1 Introduction 2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax 3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics 4.0 Summary and Further Questions References Time Turner: Image from http://harrypotter.wikia.com/wiki/Time-Turner?file=TimeTurner.PNG ELC 231: Introduction to Language and Linguistics Week 13: Temporality II Grammatical Aspect and Tense Dr. Meagan Louie M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 1 / 73
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1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
Time Turner: Image from http://harrypotter.wikia.com/wiki/Time-Turner?file=TimeTurner.PNG
ELC 231: Introduction to Language and LinguisticsWeek 13: Temporality II
Grammatical Aspect and Tense
Dr. Meagan Louie
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 1 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
Core Subdomains
Linguistics: The study of Language
Phonetics
Phonology
Morphology
Syntax
Semantics
Pragmatics
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 2 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
Last Week: The Morphosemantics of Lexical Aspect in Verbs
Linguistics: The study of Language
Phonetics
Phonology
Morphology
Syntax
Semantics
Pragmatics
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 3 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
Statives “non-dynamic situations”Activities “open-ended processes”Accomplishments “processes with a natural endpoint”Achievements “near-instantaneous events” with change of state(Semelfactives) “near-instantaneous events” no change of state
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 4 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
Verb Classes and Lexical Aspect/Aktionsart
Recall: There are TWO kinds of ASPECT
(i) Verbal/Lexical Aspect (aka aktionsart)→ This is a way of categorizing verbs/VPs/events
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
Semantically-Defined ASPECTUAL VERB CLASSES
Vendler 1957: Verbs/VPs have different aspectual classesand these are semantically-defined:
Lexical Aspect Dynamic Telic Durative
States × × N/AActivities X × XAccomplishments X X XAchievements X X ×Semelfactives X × ×
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 7 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
Semantically-Defined ASPECTUAL VERB CLASSES
These aspectual classes differ in their (i) acceptability and (ii)interpretation with Tense/Grammatical Aspect combinations:
Lexical Aspect PRES Simple PRES PROG
States Ongoing ×*temporary
Activities HAB X ongoing
Accomplishments HAB X ongoing
Achievements HAB ×*preparatory
Semelfactives HAB X *iterative
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 8 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
Semantically-Defined ASPECTUAL VERB CLASSES
These aspectual classes differ in their (i) acceptability and (ii)interpretation with Tense/Grammatical Aspect combinations:
Lexical Aspect Pst.PROG |= Pst.Simple “for X time” “in X time”
States N/A X ×Activities X X ×Accomplishments × × XAchievements N/A × XSemelfactives X X ×
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 9 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
Semantically-Defined ASPECTUAL VERB CLASSES
Remaining Question: Can our theory account for WHY thesediagnostics distinguish different kinds of aspectual classes?
Lexical Aspect PRES Simple PRES PROG
States Ongoing ×*temporary
Activities HAB X ongoing
Accomplishments HAB X ongoing
Achievements HAB ×*preparatory
Semelfactives HAB X *iterative
Can we explain WHY grammatical aspects havedifferent interpretations with different verb classes?
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 10 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
Recall: SEMANTICITY as a Design Feature of Language
Given semanticity, we expect the FORM of the simple aspect,-s/-∅, to systematically correlate with a specific MEANING...
VERB SIMPLE ASPECT
a. run She runsHAB
b. eat She eats an appleHAB
c. recognize She recognizes meHAB
d. find She finds a dogHAB
e. know She knows meONGOING
f. have She has a brotherONGOING
g. like She likes a singerONGOING
...so why is it interpreted variably as ONGOING and HABITUAL?
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 11 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
The Principle of Compositionality
.
Gottlob Frege (1848-1925)
The Principle of Compositionality“...meaning of a complex expression is
a function of the meaning of its parts
and the way those parts are combined.”
The meaning of a complex word or sentenceis based on
(i) the meaning of its parts and
(ii) the way that the parts are combined.
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 12 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
The Principle of Compositionality
.
Gottlob Frege (1848-1925)
The Principle of Compositionality“...meaning of a complex expression is
a function of the meaning of its parts
and the way those parts are combined.”
The meaning of a complex word or sentenceis based on
(i) the meaning of its parts and
(ii) the way that the parts are combined.
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 13 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
Recall: COMPOSITIONALITY
Question: Assuming semanticity, we expect that the simplepresent should have a systematic meaning...
...so why is it interpreted asONGOING for states, butHABITUAL for eventives?
