E.J~"Y'i!JiP' - Birdlife Australia

VOL. 16 (5) MARCH 1996 175

AUSTRALIAN BIRD WATCHER 1996, 16, 175-204

The Flock Bronzewing Phaps histrionica in New South Wales, With Comments on Its Biology .;z~-:::~

'R-Q Q v0'- ._ ~ ~~

by I.A.W. McALLAN, 46 Yeramba Street, Turr ~~. N.S.W- .2~¥ "'".) ,si 11:.• ., d

. c ~\\..;, ;~? Summary ..:_:.l!f}. C:~E.J~"Y'i!JiP'

All known New South Wales reports of the Flock Bronzewing Phaps ~BM~nted . The location of type specimens and refinement of the original collectinll localities are !liven. The records show a massive reduction in abundance of Flock Bronzewings m the state. Th1s began in the 1860s and continued to the early 1890s and coincided with the spread of livestock and rabbits through the state. Flock Bronzewings still occur in far western New South Wales after exceptionally wet years , and possibly more regularly near the Bulloo Overflow. What little is known of the diet and preferred habitat in New South Wales is summarised. The only species of food identified is Native Millet Panicum decompositum, though the preferred habitat seems to be grassland dominated by Mitchell grasses Astrebla spp. The habits of the Flock Bronzewing are examined, particularly in relation to use of coloniality.

Introduction The Flock Bronzewing Phaps histrionica (Gould 1841) is a species of open

grassland. It is found in a wide area, from the Pilbara in Western Australia across semi-arid northern and central Australia to central New South Wales. Its range and numbers in New South Wales have declined in the last 150 years dramatically (Morris et al . 1981, Frith 1982). So enormous has been this change in status , from 'countless thousands' to total absence from large parts of its former range, that the decline has , been likened to the demise of the Passenger Pigeon Ectopistes migratorius of eastern North America (Macgillivray 1932, Bucher 1992).

Nonetheless, the Flock Bronzewing is a highly mobile species that still congregates in flocks of several thousand in parts of its range but is erratic in its occurrence in any one area . This paper is an attempt to review the New South Wales records of the species, to speculate on its preferred habitat and habits and the reasons for its decline or absence in the state.

Methods Records were extracted from the literature, from specimens and unpublished notes in museums

and libraries both in Australia and overseas, and records held in the databases of the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union's Atlas of Australian Birds and the New South Wales Bird Atlassers Inc . Various ornithologists have provided additional unpublished reports.

Listed below are the institutions and their abbreviations as used in this paper. AM = Australian Museum BMNH = British Museum (Natural History) [now known as The Natural History Museum] CUL = Cambridge University Library LIVCM = National Museums & Galleries on Merseyside ML = Mitchell Library, State Library of New South Wales NLA = National Library of Australia NMV = Museum of Victoria NSWBA = New South Wales Bird Atlassers Inc. NSWORAC = New South Wales Ornithological Records Appraisal Committee RAOU = Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union RMNH = Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie, Leiden

In most instances there is little doubt that the records are genuine, though there are some Flock Bronzewing records from New South Wales that cannot be placed to a definite locality . These include: (a) An old 'Palmer register' mounted specimen (i.e . pre-1875) with no other details in the AM; (b) The two specimens in the Macleay Museum (University of Sydney) which are possibly the captive

birds of unknown origin that bred in William Macleay 's aviary in 1887 and 1888 (North 1888); and

176 Me ALLAN AUSTRALIAN

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(c) The clutch of eggs owned by S.W . Jackson and now in the NMV that was collected 'in the interior of New South Wales ' in February 1889 (Jackson 1907).

There is an additional erroneous record in a book on the Canberra district (Wright 1923). This record was later included in the RAOU Atlas of Australian Birds database and is merely the citation of the name 'flock pigeon' in a list of birds recorded from the district. This list includes other unrecognisable vernaculars, e.g. 'hawk' , ' diver' and 'squatter'.

Annotated list of records

Winter 1835, Darling River Major T.L. Mitchell, when discussing birds seen along the Darling River between what is now

Menindee and Bourke during winter 1835, noted: 'There was also a brown pigeon with a white head, flying in large flocks and not an uncommon bird elsewhere' (Mitchell 1838) . Other species of pigeon noted by Mitchell from the area were: 'bronze-wing pigeon' [ =Phaps chalcoptera], 'crested pigeon' [ =Ocyphaps lophotes] and 'a small species of dove with very handsome.plumage' [ =Geopelia sp.] .

Although Mitchell 's description implies a Flock Bronzewing, he later made an observation that suggests it may not have been this species. On 23 September 1846 he definitely saw Flock Bronzewings when in central Queensland near present -day Isisford (Mitchell 1848). Mitchell implied that the species was new to him, though this may have merely referred to his first sighting on the particular expedition. Thus the possibility exists that the pigeons 'in large flocks' on his earlier expedition were another species, perhaps the Squatter Pigeon Geophaps scripta .

December 1839, Liverpool Plains and Narrabri areas John Gould first encountered the Flock Bronzewing on 2 December 1839 when on the banks of

the Mokai [ =Mooki] River at sunrise (Gould 1841a, also 1865). Although Gould made no mention of doing so in his published account, he did collect this bird. His drafts to his Birds of Australia, held in the John Gould papers, CUL, reveal that he was at a Mr Uhr's property at the time, 'I shot it and [on] dissection it proved to be a female . The next day I saw two of them on [the] wing near the same spot.' The latter comment was also omitted from the published accounts. Mr E.B. Uhr had a licence to depasture stock on the Mooki River at this time (Campbell1929). Uhr evidently occupied an area immediately to the north of the property now known as 'Williewarrina' which is at 31 "27'S, 150 "27 'E, though 'Williewarrina' probably extended north to the present town of Caroona at 31 "24'S, 150"26'E (Carter 1974, Royal Australian Survey Corps 1969).

Gould (1841a) noted: 'A fortnight after this I descended about one hundred and fifty miles [240 km] down the Namoi, and while traversing the extensive plains, studded here and there with patches of trees that skirt the Nunda war range, I was suddenly startled by an immense flock of these birds rising before me. ' He shot four birds from this flock, two of them males.

'About a week afterwards, while returning from a Kangaroo hunt from a distant part of the same plain, we approached a small group of Myalls (Acacia pendula) and Natty [Gould's Aboriginal collector] suddenly called out, ''Look, massa:'' in an instant the air before us literally filled with a dense mass of these birds, which had suddenly risen from under the trees at his exclamation. ' Gould and Natty shot another eight Bronzewings, though some of the birds may have been damaged by his 'kangaroo dogs' .

'This was the last time I met with the Harlequin Bronzewing. I took every opportunity of making enquiries respecting it of the natives of the interior, and of the stockmen at the out stations, both of whom assured me that they had never observed it before the present season . . . On dissecting the specimens obtained, I found their crops half filled with small hard seeds, which they procured from the open plains, but of what kinds I was unable to determine.'

How far down the Namoi River this was is not clear. In his 1852 account of the Brush-tailed Bettong Bettongia penicillata, Gould .claimed he had been down the Namoi 'from its source to its junction with the Gwydyr' . This is an erroneous statement, as the Namoi meets the Barwon River and not the Gwydir. Nowhere in any of Gould's earlier accounts does he mention that he went down the Namoi from its source to its end, so it is perhaps a case of Gould embellishing the facts. Gould certainly did travel down the Namoi to Gundemaine, 11 km north-west of the present-day Narrabri (see McAllan 1987, 1994) to 'Gummel Gummel' (undoubtedly the parish of Gommel, immediately to the north of Gundemaine) and to 'We-ta-wa' [= Weetawaa, 16 km west of Wee Waa; draft of letter from Gould to John Gilbert dated 20 December 1844 in NLA] . Gundemaine is near the Nandewar Range, though it is only 120 km down the Namoi from its junction with the Mooki, less than half the distance Gould suggests in his Flock Bronzewing account; Weetawaa is only another 40 km downstream.

However, Gould did not travel directly down the Mooki to the Namoi but via 'Brezi' [ =Breeza]

VOL. 16 (5) MARCH 1996 Flock Bronzewing in New South Wales 177

over the Peel Range to 'Turi' [ = Duri] and then to the Peel River, where he collected the type specimen of the Crimson Chat Epthianura tricolor on 11 December 1839 (Gould 1865, also McAllan 1987). His reason for taking this route was to visit the property of his brother-in-law, Charles Coxen. Before leaving on this expedition, Gould had suggested to his wife Elizabeth that he might do so (Chisholm 1964). Coxen's property, 'Wallamoul', was on the Peel near the north-western outskirts of the presentday Tamworth (Milliss 1980).

The distance via this route, from near Caroona, to Gundemaine on the Namoi, is close to 240 ian. So it is likely that these are the two localities where Gould first saw Flock Bronzewings. The other locality on 'a distant part of the same plain' was presumably in the vicinity of either Gundemaine or Weetawaa. In the letter from Gould to Gilbert, he also noted: 'Natty and I dropped eight at one -shot one evening as we were walking home.' So presumably 'home' was not far as they were travelling by foot. Gould was definitely at Gundemaine on 23-24 December at about the time of his last sighting of Flock Bronzewings (Gould 1865, McAllan 1987). He also accompanied the Aborigines of Gundemaine on a hunt for Bridled Nailtail Wallabies Onychogaleafrenata and Black-striped Wallabies Macropus dorsalis, quite possibly the 'Kangaroo hunt' on which he observed the large flock (Gould 184lb).

Gould's accounts do not indicate how many specimens were collected, but there must have been between five and thirteen. There are two definite type specimens in the LIVCM in Liverpool, U.K. , Dl486b and Dl486c, both collected by Gould in December 1839 from the 'Namoi' (C.T. Fisher in litt.). Strangely Dl486c was not mentioned as a syntype by Wagstaffe (1978). Specimen 1841-1380 in the BMNH probably also came from here, though the locality on the specimen tag is merely 'Australia'. The date of registration ( 1841) is within a year of Gould's return to England and it is unlikely Gould had received any other material by then. This specimen is badly damaged (pers. obs.) , possibly the result of the 'kangaroo dogs' . In addition there are two specimens from 'the Namoi Plain' dated December 1839 in the RMNH in Leiden, Netherlands (G.F. Mees in litt.). There is an unpublished list of specimens sent to Leiden by Gould held in the RMNH, which includes these two specimens (C.T. Fisher; R.W.R.J . Dekker in litt.). This list was written between 25 August 1840 and April 1841 for it includes reference to a specimen of 'Macropus (Halrnaturus) psi/opus' . This name was used by Gould for the Eastern Hare-Wallaby which he described at the meeting of the Zoological Society of London on 25 August 1840. However, the formal description used the name Macropus leporides when published in April the following year (see McAIIan & Bruce 1989). ·

The two specimens that have been claimed as types in the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia have the locality 'New South Wales'. This in itself is not absolute proof that they were collected by Gould in 1839 (see de Schauensee 1957). Gould had obtained specimens of the Flock Bronzewing from a number of sources by the time the Academy purchased his specimens in 184 7.

It has often been suggested that Gould's records of the Flock Bronzewing were the first and last for the areas where he saw them (e.g. Frith 1982). This is undoubtedly as a result of Gould's reference to the local Aborigines and stockmen having never 'observed it before the present season'.

If Gould had asked David Grover, who began the Gundemaine run in 1839, his season may have meant only the same year (Hunt 1980). Similarly the Wee Waa run was taken up only in 1837 by George Hohler. Indeed the first European settlers in the Narrabri area, Pat Quinn and Andrew Doyle, laid their claim to the 'Nurrabry' run on 17 March 1834, though the 'Baan Baa' run farther south had been taken up by Sir John Jamison in 1832. So if Gould had asked any of the Europeans about the birds, they could have had at most eight years' experience of the area, though probably less than five . Consequently, Gould's comments seem to rely entirely on those of the local Aborigines who, given the short period of European contact, may have had an incomplete understanding of Gould' s questions if he had asked them himself.

