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GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
UNIT I: GUIDANCE INTRODUCTION
In the educational institutions, now-a-days, there is a great
importance and
emphasis given on guidance and counseling. There are always some
who need help and
there are still others who are willing to render help. There
involves the programme of
guidance. Of course, guidance is not synonymous to direct
help.
MEANING
It is the nature of personal advice which is offered by a senior
member of the
school community to young student to that he is able to solve
the specific problems
connected with his adjustment to school environment, educational
and vocational plans.
DEFINITIONS
According to Humphreys and Traxler,At any level, guidance
implies that the
individual attains self-direction just as fast and as far as his
mental, social and emotional
abilities permit.
Strong defines guidance as a process of helping every individual
through his
potentialities for his personal happiness and social
usefulness.
AIMS
The aims established for the factor guidance are:
1. Development of personal potentialities of an individual. 2.
Orientation to educational and vocational opportunities are
requirements. 3. Adjustment to various situations.
NATURE
Below are the nature of the guidance, which is comprehensive,
and briefly
summarized:
1. Guidance is a slow process 2. It is a continuous process 3.
It develops an insight 4. Problems confronted by individuals 5.
Problems are inter-related 6. Guidance is based on individual
difference 7. Guidance both a specialized and generalized service
8. Guidance is an organized service 9. Guidance is for all
NEEDS
1. Complex nature of society 2. Individual differences
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3. Welfare state and individual 4. Changing industrial and
educational pattern 5. Changing Economic pattern 6. Conservation of
Human Energy 7. Utilisation of leisure time 8. Delinquent children
9. Population growth 10. Growing population of Towns and cities 11.
Employment of Women 12. Religious Expiation 13. Guidance and
Industrial psychology 14. Changed family pattern 15. Lack of
Guidance at home
TYPES
There are three major areas/types of guidance. There are:
1. Educational guidance
2. Vocational guidance
3. Personal-social guidance
EDUCATIONAL GUIDANCE
Educational guidance analyses and observes the students
attitudes and exposes
them, the right type of education which will reveal inborn
capacities and help to develop
them.
VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE
The activities to do in the future and the right place for the
students to get in
are related to them by this vocational guidance. Vocational
guidance is needed at the time
when the individual is confronted with problems relating to:
1. Selecting an occupation 2. Selecting and securing 3.
Adjusting to the job and making progress in it.
PERSONAL SOCIAL GUIDANCE
In order to solve ones emotional, moral and ethical problems,
the assistance
offered to is defined as personal social guidance. It deals with
all those problems of life
which are not covered by educational and vocational guidance.
Thus, the purpose of
personal guidance is to help the individual in his physical,
emotional, moral and spiritual
development as well as a adjustment at home in school and in
society.
BENEFITS OF GUIDANCE
1. Guidance assist the pupil to understand himself i.e., to
recognize his aptitudes, abilities and interests.
2. Guidance Assist the pupil to become acceptable to other
pupils. 3. Guidance assists the pupil to get the maximum out of the
school. 4. Guidance assists the pupils in making careful choice of
subject and course.
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5. Guidance services make special provision for the education of
the gifted, slow learners and the handicapped.
LIMITATIONS OF GUIDANCE
1. Guidance is not a panacea for all educational and vocational
ills. 2. Guidance services are not well organized. 3. Guidance is
limited due to lack of personnel and other facilities. 4. There is
an overdoing of psychology tests. 5. Conditions of life are complex
for any person to solve the problems of another. 6. Unqualified
guidance personnel may do great harm.
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UNIT-II COUNSELLING
MEANING
Counseling is a series of direct contacts with the individual
which aims to offer
him assistance in changing his attitudes and behaviour.
Counseling has three elements: it involves two persons, its
objective is to assist the
counselee solve his problems independently. Counseling is a
professional task and must
be performed by professionally trained people.
DEFINITIONS
In the words of MYERS, Counseling implies a relationship between
two
individuals in which one gives certain kind of assistance to the
other.
According to SMITH Counseling is a process in which the
counselor to make
interpretations of facts relating to a choice, a plan or an
adjustment which he wants to
make.
ELEMENTS
On the analysis of the definitions of counseling, we may note
the following
essential elements of counseling:
1. Counseling is not a single event but a continuous process, in
the sense, it involves
sequential actions and practices advancing towards an
objective.
2. A relation is involved and that is characterized by warmth,
permissiveness,
understanding and acceptance, etc.
3. It involves two individuals one, who is in trouble, anxious,
upset and seeks help; the
other, a professionally trained person who can help the
former.
4. The effect of counseling is improvement or change in client
behaviour. He becomes
able to solve his problems independently.
5. The process of counseling is democratic.
CHARACTERISTICS
The following characteristics have been specified by
Peterson
1. Counseling is involved on the part of the client in order to
influence him with voluntary behaviour change and self-
realization.
2. The purpose of counseling is to provide conditions which
facilitate voluntary change.
3. There are limits levied upon the clients as that of all
relationships. Condition facilitating voluntary behavioural change
are provide through interviews.