Recall: statives and eventives have distinct semantic properties→ eventives are dynamic
Idea: The (systematic) meaning of the simple present combinesdifferently with dynamic VPs, resulting in a different interpretation
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 14 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
Underspecification and Compositionality: Pokémon Analogy
Eevee → Vaporeon / mmWater Stone
Eevee → Jolteon/ mmThunder Stone
Eevee → Flareon/ mmFire Stone
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 15 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
Underspecification and Compositionality: Pokémon Analogy
Vaporeon → Water Stone + Eevee
Jolteon → Thunder Stone + Eevee
Flareon → Fire Stone + Eevee
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 16 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
Underspecification and Compositionality: Pokémon Analogy
Flareon → Fire Stone + Eevee
Arcanine → Fire Stone + Growlithe
Ninetales → Fire Stone + Vulpix
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 17 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
UNDERSPECIFICATION and COMPOSITIONALITY
Idea: There is a (systematic) meaning for the simple present,compatible with both the HABITUAL and ONGOING interpretation
...when it combines with different kinds of VPs (i.e.,dynamic/eventive vs non-dynamic/stative...
...it results in one or the other interpretation
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 18 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
The Morphosemantics of Viewpoint Aspect and Tense
...but what IS this underspecified, systematic meaning?
Today: The semantics ofVIEWPOINT ASPECTS (eg., simple/progressive/perfect), andTENSES (eg., present/past)
But first, a design feature...
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 19 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
Recall: Hockett’s Design Features of Language
.Q: What properties does LANGUAGE have?i.e., what counts as a LANGUAGE (vs communication system)?
Charles F. Hockett (1916-2000)proposed several criteria that acommunication system must have inorder to count as a language
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 20 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
Hockett’s Design Features of Language Hockett (1959)
.Q: What properties does LANGUAGE have?i.e., what counts as a LANGUAGE (vs communication system)?
Hockett’s Design Features
1 Discreteness
2 Semanticity
3 Arbitrariness
4 Productivity
5 Prevarication
6 Duality of Patterning
7 Displacement
8 ...M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 21 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
Hockett’s Design Features of Language Hockett (1959)
.Q: What properties does LANGUAGE have?i.e., what counts as a LANGUAGE (vs communication system)?
Hockett’s Design Features
1 Discreteness
2 Semanticity
3 Arbitrariness
4 Productivity
5 Prevarication
6 Duality of Patterning
7 Displacement
8 ...M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 22 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
Hockett’s Design Features of Language Hockett (1959)
.Q: What properties does LANGUAGE have?i.e., what counts as a LANGUAGE (vs communication system)?
Hockett’s Design Features
DISPLACEMENT
Language can communicate aboutindividuals or events that are notpresent in the here and now.
.
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 23 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
Hockett’s Design Features of Language Hockett (1959)
.Q: What properties does LANGUAGE have?i.e., what counts as a LANGUAGE (vs communication system)?
Hockett’s Design Features
DISPLACEMENT
Recall: My stomach rumbling andsweating are ways of communicatinginformation (i.e., hunger, feeling hot...)
.
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 24 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
Hockett’s Design Features of Language Hockett (1959)
.Q: What properties does LANGUAGE have?i.e., what counts as a LANGUAGE (vs communication system)?
Hockett’s Design Features
DISPLACEMENT
...but my stomach only grumbles ifI’m hungry NOW, and I only sweatif I’m feeling hot NOW.
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 25 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
Hockett’s Design Features of Language Hockett (1959)
.Q: What properties does LANGUAGE have?i.e., what counts as a LANGUAGE (vs communication system)?
Hockett’s Design Features
DISPLACEMENT
..my stomach grumbling can’tconvey that I was hungry yesterday,or that Khanun is hungry.
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 26 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
Hockett’s Design Features of Language Hockett (1959)
.Q: What properties does LANGUAGE have?i.e., what counts as a LANGUAGE (vs communication system)?
Hockett’s Design Features
DISPLACEMENT
..my sweating can’t convey that Iwas feeling hot this morning, orthat Leigh is feeling hot.
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 27 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
Hockett’s Design Features of Language Hockett (1959)
.Q: What properties does LANGUAGE have?i.e., what counts as a LANGUAGE (vs communication system)?
Hockett’s Design Features
DISPLACEMENT
...but I can do BOTH of thesethings with language:
“Khanun is hungry.”“I was hungry (yesterday).”