Goul~'~ own Aboriginal companions, Natty and Jemrny, were from Stephen Coxen's property, Yarrund1, m the upper Hunter Valley (Longman 1922). They should have known both the English and Karnilaroi languages, and translation should have not been a problem. However, Gould also noted in a letter to E.P. Ramsay dated 26 November 1866 that 'The blackfellows of the Upper Hunter told me that the little Melopsittacus undulatus [ = Budgerigar] had come to meet me, for they had never seen the bird in that district until the year I arrived' (Hindwood 1938; letter in NLA, pers. obs.). Although the local Aborigines may not have previously seen Budgerigars in the Hunter Valley, this does not mean that they do not occur there; indeed they are rare but regular visitors to the Hunter in drier years (White 1918, 1919; Bourke 1969; pers. obs. 1980-81). It would seem that Flock Bronzewings may also have been regular visitors to the Lower Namoi, especially in view of later observations from the area.

March-April 1844, lower Namoi Valley

John Gilbert's records from the lower Namoi have usually been overlooked. In mid 1844 Gilbert travelled overland from Maitland to the Darling Downs (see pencilled section of Gilbert's diary in


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ML, McAllan 1994). Between 26 March and 3 April he was at Gundemaine where he noted 'The nest and [eggs of?] Peristeri'. On 3 April1844 he left Gundemaine to travel to 'Goolathra, at a distance of 11 miles [18 krn]', undoubtedly 'Galathra', a property on Galathera Creek. During the day he 'saw Peristera histrionica. the species I obtained the eggs of a few days ago. they were very abundant. breed on the ground lay two white eggs'. On 4 April Gilbert travelled north a farther 20 miles (32 km) to near the present Gehan Creek and during the day noted 'immense flocks of Peristera histrionica started found two of them breeding[,] 2 eggs on the bare ground'. The following day he travelled north to near the present Gurley Creek and again noted that 'Peristera was abundant'.

These are the first documented breeding records of the Flock Bronzewing and indeed from much the same area where Gould had recorded them over four years before. It is not known if Gilbert collected specimens of Flock Bronzewings nor if he sent the eggs back to Gould, for Gould never mentioned receiving either from Gilbert.

Gilbert wrote to tell Gould that he had seen Flock Bronzewings. In a letter dated 8 June 1844 he wrote: 'On crossing the Plains from Gande ... , I met with Peristera histrionica in prodigious numbers, some few of them were breeding, I found several pairs of egg~, laid on the bare ground, under the shade of a clump of grass' (copy of Gilbert's letter written by 13th Earl of Derby 27 November 1844; see Fisher 1985). At least one, of the missing words in Gilbert's letter was undoubtedly Gundemaine.

Hence Gould, in the draft of his letter of reply dated 20 December 1844 (in NLA, see above), noted that he also had visited Gundemaine and 'We-ta-wa'. Gould went on, 'glad to hear you found the egg of Geophops histrionica . . . I hope you have procured a good number of specimens, particularly males.' Consequently the type status of any specimen from the lower Namoi not dated to before April 1844 is open to question (e.g. the specimens in Philadelphia).

December 1844 to January 1846, north-western New South Wales The first record of Flock Bronzewings on Charles Sturt' s expedition of 1844-1846 into central

Australia was on 25 November 1844 by John Harris Browne. At the time he was on the floodplain of Floods Creek to the north of some sandstone hills on the present South Australian border at 30°40'S, 141 °00'E. He noted, 'Here I shot a new Pigeon of quite a new kinfl_' (Finnis 1966: 34). The habitat in the area included 'Plenty of grass, Lucerne, Vetches and Tobacco'. A few days later, on 28 November when on a branch of Yandama Creek, south-east of Lake Callabonna, near 29°50'S, 1400ZO'E, he again 'Saw a new Pigeon, a large bird with a peculiar flight'. He gave the habitat near Yandama Creek as a series of sandhills interspersed with flats, and also noted 'The grass is up to the horses knees' . There is no doubt that Browne was referring to Flock Bronze wings as later in the expedition he refers to only one species of 'new Pigeon'. These could be considered the first records of Flock Bronzewings by Europeans for South Australia.

A fortnight later on 9 December, the main expedition party travelled across a plain on the south side of Floods Creek in New South Wales near 30°52 'S, 141 OZ5 'E. Sturt noted in his Narrative (1849, vol. 1: 204-205): 'As we crossed these plains we flushed numerous pigeons- a pair, indeed, from under almost every bush of rhagodia [ = saltbush, Chenopodiaceae] that we passed. This bird was similar to one Mr. Browne had shot in the pine forest, and this was clearly the breeding season; there were no young birds, and in most of the nests only one egg.'

Sturt's reference to the 'pine forest' is incorrect as Browne's bird of25 November was seen after he had left a Callitris pine forest earlier the same day. There was evidently a large variety of grasses seeding along Floods Creek as Sturt recorded (1849, vol. 1: 205-6), 'We there found a native wheat, a beautiful oat, and a rye, as well as a variety of grasses; and in the hollows on the plains a blue or purple vetch.' Browne noted that they collected the seeds of some of the grasses (Finnis 1966: 35).

On 17 January 1845, five weeks after the Floods Creek records, Sturt was on a reconnaissance trip with Browne to the north on Fromes Creek near 29 °07 'S, 141 °39 'E. Sturt noted: 'We had flushed numerous pigeons as we rode along, and flights came to the water while we stopped, but were not treated with the same forbearance as the duck [which they had not shot]. We shot two or three, and capital eating they were' (1849, vol. 1: 246). They saw more Flock Bronzewings during the next two days as they travelled north-west into southern Queensland towards Stokes Range, and these are the first reports of Flock Bronzewings by Europeans for Queensland.

On the same day, 17 January, back at Depot Glen on Preservation Creek (at 29°40'S, 141 °47'E), the expedition's preparator Daniel Brock wrote: 'Engaged in skinning birds, a beautiful species of pidgeon' (Peake-Jones 1975: 107).

On 8 February, Brock noted: 'During the past few days the Captain attended by Poole, ran up the creek on which we are encamped; on their returning home they observed thousands of pidgeons in a flock, probably migrating . . . The Doctor with myself and Sullivan started to look after the pidgeons, to endeavour to ensnare them with horsehair nooses .. . After some rough up and down travelling we came to the last water hole on the creek, and where Poole saw (as he says) more than


10,000 pidgeons. The first thing we did was to light a fire and get some refreshment, after which we very carefully laid our snares for the pidgeons which were long to come - night drew on, yet not a rascal has shewed its feather' (Peake-Jones 1975: 116-118). This locality is presumably near 29°38'S, 141 °38'E on the western end of Preservation Creek.

The following day Sturt was again at Fromes Creek where he related: 'When Mr. Browne and I were in this neighbourhood before, he had some tolerable sport shooting the new pigeon, the flesh of which was most delicious. At that time they were feeding upon the seed of the rice grass, and were scattered about but we now found them, as well as many other birds, congregated in vast numbers preparing to migrate to the north-east' (Sturt 1849, vol. 1: 274). He was again at Fromes Creek on 16 February, where he noted: 'During my absence he [Flood] had shot at and wounded one of the new pigeons, which afterwards reached my house alive' (1849, vol. 1: 283). According to notes Sturt wrote for his wife, there were actually three birds which were delivered alive to their daughter Charlotte (see Waterhouse 1984).

On 21 February 1845, Brock wrote: 'Mr Poole having given me and Sullivan instructions to push down the creek (east) to procure acacia seeds and also birds ... Towards the close of day we made our last encampment ... some pidgeons came to drink, one of which was shot. It is a beautiful bird, many of which were seen alive at the camp . . .

'22nd. Secured [skinned] the pidgeon and got breakfast' (Peake-Jones 1975: 121-122).

In mid March 1845 Browne noted 'There is an exstensive [sic] tract of fertile land on the Eastern side of the Hills amongst which we are encamped [i.e. east of Depot Glen] . . . This country is tolerably well-covered with a kind of grass which is here peculiar to such localities. [marginal note in rns 'panicum effusa Mitchel [sic]'.] It is a summer grass the seed being ripe about January ... Thousands of Parrots, Pigeons, Doves and Cockatoos live on these seeds when they are ripe, and, the Harvest being over all go away about North West in immense flights . The New Pigeon, the Crested Parrot and Shell Parrakeet were good examples of this, they came to this part of the country in November in flights , they immediately paired off and commenced breeding. Their nests were to be seen everywhere. About this time the Acacia seeds commenced to be ripe, and after these the seeds of several grasses. In the end of December they had finished breeding and in the beginning of January were collected in immense flocks on the creeks. The Pigeons were in thousands. In the end of February not one of these birds was to be seen about the country, all having gone to the North West. The Pigeons used to be of great service to us in the Bush for by watching their flight in the morning and evening we· could always find water, as they always went to water a little after sunrise and before sunset in great flights and always flew directly to it from their feeding grounds. They roost on the groqnd and lay their eggs under the cover of a Tussock of grass without making any nest. They lay two white eggs about the size of a common Pigeon's. As our rations were not too much for us in the Bush we used to shoot a great many of these birds and generally had some roasted for supper' (Finnis 1966: 43-44).

Elsewhere in his diary, Browne refers to the Aborigines 'all living on the seeds of a kind of Rice which grew abundantly on the flooded lands near the creeks' (Finnis 1966: 40). Browne again called this grass 'panicum effusa'. This 'Rice' referred to by both Sturt and Browne is Panicum decompositum, now widely known as Native Millet, and not Panicum effusum or Hairy Panic. Mitchell (1838) , the source of Browne's comments, actually believed P. effusum a synonym of 'Panicum laevinode' , which is itself a synonym for Native Millet (cf. Mitchell1848, Cribb & Cribb 1974). Aborigines used Native Millet to make a paste which was baked in the ashes of a fire.

Sturt's Appendix to his Narrative (1849, vol. 2 [App.]: 42), notes: 'This beautiful pigeon is an inhabitant of the interior . . . it was never seen to the south of Stanley's Barrier Range, if I except a solitary wanderer on the banks of the Murray. These birds lay their eggs in February, depositing them under any low bush in the middle of open plains: In the end of March and the beginning of April, they collect in large flats [sic. = flocks; see Gould 1848] and live on the seed of the rice-grass ... It flies to water at sunset, but like the Bronze-wing only wets the bill. It is astonishing indeed that so small a quantity as a bare mouthful should be sufficient to quench their thirst in the burning deserts they inhabit. It left us in the beginning of May.'

The movements of Flock Bronzewings described in the Appendix are incorrect. I have been unable to find any direct reference in Sturt, Browne or Brock's accounts to Flock Bronzewings after 21-22 February 1845 (including Sturt's diary, on microfilm in NLA). Eggs were noted first in December 1844, whereas the Flock Bronzewings were seen eating the seed of ' rice-grass' in January 1845. As Browne noted that 'In the end of February not one of these birds was to be seen about the country', and Sturt noted that the 'migration' of a number of other species occurred in late February and early March, it appears that the Appendix departure date of May was incorrect as well (1849, vol. 2 [App.]: 10): Browne's comment that the Flock Bronzewings arrived in the area in November is also not justified. The party left the Darling River near Lake Menindee in mid October, Browne saw his bird on lower Floods Creek when he arrived in the area in late November and the main party reached the breeding birds on upper Floods Creek in early December. It is more likely that they ·stumbled upon one of the southernmost groups of the Bronzewings rather than having witnessed the arrival of the birds.


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Sturt's bird seen 'on the banks of the Murray' must have been on the return journey in January 1846. This is undoubtedly the record in Frith (1982) from the 'Murray River in New South Wales'. However, this record cannot be said to be definitely from New South Wales, as the party also travelled along the banks of the Murray through South Australia. The bird was unlikely to have been in Victoria as they travelled on the north bank of the river on their return journey (Stokes 1986).

There are two specimens, 01486 and D1486a, in the LIVCM that came from Sturt and were obtained from Gould in November 1847 (C.T. Fisher in litt.). In addition there are three specimens in the BMNH: 1846-5-22-50, 1846-5-22-59 and 1846-6-22-57, collected in 'South Australia' (P.R. Colston in litt.), which presumably refers to birds collected on this expedition. The border between New South Wales and South Australia was under dispute at the time and indeed Sturt referred to the expedition as being wholly within South Australia (McAllan 1988).