4. Listening is a part of counseling but not at all counseling
is listening. 5. The counselor understands his client.
OBJECTIVES
Dunsmoor and Miller listed the following as the objectives of
counseling.
1. Providing the right information on matter which is
significant to the students success.
2. To get information about the student which be helpful in
solving his problems. 3. To establish a feeling of mutual
understanding between the students and the
teacher.
4. To help the students to know their interests, abilities,
aptitudes and opportunities.
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5. To encourage and develop special abilities and right
attitudes in students. 6. To assist the students in planning
educational and vocational choice.
NEEDS
Miss Bragdon has mentioned the following situations where
counseling is
required:
a. When a pupil requires not only reliable information but also
an interesting interpretation of those information which can solve
his personal difficulties.
b. When a pupil needs intelligent listener who has more
experience than the pupil, to whom he can recite his difficulties
and through which he can seek suggestions for
his working plan.
c. When the counselor has an assess to those facilities which
can help in resolving the pupils problems but the pupil does not
enjoy such an access to these facilities.
d. When the pupil has some problem but he is unaware of that
problem and his development, he is to be aware of that problem.
e. When the pupil suffers the main mal- adjustment problem or
some handicap which is temporary and which needs careful long due
diagnosis by an expert.
TYPES
Counseling can be divided into three major types:
1. Directive/counselor centred/prescriptive counseling 2. Non-
directive / Client-centred/ permissive counseling 3. Eclectic
counseling
DIRECTIVE COUNSELLING
Prescriptive or counselor centered counseling are the other
terms used to define
directive counseling. E.G.Williamson is the chief exponent of
this type of counseling. In
the words of Arbuckle, Directive counseling is means of helping
people how to learn to
solve their own problems.
Characteristics
Jane and Warters have suggested the following main features of
directive counseling.
1. The main purpose the process is to ferret out the
possibilities of solution for the problem and so the attention is
mainly upon it.
2. The counselor is the central figure and his role is more
active than the client. 3. The client makes decision, but the
counselor does all that he can to get counselee
make a decision in keeping with his diagnosis. By informing,
explaining,
interpreting and advising, the counselor sets the route for the
counselees thinking
to travel well.
Steps
E.G.Williamson has suggested the following six steps in
directive counseling:
1. Analysis
2. Synthesis
3. Diagnosis
4. Prognosis
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5. Counseling
6. Follow-up
Advantages
1. This method is useful from the time- consumption view-point.
It saves a lot of time.
2. In this type of counseling, there is more focus on the
problem and less on the person.
3. The counselor can look the client directly. 4. Counseling
focuses more on the intellectual aspect of the person that than
his
emotional aspect of the personality.
5. In this process, the counselor becomes readily available to
help the client which makes the client very happy.
Limitations.
1. In this process the client is more dependent. He is unable to
solve the new problems of mal- adjustment.
2. As the client is always independent of the counselor, it is
not an effective and best guidance.
3. The counselor fails in saving the client to commit the
mistakes in future. 4. There is scarcity of informations regarding
the pupil which creates the possibility
of wrong counseling.
NON-DIRECTIVE COUNSELING.
Permissive counseling or client centred counseling are the other
terms used
to define this Non-Directive counseling. C.R.Rogers is the chief
exponent of this type of
counseling. In the words of Arbuckle, Non- directive counseling
is a means of allowing
the client to gain an understanding of himself to a degree which
enables him to take
positive steps in the light of his new orientation.
Steps
Rogers has suggested the following steps:
1. The client approaches the counselor for help. 2. The
counselor defines the situation by indicating that he does not have
the solution
of the problem but is able to develop a situation and atmosphere
in which the
counselee can find out of his problem.
3. The counselors encourages expression without any anxieties
from the counselee and he treats him in a friendly manner. He
observes keenly and interestingly the
clients expression of the problem.
4. The counselor tries to understand the feelings of the
counselee. 5. The counselor accepts and recognizes the positives as
well a negative feelings of
the counselee.
6. A gradual development of insight evolves and emerges after
the free expression of feeling.
7. positive steps towards the solution of the problem starts
occurring .
Advantages
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1. The development of problem solving ability in the client
through this school of thought is definite.
2. Being centered school of thought , other unwanted activities
and tests can be avoided.
3. This school of thought shifts the person from his unconscious
state of mind to the conscious state of mind and releases
tension.
4. This type of counseling leaves its impressions for a longer
period.
Limitations
1. The counseling is not so deep like psycho- analysis. 2. This
counseling has a drawback of lack of permission for flexibility to
the
counselor.
3. Many counseling situations do not arise successfully in this
client- centered counseling.
4. The client cannot depend on his resources, decisions and
intellect. 5. All the problems cannot be solved orally or verbally
or by talks only. 6. It is not possible in all the schools because
the counselor has to attend many
pupils.
ECLECTIC COUNSELING
Meaning
This type of counseling is a combined form of both directive and
Non-
directive counseling whereas the good views and norms of both
the types are being
employed here. So, eclectic counseling is not entirely
permissive. It checks on the
clientss emotional expression when it is essential in the
interest of the client. This method
is not rigid but flexible.
