revolution (18th century), Technological

Revolution (19th century), all the way to present-day cybernetics and Digital

Revolution (Cronin, 2013). The scientific atmosphere in Europe and the colonial

motivation for discovery, power, and dominance within unequal measures

(Krishna, 2009), coupled with technological advancements, can account for the

unprecedented interest in translating foreign and usually less industrially

developed cultures.

If viewed as an “imperial” motive, this dissemination of knowledge throughout

Europe could be called “Eurocentrism”, and the huge corpus of European

translations could be called “Continental Translation” (van Doorslaer & Flynn,

2013). Of course, this historical situation, as well as dominant translations into

English, has been criticized by scholars in TS (Kharmandar, 2014). This expansion

of information has also established some related academic disciplines in Europe,

and the branch of studies concentrated on West Asia (or generally Asian

territories) has been collectively called Orientalism by Edward Said (1935-2003).

Because translation and comparative literature have served as the major means

of Orientalist information transfer, these disciplines can be investigated both

from the perspective of TS and literary history.


49

Larocque (2012: 32), revisiting Orientalism in Colonial India, states that,

“Translation was necessary for administrative and governing purposes and later

for the co-opting of the elite through an intellectual colonialism [emphasis

added] of sorts when the focus was put more on improvement and education in

the early 19th century.” In fact, Larocque views the Orient as an integrated

parcel in the historical identity of the West. Chittiphalangsria (2014) highlights

issues of “agency” and “scholarship” in the case of translation and Orientalism,

which reflect both the idea of professional agents in Lefevere‟s (1992) theory,

and elitism of Orientalism, as assumed by Larocque (2012).

Now, two interesting questions can be raised: how has the Eastern world

responded to Orientalism? And, how have Orientalists encountered Persian

language and literature? The second question is the purpose of this study and is

substantially answered in the following sections. Critical Occidentalism, as an

emerging discipline, on the surface, has been a counterbalance in face of

Orientalism. There are, however, differences between the ideological and

dialectical strategies between the two poles. Although Orientalism has shown a

hegemonic and in some cases derogatory discourse about the Eastern world,

Occidentalism has to follow a defensive and responsive dialogue (Sadati, 2014:

69).

3. Sa‟di and his Western Translators: A Sample of Literary History

Following the theoretical foundations, an actual history of translated literature is

briefly presented here. The data present a condensed corpus of historical facts

about Sa‟di‟s translated works (Bustan and Gulistan) in the West. The data were

collected through encyclopedic library research (including electronic resources

and online encyclopedias such as Encyclopaedia Iranica) to provide: names of

translators of Sa‟di, their social affiliations and academic expertise, and dates of

translations and their qualities. Due to constraints of space, resources for


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available historical facts appear sparingly and the discourse is mainly

concentrated on necessary data.

3.1. Bustan and its Translators

Friedrich Rückert

Friedrich Rückert (1788-1866), a German poet, translator, and professor of

Oriental languages, introduced Persian literature to Germany. Rückert knew

thirty languages, such as Greek, Latin, Arabic, and Persian, and so on. He worked

mainly as a translator of Oriental poetry and as a poet devoted to the work of

Oriental masters (Schimmel, 1987). Bustan‟s translation was published after his

death, in 1882. He also published different translations of Sa'di‟s works in 1890s.

His Bustan translation reached unparalleled excellence in German (Alavi, 1985).

Garcin de Tassy

Joseph Héliodore Sagesse Vertu Garcin de Tassy (1794-1878), a French

Orientalist and Indologist, first received prominence through general works on

Islam and translations from the Arabic, namely L'Islamisme d'aprés le Coran, in

1874. He translated Bustan in 1859. He stated that Sa'di is one of the most

important Iranian writers who is very popular in Europe.

Karl Heinrich Graf

Karl Heinrich Graf (1815–1869) was a German Old Testament scholar and

orientalist. Graf published the best German translations of both the Gulistan, in

1846, and Bustan, in 1850. His book was titled Lustgarten. In his era, this was the

only complete translation of Bustan.

Barbier de Meynard

Barbier de Meynard (1826–1908) was a nineteenth-century French historian and

orientalist. His studies focused on the early history of Islam and the Caliphate.


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He translated Bustan in 1880. His translation became popular because it was

considered the best and the most complete French translation of Bustan.

George Michael Wickens

Wickens (1918-2006) was a Canadian-British Persianist as well as Arabist,

translator, and a university lecturer. He was instrumental not only in the

founding of an Iranian Studies and Islamic studies department in University of

Toronto, but also in establishing it within a decade as a major center in North

America.

3.2. Gulistan and its Translators

André du Ryer

André du Ryer (1580–1660), a French orientalist, was the first European to

introduce Sa'di to the West via a partial French translation of Gulistan in 1634

(L‟Emprise des Roses), which was translated by Friedrich Ochsenbach into

German. Du Ryer provided a humanistic and sympathetic portrait of Islamic

culture in post-Crusades Europe.