1846, Murrumbidgee River In the published account of the overland transport of stock by Frank and Alexander Jardine from

Rockhampton to Cape York there is an Appendix which notes:

'FLOCK PIGEON OF THE GULF (Phaps histrionica) These beautiful pigeons which are alluded to by Leichhardt, are at certain seasons found in immense flocks in the plain country about the Gulf of Carpentaria. Their range is wide, as in 1846 they appeared in flocks of countless multitudes on the Murrumbidgee River, N.S.W., probably driven from their usual regions by drought' (Byerley 1867).

The author of this account is not identified. It could be the editor Frederick Byerley, but is probably John Jardine, the father of the Jardine brothers. John Jardine was certainly interested in birds. Elsewhere in the Appendix is the information that he had a collection of bird specimens, mainly from Cape York, that numbered many hundreds. John Jardine began to send bird specimens to John Gould from Cape York the previous year (Gould 1866). It is unclear whether John Jardine witnessed the Flock Bronzewings on the Murrumbidgee as his property in the 1840s was near Wellington, though the fanrily evidently travelled to some extent, Frank being born in Orange in 1841 and Alexander in Sydney two years later (Lack 1972).

October 1863, Kiacatoo Station, Lachlan River North (1913) published a letter from a correspondent, E.H. Lane, in which he recounted some

Flock Bronzewing records: 'In the early sixties I saw the Harlequin Bronze-wing on Kiacatoo Station, twenty-two miles [35 km] below Condobolin, on the Lachlan River, in flocks of fair size, but as I sold out my station interests there in 1866, I have never seen these Pigeons since. In September or October, 1864, I took several pairs of their slightly cream-coloured eggs from under the shelter of bushes on the plains.'

North also gave details of a clutch of two eggs in the AM collected by Lane at Kiacatoo 'in September or October, 1863. ' These eggs are still in the AM under the registration number 0.25139 and were collected in October 1863.

1864, 'Mossgiel district'

North (1913) published a letter from the\collector K.H. Bennett in which he gave details of some of his Flock Bronzewing records: 'In the year 1864, when this part of the country was first occupied, Phaps histrionica was found on these wide plains in countless multitudes. They made their appearance in July or the beginning of August, and bred during the months of October and November all over the plains. Their eggs, two in number for a sitting, were deposited on the bare ground beneath the shelter of a salt or cotton bush. Great havoc was caused amongst the young by various species of birds of prey, particularly the Black Falcon (Falco subniger), and even by Crows, when flushed by flocks of sheep. When on the wing these Pigeons do not fly straight off like Phaps chalcoptera, but circle round and round, and after a lengthened flight often alighted close to where they rose from ... At the period above mentioned, the country there being recently occupied, works in the way of water conservation were few and far between, and as the summer advanced and the natural shallow pools dried up, these birds resorted to the few tanks or dams for the purpose of drinking. With the exception of the Mutton Bird [ = Short-tailed Shearwater Puffinus tenuirostris] ... I have never observed anything like the immense assemblage of birds that were to be seen of an evening at these tanks. The whole ground from the water's edge to a distance of many yards around the tank, would be densely packed with them. When alarmed - as was fre<juently the case, although no danger was near - the whole flock would simultaneously take wing, the noise resembling thunder, and as the immense cloud wheeled around preparatory to again alighting, they would fairly darken the air . .. Its food consists of the various seeds of herbaceous plants.'

In a 'List of eggs from the interior of N.S.W.' written by Bennett when at Yandembah in May 1889 (now lodged with the E.P. Ramsay papers in the ML) he further noted: 'Phaps histrionica Gould


Occ.[asional] visitor[.] In 1864 this bird was extremely numerous & bred here[.] They have appeared in less numbers on several occasions since, but for the last 8 or 9 years I have not seen any.' This suggests that the Flock Pigeon records concerned were from the north-western part of the Hay Plain.

1860s, Killara Station, Darling River W.D.K. Macgillivray wrote in 1929, 'My father who lived on the Darling in the sixties, told

me that he had seen a flock [of Flock Bronzewings] of over two miles in length rise from where they had been feeding on the seeds of the luxuriant grasses that carne up after the flood waters had subsided.'

W.D.K. Macgillivray's notebook is now in the NMV. In it he noted, 'At Kallara Station Paroo river in the sixties they carne to feed on the Pappa grass a tall growing grass which bore plentiful seed[.] they were then in countless numbers.' Kallara Station is now known as Killara Station and is on the Darling River near the Paroo River Overflo'Y country. The grass mentioned is again apparently Native Millet. It is also known as 'papa grass' and grows vigorously after heavy summer rain (see Cunningham eta!. 1981). Another grass, Enneapogon nigricans, is sometimes known as 'pappus grass' and like Native Millet is found on the Darling River Floodplain. However, it does not grow taller than 45 ern, whereas Native Millet can grow to 145 ern tall and is thus the species of grass concerned.

1880, Yandembah K.H. Bennett (1891) noted that 'Amongst those [species] that have entirely vanished may be

mentioned Phaps histrionica . .. A few stragglers of Phaps histrionica were here in the year 1880, but none have been seen since.' From Bennett's letters to E.P. Ramsay lodged in the ML, it is evident that during 1880 Bennett was based at Yandernbah the entire time.

1880s, Moree district In a paper on the birds of the Moree district, Morse (1922) wrote of the Flock Bronzewing: 'History

relates that before the advent of sheep, they at times carne here in thousands. One old identity informed me that during the eighties "they were breeding in such numbers in his horse paddock that he could have filled a washing tub with the eggs".' Unfortunately, he gave no locality, but under his definition , the 'Moree district' included the Moree Watercourse country north and west of the town.

1893, 'Neighbourhood of the Gwydir River' North (1913) recounted: 'Although on several occasions visiting the latter neighbourhood [the

Narrabri area], I have never been fortunate enough to meet with this species [the Flock Bronzewing], but I was informed it appeared in large numbers in the neighbourhood of the Gwydir River, in 1893, feeding around tanks and darns, chiefly on the seeds of the Nardoo plant (Marsilea quadrifolia) .'

12 November 1894, 'Byrock' In the H.L. White collection in the NMV there is a specimen of a Flock Bronzewing labelled

as coming from Byrock on 12 November 1894. The specimen tag has the name Robert Grant attached, though it it is not indicated whether Grant collected or donated the bird. There is some doubt concerning the provenance of many of Grant's specimens, e.g. Mathews (1914), Ford & Parker (1974).

Before May 1895, Buckiinguy Station North (1913) noted: 'Mr. S. Robinson, writing from Buckiinguy Station, near Nyngan, New South

Wales, on the 30th April, 1895, remarks:- "The Harlequin Bronze-wing usually appears in this district immediately upon the break up of drought, when heavy rains make the 'wild sago' grow, which is the first herbage to make its appearance. Then they come in great numbers, and stay several months, breeding in the meanwhile. They lay in thousands all over the plain, two eggs being the most I have found in a nest, or more properly speaking a small hole scraped in the ground, either under a small saltbush or a tuft of grass".'

Septimus Robinson was a well-known egg-collector who visited inland New South Wales on a number of occasions (Whittell 1954). The source of the Byrock specimen may have been Robinson as Jackson (1907: 71) noted that he collected the eggs of White-backed Swallows Cheramoeca leucostemus at Byrock on 24 October 1898; Buckiinguy Station is only about 100 krn from Byrock. Robinson may also be the source of S.W. Jackson's clutch collected in 1889 (Jackson 1907; see Methods).

1909-1922, 'Moree district' Morse (1922) reported in his paper on the birds of the Moree district that 'I have on two occasions

seen a single bird [ = Flock Bronzewing]' . Unfortunately Morse did not give details of his own records


BIRD WATCHER

but these also are assumed to be from the 'Moree district', which under his definition included the Moree Watercourse country. His own records in this district pertained only to the years 1909-1922.

May 1931-August 1932, north-western New South Wales Macgillivray (1932) recounted a trip he made to Hewart Downs Station in September 1931. In

September 1930 large numbers of Flock Bronzewings appeared in north-eastern South Australia (McGilp 1932) . The following March, huge flocks began to appear in central Queensland near Longreach (Macgillivray's notebook, NMV). In May 1931, 'a small number' of Flock Bronzewings appeared at a darn on Hewart Downs (29°30'S, 141 "20'E). Later in the year some wool carters passing the area shot 50 pigeons. The female birds had eggs in them, and single birds were often flushed from the grass .

Macgillivray identified the birds as Flock Bronzewings when shown their feathers in Broken Hill on 17 September. He then visited the area on 21-24 September and found it to be 'in the centre of about six square miles [approximately 15 km2] of Mitchell Grass (Astrebla pectinata) and mixed Saltbush country' .

The birds carne to drink each evening at the darn in large numbers from 1640 to 1800 h. The latter time would have been close to sunset at this time of year. The numbers of flocks mentioned by Macgillivray suggest that there were many hundreds, if not thousands, of birds involved. In the mornings they drank from 0745 to 0915 h. In this case they were starting to drink almost two hours after sunrise. On the morning of 24 September he recorded two pairs corning to drink at 0600 h. He speculated that these birds were 'possibly prevented from drinking the night before'. In contrast with Sturt's account, all birds drank deeply and some birds actually landed on the water and drank while floating on the surface.

Macgillivray passed the wool carters when travelling north to Hewart Downs from Broken HilL They had shown him a 'bag' of Flock Bronzewings and he 'regretted to hear that they had still to make another trip' . Such sympathies for the Flock Bronzewings did not prevent Macgillivray from collecting several birds, seven of which are now lodged as specimens in the South Australian Museum (numbered 20269 to 20275) . His notebook tells us that one of the males collected on the evening of 21 September had nothing in the crop, 'and seeds like trefoil seeds (Swainsona procumbens) in gizzard' . Two of the three birds collected the following morning had their crops filled with 'fine cylindrical rough seeds ' . On the morning of 23 September another three birds were collected. One bird had a full crop, another a gizzard filled with seeds and the other bird was noted as having an empty crop.

The plains were searched during the day and he saw few youn~ birds. No nests were found by Macgillivray, though he had noted there were a number of young m the wool carters' bag. One of the birds he collected was considered a juvenile female 'which had not long been flying, about a month at most'. Some of the female birds collected had also recently bred.

On 13 December 1931 Macgillivray noted, 'Cecil Bartlett just returned from Mt Sturt [ = Mt Sturt Station, 29°36'S, 141 °43'E] , tells me that the Flock Bronzewing are on all the Mitchell grass country and several nests were noted by the men on the station after my visit in September and that they have come as far south as Albert McClure's Boulia Stn [= Boullia Station, 30°05'S, 141°52 'E]. They are now watering at all the dams in the NW Comer' (Macgillivray's notebook). The numbers of Flock Bronzewings had greatly reduced by mid April 1932 and Macgillivray's last mention of them on Mt Sturt Station was in late August.

June-July 1933, Casino Florence M . lrby (1933) wrote a short note about a pigeon she and her sister saw in the vicinity

of her home at Casino in June and July 1933. She gave no description of the bird which she emphatically called a ·'Flock Pigeon (Histriophaps histrionica)'. However, some of the habits of the bird seem unusual for this species - for example it became tame and fed on cracked com and wheat. She also noted: 'although its flight was very powerful, none of us ever saw it fly more than a few yards: nor did we hear it utter any call.'

Nevertheless, as a member of the RAOU, Irby had a good picture of the Flock Bronzewing to refer to for identification purposes, for a coloured plate was published with Macgillivray's article in The Emu. It is impossible to reach a satisfactory conclusion on this record, given the scanty details provided.