Characteristics.
The characteristics as suggested by F.C.Thorne are as
follows:
1. only passive method has to be employed whenever possible. 2.
Active methods should be used with specific indication. Care should
be taken to
use minimum of directive technique.
3. Until and unless the simple methods have not failed to
function the law of proximity should be maintained.
4. It is advisable to give opportunity to the client to solve
the problem non- directively.
5. When the situation of maladjustment is such that a solution
cannot be achieved without the help of the counselor, direct
methods are to be used.
Steps:
1. (-5) REJECTION 2. (-4) ADVICE 3. (-3) INTERPRETATION 4. (-2)
REASSURANCE 5. (-1) GENERAL LEAD 6. (+1) SUMMARY 7. (+2)
CLARIFICATION
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8. (+3) RESTATEMENT 9. (+4) ACCEPTANCE
Advantages:
1. In this counseling we find the merits of directive counseling
and non- directive counseling.
2. In this counseling, both the counselor and the client are
active,cooperative and solve the problem joinity.
Limitations:
1. Some people are of the view that this type of counseling
vague and opportunistic. 2. Both, directive and non-directive
counseling cannot be mixed together. 3. In this, the question
arises how much freedom should be given to the client For
this, there is no definite rule.
Difference between Directive and Non-Directive counseling
Directive counseling Non- Directive counseling
1. Problem is the centre of interest. Counselor is the centre of
interest.
2.It is problem-centered,active and It is counselor centered,
client- centered or
prescriptive. Permissive.
3.Help offered by the counselor. Counselee demands the help. He
has the
power to solve his own problem.
4. Intellectual aspect is given more Emotional aspect is given
more importance.
Importance.
5. Tests,records and past history are No such like material is
used.
Very important to find the origin of
The problem.
6. Rapport is not essential Rapport is very essential.
7. Counselors role is active. Counselors role is passive.
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UNIT III -GUIDANCE MOVEMENT IN INDIA
The pioneer and fore runner in the field of guidance was the
university of Calcutta. The
first psychological laboratory of India was established by it in
1915.
In Cacutta, Batlibai established a vocational guidance bureau in
1941. The third
institution that gave a fresh impetus to guidance movement in
India was the Patna
university in 1945. In 1947 the trustees of the parsi panchayat
funds and properties,
Bombay set up a bureau for providing assistance in seeking jobs
to the members of their
community and with the psychological tests and equipment offered
by Batlibai, they
started organizing the career conferences and training the
career masters.
The bureau of psychology at Alahabad was established by Uttar
Pradesh government
authority in 1947. This was the first time that a state
government took an active interest in
the guidance of the public. In addition to this bureau, at
Alahabad, district bureau at
Varanasi, Lucknow, Kanpur were opened, So that the guidance
movement could reach the
masses in the state.
In 1957, the government of Bombay, following the Uttar Pradesh
government gave
official recognition to the guidance movement in the state. The
institute of vocational
guidance was established. This set the route for establishment
of vocational guidance
bureaus in the states and at the centre. By the year 1953
vocational guidance movement
appeared to have taken deep roots in the state of Bombay. In
1954 it was decided that an
all India educational and vocational guidance association should
be established.
Problems of guidance movement in India
Mudaliar and Kothari commission identified the problems of
guidance and its slow and
tedious development. There are :
1. The traditional attitude of teachers 2. Lack of resources 3.
An increase in student population 4. An increase in teaching load
5. Lack of co-ordination in the agencies of guidance 6. Lack of
research work in the field of guidance 7. Lack of psychological
tests
Suggestion to improve:
1. Many guidance programmes must be conducted for students,
parents, and also for the teachers.
2. Vocational guidance should be made available to students
before the completion of the course.
3. Teachers training programmes regarding guidance should be
developed. 4. Guidance should be accepted as an essential part of
the educational programme. 5. For the grand success og guidance
service faith among school teachers, school
authority and the parents should be created.
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UNIT-IV QUALITIES OF A COUNSELOR
Qualities:
1. Sensitivity 2. Ethical behaviour 3. Flexibility 4.
Intellectual competence 5. Acceptance 6. Understanding 7.
Professional dedication 8. Whole some philosophy of life 9.
Leadership 10. Health and personal appearance 11. Intellectual
potentialities 12. Adjusted personality 13. Happy interpersonal
relationship
Functions:
1. Psychology testing 2. Organising dissemination of information
3. Conducting interviews 4. Providing educational and vocational
guidamce 5. Conducting placement 6. Conducting research 7.
Conducting group guidance 8. Undergoing training 9. Utilising
experience
Professional ethics:
In the, The counselor E.C Roeber had enlisted some ethical
principles which govern
counselors activities and they are:
1. The counselor must be loyal to the school as he mainly
responsible to the school. 2. A counselor is responsible to the
counselee in variety of ways since his main
function is to help the counselee in achieving adjustment.
