Electrifying the Rural Livelihood

Electrifying the Rural Livelihood

Meredian Alam, M.A., M.Phil | Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social and Political

Sciences, Gadjah Mada University |[email protected]| +6281237451524

This paper was presented at ‘Sarasehan dalam Rangka Memperingati 50 Tahun Jurusan Teknik Elektro

dan Teknik Informatika Universitas Gadjah Mada’ (Forum Commemorating the Establishment of

Electrical and Informatics Engineering Department, Universitas Gadjah Mada Indonesia on September

16th

2013 at Wisma MM UGM with the theme ‘Leading to Self-Resilience and Sustainability of Electricity

Power Supply’.

Abstract

Electricity is one of the vital points in the life of group of people in every region, providing multifaceted contributive effects on its users. The core effects of electrification could be conceived if the users have directly benefitted the electricity installations and other forms of intangible supports of governments, non-profit organization, and local institutions which are provided to make the continuity of electricity use more sustainable for economic productivity, social interaction, knowledge development, and even connecting community with outside world. Equality of electrification for all groups of people especially in the global South has been enshrined in Millenium Development Goals with general purpose to generate long-range transformative impacts on health acess, poverty alleviation, clean water access, achievening quality of primary education, fostering gender and women empowerment, improve maternal health, ensuring environmental sustainability, and establishing global partnership with concerned stakeholders. Nevertheless, in Indonesia solely there barely exists publication or discussion on the way further electrification impacts the community in need. Responding to this, this paper scrutinizes numerous cases of electrification in rural areas which can be later used as platform and frameworks to generate more equal access to electricity in the country.

Development from Within Technological innovation have gone through myriad phase involving sophistication of discoveries and inventions that service the need of human in modern life. How technology is developed relies on the progresive stance of knowledge which fosters engagement of experts and users in praxis. As to allow electricity enabled a benign incorporation between technology and the users--mediated by the experts--is significant to scrutinize, as it will provide us insight about how much the electricity itself can make changes in the society. There is no doubt any longer that once community who were not formerly capable of getting intouch with globality could access electricity they would embark on the modernized setting. This view, however, is still claimed in person by the experts as their sole success stories without putting the story of locals in it. It is dillema whenever we witness in many development projects experts often use their superior technical knowledge in the installing process of electricity to step aside the roles of electricity users. They do not deeply consider, that they could be named as "engineers" because there are people before them who take advantage of their roles in day-to-day praxis of electricity constructions. Before moving on, we would scrutinize how the ideas of modernization may have appeared. First of all,the ideas as modernization came up from the notion that development is transformation of traditional societies into modern ones, characterized by advanced technology, and material prosperity (Moore, 1963 in Crewe, 1999). From this notion, the very model of development has intention to approach traditions and cultures as something to be tamed, not equally treated. In line with this notion, we could make deep sense of technology created for society does, to some extent, have colonial hidden agenda, which was to restrain the old tradition of society and to constrain the inevitable grown-up of long-preserved culture. Such approach was valid and applicable in the age of colonialization, but

not confined to recent condition where government remains put aside people's perspective and ignore the social changings in user's life which can be the parameter of success.

The technological development particularly in developing country is much influenced by the ideology of development agencies that see themselves as change of actor and savior to make the targeted country wealthier. The main premise of such development model is to weaken the power of community or states in which they are stationed and to undergo further exploitation once the state is under control. Even though the approach has been left and revamped, such ‘racialist theory’ was ever prevalent during colonial times and the technology at that times is given with “low contextual understanding of local setting as well as culture in which technology is implemented” (Crewe, 1999:81). Until recent, experts and developmentalist if they are to implement technology in the global South, remain belief that the society is blessed with frail by the God, so hence they construe themselves to monopolize the true of development, seeking protecting under “scientific discourse which lies under Western science that is perceived as objective truth” (Crewe, 1999:68). Technological application in the global South, as being said so, is dilemmatic yet problematic, as we are to be colonized by the knowledge of the West and our thought is tried out to be submerged by the dominant virtue of them.

Before writing this article I was ever informed, electrification in some remote rural areas in Indonesia is lag behind compared to other developed regions in Indonesia. Regardless their remoteness and constrained faced by government in reaching them out, remote rural Indonesia are always unheard and neglected in the distribution of development outcome.To overcome this situation the government of Indonesia then has developed alternative electricity infrastructure that rooted from renewable energy principles, such as solar grid, microhydro based generator, and even locally appropriated technology—so named biogas. However, field findings unveiled, that numerous infrastructures as such which was supposed to provide basic household electrification becomes absolete, and the users no longer functioned them for daily necessity. In the first years they might had been utilized by local users but in longer run users left them because technical issues permeated with no sufficient maintenance support from the providers. While in the construction phase which is actually detrimental for its sustainability users are not actively engaged in intensive training on maintenance, identifying potential technical issues that may arise in near years and seeking engineering support for reparation, and advance mechanisms on coping with risk. From this alternative technology for rural electrification is only an successful of rural engineering projects and a showcase of knowledge expertise mastered by the respective engineers, and the local is only treated as object of “technological manufacturing”. In January 2013 under soaking heat of Yogyakarta I made a one day observation to interview local female foodstals owner who were majority unemployed located at the seashore of Pantai Baru Bantul. The wind power infrastructures have lasted more than one year and in sudden it was struck by hars blizzar on rainy season. This unexpected weather event has caused the wind power generation disfunctioning. And, the foodstall ownwe must chip in to purchase gasoline as to generate electricity from the genset provided collectively. I once inquiried one of the lead engineer who was there, “How shall we get out of this problem, Sir?”. He surprisingly replied my query by horribly mentioning that the declining function of wind power after being hit by blizzard is supposed to be tackled by the local community who acts as principle users and if this installation is hard to activate local community shall take the blame on it. The engineer I talked to claimed that the responsibility installation provider is necessarily on the first stage construction phase.From this, it may be observed, the superiority of experts under the notion of development had been very superior and makes the livelihood more victimized with the technology. Following Hobart (2003:1), the development has not reached “the nature of the problem of underdevelopment and its solution are defined by reference to this world-ordering knowledge”.

The users participation in technological development and their ingenuity in harmonizing the technological artifacts in the home shall be respected, appreciated, and becomes the examples for further engineering projects which weight their practices on transferring technical knowledge to the users. The macro premise of understanding is to

debunk the development approach that submerges the local views of the technology users, which is contributive to the sustainability of the artifact itself. How Electricity Becomes Transformative Forces to the Society The term empowerment refers to a set of activities devoted to people who have no sufficient access to certain resources that shall make avail to sustain their livelihood. The target of empowerment is those living with constrained efforts due to inaccessibility to basic necessity such as electricity and the likes—water, food, condusive living space, and so forth. Electricity considered as effective to move people out of marginalization, especially those living in the (remote) rural areas. Despite rural is bestowed, compared to city, with natural resources including water, due to more lacking of knowledge people are faced with incapability to improve their life. With electricity infrastructures to enable home electrification, social power can be attained by the local community. One of the approach how electricity may transform the community is presented by Friedmann. Friedmann (1992) presented, there are three types of power required for people to gain access to formal power and control over their development: Social Power, political power, and psychological power. Social power refers to access to certain resources such as information, knowledge, skills, participation in social organization, and finances. Political power is informed as more than citizen right to vote but involves power to give voice to his or her ideas and opinions and to take community action as respond to collective expectation, while psychological power can be gained through confidence and awareness of individual capabilities of performing certain agenda set for the sustainability of community. The benign blends of successful engagement in social and political spheres. In each of these power, electricity plays vital roles in transforming the life of local community or the users household. The social power, for instance, can be exemplified in the household life. For instance, the household who adopts electricty can connect with world outside of their homes through television broadcast that regularly transmit diverse programs and are delivered by either national and international broadcast company. In terms of skills, people can adopt certain machinery skills to operate their home industries, and utilize it for leveraging household income which in turn be used to send children to schools. In the context of participation it engages long preserved social institutions as mediating structure for livelihood to enhance solidarity and enrich emotional bounding among them. Social institutions have vital roles particularly for collecting diverse community members in making social decision, and from this it may be recognized that social institution is a detrimental space where social constructions are accomodated. The social construction encapsulate on the plural ideas and opinion that shapes multi-interpretation of the new values in the society. If it is not properly managed, there might have been dispute among the community members. The electrification itsel could bring benefits and enable community to actively participate and run the social activity. For instance those living in rural areas of Indonesia can carry out the numerous activity with the help of electricity generator, Imagine if they live without it, probably people will live in the darkness. The key issues is necessarily not going beyond the darkness but how social interaction is reinvigorated by village electrification. In relations with social power, Friedmann (1992) dealienates eight clues that becomes the bases of social power, which are :

Defensible life space--meaning that the household and space for socializing can be defended and effectively used by family members to conduct their day-to-day activities. It also shed light of the importance of home as social territory for sustainable living.