8 September 1937, between Nyngan and the Macquarie Marshes In the Museum of Victoria there is a clutch of two Flock Bronzewing eggs collected on 8 September

1937 by Len Harvey. His notebook, lodged with the collection, records: 'between Nyngan & Macquarie Marshes, northern N SWales 1937. I came across a small flock of these pigeon, open plain land with a few scattered trees . hard red sandy soil; riding a bicycle I flushed a pigeon off a nest of two


Typical Flock Bronzewing habitat: Buckbush, Native Millet, Curly Mitchell Grass and Bladder Saltbush, Metford Station, N.S.W., 8 June 1993

Plate 38 Photo: I.A.W. McAIIan

eggs. the nest was only a depression in the sand, with a few bits of grass as nest material, these could have blown in to the nest, or been placed there by the bird but one could not say they were nest lining, that is the only nest I have seen.' He noted that there was a severe drought farther to the north-west of this area at the time.

This collection contains a number of clutches of eggs with questionable data (L. Christidis & R.M. O'Brien pers. comm.). That the Bronzewings were breeding in a period of drought also lessens the credibility of the record. Nevertheless it is included here as valid until proved otherwise.

11 September 1942, Adelaide Gate N.J. Favaloro collected four specimens of Flock Bronzewings on 11 September 1942 at the locality

'Adelaide Gate, Queensland Border' (specimens B1452-B1455 in NMV). A fortnight after he collected these specimens, on 24 September 1942, he was definitely in Queensland where he had his first sighting of Grey Grasswrens Amytomis barbatus (see Favaloro & McEvey 1968). Although the account of his discovery of the Grey Grasswren is vague as to where he went during this visit to the Bulloo River floodplain, it is likely the pigeons were collected from Queensland. Nevertheless, from the locality given they were collected close to the New South Wales border. The specimens are of one female and three males, the female with small gonads.

9 July 1954, Wompah Gate There is a male specimen of Flock Bronzewing in the Museum of Victoria (B5755) collected by

N.J. Favaloro on 9 July 1954 from 'Wompah Gate, S.W. Queensland' . As with his records from 1942 this bird could have been collected in New South Wales. Wompah Gate is on the border between the two states on the western edge of the Bulloo River floodplain.

Late 1950s, near Booligal and near Wilcannia Frith (1982) noted: 'The next irruption known to have occurred in north-western Australia was

in the Pilbara in 1957, following the abnormally wet year of 1956 when above average rainfall, and flooding, had occurred over most of eastern and northern Australia. In that and the next few years, there were widespread reports of Flock Pigeons in places where they had not been for many years . . . One small group was seen on the Lachlan River near Booligal in New South Wales and others appeared near Wilcannia on the Darling River.'

Frith often collected specimens of material he saw. (particularly pigeons), yet there are no Flock Bronzewing specimens from New South Wales in the CSIRO collection in Canberra. Frith apparently was told of these observations by unidentified observers (G. Chapman in I itt. , P .J. Fullagar pers. comm.).

184 Me ALLAN

Spring 1957, Freemantle, north-west of Bathurst

AUSTRALIAN BIRD WATCHER

In spring 1957 Don Howarth (pers . comm.) saw a bird every day for two weeks in low heath near his horne at Freernantle near Bathurst. He identified this bird from various bird guides as a Flock Bronzewing. Some years later he observed live Flock Bronzewings at Taronga Zoological Park which were 'identical' with the birds he had seen. The bird had a 'red' back and wings, with black and white patterning on the head. When disturbed from the low heath it flew fairly fast on clapping wings. Howarth submitted the record to the RAOU Atlas of Australian Birds database but it is no longer in their records .

4 January 1972, Copes Bore, Clifton Downs Station On 4 January 1972 Richard and Christine Cooper were visiting Copes Bore on Clifton Downs

Station on the south-west of the Bulloo Overflow, accompanied by the station manager, when a Flock Bronzewing was startled. All three recognised it as a species they had not seen before. The Coopers later used field guides to identify the bird as a Flock Bronzewing. The station manager had been on the property about three years at this time (R.M. Cooper pers. comm.).

September 1973-May 1974, Sturt National Park In the period September to December 1973 Martin Denny (pers . comm.) was based at Mount

King Station in Sturt National Park. Ten to 20 Flock Bronzewings were regularly seen on an area about 5 krn north of the Mount King homestead. At the time the area of stony open rolling downs was well grassed with Mitchell grass Astrebla sp.

Rogers (1975) reported that Flock Bronzewings were seen by B. Gall 'throughout Sturt N.P.' during the period January to May 1974. At this time Bruce Gall was a National Parks ranger at Mount Wood (M. Denny pers. comm.). The RAOU Atlas datasheet that included this record placed it in the ten-minute cell centred on 29 "25'S, 142 °15 'E, i.e. covering the Mount Wood section of the National Park.

24 October 1973, 15 km south of Ivanhoe Rogers (1974) reported that John N. Hobbs saw a single Flock Bronzewing about 15 krn south

of Ivanhoe on 24 October 1973.

10 November-early December 1973, 30 km north-west of Tilpa Rogers (1974) reported that R. and L. Miller saw a pair of Flock Bronzewings about 30 krn north

west of Tilpa on 10 November 1973. They later saw 'up to 80' in the same area on 'several days in early Dec[ ember]; usually seen in early morning and late evening watering along roadside drains'.

8 September 1981, 4 miles [6.4 km] north-west of Thurloo Downs Station RAOU Atlas data sheet and Unusual Record Report Form 110534 gives details of a record of

four Flock Bronzewings seen by Phil Maher and Peter Allen 4 miles [6.4 krn] north-west of Thurloo Downs Station homestead, at 29 °14 '30 "S, 143 "26 'E. Phil Maher related: 'While [we were] driving along a station track a pair of pigeons appeared on the horizon they were flying very quickly and resembled racing pigeons. I immediately stopped the vehicle & leapt out. Another pair was then seen & both pairs flew in a half circle around the vehicle, on focusing the binocs on them I could see a chestnut body & black head, the birds then alighted about 200 yds away but before I had gone 50 yds they took off & quickly disappeared from view. On proceeding to the location where they landed I found a pool of water there in a claypan.' They watched the birds for an estimated five minutes.

This is the record of Flock Bronzewings given in Lindsey (1982).

28 September 1985, Yantara Lake Cooper (1989) reported that Phil Maher and Glenn Holmes saw a single Flock Bronzewing at

Yantara Lake on 28 September 1985. David A. Stewart (pers. comm.) was also present at this observation. The bird was observed standing on exposed mud at the edge of the water of the lake. The surrounding country was very dry at the time and the lake was well below its maximum level.

30 June 1988, south-west of Goodooga On 30 June 1988 John Thompson photographed a male Flock Bronzewing south-west of Goodooga

at approximately 29 °15 'S, 147 °00 'E (NSWORAC, case number 82). The photographs show the bird walking on a level treeless plain with a moderate cover of saltbush, copperburrs and sparse grasses. This record was forwarded to the NSWORAC by Greg Clancy, hence its entry under his name in Cooper (1992). The record was accepted by the NSWORAC (Morris 1993).

VOL. 16 (5) MARCH 1996 Flock Bronzewing in New South Wales

October 1988, various localities on the Bulloo Floodplain

185

From 17 to 21 October 1988 a group of the New South Wales Bird Atlassers visited the Caryapundy Swamp/Bulloo Overflow region in north-western New South Wales. On 18 October Richard Cooper, David Martin, Roger Heading and Bert Bolton travelled west from Hamilton Gate to Bindara Cottage and then 34 km south to near 29°18 'S, 142 °59 'E where they came upon a charmel filled with lignum Muehlenbeckia florulenta and partly inundated with water. Whilst they were there about 30 Flock Bronzewings were disturbed from drinking. Later, on their return to Hamilton Gate, they noted another eight birds near Bindara Cottage at 29°00'30"S, 142°54'E.

At dusk the following evening Richard Cooper and Jeanette Stephenson saw a single immature bird about 3 km .east of Adelaide Gate near 29°00'15"S, 142 °37'E. At the same time a few hundred

· metres to the south-west Eric Finley saw two more. A few hours after dawn on 21 October, Jeanette Stephenson and Roger Heading saw three birds a few hundred metres farther west.

Upon enquiring with local workers on the Dingo-proof Fence, the group was told there had been large numbers of Flock Bronzewings present in the overflow country· some weeks before, but their numbers were decreasing. At the time of the visit of the Atlassers the area was drying out, much of it having been inundated by floodwaters of the Bulloo River earlier in the year. Consequently there were many large pools of water scattered throughout the lignum and Old Man Saltbush Atriplex nummularia (McAllan pers. obs.).

December 1992-June 1993, Sturt National Park and vicinity In mid November and again in mid December 1992, drought-breaking rains occurred in western

New South Wales. In December the heaviest monthly rainfalls on record fell in a wide area including localities such as White Cliffs (140 mm), Broken Hill (180 mm), Louth (190 mm) and Cobar (151 mm) (Bureau of Meteorology 1992, 1993a). Farther north these totals tapered off into south-western Queensland and north-eastern South Australia where there were average to near-average falls (Bureau of Meteorology 1993b, c). Rains continued into the New Year and finally tapered off in February (Bureau of Meteorology, unpubl. data).

Before this rainfall, Flock Bronzewings were seen on 1 October 1992 in north-eastern South Australia, north of Dulkaninna Homestead on the Cooper Creek floodplain at 28 °56 'S, 138 °29 'E (six birds) and at 28 °53 'S, 138 °30 'E (about 100 birds) by Dariel Larkins (pers. comm.). They were also seen in November in south-western Queensland between Windorah and Bedourie (50 birds) (Way 1993). Although these are probably not unusual localities for this species (see Blakers et itl. 1984; also Fraser 1990, Read 1991), they are close to New South Wales, the former record being Jess than 250 km from Camerons Comer.

A major influx of Flock Bronzewings into New South Wales began in the second half of December after the second series of rains. The first two Flock Bronzewings were noted by Peter Bergman (pers. comm.), a ranger then at Sturt National Park. He saw them near Bullens Tank on the Gorge Loop Road at 29 OZ5 'S, 142 o15 'E. Several other observations were made by National Parks and Wildlife Service staff about this time: (a) in late December two more birds were seen just west of Narcowla Tank at about 29 °16 'S, 142 °14 'E; (b) in mid January four birds were seen 5 km south-west of Federation Tank near29 0Z2 'S, 141 °56'E; (c) in late January and all of February, 20-30 birds were present near North Torrens Tank at 29°16'S,

142 °11 'E; (d) in late February two birds were seen at Bullens Tank again. All these localities had Mitchell grass present as well as Buckbush Sa/sola kali; there were very few rabbits present.

As the rains eased in February, large numbers of Flock Bronzewings began to appear on Coally Station south of Milparinka (M. Siemer pers. comm.). Flocks of hundreds began to lay in discrete patches in the Mitchell grass along Coally Creek near the road crossing (29 °56 'S, 142 °03 'E). They had chicks in a relatively short time and left the area during late March and early April. There were virtually no rabbits present at the. time, though there were at least 30 Australian Bustards Ardeotis australis in the area. This breeding record was erroneously relayed to A.K. Morris (pers. comm.) as being at Packsaddle and thus reported from this locality in Morris & Burton (1995).

On 12 April Bill, James and Alexander Watson and Phil Hansboro saw 40-60 Bronzewings at the crossing of Twelve Mile Creek, 28 km west of Tibooburra (29°21 'S, 141 °49'E) (B. Watson pers. comm.), congregating in flocks of 10-12 birds, and most were believed to be immature.

On 6 May, David A. Stewart and Richard Thomas saw a single male Bronzewing at a roadside puddle 32 km east of Tibooburra at 29 °32 'S, 142 °18 'E (D.A. Stewart pers. comm.). There were no more observations in the area until 22 June when Joe Mack (pers. comm.) saw 22 pigeons not long after dawn at Whitecatch House 25 km south of Camerons Comer, near ·29°13 'S, 141 °00'E. At the time Mack considered they may have been Squatter Pigeons. He described the birds as being uniform dark brown with some white below the eye and with a paler abdomen, they were dumpy

186 McALLAN AUSTRALIAN

BIRD WATCHER

and smaller than Common Bronzewings. However as Mack's description does not preclude young Flock Bronzewings, it is possible that this was the species he saw.