3. The counselor should be use his discretion and good judgement
while giving information about his counselee to other professional
workers and keep the
information secret.
4. With their parents consent, the client can be referred to any
other fully qualified persons or agencies by the counselor, if
necessary.
5. No counselor is expected to criticize any other counselor,
institution or organizations engaged in counseling work.
Counselor and Teacher:
1. Teacher needs to know the pupil in terms of attainment of
educational objectives and normal growth. Counselor needs to know
the pupil in terms of specific
problems, frustration and plans for the future.
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2. Subject matter-are known by the teacher. The subject matter
is unknown to the counselor and sometimes unknown to the
counselee.
3. Teacher has the responsibility for the welfare of the
culture. Counselor has the responsibility for the welfare of the
counselee.
4. Teaching starts with a group relationship. Counseling starts
with an individual relationship
5. Interview skill is one of the techniques. Interview is the
basic technique. 6. Teacher is concerned with day to day growth.
Counselor is concerned with
counselees immediate problems and choices.
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UNIT V-GROUP GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
Guidance: Meaning
In some cases, the problems are common to every individual to
the group whereas he is a
member and these type of common problems can be solved through
group guidance by the
counselor. This aspect of guidance which he helps the group in
general is called group
situations. Guidance programme can meet all the needs of all the
individuals through
counseling and contacts only. Group guidance techniques saves
time as well as money.
The population of schools is increasing day by day and there is
scarcity of qualified
guidance workers and counselors.
Definition:
Jones: Group guidance is any group enterprise or activity in
which the primary purpose
is to assist each individual in the group to solve his problems
and to make his adjustment.
Crow and Crow: Guidance in group situations usually is thought
of as referring to those
guidance services that are made available by school personnel to
large or small groups of
pupils.
Objectives:
Kitch and Mc Creasy have listed the following objectives of
group guidance:
1. To assist in the identification of common problem. 2. To
provide information useful in the solution of adjustment problem.
3. To provide opportunities for experiences that promote
self-understanding. 4. To lay the foundation of individual
counseling.
Problems:
1. Problems relating to educational plans 2. problems relating
to adjustment to school and home 3. Problems relating to social
situations 4. Problems relating to choice of work 5. Problems
relating to getting job 6. Problems relating to personality
adjustments 7. Economic and occupational problems
Significance:
1. Robert H.Knapp If meaningful growth experiences are to be
provided for a large number of children, the children must be
grouped in some manner.
2. The counselor may obtain general background information about
his students and their problems which contacts with a lagre number
of students.
3. It helps to improve students attitude and behaviour 4. It is
also very helpful in giving students training in different aspects
of leadership. 5. Some elements of personality of s child can only
be observed in a group situation
if the teachers as a member of the group.
Techniques:
1. Through special explanatory courses 2. Through common
learning classes 3. Through extra class groups
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4. Through school clubs 5. Through orientation programmes 6.
Trough field trips 7. Through recreational activities
Uses:
1. Efficiency 2. Opportunities to study students in group
situations 3. Discussion of common problems of students 4. Balanced
judgements 5. Enlightenment of the normal student 6. collective
judgement on common problems 7. Individual counseling 8. Contact
with students
Group counseling:
Meaning:
Group counseling is relatively new way of working to help
people, sometimes successful
even with those students who have not responded well to
individual counseling. It is
particularly a useful way of helping adolescents for whom peer
group values are
important.
Requirements:
1. Individual interview 2. Proper physical arrangement of the
room 3. Homogeneous composition of the group 4. Adequate
Uses:
1. According to Seeman (1963). It is a safe environment; it is
an understanding environment; it is a caring environment; it is a
participating environment; and it is
an approving environment;
2. It provides an ooportunity to be open, honest and frank or a
situation in which it is safe to test ideas and solutions to
problems and where frank evaluations of efforts
to change can be obtained.
3. The counseling officer can use his knowledge of group
behaviour to help teachers to develop Seemans optimal conditions
for learning within their classroom.
4. Issues such as study skills, relations, drug abuse, sex
education etc. can be discussed in a group.
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UNIT VI- THEORIES OF VOCATIONAL CHOICE
Theories of vocational choice:
1 .Ginzbergs theory of vocational choice
2 .Supers theory of vocational choice
3. Hollands theory of psychology of vocational choice
4. Havighursts theory of vocational choice
5. Structural theory
Ginzbergs theory of vocational theory:
Ginzberg has divided the process of vocation choice into three
stages. These stages or
levels are as follows:
1. Fantasy stage: The period of fantasies is the childs age of
11 years 2. Tentative choice: The age of tentative choices ranges
from 11 to 17 years. 3. Realistic choice: The +17 age is known as
the age of realistic choice.
Criticism:
1. According to super, person has variations from ability,
interest, and personality point of view.
2. As a result of these variations or differences, different
interests develop towards different vocations.
3. According to super, changes in our interests and vocational
resources occur with time and experiences.
4. For every vocation different abilities, personality
characteristics and skills are required.
5. Super has expressed the process of vocational choice in the
following order. Fantasy, tentative choice and realistic
choice.
6. Various trails and permanent stage of vocational choice
Supers theory of vocational choice:
1. Growth- This category is up to the age of 15 years. This
category includes the following stages:
2. Exploration- Exploration category ranges from 15 to 24 years.
3. Establishment- This category ranges from 25 to 40 years. 4.
Maintenance- This ranges from 45 to 64 years. 5. Decline- It is the
stage of +65 years.
Hollands theory of psychology of vocational chioice:
According to this theory, vocational choice is the result of the
following factors:
1. Heredity 2. Culture and civilization 3. Friends group 4.
Parents 5. Matured person 6. Social status 7. Interaction of
physical environment
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Process:
1. To select main occupational environment according to ones own
life-style. 2. To select one occupation, according to ones own
abilities, out of the main
occupations group.
3. There should be proper co-ordination among a persons
interests for the rapid vocational choice.
4. Definite and correct self-knowledge is must for quick
vocational choice. Due to lack of self-knowledge, the proper
direction and stage of vocational choice remain
uncertain.
5. For convenient vocational choice, correct knowledge of
occupational environment or group is needed.
6. Age cannot be ignored for vocational choice because age
affects vocational choice.
Theory of vocational choice by ROBERT HAVIGHURST
Robert Havighurst has also described a vocational choice theory
based on the various
levels. The vocational developmental stages as described by
Havighursts theory are as
follows.
1. Identification stage 2. Acquisition stage 3. Vocational stage
4. Productive stage
Structural theory:
The basis of this theory is the idea why person enters a
specific vocation, i.e., What are
those personal traits or characteristics which inspire him to
select a particulsr occupation.
According to Anne roe, In childhood, the experiences are related
to needs and desires. The
fulfillment of needs and desires during childhood motivates the
person for vocational
choice. According to Roe, the socio economic status of the
family and intellectual ability
during childhood are very important for the ability of the
person and his efficiency.
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UNIT-VII NON-TESTING DEVICES IN GUIDANCE
Observation: Meaning
The word observation has been derived form the Latin word
observe which means to
keep open.
Observation has been explained as Measurement without using any
instrument or
device. For example, the external behavioural pattern of a child
who is not brought up by
his parents will differ from other children in his
/her dressing habits, nail-biting, being alone etc.,
Types:
1. Natural observation 2. Participant observation
Advantages:
1. We study the mind of a person by external behaviour 2. We can
study the heredity and the environment effects on the child since
the
findings of this method are always systematic, reliable,
planned, and specific.
3. It is economical and flexible..
Disadvantages:
1. It is elongated and time consuming 2. Personal bias of the
observer affects the observation 3. It is not possible to observe
what is happening in the minds of others
Cumulative record:
Meaning:
Cumulative record in one document which contain the history of
the child from the day
he enters school i.e. may be pre-primary or primary class, till
he leaves the school finally,
normally after passing the high or senior secondary examination.
If any student changes
the school, the cumulative record is transferred along with him.
It continues to travel with
the child till his education is completed.
Types:
1. The single card type 2. The pocket type 3. The folder type 4.
The booklet type
Information included in cumulative record:
1. Identification of data 2. Environmental and background data
3. Physical data 4. Scholastic achievement data 5. Achievements in
co-curricular activities 6. Psychological data 7. Educational and
vocational data
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Uses:
1. This record gives a complete frame of a pupils present state
and predicts his future in someway or the other.
2. It helps to discover the strengths, weakness, and special
abilities of the pupil. 3. If the student changes his institution,
the records will be useful to new authorities
to know the information about him.
4. The cumulative record helps the counselor to find out the
aptitudes as well as the attitudes of the individual.
Disadvantages:
1. Sometimes good care is not taken in recording the information
accurately and objectively.
2. It has been observed that the cumulative record files are not
properly maintained and due to carelessness they are not
available.
Anecdotal record:
Meaning:
Anecdotal record is a factual description of the meaningful
incidents and events
which teacher has observed.
Anecdotal record: Format
1. Name of pupil observed: 2. Class : 3. Name of the school : 4.
Observer : 5. Dater and place : 6. Objective description : 7. Place
: 8. Comment :
Advantages:
1. Provision of record or account of actual behaviour in natural
situations. 2. They provide a check on other evaluation techniques
3. Exceptional but significant events are evidenced through
anecdotal records. 4. Anecdotal records can be used for very young
children as well as children lacking
in basic communications skills.
Disadvantages:
The time needed for this task is too high and so it is
considered as a time consuming task.
The teacher and the guidance worker have to devote much time to
maintain an adequate
and continuous anecdotal record.
Getting an anecdote or adequate sample of behaviour is often
complicated.
Case study:
Steps:
1. Identification or focal point or status of the situation
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2. Collection data 3. Diagnosis and identification of casual
factors 4. Adjustment and remedy 5. Follow-up programme
Characteristics:
1. Completeness 2. Validity 3. Continuity 4. Scientific analysis
5. Confidentiality 6. Follow-up task
Types of data to collected:
1. Family background 2. Home and neighbourhood environment 3.
Early development 4. Academic aptitude 5. Academic development 6.
Interests and disinterests 7. Heath card 8. Social behaviour 9.
Personality and character traits 10. Vocational interests 11.
Problems, needs, frustrations 12. Resources available 13. Plans for
the future 14. Summary of data 15. Therapy attempted
Advantages:
1. Case study gives a complete picture of the individual as it
observes the mental, physical, emotional, social and most of all
the factors.
2. The counselor comprehends the reasons behind clients
behaviours through case study
3. If handled by skilled and experienced guidance workers, case
study can be reliable technique for collecting data.
4. The special problems of the clients are clearly exposed to
the counselor. 5. While using case study frequently, the teachers
may consider it as a part of the
teaching progress.
Disadvantages:
1. Case study needs too much of efforts and a long term of time
as well. 2. It may be too subjective. The degree of subjectivity
depend upon the nature of the
problem, the availability of data and the qualification and
experience of the
teachers and the counselors.
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Autobiography:
Meaning:
Autobiography means life sketch written by a person himself. In
autobiography,
descriptions regarding a persons past and present moments are
given. If Psychologists
want, they can give different titles to the autobiography. A
person describes his own aims
of life, achievements, interests, desires, events and reactions
etc. with a touch of reality in
the autobiography.
Advantages:
1. Autobiography presents a complete picture of a person because
an autobiography of an includes various aspects of an individual
i.e. social, educational and
psychological aspects.
2. Autobiography provides insight to the pupils they are to
express their own side. 3. After writing autobiography, the writer
or pupil becomes tense-free.
Disadvantages:
1. Sometimes, a person or a pupil express his abilities in
excess. 2. In autobiography a person tries to hide his shortcomings
too. 3. Sometimes many autobiographies are full of useless matter.
4. Due to language problem, a person or a pupil fails to express
his views properly.
Rating scale:
Meaning:
Rating scales equip a methodical operation for obtaining and
reporting judgement of the
observer whereas anecdotal records provide only an unstructured
description of behaviour.
Ruth strang rightly observes that Rating is the directed
observation
Types:
1. Numerical rating scale 2. Graphic rating scale 3. Descriptive
graphic rating scale
Errors in rating:
1. Personal basis 2. Halo effect 3. Logical error
Advantages:
1. The parents are given complete reports 2. Helpful in locating
the problems of children 3. Employers make use of it to confirm the
recommendations 4. This information supplements other information
about the individual
Disadvantages:
1 .All the characteristics qualities cannot be rated, which is
impossible
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2. Subjectivity in assessment
3. May be some raters rate generously and liberally.
4. It is not possible to rate all the students.
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UNIT-VIII TESTING DEVICES IN GUIDANCE
Intelligence: Meaning
Intelligence cannot explained but intelligent behaviour can be
explained
elaborately. Nobody knows what intelligence is. But the
intelligent behaviour
can be measured through some tests
Definitions:
According to Alfred Binet, Intelligence is a capacity to think
well, to judge well
and to be self critical.
According to Charles Sprearman, Intelligence is rational
thinking.
Theories of intelligence:
1. Unitary or Monarchic theory 2. Oligarchic theory 3. Atomistic
or Multi-factor theory
Test of intelligence:
1. Verbal tests of intelligence 2. Non-verbal tests 3.
Performance test of intelligence 4. Individual tests of
intelligence 5. Group tests of intelligence
Uses of intelligence tests:
1.Groups among students according to their mental ability can
homogeneously be
formed for regular and unvarying progress.
2. The counselor, through the use of intelligence tests, can
easily identify the mentally
deficient children and can diagnose the causes behind their
backwardness.
3. Children with special abilities and talents can be identified
which will be useful for
the teachers to encourage them accordingly.
4. As educational guidance aims at providing educational
materials to pupils according
to their mental capacity, intelligence tests help the guidance
worker.
5. The individuals nature of intelligence becomes comprehensible
where it is clearly
exposed.
APTITUDE TESTS:
Meaning: Aptitudes are correctly referred to as science,
literature as the latent
potentialities or skills. They can be converted into special
skills. The potentiality of
clerical, aptitude may be trained further to write exams in IAS
and IPS cadres or in
group I or II services.
Differential Aptitudes Tests:
1. Verbal reasoning 2. Numerical ability 3. Abstract ability 4.
Space relations 5. Mechanical reasoning 6. Clerical speed and
accuracy
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7. Language usage-spelling 8. Language usage-sentences
Uses:
1. Aptitude tests are very helpful in selecting workers for
particular jobs. 2. Aptitude tests are helpful in helping
individuals to choose their occupations. 3. When the authorities of
various schools and colleges wish to reduce the number of
probable failures among those who enter these institutions, they
should make the
selection on the basis of some of the aptitude tests.
Personality inventories:
Meaning: The word Personality is derived from a Latin persona
which denotes the
mask worn by the actors while playing their role in the
drama.
Personality is the embodiment of physical, emotional, social,
mental, moral and others
trait of a human being.
