Electronic 1 Electronic Materials and Devices The Atomic Structure Energy Levels Classifications of solids in terms of their conductivities An-Najah.

Electronic 1

Electronic Materials and Devices The Atomic Structure Energy Levels Classifications of solids in terms of their conductivities

An-Najah National UniversityFaculty of Engineering

Electrical Engineering Department

List of contents

Electronic 1

Semi- conductor materials The N and P Types Current Distribution / flow in semiconductor materials



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Electronic 1

The Junction Diode The Basic Configurations of the diode – forward and reversed biased Diode Capacitance Influence of Temperature on the operation of the diode Diode Circuit Analysis The DC and AC resistances of the diode The diode equivalent models Power dissipation



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Electronic 1

Graphical analysis of diode circuits Dc and AC load lines The dynamic and transfer curves



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Electronic 1

Zener Diodes Voltage regulators



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Electronic 1

Other diodes Varactor Diodes The Schottkey diode Tunnel diodes Opto-Electronic diodes Photodiodes Infrared ( IR ) Emitters . Light emitting diodes LED ‘s Solar cells



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Electronic 1

The Bipolar Transistors Basic Construction and operation of a transistor The NPN / PNP Transistors Amplifying action of the transistor : The Eber-Moll Transistor Model The basic configurations transistor circuits ( Common Base , Common Collector and Common Emitter ) DC Biasing of Transistors BJT Circuits



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Electronic 1

The Field Effect Transistor Basic construction and operation N and P channel FETs Enhancement and Depletion MOSFETs FETs DC analysis FET circuits



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Electronic 1

An introduction to Op-Amps and basic circuits



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Electronic 1

Text Books Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, Boylestad and Nashelsky , Prentice Hall



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One of the most widely used models which describe the structure and behavior of atoms is known as the bohr model .the atom contains neutrons ( neutral particles, i.e. having no charge)protons(positively charged particles ) electrons ( negatively charged = to the protons charge ) orbiting around it,as shown in fig ( 1 ).

Fig 1 : The Atom structure



Electronic Materials and devices

The atomic structure

the weight of an atom (called the atomic weight )is roughly equals the combined weights of the protons and neutrons in that atomthe number of electrons ( or protons ) orbiting the nucleus is called the atomic number of that element




The atomic structure

For each atom their exist only a number of orbits( discrete energy levels) at which electrons may exist , with no two electrons existing at any one energy level.This is called the Pauli's exclusion principleThe further the electron away from the nucleus the higher it energy state( in the forms of kinetic and potential energies )The unit of energy which is adopted in atomic theories is called the Electron volt(eV) ,where 1eV= 1.6 X 10 -19JThe electron volt is the amount of energy gained or lost when an electron moves with or against a potential difference of one voltthe atomic structure of atoms ,electrons could not have any value of Electron volts other than an allowable one




Atoms energy levels

For the purpose of chemical behavior , is it better to group the possible energy levels ( or orbits ) to what is called electrons main shells ( denoted K, L, m ,N .... ,Z with the k-shell being the closest to the nucleus ) as shown in fig (2).




Atoms energy levels

Fig 2 : Shell energy distribution for a material

the number of electrons existing in the various shells determining the chemical behavior of the material The first shell is considered complete when it contains two electrons and the second shell is complete when it contains eight electrons(2 n 2 ). Many of the chemical and electrical properties of materials are determined by the electrons existing in the outer shell ( called the Valance electrons ) the material belongs to an inert gas an electron existing in a shell further away from the nucleus( e.g. a valance electron ) have a higher energy and thus may be detached from it’s respective shell quite easier than electrons existing in inner shells




Atoms energy levels

When atoms of the same material are brought together , the atoms bonds ( each atom attempts to have eight electrons in it's outer shell ) with each other electrostatically by means of one of three possible methods :Ionic bonding forces -- Valence electrons join with other valence electrons to fill the latter outer shell Covalent bonding forces -- Valance electrons are shared between more than one atomsMetallic binding forces -- Electron cloud ( wondering electrons ) exert electrostatic forces on the positive Ions and hold them together ( e.g. CU material ) .In this course only covalent bonding will be considered, since it is most applicable to semiconductor material .




The case of combination of atoms - in solids

Fig 3 shows the energy band in materials . within each band there are still discrete permissible energy levels rather than a continuum level.The energy bands closer to the nucleus have less width compared with outer bands , this is because electrons associated with inner shells interacts less with each other , while Valence electrons have strong interaction with each other resulting in higher modifications to their respective energy levels





Fig 3 , Energy Bands in a Material

the valence band will be considered in the study of the conduction properties of solid materials . The highest energy band associated with atoms which are brought together ( solids ) is called the valence band ( Fig 3 ) , since it contains the valence electrons above the valence band their exist what is called the Conduction Band where electrons in this band are not attached to any atoms and are free to wonder about and be influenced by external forcesBetween the valence band and conduction band their exist a region called the Forbidden band where electrons can not exist .





Electric current can be defined as the movement of charges , thus the ability for electrons to move from the valence band to the conduction band determine it’s conductivity .A conductor -- at room temperature , the valance and the conduction bands overlap each other making it easy for a valance electron to reach the conduction band ( Fig 4 )




Classifications of solids in term of their conductivity

Classifications of Materials in terms of their conductivities

An insulator -- at room temperature, the forbidden band is so wide that valance electrons without the application of external forces , can not reach the conduction band






semi-conductor-- at room temperature , their exist a forbidden band with width some where between zero (conductor ) and very wide ( isolator ) so that without the application of external force some electrons ( only few ) find their way to the conduction band






0.67 eV (Ge)

1.1 eV (Si)

1.43 eV (GaAs)

The most widely used semiconductor base materials , in the manufacturing of electronic devices are called Silicon and germanium ( four electrons in the outer shell -- each has four valance electrons ) ,with the germanium material having a conductivity at room temperature The atomic number of silicon and germanium are 14 and 32 electrons respectively




Semiconductor materials

The atoms of semiconductor material ( pure state ) , say Silicon atoms , forms a strong crystalline structure ( covalent bonding ) with each other ( Fig 5 )




The N -Type semiconductor material

Fig 5 : The covalent crystalline structure of silicon atoms

at room temperature , only some electrons , due to manufacturing problems , , from the valance band manage to escape such bonds , to the conduction band ,creating some vacancies (holes) and resulting in some ( very small ) current flow in the material The material , in this case is called intrinsic material .The conductivity of such material can be enhanced quite considerably by adding ( 1 part to a 1 millions ) to the semiconductor material some impurities of other material ( such as arsenic or phosphor ) which has five valance electrons





For each atom of impurity material only four of the five electron can form a strong bond with the silicon atoms as shown in fig (6) , leaving one electron loosely bonded





Fig 6 : Covalent structure of Silicon and Phosphor

Effectively, the forbidden band is reduced , making it easier to initiate electrons flow with minimum applied energy .The composite material , in this case is called Extrinsic materialthe impurity material is called donor atoms ,or donor ions ( since it donates electrons to the silicon material )the electrons , in general , forms the majority carrierthe holes are called the minority carriers .





Adding , impurity materials with three valence electrons (boron ) results in a material that has many vacancies (holes ) for electrons ( net positive charge ) as shown in fig(7)




The P -Type semiconductor material

Fig 7 : Covalent structure of Silicon and Boron

The composite material is now called , P-type extrinsic material.the impurity material is called acceptor atoms, or acceptor ions ( since it accepts electrons)positive charges forms the majority carriers , whereas the small number of free electrons existing in the material is called Minority carriers. the holes are called the minority carriers .




The P -Type semiconductor material




The P –Type and n-Type semiconductor material

The current flow in semiconductor material can be achieved in one of two ways :

Drift current

Diffusion current




Current flow in semiconductor materials

Drift current:- the current flow is produced when a potential difference is applied across the material , which causes a general drift of electrons erratically ( due to collisions encountered with other atoms ) through the material towards the higher potential side ( the positive end ) Fig 8 .





Fig 8 : Drift Current as a result of applying external energy

Diffusion current:- produced when ( without the application of external energy ) a concentration of carriers is introduced to the material ( just as adding a drop of ink to a glass of water ) The concentration of charges in one part of the material causes ( due to a potential gradient ) the charges in the higher concentration areas to move (diffuse ) towards the lower concentration area, producing the diffusion current





N-Type material has electron majority (positive ions) and holes minority the P-Type material has holes majority (negative ions)and electrons minority .When the two materials are brought together , as shown in fig (9) , and at room temperature , some of the electrons form the N_Type material migrate ( diffuse ) into the P-Type material across the dividing line (Junction) neutralizing atoms in the P_region near the junction.




Semiconductor device - The PN Junction

The Depletion layer created as a result of and N and P layers are brought together

As the N_region near the junction looses electrons ,the number of positive ions increases in that region until a stage where the repelling electrostatic forces between the positive ions and the incoming ( from the P-Type material ) holes acts to stop the migration of the holes

as the P-region near the junction looses holes , the number of negative ions increase in that region up to a stage where repelling electrostatic forces between the negative ions and the incoming electrons acts to stop any further migration of electrons across the junction

an area is created near the junction which has no charge carriers. This is called the depletion layer

The energy associated with the depletion layer form a barrier ( equivalent to a small potential difference , 0.3v for germanium material and 0.7 v for silicon material )electron or hole has to gather an energy level above that of the barrier to make the jump across the junction












basic connections of the Junction diode

There are two basic connections for the diode :

The reversed biased connections

Forward biased connection





Fig (10) shows the reversed bias connection

The positive terminal of the battery attracts the electrons ( the majority carriers ) in the N-Type material the negative battery terminal attracts the holes ( also the majority carriers ) from the P-Type materialwidening the energy barrier and making it extremely hard for an electron or a hole to make a jump across the junction . i.e. there is no current flow across the junction due to the majority carriers





However , some very small current will flow due to the presence of minority carriers in both N and P Types materials . This current is of the order of few Nanoamps for silicon material and few Microamps for Germanium material both types of materials the current stays constant (limited numbers of minority carriers ) as the applied voltage is increased up to a stage , called break down voltage , which will be dealt with later ,the reverse current , suddenly , increases .




The Forward biased connection

The positive and negative terminals of the battery causes the electrons ( of the N-Type material ) and holes ( of the P-Type material ) to move towards each others effectively reducing the energy barrier and causing a large current flow across the junction

The higher the applied voltage , the larger the current flow across the junction ( majority carriers increases ) .

Fig (11) shows the forward biased connection for the





Fig 12 shows the current / applied voltage relationship for the junction diode





Fig 12 shows the current / applied voltage relationship for the junction diode





the net forward diode current can be represented by the following equation:

VD/nVT

ID = IS (e - 1)

n is a constant between 1 and 2 ( for this course this constant is taken to be 1 ).

VT is a volt-equivalent of temperature and is equals to kT/q , k is a constant = 1.38 X 10 -23 J/K , T is the temperature in Kelvin’s (Tk=TC+273) and q is the charge of electron = 1.6 X 10 -19 C

Is is reverse saturation current

The applied forward-biased voltage across the diode




The Forward biased connection Example :- At a temperature of 27o C (common temperature for components in an enclosed operating System, determin the thermal voltage VT

T=273+27=300 KK= = (1.38x10-23J/K) Q= 1.6x10-19

VT =K*T/Q= (1.38x10-23J/K) *300/(1.6x10-19)

VT =25.875 mV




Effect of temperature on the operational characteristics of the diode.increasing the temperature of semiconductor materials causes the generation of more electrons/ holes pairs ( minority carriers )

the increased electron/hole pairs acts to reduce the depletion layer width and subsequently reduce the forward voltage needed to produce a given forward current value

The increased minority carriers also causes an increase in the reverse leakage current as well as an increase in the avalanche breakdown voltage of the diode




Effect of temperature on the operational characteristics of the diode.

Fig (13) illustrate the effect of temperature on the I - V relationship.

Fig 13 : Effect of increasing the temperature of the diode ( the Dark curve )




Diode capacitance.

The space charged region (depletion layer) acts as an insulator in ordinary capacitance (potential difference across it)As the diode is reversed biased, the depletion layer is widened and capacitance (called transition or depletion capacitance) is decreasedwhen the diode is forward biased the depletion layer is reduced causing an increase in the capacitance ( called the diffusion capacitance )as shown in fig (14)

Fig 14 : The variation of Capacitance for a Diode




Diode Circuits Analysis

For a given diode the D.C (static) resistance R dc is written as R dc = VD/ID

The D.C Resistance of a diode

In general, the DC resistance of the diode in the reverse direction is very large (typically 5 M ohms) the DC resistance of the diode in the forward direction is relatively low (typically 200 ohms).





The D.C Resistance of a diode





Because of the nature of varying signal (AC) the AC resistance of the diode can be evaluated as follows:-

1- For small signals (small variations) the AC resistance of the diode is given by Rac =d VD /d ID evaluated at operating point Q , as shown in Fig (15) (average)

The AC diode resistance

Rac = = VT/ID , at Q point at room temperature , 25 degrees , VT = 26 mV i.e. at room temperature Rac = 25 mV / ID , at Q point

Rac= (25 mV/ID )+ RB (resistance of wires)





1- For large signals the average AC resistance of the diode is given by Rac =delta VD /delta ID Where delat VD is the difference between the maximum and minimum values of input voltages.











the diode characteristics may be simplified as shown in Fig

The diode equivalent circuit





The power dissipation of the diode is simply calculated from the following equation:The power of the diode PD = VD X ID

Where VD and ID are the current through the diode and the voltage across it.

the higher the PD , the higher the temperature of the junction of the diode and if the PD is allowed to go above a specified level , the junction may be damaged permanentlythe junction temperature is influenced by the surrounding temperature, TS .

Power dissipation in P-N diodes




Diode circuits and applications

Diode circuits

A B

12V

5K

10K12V

Since point A has a higher potential than point B , then the diode may be replaced by it’s equivalent switch component

I=12/15K=0.8 mA

I=(12-0.7)/(15K)= 0.75 mA





Diode circuits

A B

12V

5K

10K12V

Since point A has a lower potential than point B , then the diode may be replaced by it’s equivalent switch component (open circuit)

I=0

V across the diode = 12 V





Diode circuits

we need to determine whether the diode is forward or reversed biased . One method is to remove the diode ( replacing it with a short circuit ) and solve the circuit to determine the direction of current flow in that short circuit and based on the result we may proceed to replace the diode with it’s respective equivalent switch status ( open or closed )

12V

5K

4K6K

10V





Thevenin circuit





Diode circuits

replacing the diode with it’s equivalent switch and applying conventional circuit analysis would yield the required results





Diode circuits

Digital circuit

A

B Q

A B Q

5V0V 0V

0V0V5V

5V5V 5V

0V

5V5V

1KFor projecting

diodes

replacing the diodes with their equivalent circuits yield the exact function of an “OR” gate




Diode circuits and applications Diode applications

a rectifier circuit , as the name implies , rectifies ( iron out ) the varying input signal and produces an output which has a DC component

Rectifier circuits

Such a circuit is very important in power supply circuit designs where the AC signal is transformed to DC and thus made suitable supply for electronic circuits which function using DC only

In this section we will consider the half and full wave rectifier circuits





The halfwave rectifierRectifier circuits

consider the circuit given in Fig 23 ,and if Vin = Vmax sin(wt),and assuming the diode to be ideal , then the output waveform will be as shown





The halfwave rectifierRectifier circuits

The part of the waveform between 0 and 180 degrees has a mean value( DC or average )given by the following equation : Vmean . π = ∫ Vmax Sin(wt) . d(wt) i.e. Vmean = 0.637 Vmax and for a full cycle , i.e. between 0 and 360 degrees ,and since the mean value for the part of the waveform between 180 and 360 degrees equals to zero , it follows that the mean value for the complete waveform equals : (0.637+0)Vmax/2 = 0.318 Vmax If the forward voltage for the diode VT is taken into account ,then the output while the diode is conducting will be decreased by 0.7 V ( 0.2 for germanium )





Full wave rectifier circuit Rectifier circuits

Using the circuit .in Fig 24 , and assuming that Vin = Vmax sin (wt) ,then the positive half of Vin will find a path through the load and the negative half will also find a path through the load ) although in the negative direction ) , i.e. the output waveform will be of the form shown in the same Fig





Full wave rectifier circuit Rectifier circuits

Using similar calculations to that adopted for the half wave rectifier circuit ; V mean = 0.638 VmaxSince each half of the input signal passes through two diodes , then it follows that if VT ( forward voltage of the diode ) is to be taken into account then the output swill be decreased by 2 X 0.7 V ( for silicon ).It should be remembered that the break down voltage of the diode should be equal or more than Vmax , otherwise the rectifier circuit will not function correctly .

Electronic 1 Electronic Materials and Devices The Atomic Structure Energy Levels Classifications of solids in terms of their conductivities An-Najah.

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