Between Broken Hill and Wilcannia, May-July 1993 In the earlyliftemoon of7 May 1993, the day after David Stewart and Richard Thomas saw their

bird east of Tibooburra, Hans Beste (pers . comrn.) was travelling west along the Barrier Highway from Wilcannia to Broken Hill. At 55 km west of Wilcannia near the Dolo Creek crossing (31 °39 'S, 142 °51 'E) he saw four Flock Bronzewings. Five kilometres farther at 31 °41 'S, 142 °48 'E, he saw another 11 pigeons from the highway. Later at around 75 km west ofWilcannia (31 °43 'S, 142 °39'E) he saw more than 200 Flock Bronzewings from the highway. Each group of pigeons was moving south. Rain had just fallen in the area.

On about 15 May, David Roshier saw two FlockBronzewings near 31 °57'S, 141 °45'E, at Avondale Station, about 30 km south-east of Broken Hill (Nick Sheppard pers. comrn.). Sheppard later recorded a large number of Stubble Quail Cotumix pectoralis and Little Button-quail Tumix velox at the locality when visiting it with Roshier about a week later.

On 17 May, Tony Palliser (pers. comrn.) was driving from Broken Hill to Wilcannia on the Barrier Highway. Between Topar and Metford Stations his car hit a Blue-winged Parrot Neophema chrysostoma, of which there was a large number nearby. Apart from about 500 Blue-winged Parrots, there were large numbers of Stubble Quail, Little Button-quail and Red-chested Button-quail Tumix pyrrhothora.x; raptors , including six Black Falcons and five Grass Owls Tyto capensis; and about 150 Flock Bronzewings. Most later observers at this locality recorded these species, though no one else observed the Grass Owls. There were many puddles along the roadside verge and it was raining. Palliser also observed the Flock Bronzewings performing display flights .

On 22 May, Dion Hobcroft and Chantal Whitten (pers. comrn.) saw about 300 Flock Bronzewings in the same area, though none was displaying. There were puddles of water along the roadside verge as it had been raining the day before. They spoke to some of the local graziers who informed them that the pigeons had been in the area for about two weeks (since around the time of Beste's observations farther east). The locals also informed them that there were Australian Bustards in the area, later confirmed by other observers.

On I June, Tom Smith (pers . comrn.) saw about 400 Bronzewings in the same area. On 5 June, about 2000 more were seen by David Andrew, Andrew Ley, John McLaughlin, Danny Rogers and Paul Scofield (D. Andrew pers. comrn.). The pigeons were being harassed by Spotted Harriers Circus assimilis. They saw three Australian Bustards at Y ancowinna Creek.

I visited the site with Andy Burton on 8 and 9 June. At 1545 h ~stem Standard Time on 8 June a flock of about 1000 Bronzewmgs was seen between 5 and 6 km west ofMetford Station (near 31 °49'S, 142 °02 'E). Another flock of about 200 birds joined it. The birds flew in a tight wheeling flock, reminiscent of a flock of waders. The flock was being harassed by three Spotted Harriers and three Brown Falcons Falco berigora, while three Black Falcons and two Little Eagles Hieraaetus morphnoides were nearby. The flock landed and took off a number of times over the next hour. At one stage we were able to walk to within 150m of the flock, the Bronzewings standing alert, with necks stretched. More than 80% of the flock appeared to be male, though the females and juveniles may not have been as easy to see against the red soil and long grass.

A number of tanks in the vicinity was visited to see if any Flock Bronzewings were drinking. However, we were informed by a local that there was water in all the tanks in the area as well as a number of small lakes. As sunset approached several smaller flocks of pigeons were seen flying over the plain, including at least two of more than 400 birds. The flocks were not all moving in the same direction and we were unable to determine where they were heading.

The next morning, a group of three and a flock of more than 200 of the pigeons were seen flying over the plain west of Yancowinna Creek (near 31°51 'S, 141°55 'E). A flock of 200 birds landed on the ground close to where they had landed the day before. As we walked closer to these birds, another flock of around 500 birds landed among them. The birds all stood alert, as they had the previous day. After about five minutes yet another group of around 200 birds was seen flying nearby and the 700+ birds on the ground took off and joined it. The site where the Bronzewings had landed was an area of about 200 m2 with little vegetation and very little seed and ap{'e3red unusual for the plain. There were many Flock Bronzewing feathers on the ground, most bemg smaller body feathers.

The area where the Bronzewings were found at Metford was a large, almost treeless plain with many species of seeding grasses. The highway traversed the plain from east to west for about 25 km. The plain corresponded with the Katalpa and Caloola land systems as mapped by the Soil Conservation Service of New South Wales(= Soil Cons. Serv. N.S.W.; 1988). On the basis of the mapped area, it would appear that the plain stretched about 30 km north to south and reached parts of Avondale Station in the west.

VOL. 16 (5) MARCH 1996

Plate 39

Flock Bronz~wing in New South Wales

Flock Bronzewings, Metford Station, N .S. W.

187

Photo: Heather Gibbs

Flock Bronzewing habitat, Metford Station, N.S.W. 8 June 1993. Curly Mitchell Grass in foreground with fallen seed, Native Millet to left, Buckbush in background.

Plate 40 Photo: I.A.W. McAllan

The plain was dominated by Curly Mitchell Grass Astrebla lappacea and Buckbush. Barley Mitchell Grass A. pectinata and Native Millet were also present (Plates 38, 40). Most of the vegetation was dry and appeared to have germinated after the rainfall of the previous summer (the Topar weather station recorded 222 rnrn of rain in December 1992; Bureau of Meteorology unpubl. data). The range of plant species was greatest in the roadside verges, drains and in some hollows on the plain. In all these run-on areas there were still some green plants, including Common Nardoo Marsilea drummondii, Queensland Bluegrass Dichanthium sericeum, Pop Saltbush Atriplex holocarpa and Bladder Saltbush A. vesicaria as well as many other species of grasses, peas (including Swainsona spp.), nightshades


BIRD WATCHER

Solanum spp., daisies and. chenopods. Several of these were flowering, with Queensland Bluegrass for the second time in recent months. However, they were only minor components of the vegetation in the run-on areas, the Curly Mitchell Grass being a major component here as well.

Other observers visited the area in subsequent weeks. Trevor Quested, Chris Gladwin and Barbara Harvey visited for five hours on 12 June and recorded groups of 1500, 500, 14 and six Flock Bronzewings (T. Quested pers. comm.). The pigeons were regularly put up by Spotted Harriers and Black Falcons. They recorded hundreds of button-quail and quail and saw ten Australian Bustards near Metford Tank. Rory O'Brien and Heather Gibbs were at Metford Tank a few days later, where they observed raptors harassing several large flocks of pigeons as before [Plates 37 (front cover), 39; R.M. O'Brien pers. comm.; also H. Gibbs' photograph in Andrew & Eades 1993]. Nick Sheppard (pers. comm.) visited the area the following week and saw a flock of about 300 birds. He flushed a single bird from underfoot but could not find a nest.

Alan Rogers (pers. comm.) spent the best part of two days in the area from 1-3 July. He saw no pigeons in the last hour of daylight on 1 July. The following day, despite walking for many kilometres in the habitat over many hours, only twQ Bronzewings were seen at about 1000 h. A male and a female were seen standing at the edge of a small drying lake west of Yancowinna Creek. At 1300 h on 3 July he saw a flock of 150 pigeons near Metford; again several kilometres of the plain were walked.

Rick Lehmann informed Nick Sheppard (at Broken Hill) that he had seen 400-500 Flock Bronzewings at Camel Hump Tank on Acacia Downs Station at 31 "23 'S, 141 °54 'E, in the last week of July. Seeding Mitchell grass was present in the area.

Also of note are rumours in the ornithological community that large numbers of Flock Bronzewings were present near White Cliffs at Easter of the same year (9-12 April). I have not been able to obtain any further details, nor did any locals recall them when asked on 10 June when Andy Burton and I were at White Cliffs. Conditions at the time appeared suitable for Flock Bronzewings. The plain to the north-west of White Cliffs was a green sward of Curly Mitchell Grass (Land System = Oakvale, see Soil Cons . Serv. N.S.W. 1980a). It appeared more dense than the grass between Metford and Topar and for this reason may have been unsuitable for Flock Bronzewings . Chats and raptors were common as at Metford.

Habitat and diet of the Flock Bronzewing in New South Wales Unfortunately most New South Wales reports of Flock Bronzewings give little

detail of the habitat and food available in the immediate vicinity of the locality. Elsewhere the habitat of the Flock Bronzewing is known to be grasslands dominated by Mitchell grass and other perennial grasses (Frith 1982). They are also said to inhabit 'saltbush plains , spinifex grasslands and the short grass plains of the desert fringe'.

Frith also suggested that most of the early New South Wales records of Flock Bronzewings came from temperate grasslands dominated by Plains Grass Stipa aristiglumis and Tall Oatgrass Ihemeda avenacea. However, this latter association is not borne out by the facts. Certainly the habitat along the Mooki River where Gould saw his first birds is believed to have been primarily grassland dominated by Plains Grass, although Tall Oatgrass may have been present (Duggin & Allison 1984). Furthermore, Mitchell grass is not known from the Liverpool Plains. This could suggest that Frith-was correct, but Gould saw only three Flock Bronzewings in this area. These birds were probably vagrants from the main body of birds farther north near Gundemaine and Weetawaa. Such vagrancy may explain some other outlying records: Sturt's on the Murray, Irby's from Casino, and Howarth's from near Bathurst. All of these reports were from periods when there were movements of Flock Bronzewings into other parts of the state. Even if Gould's first birds were not vagrants, there were many other grasses in the area, including Queensland Bluegrass and Panicum spp., besides those mentioned by Frith (Duggin & Allison 1984).

The habitat in the W eetawaa area is believed to have been a grassland dominated by Curly Mitchell Grass and Small Flinders Grasslseilema membranaceum (Soil Cons. Serv . N.S.W. 1978a). These species became less frequent as one moved east to a grassland dominated by Queensland Bluegrass and Red-leg Grass Bothriocloa macra near Gundemaine and Plains Grass at the foot of the Nandewar Range. Nevertheless, Curly Mitchell Grass also remained a component of these grasslands throughout.


149 150 151 152 153

141 142 143' 144 145 146 147 148

29

31

32

35

.36

37

Figure 1. Records of the Flock Bronzewing from New South Wales. X= 1800-1900; solid squares = 1901-1994. Records not able to be placed in a 10-minute grid block: Darling River, 1834; lower Murray River, 1846; Murrumbidgee River, 1846; Mossgiel district, 1864; Moree district, 1880s; Gwydir River, 1893; Moree district, 1909-1922; near Wompah Gate, 1954; near Booligal, late 1950s; near Wilcannia, late 1950s. Figures show degrees latitude and longitude.

149 150 151

141 142 143 144 145 146 147 146

29

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

Figure 2. Distribution of Mitchell grass habitats in New South Wales. Solid shading = Rolling Downs with Mitchell grass in better seasons; vertical hatching = upper Darling floodplain that previously had large areas of Mitchell grass cover, now patchy; diagonal hatching = sandplain areas of the Far North-west Plains that have patches of Mitchell grass in better seasons; horizontal hatching = southern areas of saltbush plain that may have areas of Mitchell grasS in better seasons. Figures show degrees latitude and longitude.


BIRD WATCHER

Analysis of the land systems found at the remainder of the recorded localities reveals that they fall into two broad categories: the 'rolling downs' of the far west of the state (west of the Darling and Paroo Rivers) and the floodplain areas of the northern half of the Murray-Darling Basin (see Figures 1 and 2). In both cases summer-growing grasses predominate, though in the case of the Downs this growth can be extremely infrequent owing to erratic rainfall. An often dominant genus of grasses in these areas is that of the Mitchell grasses. Indeed Mitchell grasses have their most extensive stands in New South Wales in the Downs country and the alluvial plains of the northern inland (Campbell1989). Whether or not Mitchell or any other summer-growing grasses are essential for the survival of the Flock Bronzewing is not known, but it appears that the species has a strong association with this habitat.