Each letter of the word PERSONALITY implies its meaning as
follows:
P-perception capacity
E-emotional maturity
R-responsiveness to the situation
S-sociability
O-originality
N-neutrality
A-appearance
L-leadership feeling
I-integrated
T-tendency
Y-young(in thinking)
Personality: Meaning:
Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of
those psycho-physical
systems that determine his unique adjustment to his
environment_Gordon W.Allport.
personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person
would do in a given
situation-Raymond B. cattell.
Theories of personality:
1. Type theories 2. Trait theories 3. Trait-cum-type theories 4.
Psychoanalytic theories
Measurement of personality:
1. Non-projective techniques
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2. Projective techniques
Non-projective techniques
1. subjective 2. Objective
Subjective:
b) case history c) autobiography d) questionnaire e)
interview
Objective:
a) personality inventories b) observation c) check-list d)
rating scale e) sociogram
Projective techniques:
a) Rorschah ink-blot test b) Thematic apperception test (TAT) c)
Sentence completion test d) Story telling and story completion test
e) free association and dream analysis test
Uses of personality:
1. If the counselor does not evaluate the counselees personality
properly, guidance cannot be provided by him.
2. An individuals success in his education and occupation is
determined mainly by his personality.
3. Personality test through interview and observation helps to
find out the students who are least amicable to school, home and
society.
4. Personality test helps to find out the personality traits of
individuals by analyzing their abilities extremely. It helps a
person to develop his abilities further.
MENTAL HEALTH
Mental health: Meaning
The concept of mental health is closely related to the concept
of adjustment. We know
that while an individual has satisfactory personality adjustment
he is also likely to have
good mental health. Thus the normal, well-adjusted,
well-integrated and mature person is
bound to have positive mental health.
Definition:
Hadfield defines that Mental health is the full and harmonious
functioning of the whole
personality
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Attribute of normal mental health:
1. Willingness and readiness for work and play 2. Adjustment
with others 3. Efficiency of work 4. Happiness and cheerfulness
Abnormal mental health:
Psychosis is a mental disease which shows dearrangement of the
mind. A student of
abnormal mental health engages in some bad practices like
truancy, stealing, telling lies
etc,. This will affect ones studies and his future.
FRUSTRATION
Frustration: Meaning Frustration refers to the situation. Or the
event that backs the way to a goal.
Frustration means a sense of disappointment, that is the result
of being blocked. The
course of life is not always smooth. The causes of frustration
may be: environmental
abstacles, personal limitations, conflict between motives.
CONFLICT
Conflict: Meaning A conflict is disagreement and an indecision
to select one goal between the goals.
Conflict is natural phenomenon.For eg., a boy is in a conflict
when he has to select one
out of two well-known questions. Similarly, a person who wants
to go for two inter-caste
marriage is in a conflict. It is a situation wherein an
individual cannot take a decision.
Types of conflict:
1.Approach-approach conflict
2. Avoidance-avoidance conflict
3. Approach-avoidance conflict
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UNIT-IX GUIDANCE SERVICE IN SCHOOLS
Guidance service in schools: Meaning
When we analyse the conditions of modern life, it becomes clear
that there is
unmistakably an increasing nessecity of an organized guidance
programme in our
educational institution. School may be differ in the extent to
which the guidance
programme is organized according to a definite form or pattern
and the extent to which
various kinds of services are conducted by specially assigned
personnel.
Significance in guidance services in schools:
Guidance and counseling services have an important place in
schools. Though
guidance service is of recent origin, it was there already among
us. Guidance service is
essential in schools for the life of students to be purposeful
and meaningful. For the
students, to select education and occupation, to solve their
personal problems themselves,
to find their ability, skill, interest, and attitude, to improve
these characteristics, to achieve
their ambitions,to gather information about education and
occupation opportunities, and to
take independent and right decisions, guidance services in
schools become very useful.
Types:
1. Orientation service 2. The pupil inventory or data collection
service 3. The information service 4. The counseling service 5. The
placement service 6. The follow-service
Guidance services in schools: ORGANIZATION
Guidance is something which has a close and inseparable
connection with every
school activity and the general life there. It is the duty of
every teacher to contribute his
own share towards the guidance programme. Everyone has the
responsibility to take part
in the process of guidance.
1. The principal 2. The school counselor 3. The role of the
teachers
The principal:
The principal is responsible for all the activities of the
school. He should look after the
proper functioning of the programme as well. Everything
connected with this programme
should be under his able guidance.
The school counselor:
A qualified teacher well versed with guidance work may be made
the incharge of the
guidance unit. He may also function as a part time guidance
worker.
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According to Ruth strang, the counselor is like a gardener who
prepares the soil and
everything he can to help each plant grow in its own best
way.
The role of the teachers:
The teachers have an important role to play in the guidance
programme which is
inevitable. They can provide opportunities for the child to
develop himself. They have
also to implement many of the suggestions made by the
counselor.
