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GBH Enterprises, Ltd.
Process Engineering Guide: GBHE-PEG-HEA-509
Electric Process Heaters Information contained in this
publication or as otherwise supplied to Users is believed to be
accurate and correct at time of going to press, and is given in
good faith, but it is for the User to satisfy itself of the
suitability of the information for its own particular purpose. GBHE
gives no warranty as to the fitness of this information for any
particular purpose and any implied warranty or condition (statutory
or otherwise) is excluded except to the extent that exclusion is
prevented by law. GBHE accepts no liability resulting from reliance
on this information. Freedom under Patent, Copyright and Designs
cannot be assumed.
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Process Engineering Guide: Electric Process Heaters CONTENTS
SECTION 0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE 2 1 SCOPE 2 2 FIELD OF APPLICATION 2
3 DEFINITIONS 2 4 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC HEATERS 2 4.1 Safety 2 4.2
Environment 2 4.3 Location of Equipment 3 4.4 Low Temperature
Applications 3 4.5 Cross Contamination 3 4.6 Control 3 5
DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC HEATERS 3 6 POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS FOR
ELECTRIC
PROCESS HEATERS 3
7 GENERAL DESIGN AND OPERATING CONSIDERATIONS 4
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8 TYPES OF PROCESS ELECTRIC HEATERS 5 8.1 Pipeline Immersion
Heaters 5 8.2 Tank Heaters and Boilers 6 8.3 Indirect (Fluid Bath)
Heaters 7 8.4 Radiant Furnaces 7 8.5 Induction Heaters 7 8.6 Hot
Block Heaters 7 9 CONTROL 8
10 REFERENCES 8 FIGURES 1 ELECTRIC HEAT EXCHANGER CONSTRUCTION 5
2 SHEATHED HEATING ELEMENTS
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0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE This Guide is one of a series on Heat
Transfer prepared for GBH Enterprises. Electric heaters are used in
the process industries for some duties as alternatives to fluid
heated or fired process exchangers. When specified and used
properly, electric heaters will last for many years without
problems. However, there are special features to consider in
specifying and operating electric heaters, which, if not
understood, can result in damage to the equipment leading to early
burn-out of the elements or potentially hazardous equipment
failure. 1 SCOPE This Guide is intended to assist engineers in the
selection and trouble free operation of electric heaters. This
Guide describes the major types of electric process fluid heater
and the sorts of duties for which they are applicable. It gives
guidelines on key points to observe when specifying and operating
electric heaters, in order to avoid problems. It does not give
detailed information on design methods; electric heaters are
generally designed by the suppliers. Further information on
electric heaters may be found in [Refs1 and 2]. 2 FIELD OF
APPLICATION This Guide applies to process engineers in GBH
Enterprises worldwide, who may be involved in the specification or
operation of electric heat exchangers. 3 DEFINITIONS For the
purposes of this Guide, the following definition applies: HTFS Heat
Transfer and Fluid Flow Service. A cooperative
research organization, in the U.K., involved in research into
the fundamentals of heat transfer and two phase flow and the
production of design guides and computer programs for the design of
industrial heat exchange equipment.
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With the exception of terms used as proper nouns or titles,
those terms with initial capital letters which appear in this
document and are not defined above are defined in the Glossary of
Engineering Terms. 4 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC HEATERS 4.1 Safety Very
high temperatures (over 1000C, and up to 1400C with certain
designs) can be achieved, without the potential fire and explosion
hazards associated with fired heaters. All potential fire hazards
may be contained in explosion proof terminal boxes. No fuel storage
tanks or gas let-down stations, which may affect the plant area
electrical classification, are required. 4.2 Environment There are
no local pollution problems (e.g. NOx and SOx production) with
electric heaters. 4.3 Location of Equipment An electric heater will
generally be considerably lighter and more compact than a fired
heater for the same duty. There will usually be fewer restrictions
on the location of an electric heater than a fired heater, enabling
it to be placed locally within the main process structure rather
than at some peripheral point; thus saving on process pipework. No
long service feed and return lines are necessary. It can be used on
locations where other forms of heating are not available. Cost
advantages are particularly great in the smaller sizes (up to 1
MW). 4.4 Low Temperature Applications Electric heaters do not
suffer from the problems associated with fluid heaters at very low
temperatures, such as freezing of condensate or viscous behavior.