The only record of Flock Bronzewings from north-western New South Wales that is not associated with an area in close proximity to these grasses is Grant's specimen from Byrock. However, as noted before, some of his specimens are known to have erroneous data. One possibility is that the specimen could have come from the Buckiinguy area where many specimens of other species were collected at about this time (e.g . specimens in the H.L. White Collection, NMV, and in the AM).

Another habitat associated with these land systems in New South Wales is saltbush plains. In fact saltbush, particularly Bladder Saltbush, is scattered throughout most areas of Mitchell grass in New South Wales (Dalton 1988, Campbell 1989). Read (1991) also recorded Flock Bronzewings eating the 'immature [i.e. green] fruits of Pop Saltbush Atriplex spongiosa' in South Australia. In this context it is worth noting that these fruits would look superficially similar to those of Bladder Saltbush.

Feeding records of the Flock Bronzewing in New South Wales are few. Most food species recorded in the state refer to seeds resulting from growth after heavy rain or flooding. Only two foods of the pigeon have been recorded from New South Wales that can be identified to the genus level, Native Millet and Nardoo Marsilea sp. Other foods noted have been 'small hard seeds', 'various seeds of herbaceous plants', 'wild sago', 'seeds like trefoil seeds (Swainsona procumbens)' and 'fme cylindrical rough seeds' .

In the only study on the diet of the species, Frith et al. (1976) reported on the results of examination of the crops and gizzards of 49 birds collected in the Northern Territory. They observed that the most important item in the diet by percentage volume was the seed of the forbs Desert Spurge Euphorbia eremophila and Cattle Bush Trichodesma zeylanicum. Both of these species are found in western New South Wales and can be present in Mitchell grass communities (Cunningham et al. 1981). However, they were not considered significant components of either the Downs country of northwestern New South Wales by Dalton (1988) nor of the Mitchell grass plains by Campbell (1989) .

Frith et al. (1976) thought it surprising that there was no Mitchell grass in the crops of the birds they collected for this was the common grass of the Barkly Tableland, the area of their study. As they noted, the Flock Bronzewings were collected during a period of drought when the birds were concentrating near bore water and were observed to feed on undigested seeds in cattle dung nearby, so Frith et al. speculated that their data may reflect the grazing habits of the cattle rather than the normal diet of the Flock Bronzewing.

Perhaps of some significance is the fact that Frith et al. (1976) recorded Native Millet in the crops and gizzards of 36.7% of the birds collected. This species was recorded as a food plant in New South Wales by Sturt, Browne and Macgillivray Snr and was also present in the Metford/Topar area in 1993. It is considered an


important component of the Downs country of the far north-west of New South Wales and a significant species on the Mitchell grass plains farther east (Dalton 1988, Campbell 1989). Yet given the variety of seeds found by Frith et al. , Native Millet is probably not a limiting factor in the distribution of the Flock Bronzewing.

Although there are many recurring elements to its preferred habitat in New South Wales, which appears to be areas that include Mitchell grass, the Flock Bronzewing's dietary requirements in a normal season still need to be determined.

Discussion

The decline of the Flock Bronzewing in New South Wales

Much of the Lower Namoi of Gould is now given over to cropping of wheat and cotton and most of this area may no longer be suitable for the Flock Bronzewing. Similarly there has been an expansion of cropping in the Moree Watercourse country and near Nyngan, hence a loss of habitat in these areas as well. However, cropping alone does not explain the decline in Flock Bronzewing numbers in New South Wales.

The last record of Flock Bronzewings in the Condobolin area was in the 1860s, probably less than 30 years after stock was introduced to the district. The last big flocks in the Mossgiel!Yandembah area were again from the 1860s, in this instance only two years after the arrival of stock (Bennett ms, ML), though areas along the Lachlan River itself had been occupied before 1847 (Campbell1931). Although these southern records may have been marginal to the Flock Bronzewing, they were also marginal to Mitchell grass, and presumably other grasses dependent on summer rain,

Mitchell grasses are preferentially grazed by livestock within chenopod shrub communities (Graetz & Wilson 1984). These grasses rely on heavy summer rains for growth and as one moves south into central New South Wales these rains become less frequent (Cunningham et al. 1981, Campbell1989). Consequently it may be many years between regeneration of Mitchell grass in these areas. Mitchell grasses are now largely absent from central New South Wales, the only recent records being from areas protected from grazing (Cunningham & Milthorpe 1981 ; Semple in Campbell 1989: 4; Porteners 1993). Intense grazing can eliminate Mitchell grass by removing the lower nodes necessary for growth of axillary tillers (Campbell1989). Orr (1980) has shown that heavy grazing by sheep can also eliminate all other grasses (including both Native Millet and Queensland Bluegrass). In addition, Orr found that although Mitchell grass may persist under this heavy grazing, the structure of the clumps changes, with a reduced basal area and density of clumps. This would reduce the amount of food, and presumably nest sites, available for Flock Bronzewings. Thus grazing during long periods without summer rain has eliminated Mitchell grass from much of the Lachlan and Murrumbidgee valleys .

Once the Mitchell grass was gone, the grazing of saltbush by sheep probably altered much of the remaining habitat. Degradation of saltbush habitat may have already been severe by the mid 1870s when graziers in central New South Wales began felling Myall Acacia pendula as fodder (Moore 1953, Porteners 1993). What seems to have ~ignalled the end of the Flock Bronzewing in this area was the arrival of rabbits from the south-west in 1880 (Stodart & Parer 1988). Rabbits are known to graze preferentially on Chenopodiaceae in dry areas (e.g. King 1990) and may have helped remove much rem,aining cover and possibly food for the Bronzewings. Certainly there has been a reduction in the cover of such species as Bladder Saltbush and Old Man Saltbush over large areas of western New South Wales (Beadle 1948, Cunningham et al. 1981, Porteners 1993).


BIRD WATCHER

The plains of the upper Darling River and its tributaries continued to harbour large numbers of Flock Bronzewings at least until the early 1890s. This was despite stock having been brought into the area in tens of thousands over 50 years before (Jervis 1962). The local collapse of the Flock Bronzewing population again coincided with the spread of rabbits through the area, reaching the Macquarie River in 1887 and the central Macintyre in 1901 (Stodart & Parer 1988). Today rabbits are quite uncommon in parts of the upper Darling and Riverina, largely as the soils are unsuitable for burrowing (Par& & Libke 1985, Wilson et al. 1992). Presumably rabbits were able to survive initially throughout this area as they were able to live above ground in areas of dense shrubs, or perhaps in long-established burrows of other species.

Rain falls mainly during summer in the upper Darling, though it is not as seasonal as in central and north-western Queensland (Campbell1989). This summer maximum allows Mitchell grasses to be found as a dominant ground cover in large areas from the Culgoa River east to near Moree and south to near Nyngan and Wee Waa. Mitchell grass cannot survive on land that is regularly inundated, though Queensland Bluegrass and Native Millet can. The areas where Mitchell grasses are found tend to be better drained. These areas also support Bladder Saltbush which is grazed by sheep and rabbits in dry periods (Dalton 1988).

Rabbits, however, were not solely responsible for the collapse in Flock Bronzewing numbers in the upper Darling. The stock numbers in the Western Division and surrounding areas had more than doubled in the years from 1879 to 1891 (aeadle 1948). This overstocking by cattle, sheep and rabbits led to a depletion of perennial fodder plants. In the following ten years a series of droughts, culminating in the severe drought of 1901-1902, coupled to create a collapse in food sources for all herbivores.

In contrast, the far north-west of the state has an irregular rainfall with, on average, a summer maximum. Wet summers needed for the regeneration of Mitchell grass are a rare event, perhaps as infrequent as once in every 15 to 20 years (Cunningham et al. 1981). It may be no coincidence that Flock Bronzewings appeared in 1931 , the late 1950s, the early 1970s and 1992-1993 as these were periods considered at the time to be of above-average rainfall (see Macgillivray 1932, Department of Science & Consumer Affairs 1976, Frith 1982, Bureau of Meteorology 1993a).

This century Flock Bronzewings have visited the far north-west of New South Wales in greater numbers than elsewhere in the state. This could be a result of the low rabbit population on the Downs country where burrowing in desert loams and clays is difficult (Dalton 1988). Low numbers of rabbits may result in more seed available for the Bronzewings after the initial regrowth of the Mitchell grass and chenopods, the only impediment being sheep brought into the area by graziers to feed under the improved conditions. However, in the Upper Darling and Riverina, property sizes are much smaller, on average perhaps one tenth the size, and thus stock densities are much higher. There would probably always be stock present in some numbers, even during prolonged droughts. Consequently the Flock Bronzewing's major competitor for food in New South Wales appears to now be livestock, though rabbits probably helped in the initial collapse.

Flock Bronzewings seen in and near the swamps of the lower Bulloo to the north of the Bulloo Overflow have been associated with the edges offloodouts. The Bulloo River floods almost annually in these areas from summer rains that fall to the north in south-western Queensland (Goodrick 1984). The floodwaters reach the Caryapundy Swamp later in the year and have largely dried by September/October. Large areas of forbs and grasses, including Curly Mitchell Grass, grow on the falling waters, particularly on sandy alluvium (pers. obs.). These apparently attract Flock Bronzewings, perhaps on a regular basis. Follow-up rains could ensure dispersal of


the Flock Bronzewings to the surrounding areas which include Downs country in all directions though, as noted before, these follow-up rains are rare.

Such a centre for dispersal is also suggested by the clumping of records in the upper Cooper Creek and Diamantina River catchments in South Australia (Fraser 1990). Many of these records indicate that the pigeons associate with floodouts . In particular Reese (1931a, b) recorded breeding in the 'flooded country' east ofGoyder's Lagoon and saw them at the Lagoon itself, and Larkins saw birds on the floodplain of the Cooper in October 1992 (seep. 185). Samuel White also observed them breeding -in the sandhill country at Lake Hope in October-November 1863 (Parker 1980). Although these sandhills are dominated by Sandhill Canegrass Zygochloa paradoxa, they are immediately adjacent to the extensive floodplains of Cooper Creek. At the time the Cooper was experiencing a major flood , with Lake Hope filled by the floodwaters .

The decline of the Flock Bronzewing in other states The Flock Bronzewing is still reported regularly from Western Australia, the

Northern Territory, South Australia and Queensland (Blakers et al . 1984). Most accounts suggest that even in these areas there was a decline in numbers. Macgillivray (in Campbell 1901) was the first to note that there had been 'an alarming decrease' in numbers of Flock Bronzewings in north-western Queensland. Berney (1928) elaborated, noting that the last records of huge numbers in central Queensland were from the Thomson and Barcoo Rivers in 1886. Even so, large. flocks were still being reported from farther south in the Moree district in the 1890s. Similarly, huge flocks were reported from Western Australia in 1900 (Carter 1902, 1904), and 'immense' flocks were seen on the Flinders River in northern Queensland in 1901 (Berney 1928):

Nevertheless, competition for food had increased throughout their range. Stock had been introduced to most of northern Australia at this stage. By the first decade of the century rabbits had spread north to occupy the southern edge of the Barkly Tableland and had reached the Indian Ocean at Eighty Mile Beach (Stodart & Parer 1988). Yet rabbits did not reach the Barcoo River until at least ten years after Berney 's sighting of 1886. This suggests that the pigeons ' nomadic habit masked their decline to some extent, flocks diminishing during unsuitable local conditions in some areas before overgrazing had occurred.

Despite Berney 's fears, small flocks were regularly reported from 1901 onwards. Yet large and even medium-sized flocks were not reported again until February and March 1928 when groups of up to 500 were seen on the Flinders River and farther south into central Queecsland (Berney 1928, Gaukrodger 1931). These flocks evidently built up and dispersed. In the years 1930 to 1932 large numbers were seen in northeastern South Australia, central Queensland and north-western New South Wales (McGilp 1932; Macgillivray 1932, notebook in NMV). Some of the flocks near Longreach were estimated as large as 20 000 birds.

Breeding was reported at a number of localities in northern South Australia in late 1955 (Condon 1968; also note Favaloro 's bird collected on the Bulloo in July 1954), followed by many sightings of moderate to large flocks in Western Australia, the Northern Territory, Queensland and South Australia that have continued almost unabated to the present day (Nielsen 1964, Marshall1965, Parker 1969, Storr 1969, Williams 1970, Cox & Pedler 1977, Frith 1982, Blakers et a! . 1984, Fraser 1990, Read 1991). Flocks have built up over the years and some extremely large individual groups have been seen (contra Blakers et al. 1984). For example, Frith (1982) reported a flock south of Katherine in the Northern Territory in 1968 that was at least one kilometre long and contained 'many thousands' of birds . A flock seen at Coorabulka


BIRD WATCHER

Station in western Queensland in 1985 was estimated at 100 000 birds (G. Chapman in litt.; see also photographs in Crome & Shields 1992) and a similar-sized flock was seen on adjacent Davenport Downs Station in December 1990 (D.A. Stewart pers. comm.). Nevertheless, large flocks are rarely reported farther south than 27 °S.

Although there has been an apparent recovery of Flock Bronzewing numbers in northern Australia, it must be emphasised that it is not certain that they were ever threatened in this area. The main concentrations of rabbits have remained to the south of the Tropic of Capricorn (Wilson et al. 1992), whereas the numbers of stock have remained comparatively low farther north until relatively recently. The Bronzewing numbers may never have dropped below a critical level; the lack of observers, combined with a cyclical period of low Bronzewing numbers, may have meant an under-reporting of the species. Indeed Lindsey (1995) suggested that they may have 'held on in some considerable numbers' . The perceived diminution in numbers may have been a response to loss of breeding habitat through overgrazing by introduced herbivores in New South Wales, South Australia and southern Queensland. The droughts in western New South Wales reached their peak in 1901-1902, creating widespread degradation of habitat, which guaranteed for the Flock Bronzewing a real decline in available breeding area when weather conditions ameliorated. Such loss in habitat could mean that the nomadic flocks were rarely able to take advantage of what were previously good seasons in these southern areas and thus not able to sustain high populations elsewhere.

Lindsey (1995) argued that the Flock Bronzewing has benefitted from the construction of waterholes by graziers. These additional waterholes provide a more regular supply of water for the Bronzewings. Furthermore, Lindsay noted that the concentration of cattle around these waterholes has resulted in the undigested seed in the cattle dung also being confined to the vicinity of the waterholes. However, it should not be inferred that this is of great benefit to the Flock Bronzewing. Taken alone, it ignores the major loss of food resources brought about by increased grazing pressures, a point noted by Lindsey himself.

The eating of Flock Bronzewings by both Aborigines and Europeans was also suggested to be a cause of the pigeon's decline by both Campbell (1901) and Halliday (1978, 1980). However, they did not take into account the fact that most of the Aborigines and Europeans killed the pigeons only for local consumption. At the time Campbell was writing, there were no fast methods for moving pigeons from many of the northern and inland parts of the country to the larger towns and cities closer to the coast. For example, the railways had gone no farther towards south-western Queensland and north-eastern South Australia than Charleville; motorised transport to this area was still a decade away (Tolcher 1986). The hunting of pigeons for sale at town markets, or for 'sport', was probably only on a small scale, otherwise it would be well known in the ornithological and popular literature, as is the hunting of Passenger Pigeons and Eared Doves Zenaida auriculata (e.g. Bucher 1982, 1992). With only small-scale hunting, the Flock Bronzewing population is unlikely to have been severely depleted. Extremely large congregations would have exhibited some degree of predator swamping, with the Aborigines and Europeans being unable to store many excess pigeons, nor shoot entire flocks; small groups of pigeons are unlikely to have contributed much to the overall population. The same predator swamping is likely to have occurred with both cats and foxes.

Perhaps more damaging may have been the movement of stock across areas of breeding birds. Woinarski (1993) pointed out that livestock are likely to trample the nests of ground-nesting birds in tropical savanna and Mitchell grasslands. Indeed Macgillivray (1929) noted cattle trampling Flock Bronzewing nests, including eggs


and young. Similarly, Thornton (in Campbell1901) noted the same for sheep. Such destruction can occasionally be significant. By way of example, in 1983 I was told by a grazier who had spent a lifetime in central Queensland, that while crossing areas of ground-nesting pigeons he had seen stock get bogged because they had broken so many eggs.

Fire is known to increase flowering and seed set in Mitchell grass (Scanlan 1980). Woinarski (1993) suggested that reduced fire frequency brought about by graziers may have affected the Mitchell grass plains by creating areas of senescent vegetation, with low availability of grass seeds. Although this could well be the case, the fact that Flock Bronzewings are still found in large numbers in areas where fire suppression occurs, such as the Mitchell grass plains of central Queensland, implies that it can be only a minor problem for the pigeon.

Flock Bronzewings and their colonial habits: some speculation When coming to drink, Flock Bronzewings often congregate in large groups, both

in flight and at the watering point. Flocks of birds have been regularly flushed from the ground on many occasions during the day where they were presumably either feeding or loafing. Although questioned by Berney (1928), Flock Bronzewings are also a colonial-breeding species. They tend to breed in large groups, with nests only metres apart under tussocks and bushes over vast areas. They also occasionally breed in smaller discrete groupings, or possibly as scattered pairs (cf. records of Siemer from 1993 and Harvey from 1937). The fact that these areas can be large does not prevent them from being considered colonies. These situations may be related to the low availability of nest sites, the tussocks of grass being well spaced over a wide area.

Flocking and colonial roosting may occur for various reasons, such as for predator detection, keeping warm, extra-pair copulations by female birds, or for transfer of information concerning food sources (Ward & Zahavi 1973, Ydenberg & Prins 1984, Mock et a!. 1988, Wagner 1993). The roosting habits of Flock Bronzewings are unknown, and thus there is no proof of colony formation for warmth, though the temperatures at night in the arid zone can be extremely low. Similarly there is at present no evidence for extra-pair copulation in the breeding colony. Although the evidence for easier predator detection in Flock Bronzewings is also lacking, the pigeons at Metford were responding as flocks and not as individuals to harassment by raptors.

Another reason for flocking habits may be the use of an 'information-centre' as defined by Ward & Zahavi (1973) . An information-centre is a grouping of birds, either at a colony or a communal roost. This group is believed to be able to learn from its successful foragers the locations of food sources and thus allow the less successful foragers to exploit the food more effectively. Ward & Zahavi suggested that this becomes more efficient with increasing colony size. They also suggested that such use of an information-centre is the primary reason for coloniality and that advantages such as easier predator detection are secondary. This hypothesis has generated some controversy. While there is no agreement as to whether the function of the information-centre actually occurs in colonial birds, evidence for the hypothesis, although circumstantial, has been found in several species from different families and also in mammals such as bats and rats (Eiserer 1984, Ydenberg & Prins 1984, Brown 1986, Mock et a!. 1988, Wilkinson 1992).

Other authors have created models to explain such behaviour. Waltz (1982) propounded that there were two ecological parameters necessary for an informationcentre to become advantageous: the distance between food patches, relative to the average distance between the food patches and the information-centre (the distance ratio), must be high, while the probability of a forager moving to a better feeding


BIRD WATCHER

area by chance must be low. Gaston & Nettleship (1981) suggested that the information-centre effect was used in colonies of Thick-billed Murres Uria lomvia to locate erratic food sources found over a wide area. They postulated that without the information-centre, the feeding rate necessary to maintain recruitment to the colony could not be sustained and the colony size would fall below a threshold of viability, resulting in a crash in numbers.

The Eared Dove and the Passenger Pigeon were considered by Bucher (1982, 1992) and Halliday (1980)l o be further species that use( d) social facilitation to find food. In both instances these species congregated in large numbers when there was a patchy food supply: mast in the case of the Passenger Pigeon, and seeds of Croton spp. in the case of the Eared Doves of north-eastern Brazil. These authors suggested that the lowering of the population of the Passenger Pigeon below a threshold may have been partly responsible for its extinction. The erratic nature of rainfall in arid Australia and the large congregations known in the Flock Bronzewing also suggested to both these authors that some form of social facilitation may aid this species.

Ward & Zahavi (1973) did not consider the option of a watering point being an information-centre, though other authors have. Ward (1972) noted that it may be the case for various members of sandgrouse (Pteroclididae) which perform mass flights to water. Bucher (1982) also noted that the Eared Dove flocks around water, particularly late in the breeding season as the numbers of available drinking places decrease with the onset of the local dry season.

Although there is little evidence, Flock Bronzewings may use the informationcentre effect in the following way.

The impetus for Flock Bronzewings to move into an area appears to be widespread heavy rain (see for example Robinson's 1895 record; also the records of 1992-1993). How they are able to determine where rain has fallen is a matter of conjecture. Bronzewings were on Cooper Creek in October 1992, 300 km east at the Tibooburra area in December 1992 and a farther 250 km south near Metford in May 1993, apparently moving to each new locality as a response to rain. Indeed Beste observed Flock Bronzewings flying south just after rain. At ground level in open flat country one can easily see a storm cell over 70 km away (pers. obs.). The long wings of the Flock Bronzewing are particularly suited to flying long distances, so it is likely that the Bronzewings could fly about 250-300 km following storm cells until rains fell over suitable habitat. At this stage there would be little benefit in the use of an information-centre.

After arriving in a suitable area they prepare to breed. Initially water is likely to be abundant, though food may not, the birds feeding on the little green herbage and seed available. Rainfall and topography are never uniform and seeding itself is thus unpredictable, some areas and species of grass seeding before others. The areas with the most rapid growth of grasses are likely to be the preferred nesting sites of the Bronzewings; such areas are also likely to be in discrete patches. As the grasses grow and seed, the Bronzewings have an excess of food and are able to feed cropmilk and small seeds to their chicks.

The water eventually dries up, creating fewer watering points and concentrating the Flock Bronzewings. Such a situation appears to have occurred with the flocks observed by Bennett in 1864. The birds could .then start to use the water as an information-centre for finding food. Flock Bronzewings have been seen drinking only a few hours after sunrise and again in the hours leading up to sunset (see Fletcher in Campbelll901, Gaukrodger 1931, Cox & Pedler 1977, Frith 1982, Fraser 1990, Loyn 1995, and the records of the Sturt Expedition, Macgillivray and the N.S.W.


Bird Atlassers). Frith (1982) also noted that, in captivity, changeover at the nest took place at 1800 h and suggested that one bird drank in the mori:ring and the other in the evening. Such a regular timing, if present in wild birds, could be beneficial for the transfer of information if it occurs.

Transfer of information in the evening coupled with crepuscular feeding habits may mean that birds arriving in the evening at a patch with abundant food would be able to feed at dawn before drinking. Some of the birds shot by Macgillivray had eaten seed before coming to drink, although others had not. Eventually the widely scattered food and water cannot support the congregating flocks and the birds begin to disperse, a situation not unlike that suggested for colony maintenance in Thickbilled Murres (Gaston & Nettleship 1981). This suggests that any information-centre may be effective for Flock Bronzewings only if there were enough resources for colony maintenance within foraging distance. Furthermore, it could be that Flock Bronzewings are able to breed and survive at much lower population levels during periods of suboptimal conditions for colony formation than many other species that breed in colonies exclusively.

Whether the Flock Bronzewing transfers information at present can be only a matter of speculation, as there has been no published account of extended observations of the species.

Breeding season

Another trait suggested in colonial birds of semi-arid areas is the use of 'itinerant breeding'. Itinerant breeding is a term coined by Ward (1971) for the movement of a group of birds away from an optimal habitat that has just received rain to an ar~a of sub-optimal habitat that is already responding to earlier rain. The birds breed in the area of sub-optimal habitat and then return to breed in the area of optimal habitat. Ward suggested that the Red-billed Quelea Quelea quelea has, in parts of its range, developed a regular migration to follow this breeding pattern. Later authors (e.g. Elliot 1990 and Thompson 1993) have questioned the simplicity of the migration patterns proposed by Ward, but the idea of itinerant breeding in the Red~billed Quelea still .remains. Bucher (1982) has suggested that the Eared Dove may also have such a breeding pattern in north-eastern Brazil.