Adam Olearius

Adam Olearius (born Adam Oelschlager, 1603-1671), a German diplomat and

ambassador in Iran in the era of Shah Safi, was the first translator to directly

render a literary work from Persian into German (Firoozabadi, 2007). He

translated both Gulistan and Bustan into German in 1654 and 1696, respectively.

Bustan was translated from a Dutch version. Despite their free style, these

works attracted European intellectuals including Goethe (1749-1832) who used

some of Sa'di‟s poems in his West-Östlicher Diwan (Fekri-Ershad, 1977).

Friedrich Rückert

Rückert (1788-1866), besides Bustan, translated Gulistan in 1847, offering one of

the excellent and most beautiful translations of Gulistan, although the work was


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published posthumously (Alavi, 1985). He also translated a selection of Sa'di‟s

ghazals published in 1893.

Sir Edwin Arnold

Arnold (1832-1904) was an English poet and journalist, who is widely recognized

for his work The Light of Asia. In the preface to his translation of the Rose

Garden, Arnold remarked:

“Sadi [was] „the Horace and Marco Polo of the Far East combined into one rich

and gracious nature.‟ Ancient enough to carry with him a fine flavor of the Old

World, he is as modern and as much for all times as the Roman poet himself or

America‟s Emerson.” (New York Times, 1899)

Voltaire

François-Marie Arouet, known as Voltaire, was born in a French family in 1694.

His eagerness for the East motivated him to be familiarized with Sa'di. Voltaire‟s

Zadig ou la destinée in 1747, as a masterpiece of French literature, is thought to

have been influenced by Sa'di‟s literature (Eshghi, 2010).

Ralph Waldo Emerson

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) was an American essayist, lecturer, and poet,

who led the Transcendentalist movement of the mid-19th century. In 1847, he

published his first poetry collection in Boston. This collection included two

ghazals of Hafiz and a 176-verse poetry of Sa'di. The first English translation of

Gulistan with a preface of Emerson was published in the Unites States. The

origin of his interest can be found in historical movement and European culture

of that era as well as in the tendency of America culture for spiritual growth in

the first half of the nineteenth century.


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Richard Jeffrey Newman

Newman, a poet, translator, essayist and educator, who has been publishing his

work since 1988, is the author of three volumes of poetry: The Silence Of Men,

a book of his own poems and selections from Sa'di's Gulistan and Bustan.

4. Orientalism and Literary Translation: Towards a Model

As mentioned earlier (see 2.1. above), the study followed a holistic and naturally

qualitative approach to history and translation, with the purpose of finding any

possible regularity in patterns of literary translation in Orientalism. Generally

speaking, explicit literary translation patterns, based on the theoretical review

(see 2.3. above), are usually mediated by implicit socio-industrial development,

urging the consideration of society in history of literary translation. As a result,

based on the theoretical background and the data for analysis (renditions of

Sa‟di‟s works), an initial coding of qualitative data was conducted and then some

themes as elements were constructed. Finally, a socio-historical model was

proposed.

4.1. Elements of a Socio-Historical Literary Model of Orientalist Translation

The meticulous process of comparison finally yielded a holistically synthesized

model composed of four major elements: scholarly agency, continental

translation, industrial superiority of Orientalists, and the literary richness of

Eastern cultures. Each of the elements is explored in further detail below.

4.1.1. Scholarly Agency

As the review showed, Lefevere (1992), Larocque (2012), and Chittiphalangsria

(2014) have envisaged the presence of elites and scholars in mediating

translation.


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Similarly, descriptions of agents translating Sa‟di revealed a considerable

spectrum of scholarly expertise: (a) “Orientalist”, “Indologist”, “Persianist”, and

“Arabist”; (b) “poet”, “translator”, “journalist”, and “essayist”; (c) “professor”,

“scholar”, “lecturer”, and “educator”; and (d) “historian”, “diplomat” and

“ambassador”. Clearly, scholarship has been an ingredient of Orientalist

translation.

4.1.2. Continental Translation

Broadly speaking, the magnitude of language species belonging to one single

continent can construct a huge multilingual corpus representing a particular

magnificent work of literature. The ethical problem, however, is the “imperial”

status that the translations reach and may even finally marginalize the original

literary work. In the case of Sadi‟s works rendered into European languages, an

imperialist Eurocentric “continental translation” (see van Doorslaer & Flynn,

2013) can be seen, as German, French and English seem to have shaped Sa‟di‟s

legacy, which might have been influenced by false or biased representations.

4.1.3. Industrial/Scientific Superiority of Orientalists

As mentioned above, “economic growth, political democracy, and a scientific

approach to natural and social life” since 1500 AD (Krishna, 2009: 9) led to the

colonial mission that relied on its knowledge and growing industry to “study”

other cultures, within (pseudo)scientific paradigms. To understand the impact of

this factor on the translations, one can simply compare the extent of Western

translations of Sa‟di since the seventeenth century to the relatively delayed

Persian translations of European literature in late nineteenth and early twentieth

centuries. The ethnographical component of Europeans‟ translations as “scientific

texts” (Asad, 2010) is the major rationale behind this element of Orientalist

translation.