Surplus time--providing significance of using the time left that already used for subsistence economy can be allocated for other social activities like socializing with other community members, attending social events, participating in local election, and self-involvement in community based economic activities that could connect people with external networkings.

Knowledge and skills--explaining that specific education and mastery of specific skills applied for improving economic productivity.

Appropriate information--informing that household can foster their understanding of the effectiveness of public services, right, and golden opportunities through information accessibility.

Societal organization--referring to formal and informal organizations in which the households or family members can be affiliated to, which serve for information and mutual support.

Instrument of work and livelihood—meaning that the households have certain tools like human resources, access to clean water and hygiene facility, land electricity, and other supporting appliances that enhance the households general production.

Financial resources—households capability in earning monetary income and credit arrangements.

The experience of how electricity could help reducing the social burdens and create contributive powerful impacts on the society can be viewed above, through the perspective of Friedmann which is able to systematically inform the pathway. Aside of that, social acceptance of electrification shall be read as macro-system that facilitate the enabling process. The definition of social acceptance might be very varied and is dependent on the focus of concerned issues. In this respect social acceptance covers the a set of function that becomes integrated motor for electrification to be made avaible in rural areas. The principle notion of social acceptance in this paper adopted from the systematic analysis performed by Wustenhagen et al (2007), comprimising socio-political acceptance, community acceptance, and market acceptance. Socio-political acceptance is mainly associated with higher level of policy making process like the form of technology, public involvement, identified stakeholders, and initiative of policy makers. While the community acceptance pertains the justice or legal reinforcement agreed by involved stakeholders throughout electrification processes. Market acceptance is related to the ways targeted electricity consumer is identified and mapped to figure out types of electricity and technical details that will be provided to them. Before moving on, the illustration of social acceptance can be viewed as follows:

Figure 2

Figure 2 The socio-political acceptance requires an excellent combination involving technology,

public engagement, stakeholder, and the feedback respons of policy makers. Here rural electrification is our concern and therefore it demands technology that fits rural setting. Transportation aspect will ensure the logistic needs performed for successful installation and considerably important to determine the duration of installation of electrification. Some remote locations take longer time to allow the electrification materials to reach the area and vice-versa, and it shall be adopted to the degree of complicacy of technology itself. Users, as part of public by large, usually more recognize the volume of electricity they really want, which is accorded to the number of family members, electronic equipments in the household, and other household activity that may absorbs the energy. All these stuffs shall be thoroughly discussed with the respective household to meet their factual need. The task of policy makers is to ensure the electrification as well as the installation costs are affordable for the rural community. Since general rural household have limited monetary resources, it is worthwhile to provide them with proper subsidy that is accorded with how much earnings household have per-annum. Other stakeholders co-existing in the village could be village-chief, head of community parliamentary, head of community clusters, and the rural community members themselves. When it comes to manage electrification process successfully, each of them shall perform shared responsibility. For instance, the village-chief may provide administratrive endorsement for enabling permissions of installation that goes through to regency. In Indonesia for an electrification

project undertaken by private and government bodies must have permission from regency, district, village, and community levels. This is to ensure the prevention of social conflicts. If the social conflicts preceed, these involved formal government bodies together with community members must take actions to alter the situation.

Electrification may be viewed as not everyone's case as only particular number of households own it. However, if we look in more critical insight especially when it questions from where the electrification sources come from? It may be from coal burning based or renewable ones like solar, wind, and (micro) hydro. All of these resource bases are generated for all people generally exctracting it to use for the lives. From this radical understanding it may be acknowledge that electricity is everyone's issues, so as to enable that its use is conformed with the every people's need, justice is imperative and gain significance at this stage. Procedural justice is associated with legal arrangement to enable electrification process run according legal framework in the regional areas. For instance, in the installation of central generator cables a farrow land is required and the local dweller living close to it have to be asked for inform-constent to ensure that they will be no problem with the construction. Inform consent is critical here as it to obtain a social liason and prevent preceeding potential conflict in near future. In much of social problems arose after construction of central generator social the principle cause is due to the absence of permission given by the local dweller living near this installation. And, such issue is never be taken into consideration by some project engineer in development countries. While the distributional justice is more relevant to the equal sharing of electricity to each house or user who have signed their participation in the electrification. Prior electricity to be funelled, each user shall be provided rights and obligation with their installation. Rights wise, they must recognize the maximum volume of electricity and mechanisms if any shortocoming or troubleshooting appears in sudden. Electricity is a technological artefact that is immune from error with various causes, such as weather event (blizzard, heavy rains) and physical condition affecting the installation. A provider shall also educate them where to find and seek advance technical help whenever severity occurs with the electricity. This might be subtle dimension which users, government, electricity provider and/or contractor have to communicate intensively and put into mature consideration. The ultimate goal of performing this is to avert any casualties or potential risk of electrification. Household may be considered as end-users of electrification in rural areas, so it is a moral obligation for provider/constructor and government to fabricate electricity that is sustainable and maintanable. The emotional elements to be built among the involved stakeholders in the electrification is trust. Without trust, justice is like a boat sailing on the dessert--meaning that it is impossible to develop cooperation with trust. A trustworthiness can be established whenever each of involved stakeholders behaves transparently and accountably. Government who act as project leader or facilitator should declare the budget and expense spent on electrification, as well as the providers or constractors. We might have witnessed in newspaper headlines that a group of rural electricity customers marched a protest condemning the faults of government in terms of financial accountability issues like corruption and money smuggling or perhaps affair with electricity providers. Speaking of this issues, the government might still adopt the old-fashioned assumption that the rural users is necessarily object of electrification project and suppossed they have no criticism about the installation projects. Trustworthiness is invaluable "bonding" social capital in the rural areas.

While the users are treated as consumer, it will foster a view of government and electricity provider that they are group of people to be serviced and have rights of good service in turn. Other actors playing role in the market acceptance is investors who might be the one having monetary capital. The monetary capital they possess is to fund the specific electrification processes which is capital intensive. And, they may also play in the market to purchase electricity produced by government-owned company but then the government funnels it separately for domestic income and for sustaining the major materials utilized for electrification. There may be various monetary roles that can be determined and performed by involved stakehoder. Market acceptance is also relied on the complexity and the categories of adopters. Less complexed installation may withdraw interest among those living in rural as they

will do the maintenance in more managable way, using the local manpower in the area. Interactivity among "market actors" in the electricity industry shall be regulated with a policy set by government including profit sharing and to what degree investors may be allowed to enter or do intervention in such industry. Whether being realized, a market system with liberal perspective will potentially lead to controproductive market transacation especially between those owning intensive capital. Therefore a common regulation that able to govern a sound relationship among stakeholders involved in the market transaction. What is often figured out as market case is that the investors have hidden deal with the government and this lead to corruptive act which causes more severe situation in the electrification. Responding to this situation, a co-existence of monitoring agency that is able to keep an eye on what is going on with the financial deal gains significance here. The appointing of an agency that will do such task can be determined with concensus set out by government, local community and users, investors, and other related stakeholders. By looking at this efforts, electtification is a motor to foster transparency and accountability, and its affect can be sustainable lesson-learnt for involved stakeholders. We might know, there is unequal financial income faced by government, investors, and even local electricity users due to many factors related to not-accomodative welfare systems, but an ethical values of doing transparent yet accountable business shall be a moral call for all involved stakeholders. Looking at the Life Transformation in the Society: A Grassroot Perspective Speaking of societal transformation is associated with social changes and many underlying factors that make it happen. The defintion of social changes may be diverse and varied according to what approach adopted to view the situation. The length of time involved in the changes may determine how sustainable the transformation is, and the intensity is also a factor to gauge how deep and massive the changes occur. Attitudinal factor, by some experts, is another related measuremen to define the changes. Despite any systematic measurements as such, social changes is a compex situation that can not be easily discussed within the framework of timing, people-oriented/actors, types of attitude, and other nomothetic scheme. This paper rather presents about the story of grassroots who have adopted electrification in their houses utilizing solar power, microhydro, and conventional electricity (with no renewable sources). To some specific setting of poor rural areas, renewables like solar power and biogas are found effective to be constructed in the village because they do not require connecting wires channel from the city to distribute the electricity. Gender Empowerment Gender is a notion that encapsulate meaning social constructed relations between men and women in the society. In the global South gender has been the issue of concerns especially when speaking of inequality in the family. In most of developing countries women posits lower cultural position than their counterparts, men. And, they are not frequently involved in the negotiation of resourse use in the household level. The main decision maker in the family is mostly men and they are culturally granted certain authority and hold power to manage the household. The emergent of electrity in rural family impacts their live substantially. Prior to the coming of electricity in rural family, darkness had blocked the interaction between husbands and wives, and each of them preferred to staying in their own room (Winther, 2008). It ever happened in Zanzibar, Tanzania where after the rural electrification relationship between husbands and wives were vibrantly reinvigorated. They finally found enlightened space at home as meeting point to conversate and discuss household-related issues in there. From this, electrification has contributed to the finding of meaningful family life in rural family. Another electrification project impacting on the community living under poverty was undertaken by Norwegian Church Aid since 2007 in Afganistan. In some of rural Afganistan electricity was one of critical issues whereas people were hard to obtain due to more inaccessibility and monetary restriction. In 2009 Norwegian Church Aid commenced a solar power based electrification and for this project more than 20 women sent to India for being

involved in an installation training. The consideration of choosing women at that time as training participant was that women bear significant roles as family managers and the ones with majority time of working inside home. Despite the project was not principly aimed at fostering gender equality but a striking change of men's perception towards women is more interesting to investigate. As we might have recognized, Afganistan is one of islamic country where Islamic patriarchal culture has been preserved. The return of women from solar electrification training in Indonesia to their village have made men came to realization that women are actually capable of doing "engineering" work that was ideally supposed to be men's task. Women are finally viewed as actors that could play significant work and bring benefits to community by large. Aside of that, another result found that women are no longer occupied in drudgery (Zuhara, 2013) which makes them hold more household load and lead them have no time for interaction. Departing from above stories, it is acknowledgable, that in term of genders electrificiation may bring forth changes both discourse and in practical experience of the family. As in Afganistan case electrification, through training provided by Norwegian Church Aid could alter the perspective of mens towards women’s role in the society, and give women wider partipation in the society. The social changes, nevertheless, will take quuite sometimes to prevail because culture is something to be negotiated by actors involved in the discourse and experiences. More Social Engagements and Vibrant Interaction Social engagements may be defined as event and also a condition where two parties or number of individuals are altogather in the same venue. We often spot some rural areas have no electricity and people live in the darkness. The limited use of kerosene based lighting are frequently figured out in some areas, and the dwellers only turn it on in the night. They are even hard to do night social interaction news broadcasted on TV and radio. Mobile phone which is suppossed to be alternative communication with family members and also community members. The lacking of electricity provison in the village will lead people to the hardship of exposing themselves with diverse products of communication and technology, such as news broadcasted on TV and radio. Even worse, incapability of mobile phone signal in going through to the village makes people more difficult to connect and build relationship with outter world. We may feel so much apprehensive given such situation. The emergent of electricity in the village could mediate and reinvigorate interactivity among community members. For instance, with electricity they will be more frequent to attend community meeting regularly held by the village. People in Zanzibar spent most of their time on staying in the home before electricity came in, and due to very less interactivity the faced constant illiteracy on health-related information and even fishery (Winther, 2008). In the aftermath of electricity provision, people became aware of the importance of keeping reproductive health through regular socialization held by local non-government social worker with the help of light. And, people is more knowledgable with their neighbor’s updated condition. It was due to more community meeting they attended (Winther, 2008). In Nepal where people mostly reside in uphill region surrounded by trees and have to go to the forest for wood by passing through the dense of trees and dark path. Women in such zone are the ones responsible for the household cores like cooking, child-rearing, and servicing the husband. After the electricity got in, women become used to accompanying learning activity at home for longer hours. Men who were dependent on candle lights for foresting turned to utilizing portable lamp that is charged with electricity at home. From this experience electricity could bring possitive effect on the society, especially altering the interactivity of individual with nature. Aside of that, with the case of social engineering in renewable energy development, Amiruddin (2013) conceals, electrification has contributed to the effect of diminishing negative image of Pantai Baru Bantul which was publicly condemned as prostitution centers of the southern Bantul. Solar grid added with wind turbin powers can provide electricity to the locals who manage foodstalls on the seashore of Pantai Baru. Equipped with such renewable energy women who are the managers of the foodstalls can serve Pantai Baru visitors from 09.00 am to