Rainfall is more predictable on the northern and eastern extremities of the Flock Bronzewing's range. The wet season begins in the months of December or January in most localities in these areas (cf. Department of Science & Consumer Affairs 1975). Unlike central Africa and north-eastern Brazil, rainfall does not move in a regular 'wave' across the northern half of Australia but becomes more erratic towards central and southern Australia. This would suggest' that the predictable phenomenon of 'itinerant breeding' may not occur in Australia. As already noted, Flock Bronzewings probably move long distances as a response to rain and thus could take advantage of suitable conditions whenever they occur in the arid zone.

Adult Red-billed Queleas and Eared Doves are largely dependent on ephemeral seed sources and insects during breeding (Disney & Marshall 1956, Ward 1971, Murton et al. 1974, Bucher 1982). However, Flock Bronzewings may also eat both green vegetable matter and seeds of chenopods. After rain these alternative food sources could be sufficient to supply the Bronzewings until the grasses seed. This evidently was the situation in north-western New South Wales in 1992-1993. For the first two months after December 1992 the Flock Bronzewings were found in Sturt National Park, presumably because of the greater amount of seed present as a result oflower levels of grazing by herbivores. It takes approximately eight weeks between the germination and seeding of Mitchell gr~ses (D. Munich pers. comm.). As the


BIRD WATCHER

grass seed matured, the Flock Bronzewings moved into surrounding areas which include the more fertile run-on areas, such as the Caloola Land System, not found in the Park but present at Coally Station where they bred (Soil Cons. Serv. N.S.W. 1978b). The fact that the Bronzewings needed to wait until seed had formed before breeding suggests that green seed may be necessary to feed the young or to make crop-milk.

In 1844 a similar sequence of events may have occurred. Sturt's party noted almost continuous rain near Menindee Lake on the Darling River from 10-13 October. The rain was apparently widespread as many of the areas visited in the subsequent weeks showed evidence of recent rain. The Flock Bronzewings seen on upper Floods Creek on 9 December were again breeding eight weeks after the heavy rainfall event, in an area that now includes the Caloola and Katalpa land systems (Soil Cons. Serv. N.S.W. 1980b).

Known dates for clutches of the Flock Bronzewing in New South Wales range from September to April, though Macgillivray also noted immature birds in September. This suggests overall that the breeding season is in the warmer months in the south of their range. Farther north in Queensland and the Northern Territory, breeding has been noted in all months of the year except December and January, with a breeding peak in autumn and winter. The limiting factor for breeding in the Flock Bronzewing appears to be the growth and seeding of their preferred grasses and forbs. Low temperatures limit this growth in the south of the Bronzewing's range and high rainfall farther north. A consequence may be that in the northern part of the arid zone, such as in western Queensland, the Flock Bronzewing can breed at any time there is sufficient rainfall.

In the case of the birds at Metford, Palliser saw the display flight of the Bronzewings as it rained, but no further evidence of breeding was seen by other observers. This was presumably because by mid May the temperature was too low for the germination and seeding of Curly Mitchell Grass, Barley Mitchell Grass, Native Millet and possibly Queensland Bluegrass, the most likely food sources (Dalton 1988). Marshall & Disney (1957) and Marshall (1959) indicated that a primary stimulus for the Red-billed Quelea to breed was the appearance of rain or, in the case of young birds, green grass needed to weave nests. It would appear that the display of the Flock Bronzewing is also brought on by wet weather at any time but breeding may not necessarily result.

Conservation and conclusions

In New South Wales reports of large numbers of Flock Bronzewings have come from as far east as the Gwydir River and the Narrabri area thence south to Condobolin, the Hay Plain and the central Darling River. Records of single individuals from outside these limits have come from Breeza, Bathurst and possibly Casino and the lower Murray River. Most of the reports of large numbers are from last century.

Whilst noting the decline of the species in New South Wales and eastern Queensland, Garnett (1992) suggested that the Flock Bronzewing 'appears to be under no immediate threat' . However, the evidence suggests that there may be little room for complacency.

Overgrazing appears to have caused a decline in Bronzewing numbers in areas within the southern parts of the species' range. There have been few reports of Flock Bronzewings breeding in South Australia or southern Queensland this century. In New South Wales grazing has now made the Lachlan and Murrumbidgee valleys unsuitable for the Flock Bronzewing. The Mitchell grass plains east of a line from the Culgoa River to Nyngan no longer support the species and this can only be viewed


as a real decline of important breeding habitat. Records from this area were perhaps more regular than those farther south and west in New South Wales (for example the records of the 1840s and 1890s); Flock Bronzewings also persisted in this northern area long after the arrival of stock.

Records of large numbers of Flock Bronzewings have tended to be cyclical in far western New South Wales . Movements into the Downs country and southern marginal areas occur only when conditions are suitable, usually after heavy summer rain. Such conditions may happen as irregularly as once in twenty years . The lack of records between these events must be viewed as the normal situation. The fact that Flock Bronzewings still appear when the conditions are suitable may reflect the low numbers of rabbits in the Downs habitat and initial low numbers of stock after heavy rainfall events, rather than any good management. Indeed the fact that breeding is still rare suggests that the run-on areas such as the Caloola land system, found at Floods Creek, Coally and Metford, are at present usually overgrazed. Apart from some small areas in Mootwingee and Kinchega National Parks ( (5 km2 in each), this land system is at present unrepresented in reserves in New South Wales. Indeed it has been stated that current grazing levels are too high to guarantee the long-term viability of the vegetation throughout north-western New South Wales (Pickard & Norris 1994).

As the Flock Bronzewing appears to be independent of predictable rainfall, it has been able to survive in parts of the arid zone proper. Those areas in southern Australia that harbour Flock Bronzewings in 'non-invasion' years are invariably on the floodplains of the inland rivers, for example Cooper Creek and the Bulloo River, and perhaps previously the upper Darling catchment. The numbers of Bronzewings that are now reported from these areas may by only a fraction of their former number since competition from herbivores. North-eastern South Australia, south-western Queensland and the Bulloo hold large populations of rabbits (Wilson et al. 1992), and livestock numbers are higher in the upper Darling than farther west. These same floodplain areas have been found to have contributed the greatest number of mammal extinctions within Australia, and many of the causes for these extinctions, outlined by Morton (1990) and Dickman et al . (1993), are implicated in the decline of the Flock Bronzewing.

Grazing continues to expand in western Queensland, in both the area occupied and the number of stock. Combined with the spread of introduced weeds, this may pose a serious threat to the Flock Bronzewing's future (Woinarski 1993). Burrows et al. (1986) have shown that the spread of the introduced Prickly Acacia Acacia nilotica is occurring at an alarming rate across the Mitchell grass plains of Queensland. Although sheep destroy most of the seed of the Acacia that they eat, this is not the case with cattle where around 40% of the seed·may still be viable . This may not have been much of a problem in the past. However, there has been an increase in cattle numbers in the Mitchell grass plains since the late 1960s (Hall & Lee 1980). Although germination of Prickly Acacia may be hindered by frost, the potential still exists for the loss of much of the Mitchell grass plains north of the Tropic of Capricorn to this weed.

In contrast, the spread of the rabbit northwards appears to have been halted by high temperatures (Parer & Libke 1985), but this northern range limit is close to that of the projected southern limit of the Prickly Acacia (Burrows et al. 1986, Wilson et al . 1992). Whereas rabbits may compete for food with Flock Bronzewings only in areas such as the floodplains of Cooper Creek and the Bulloo River, high stock numbers elsewhere will put pressure on the Flock Bronzewing throughout its range. Given this situation, if nothing is done to either reduce grazing pressure or eliminate the Prickly Acacia, the long-term prospect for the Flock Bronzewing is not good.


BIRD WATCHER

It appears the only way for rehabilitation of the Flock Bronzewing in New South Wales, and perhaps South Australia and southern Queensland, is to reduce the impact of introduced herbivores. It remains to be seen what effects the spread of the Rabbit Calicivirus disease will have on the rabbit population and the dynamics of the flora and fauna of semi-arid Australia. As far as the Flock Bronzewing is concerned, there may be few direct benefits. Within the Flock Bronzewing's preferred habitat in New South Wales, rabbits now appear to be a problem only in areas such as the Bulloo Overflow. The soils preferred by Mitchell grass elsewhere in the state are usually not suitable for warrens. Thus there are two options: either a dramatic reduction in stock levels on the Downs and Mitchell grass plains, or the reservation of areas of Mitchell grass.

Several of the Downs land systems are well represented in the National Parks system (such as the Olive Downs land system in Sturt National Park), but those in the Broken Hill area and associated with floodouts are not. Similarly there are no significant areas of Mitchell grass plain reserved in the upper Darling.

Morgan & Terrey (1992) proposed several areas for reservation in western parts of the state and no doubt many of these would be of benefit to species such as the Bronzewing. However, there are still some fundamental flaws with their proposals and summary. The selection of areas for reserves by Morgan & Terrey focussed on vegetation and geology, and not on fauna. Consequently in areas such as the upper Darling and areas near Narrabri the proposed reserves have been small, largely accommodating existing land-management practices. This means that for species that use scattered resources (such as the Flock Bronzewing) or high-order consumers (such as raptors) small reserves with vegetation representative of widespread communities may be of little value. For example when talking of the Mitchell grass plains in their account of the valleys of the Culgoa, Birrie and Bokhara, they note, 'As these natural grasslands are the most valuable pastures in inland New South Wales, their retention for grazing purposes is highly desirable', thus apparently dismissing any chances for meaningful reservation of this widespread and important habitat.

Social and economic pressures staying as they are, grazing oflivestock will continue over most of the former range of the Flock Bronzewing in New South Wales. There have been suggestions that multiple land-use options may form the basis of a solution, yet the experience of such systems in the United States shows that they tend to favour existing grazing regimes (Pickard & Norris 1994). If this were to occur in New South Wales then current levels of grazing would probably remain. Even if graziers could be convinced that reduced stocking rates could benefit them financially, there is no guarantee that lower rates would support the return of the Flock Bronzewing, nor that they would remain so under private management.

Exactly what should be done for the Flock Bronzewing in western New South Wales will depend on the views of fauna planners, but it may be that ultimate! y they will need the lower grazing pressure that only the reservation of large areas of suitable habitat can provide.

Acknowledgements

Many people have helped in various ways in the preparation of this paper. These include: David Andrew, Paul Andrew (Taronga Zoo), Kevin Bartram (RAOU), Peter Bergman (N.S.W. NPWS), Hans Beste, Walter Boles (Australian Museum), Bert Bolton, Charles R. and Mary Bomberger Brown, Graeme Chapman, Peter Colston (The Natural History Museum, Tring), Dick Cooper (N.S.W. Bird Atlassers), Etienne Dauchin, Stephen Debus, R.W.R.J. Dekker (Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie, Leiden), Martin Denny, John Disney, Eric Finley, Clemency Fisher (National Museums & Galleries on Merseyside), Peter Fullagar, Heather Gibbs, Chris Gladwin, Roger Heading, Dion Hobcroft, Don Howarth, Dariel Larkins, Joe Mack, David Martin, Gerloff Mees, Alan Morris (N.S.W. NPWS),


Dianne Munich (N.S.W. Agriculture, Trangie), Rory O'Brien (Museum of Victoria), Tony Palliser, Graeme Phipps, Trevor Quested, Alan Rogers, Nick Sheppard (N.S.W. NPWS), Mike Siemer, Tom Smith, Jeanette Stephenson, David A. Stewart, Richard Thomas, Bill Watson, Chantal Whitten, Paul Willis (Macleay Museum) and the staff of the Mitchell Library, State Library of New South Wales, the Soil Conservation Service of New South Wales (now in the Department of Conservation and Land Management), the Bureau of Meteorology, the National Library of Australia and Cambridge University Library. In particular I thank Andy Burton for allowing me to accompany him to Metford and White Cliffs in June 1993 and for our discussions on the plants and wildlife of the area.

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Received 31 March 1995 •

E.J~"Y'i!JiP' - Birdlife Australia

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