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4.1.4. Literary Richness of Eastern Cultures

Despite several aspects of superiority of Europeans, there must be some motive

for them to initiate such translation projects in the first place. The encounter

with rich canonical literary works (presently recognized worldwide in the case of

Persian) seems to have been a sufficient incentive for Europeans. Poetic and

conceptual richness in Persian literature is an undeniable reason for the very

encounter. Among the Western scholars of Sadi‟s works, there seems to be an

appreciative discourse (as opposed to derogatory discourse) that first and

foremost praises the original work. Western great figures of literature and

intellect were influenced by Sa‟di‟s style, thought, and humanity, and Sir Edwin

Arnold regarded him as “Horace and Marco Polo of the Far East combined into

one rich and gracious nature.”

4.2. Illustration and Type of the Model

Figure 1 The components of the model

Figure 1 is the schematic representation of the conceptual model proposed in

this study. In light of existing categorizations of TS models, the proposed model

could be considered “causal”; according to Chesterman (2007: 9):

In the human sciences, however, causality can seldom if ever be

represented as a simple linear chain. What we usually find is a whole

complex of factors and contributory conditions, some of which are more

powerful than others, and many of which also affect each other.


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Similarly, the present model unfolded “contributory conditions” based on the

convergence of the literature and the sample under study. Also,

“industrial/scientific superiority” seems to be a highly “powerful” element

applicable to most cases of Orientalist translation. The underlying assumption of

the model can be thus expressed: Orientalist translation has been a historical

sequence shaped by Western scholars within a magnitude of European languages

armed by scientific propositions and advanced means of information

dissemination with the purpose of discovering, disguising, and/or reputing

historically and literarily rich Eastern cultures.

5. Discussing the Implications and Suggestions for Further Research

5.1. Implications

- From the perspective of literary history and translation, the continental

network of translations represents a case in which there is cross-linguistic re-

translation, or what Toury (2012: 82) would call directness of translation as a

“preliminary norm”. Clearly, continental translation has accepted (not

prohibited) translation from texts other than the source text (Persian Sadi‟s

works). For instance, one can think of Ochsenbach‟s German translation of

Gulistan which was inspired by Du Ryer‟s French translation, and Olearius‟s

translation of the Dutch version of Bustan into German.

- The model can contribute to future policy-making for Occidentalism. As

Wyche et al. (2006) highlight, understating of past events can help construct

strategic future responses. If, as Sadati (2014) points out, the nature of

argumentation in Occidentalism is dominantly defensive, one may find the reason

for this, considering the model proposed.


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Obviously, the model reveals some socio-historical asymmetries between the

West and the East. “Parallel texts” in the Information Age can help Orients

generate authentic information through hypertextuality and mass media,

counterbalancing the ethnographical representations in the West (see Cronin,

2013; Kharmandar, 2015). Yet, as Sadati (2014) further points out, lack of

systematic conceptualizations of the West is a major shortcoming of Orients; the

present model, however, provides a systematic outline of elements detached

from simple value judgments.

- Positive aspects of Orientalist translation can be revealed through the model.

“Scholarly agency” can help view national literature in the critical eyes of

foreigners, serving as a source of poetic development and canonical

transformation. Yet, “literary richness of Eastern cultures” which appears to be

the most affirmative aspect of the socio-historical model is the dissemination of

the literary capital of source languages and cultures. Undeniably, classical poets

such as Ferdowsi, Sa‟di, Khayyam, Hafiz, and Rumi have received international

recognition through translation, particularly translation into European languages.

Moreover, translators such as Du Ryer were influential in depicting the

humanistic and philanthropic nature of Muslims, despite the antipathy left after

the Crusades. Furthermore, the affinity that prominent Western figures, such as

Voltaire and Emerson, have found in Sa‟di‟s works supports the idea of uniquely

contextualized Persian cultural capital and the importance of establishing a

Persian Translation Paradigm (Kharmandar, 2014).

5.2. Suggestions

- The proposed model can be applied to the European translations of other great

figures of Persian literature, especially Hafiz and Rumi, or figures of other Eastern


58

languages such as Arabic, Indian, and Chinese, constructing a corpus for

comparative studies.

- Considering the elements of the model, researchers can propose Occidentalist

models of translation or address specific related critical questions: what are

Eastern elements that can compensate for Western industrial advancements?

How can critical anthropology help question the epistemological validity of

Orientalist translations?

6. Conclusion

This study took a socio-historical approach to Orientalism, proposing a holistic

qualitative literary translation model. Considering philosophy of history and

social development, the study explored the factors that appear to have

constructed the background of Orientalism and literary translation. To

accomplish this, following a critical review of theoretical considerations of

history, translation, literature, colonialism, and Eurocentrism, and after a brief

chronological account of European renditions of Sa‟di‟s works as an actual case,

the points of convergence were considered to extract the factors involved

including “scholarly agency”, “continental translation”, “industrial/scientific

superiority of Orientalists”, and “literary richness of Eastern cultures”. The

implications of the proposed causal translation model can contribute to various

topical concerns such as critical Occidentalism, comparative literature, and the

Persian Translation Paradigm.

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Elements of Orientalism as a Socio-Historical Literary Translation Model: Tracing Sa'di in European Renditions

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