4.5 Cross Contamination There is no service fluid which could leak
into the process.
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4.6 Control Very good control of power input to the process
fluid can be achieved, across a wide range, typically down to 5% of
the rated maximum power. The control response is usually quicker
than with fluid heaters. 5 DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC HEATERS
Electric heaters require careful selection, design, construction
and operation, otherwise premature burn-out of the heating elements
may occur. Electricity is generally a relatively expensive form of
energy. However, for high temperature applications, a fired heater
often has a relatively low thermal efficiency because of losses
with the flue gases, especially if there is no suitable low
temperature duty, such as preheating or boiler feed water heating,
to cool the stack gases. Electric heaters, in conjunction with
properly designed heat insulation, can achieve local efficiencies
approaching 100%. 6 POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS FOR ELECTRIC PROCESS
HEATERS (a) Fluid heating to temperatures above 400C up to over
1000C for
reactors, catalyst regeneration etc. (b) Heating in remote
locations where piping costs would be prohibitive if
heated elsewhere, or where no other heating medium is available.
(c) Heating on offshore rigs, where the reduced size and weight of
electric
heaters compared with fired heaters can substantially reduce the
cost of the platform, and the fire danger is largely removed.
(d) In place of fired heaters for small to medium applications
or for
temperatures above 400C in batch mode, or where extremely
careful temperature control is required.
(e) For cryogenic duties, or where the ambient conditions could
cause
condensate return lines to freeze. (f) Where electric power is
cheap.
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7 GENERAL DESIGN AND OPERATING CONSIDERATIONS Electric process
heaters are not only pieces of electrical equipment; they are also
heat exchangers. Their specification and selection should involve
not only an electrical engineer but also a process engineer with an
understanding of process heat transfer. Some of the past problems
experienced with electric heaters, can be attributed in part to a
lack of process engineering input at the selection stage. Many
electrical heaters are of a very lightweight construction for
domestic and light commercial duty. Moreover, the manufacturers of
such units may have only a limited understanding of heat transfer.
This type of unit is unsuitable for heavy process duty. Use only
equipment that has been specifically designed and built for
refinery or process plant duty by a competent manufacturer with a
proper understanding of process heat transfer. The heat transferred
between two fluids in a conventional heat exchanger is limited by
the surface area, the temperature difference and the overall heat
transfer coefficient. In contrast, the heat transferred in most
types of electrical heater is limited only by the power input to
the heating elements. Many of the problems associated with electric
heaters arise from a failure to appreciate the implications of
this. The power generation in an electric heater is governed by the
design of the resistance heating elements and, except for minor
variations in electrical resistance with temperature, will depend
only on the applied voltage. The system will seek to dissipate this
power to the fluid regardless of either the area for heat transfer
or the heat transfer coefficient, by adjustment of the temperature
of the heating elements. Moreover, the power output is usually
uniform along the elements. Thus, if the local coefficient is low,
either because of low local fluid velocities or fouling, the local
element temperature will rise to compensate. If the process fluid
is temperature sensitive it may degrade in these regions, leading
to a progressive build-up of fouling deposits. This in turn will
lead to an increasing element temperature, until the maximum safe
working temperature is exceeded, and element burn-out occurs.
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The key points to remember when seeking to avoid this are: (a)
Do not use designs which have dead zones in the heated region.
For
example, segmental baffles should not be used on immersion type
heaters [see (1) below].
(b) Heaters should not be run at below the design minimum flow
rate; trip
systems to prevent this are recommended. (c) Tank heaters should
not be operated below a minimum safe liquid level
which ensures that the elements are covered at all times. Trips
may be required to guarantee this.
(d) Heaters should not be operated in a badly fouled condition.
Failure to understand the operating characteristics of electric
heaters has lead to several failures in plants. Two examples are
given below: (1) An electric heater of the pipeline immersion type
(see 8.1) was installed on
a European plant, to heat a heat transfer oil used to raise the
temperature of the reactor. The process operators were experiencing
difficulty in obtaining the desired reactor temperature. They
incorrectly deduced that this was simply due to the low temperature
of the heat transfer oil, and to raise this they reduced the flow
rate. The heater had segmental baffles, which are undesirable in
this type of heater (see 8.1.2). Breakdown of the oil in the dead
zones behind the baffles occurred, leading to severe coking.
(2) An electric heater was installed on an Aromatics plant in
Europe to provide
hydrogen at 200C for start-up. In 1989, the shell of this unit
failed, leading to a fire. The Dangerous Incident Investigation
[Ref 3] concluded that the cause of failure short term overheating
at pressure. The heater was allowed to operate in this condition
because the low flow protection had been defeated, and the
temperature trips were set too high.
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8 TYPES OF PROCESS ELECTRIC HEATERS 8.1 Pipeline Immersion
Heaters
8.1.1 General
This type of heater resembles a shell and tube heat exchanger,
with the tubes replaced by electric resistance heating elements
encased inside metal tubes. See Figure 1. The tubes may be sealed
at one end and pass through a tubesheet at the other, or be of a
U-tube construction with both ends passing through the tubesheet.
The tube material depends on the process fluid. The space between
the element and the tube is packed with an inert material, usually
magnesia, at a sufficient density to provide good thermal
conductance whilst retaining electrical resistance. The tubes
containing the elements protrude beyond the tubesheet and are
fastened to a terminal box, where all the electrical connections
are made. This can be designed to be explosion proof if necessary.
Figure 2 shows the main components of a typical heating
element.
Pipeline immersion heaters are available for duties up to 5 MW,
for heating liquids to about 350C or gases to about 600C. Typical
design heat fluxes are 40-100 kW/m2. They are available in most
metals, in working pressures up to 700bar.
FIGURE 1 ELECTRIC HEAT EXCHANGER CONSTRUCTION
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FIGURE 2 SHEATHED HEATING ELEMENTS
8.1.2 Design Points
The heating elements should be welded to the tubesheet. Designs
which use compression fittings to seal the element to the tubesheet
develop leaks over a period of time due to temperature cycling.
The terminal box should be provided with an adequate stand-off
from the tubesheet. This ensures no fluid leakage into the terminal
box, and also keeps the box cool. The electrical wiring in this
part of the tube is designed with a low electrical resistance to
avoid heating.
Avoid dead spots and zones of low flow. Do not use segmentally
cut baffles. Baffling to provide element support and improve heat
transfer should be by means of rod baffles or similar. The inlet
zone by the tubesheet will inevitably have dead spots; the elements
should be designed to be unheated in the entrance zone.
The shell of an immersion heater runs hotter than the fluid,
particularly if a gas is being heated, because of radiation from
the elements. Remember that these may have been designed to operate
at temperatures considerably above normal fluid temperatures. The
shell should be designed for a temperature calculated allowing for
radiation from the bundle. Shell skin temperature alarms or even
trips may be desirable. It is possible that the shell may become
hot enough to be a source of ignition for gases in the atmosphere
even when the process temperatures are below the ignition
temperature.
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Low flow trips are essential. It is common practice to provide
high temperature alarms/trips, usually in the form of thermocouples
attached to the outside of selected tubes. Remember that these will
not give warning of local problems, and rely on the assumption that
conditions are uniform throughout the bundle.
The magnesium oxide insulation round the elements has to be
sealed from the atmosphere to prevent moisture ingress. This is
usually done with a seal of cured silicone rubber. Although this
should give a good seal, it is possible that during periods of
prolonged shut-down, moisture can get into the magnesia. If the
heater is subsequently turned on at full power, a short may occur
which could result in element burn-out. A check on the electrical
resistance should always be made before bringing a heater on line
after a prolonged shut-down, or if there is any reason to suspect
moisture ingress. Generally, the elements can be restored to their
proper condition by operating for several hours at a low voltage,
until the resistance is restored to its correct value.
8.2 Tank Heaters and Boilers Tank heaters use similar heating
elements to the pipeline heaters, but the bundles of elements are
positioned in the lower part of storage vessels to maintain fluid
temperature. The tubes may be either bare or finned on the outside.
Some designs allow for removal of the heating elements from an
outer sheath which is in contact with the process fluid. This
enables replacement of the elements without the need to drain the
tank. Bundles of heating elements in tubes may also be used for
boiling liquids, producing a design which is superficially like a
fluid heated kettle boiler. Unlike fluid heated systems, for an
electrically heated reboiler or tank heater, it is essential to
provide controls to cut off the electricity in the event of the
liquid level falling sufficiently to uncover any of the tubes.
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8.3 Indirect (Fluid Bath) Heaters These consist of a pressurized
shell containing a suitable heat transfer fluid with an electric
heating coil in the lower part and a fluid heating coil, usually a
U-tube bundle, in the upper part. The heat transfer fluid may heat
the process coil either by convection in the liquid phase, or may
boil on the electric elements and condense on the process coil. The
heat transfer fluid is chosen to have the right combination of
properties over the operating conditions. Typical fluids are water,
ammonia, methanol or heat transfer oils such as "Thermex",
"Dowtherm", "Santotherm" etc. Fluid bath heaters can be economic
for heating corrosive fluids, since only the process fluid coil
need be fabricated from corrosion resistant alloys. They may also
be less costly than pipeline immersion heaters for high pressure
operation. 8.4 Radiant Furnaces These consist of a heating coil to
contain the fluid being heated, surrounded by radiant electric
heating elements. The elements are backed by an insulated steel
shell, ceramic fibre generally being used for insulation. The
radiant elements may be divided into zones, to give a controlled
pattern of heating. Temperatures up to 1300C can be achieved.
Electric radiant heaters are an alternative to fired heaters. They
have a high thermal efficiency as there is no stack loss. For batch
processes, the operating cost of electricity may be less than that
of fuel for a fired heater. Radiant heaters require proper design
of the heating elements and fluid coil, ensuring good view factors
etc. 8.5 Induction Heaters In these, the process fluid flows in a
helical coil which acts as the secondary winding to a transformer.
Very high currents at low voltage are induced in the coil,
generating heat by resistance. These are used for special
applications and are designed on a one-off basis.
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8.6 Hot Block Heaters One potential problem with the pipeline
immersion heater is burn-out of the heater elements, resulting from
a failure in the process flow. This is avoided in the hot block
heater. This uses a cast block, generally of aluminium, in which
both electric heating elements and coils carrying the process
fluids are cast. The temperature of the block is monitored by
thermocouples in tubes in the block, which are used to control the
power input to the heating elements. The elements are generally
removable cartridge heaters. 9 CONTROL Very precise and
programmable heating control, with full proportional control, can
be achieved with electric heaters. Electronic controls are usually
employed. The preferred form uses Silicon Controlled Rectifiers
(SCRs) operating with zero voltage switching. These operate by
energizing the heater for some of the cycles in the supply voltage,
and cutting off the power for others, the switching taking place at
the zero voltage points. The heater can be energized for as little
as one cycle per second up to the full 50 cycles. Other forms of
power control, such as phase angle control, where the current is
cut off for part of each cycle, but not at the zero voltage
condition, can result in radio frequency interference, which may
affect other electronic equipment in the area. The SCRs generate
some parasitic heat, which requires the control panel to be cooled
to keep the temperature below 50C. For further information on the
control problems, consult a Control/Electrical Engineer.
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