07.00 pm, and they are only charged with small amount of money per-month. Interactivity amongst women also exists in the area, where they allocate specific one-day in a month for collectively updating their economic progress on regular women meeting. Besides food culinary service, they also benefit the electricity for other purposes such as toilet lighting, water pump (used for mini swimming pool), and other uses (musics, sound system, and so forth) (Amiruddin, 2013). Social interaction is may not be necessarily interpreted as improved cohesiveness among the local community members. The electricity could relate the community members to external group. In Pantai Baru, for instance, the number of visitors are improved and their interests in attempting the local fish-made culinaries are widely found. From this case, it symbolize, that electricty in particular setting may grant chances for community members to interacte with external people. Economic Productivity Economic productivity refers to an improvement in economic situation in the aftermath of electrification. One of the keys of this progress can be found on the more products generated with the use of electricity. The government collaboration effort with private sector has resulted in the successful electricity installation. It is instanced with the work of Central Java Province government. Since 2010 the electrification in Banjarnegara regency had been undergone with the cross-budgeting of Central Java Province, and Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resource. The aims of electricity provision was to boost the production of local commodities such as cocoa and cardamon. For quite long before electricity came in, the rural entreprises woking on those commodities manually dried coffee, cocoa, and cardamon, which took extremely long and caused the producers earn lower profit in that time. With the abundant water in the area microhydro with capacity of 27 KW (2700 Watt) was then installed to help the local in Gringging Village Banjarnegara. Beside used to leverage the productivity of local entrprise, the electricity is funnelled to 100 households for family lightings (Zuhara, 2013). Upon completion of electrification, the users who have representatives in the village’s microhydro project are responsible for sustaining the installation for 10-15 years long. From the locally built electricity installation we find importance of gaining people’s willingness in self-operating the installation and providing maintenance for the sustainability. To some extent development is viewed as somehow rhetoric where it only concentrates on the government project without involving the community in it. Related to this notion rural community members are not the target but they are the actor of development itself. Herewith, placing the local people as agency is important by reversing their political position in the development. Still with microhydro, study on the impact of microhydro on the community development reveals that a rural development shall be in accordance to local initiative and decision-making process to meet community need, foster social resilience by making the community as managers of the installation and mobilizing their own local resources, and foster collaborative cooperation among broad ranges stakeholders such as government, non-government organizations, community plus government (Zuhara, 2013).

At more higher level, an electrification process may bring forth revenue for regional government. The contributive effect of electrification can be framed into four dimensions, which are Access. Growth, Response, and Adaptation. Access refers to the changing of situation perceived by the locals and how the electricity can help more development outcome evenly, and Growth is explained as economic benefits that people and regency government may obtain. While Response and Adaptation informs the dynamic efforts to be undertaken by local users and government stakeholders responding to the innovation of the electricity equipment in relations to nature’s moves. Adaptation can be briefly defined as ways-out or coping strategy of stakeholders to make electricity continuously usable after identifying the extents that become challenges of its sustainability like soil contour, rainfalls, and so forth.

Num. Kinds of

Comparation

On Grid Microhydro Off Grid Microhydro

1. Access Electricity at Banjarnegara

District is better and reach out to

wider area.

The community has access to

electricity at their village.

2. Growth Income for PAD Banjarnegara

and used to many sectors of

local development.

People empowerment of

community, for small industries

(drying of coffee, cacao, and

cardamom).

3. Response Government, private and

community have good sinergy

to response the electrification

upgrade.

With simple technology of

microhydro, community’s

response is good and very

welcome.

4. Adaptation Electricity availibility can

support the development process

of Banjarnegara District.

Social adaptation to microhydro

infrastructure is running well and

create new inovation for

economic development.

Zuhara (2013)

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