UNIT-X GUIDANCE FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN:
Meaning: It is very hard to explain an exceptional child. The
features, characteristics,
traits and skills of exceptional or deviated children are
analytically and experimentally
Studied in the disciplines of psychology, sociology, physiology,
medicine and education
Types:
1. The intellectually exceptional children 2. The physically
handicapped children 3. The emotionally disturbed children 4. The
multi handicapped
Guidance for gifted children:
Any intelligence test can identity the mentally gifted children.
I.Q scores on
intelligence testing ranging from 120 to 140 have been used to
identity him. Other scores
on special abilities or achievement are also taken into
consideration. A boy who has the
ability to learn everything fastly is considered as a gifted
boy. His achievement in all the
school subjects is the highest. His highest areas of interest on
any interest on any
inventory may be scientific and mechanical. His Extra-curricular
activities are
multifarious.
Identification of gifted children:
a) Intelligence tests b) Achievement tests c) Cumulative record
cards and d) Teachers observation
Characteristics of gifted children:
1. Physique and health 2. School achievements 3. Reading
development 4. Interests 5. Social and emotional development 6.
Character and personality
Guidance for gifted children:
1. Making the student aware of his assets and limitations 2.
Helping the child planning and decision-making 3. Helping him
develop vocationally
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4. Helping him achieve higher-level work skills 5. Helping the
mentally gifted to reach an optimum growth
Guidance for Backward children:
As in the words of Cril Burt, A backward child is one, who in
the middle of the
school (i.e. about ten and a half years) is unable to do the
work of a class below than
which is normal to his age.
Definitions:
According to Burt A backward child is one who is in the middle
of his /her school
career, and unable to do the work of the class which is normal
for his/her age.
Characteristics:
1. He/she is a slow learner. 2. His/her I.Q. is between 90 to
100 3. He/she is unable to think abstractly or to handle symbolic
model. 4. He/she lacks the so called common sense 5. He/she is
unable to understand complex game rules 6. He/she is slow in all
areas: academic, social. Emotional, physical. 7. He/she is unable
to work independently 8. He/she is really confused 9. He/she has a
short of interest and attention 10. He/she is behind normal grade
achievement in school.
Causes of backwardness:
According to B.Kuppusamy, Educational backwardness is the result
of
multiple causation. These causes may be discussed under the
following heads:
1. Individual limitations of the child 2. Family limitations of
the child 3. School limitations of the child
Mentally retarded children:
Meaning: The children who have subnormal development of
intellectual abilities are
called mentally retarded. Their character and conduct are
entirely different from normal
children. In other words, an individual having IQ score range of
less than 75 is called a
mentally retarded child.
Identification of mentally retarded:
1. Observation by teacher 2. By giving informal tests 3. By
giving intelligence tests 4. By giving socio metric tests 5. By
taking evaluation from teachers, parents, and friends
Categories of mentally retarded:
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2. Moron 3. Imbecile 4. Idiot
Guidance for mentally retarded/mentally handicapped:
1. Location and diagnosis 2. Educate the parents 3. Individual
attention 4. Help in understanding the child 5. Special schools,
clinics, or mental hospitals 6. Special teachers 7. Special type of
curriculum 8. Special methods of teaching 9. Special time table
Guidance for visually impaired / visually handicapped:
On the basis of visual acuity, visually, impaired children can
be classified into categories
and they are:
1. The blind who are educated through channels other than vision
and, 2. The partially sights who can acquire educational skills by
utilising their vision.
Guidance for deaf and dumb children:
The school counselors have to notice the nature of hearing
impaired children, see
that they are adequately diagnosed and given whatever, medical
treatment is necessary
and provide an appropriate educational guidance programme.
Though the educational
guidance programme is not the same for all cases of helping
hearing impaired children
who, despite the handicap, can make some use of authority
stimuli.
The deaf people need a provision of part-time specialized or
trained teacher counselor to
help them individually or in small groups for an hour or half a
day. This help would
consist of:
1. Training in the use of hearing aids 2. Auditory training 3.
Lip reading 4. Speech correction
Gudance programme:
The speech correctionist can be helped by the counselor in the
manner below:
1. The counselor can furnish a background information to the
speech correctionist. 2. The implementation of the referral to
physicians and psychologists must often be
provided by the school counselors.
Juvenile Delinqeunts:
Meaning: Those young who did offences which are punishable are
considered as juvenile
delinquents. However, delinquent behaviour starts much earlier
than when they land up in
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court. Juvenile delinquency first manifests itself in truancy,
in rebellion against orderly
homelife and in acts of vandalism. Delinquency starts early.
Many delinquents find
reasons for much of their trouble as unfriendly teachers and
understanding curriculum.
Some factors for juvenile delinquents:
1. Poor or instable home 2. Inadequate school facilities 3.
Negative emotional adjustment 4. Identification with criminals or
antiheroes 5. Economic stress and insecurity 6. Feeling of personal
inadequately and defensiveness
Guidance for juvenile delinquents:
1. Early diagnosis 2. Parent family counseling 3. Curricular
development 4. Providing a rich fair of extra curricular activities
5. Group therapy 6. Individual counseling