.
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 28 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
Hockett’s Design Features of Language Hockett (1959)
.Q: What properties does LANGUAGE have?i.e., what counts as a LANGUAGE (vs communication system)?
Hockett’s Design Features
DISPLACEMENT
“I was hungry (yesterday).”→ temporal displacement
But how do languages do this?
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 29 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature
Hockett’s Design Features of Language Hockett (1959)
.Q: What properties does LANGUAGE have?i.e., what counts as a LANGUAGE (vs communication system)?
Hockett’s Design Features
DISPLACEMENT
“I was hungry (yesterday).”→ temporal displacement
→ with TENSE and ASPECT!
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 30 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
2.1 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax2.2 TENSE and the Perfect2.3 TENSE and the Progressive2.4 TENSE and the Simple
Today’s Goals: Semantics for Temporal Displacement
STUDENT LEARNING GOALS:Learn about some of the basic concepts associated with the semantics ofTENSE and VIEWPOINT ASPECT.
Concepts you should know by the end of today:
1. TENSE (past, present)2. VIEWPOINT ASPECT (simple, progressive, perfect)3. Utterance time (UT)4. Reference time (RT)5. Event time (ET)
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 31 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
2.1 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax2.2 TENSE and the Perfect2.3 TENSE and the Progressive2.4 TENSE and the Simple
Today’s Goals: Semantics for Temporal Displacement
MY GOALS:Convince you that TENSE and VIEWPOINT ASPECT are
1. Morphosyntactically distinct-i.e., they have distinct forms & distinct distributions in a sentence.
2. Semantically distinct-i.e., have distinct effects on the meaning of a sentence.
(both in terms of truth-conditions and use-conditions)
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 32 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
2.1 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax2.2 TENSE and the Perfect2.3 TENSE and the Progressive2.4 TENSE and the Simple
Describing Tense and Aspect
I’ll be focusing on TRUTH-CONDITIONS today
QUESTIONS FOR TODAY1. What effect does tense morphology have
on the truth-conditions of a sentence?
2. What effect does aspect morphology haveon the truth-conditions of a sentence?
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 33 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
2.1 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax2.2 TENSE and the Perfect2.3 TENSE and the Progressive2.4 TENSE and the Simple
Tense: An English Minimal Pair
CONTEXTI was working hard on my dissertation, but now I’m taking a facebookbreak. My advisor walks up and asks me what I’m doing. Since she can’tsee my laptop screen, I tell her:
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 34 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences
2.1 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax2.2 TENSE and the Perfect2.3 TENSE and the Progressive2.4 TENSE and the Simple
Aspect: An English Minimal Pair
CONTEXTI work on my dissertation a little every day. But right now, I’m taking abreak. My brother sees me checking facebook and asks "Don’t you everwork on your dissertation?" I reply:
(2) a. I am working on my dissertation! False!(Meagan is working on her dissertation)
b. I work on my dissertation! True!(Meagan works on her dissertation)
Three times relevant for TENSE and VIEWPOINT ASPECT:
1. Utterance Time: UT = t0The time associated with the act of uttering a sentence (eg., now)
2. Reference Time:1 RTA contextually-salient time (eg., set up before the utterance of thesentence, by the topic matter of the conversation, or given by a timeadverbial like "on Tuesday")
3. Event Time: ETThe time associated with the event described by the VP
1RT introduced by Reichenbach (1947), revived by Klein (1994) (as Topic Time.)M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 48 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
Tense: An English Minimal Pair (Progressive Aspect)
CONTEXT 1I’ve spent an hour working on my dissertation, but now I’m taking afacebook break. My advisor walks up and asks me what I’m doing. Sinceshe can’t see my laptop screen, I tell her:
(9) a. I ampres working on my dissertation! False!
b. I waspast working on my dissertation! True!
H1: PAST and PRESENT tense
UT
ET
PASTET ≺ UT
UT
ET
PRESENTET ° UT
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 52 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics
Tense: An English Minimal Pair (Progressive Aspect)
CONTEXT 1I’ve spent an hour working on my dissertation, but now I’m taking afacebook break. My advisor walks up and asks me what I’m doing. Sinceshe can’t see my laptop screen, I tell her:
(9) a. I ampres working on my dissertation! False!
b. I waspast working on my dissertation! True!
H1 supported! (so far)
M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 53 / 73
1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics