Educational Research Chapter 6 Descriptive Research Gay, Mills, and Airasian.

Educational Research

Chapter 6Descriptive Research

Gay, Mills, and Airasian

Topics Discussed in this Chapter

Descriptive research Designing and conducting

descriptive research Self-report data collection methods

Questionnaires Interviews

Descriptive Research Purpose

Determines and describes the way things are Compares how sub-groups view issues and

topics Importance

Frequently used in research studies Used to influence opinion Useful for investigating a variety of

educational problems

Obj. 1.1, 1.2, 1.3

Differences from Qualitative Research

Descriptive Research Uses observations

and interviews Studies the topic

from the researcher’s perspective

Qualitative Research Uses observations

and interviews Studies the topic

from the participant’s perspective

Obj. 1.4

Method Six steps in conducting descriptive

research Identify problem Review literature Select participants and instruments Collect valid and reliable data Analyze data Report conclusions

Obj. 2.1

Common Errors Lack of participant response

Low response rates are common Difficulties interpreting the findings

without the data representing non-respondents’ views

Unclear/ambiguous items Researcher needs to develop

recording forms that collect the data objectively and reliably

Obj. 2.2 & 2.3

Classifications of Descriptive Research

• Classified by how data are collected • Self-report

• Individuals respond to statements or questions about themselves

• Observation• Data is collected by the researcher

watching participantsObj. 3.1 & 3.2

Survey Data Collection Methods

Surveys represent the most common type of self-report measures Questionnaires Interviews

Advantages of conducting surveys Less time is required Less expenses are incurred Larger samples can be used Obj. 4.1


Five (5) types of surveys School surveys

Information collected by a school Information collected about a school

Sample surveys Use of samples representing relevant

subgroups of interest

Obj 3.3


Developmental surveys Examining variables that differentiate

children at different developmental stages

Cross-sectional surveys Collecting data from several samples at

one point in time Surveying samples of elementary,

middle, and secondary teachers at the same time Obj. 3.3 & 3.4


Longitudinal surveys Collecting data at two or more times to

measure change Four types

Trend – samples from succeeding groups are studied over time

Cohort – separate samples from a single group are studied over time

Panel – a single sample from a group is studied over time

Follow-up – a sample is studied after the formal study is complete

Obj. 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, & 3.8

Conducting Survey Research State the problem

The topic must be of sufficient significance to motivate a respondent and justify the research effort

Select the participants Must be able to provide the desired

information Must be willing to participate

Obj. 4.2

Conducting Survey Research Constructing the questionnaire

Appearance Visually attractive – use of white space Brief

Carefully planned content and item formats

Clearly identify sub-topics Use structured items if possible Use responses that can be checked or

circled rather than writtenObj. 4.5

Conducting Survey Research

Methods to collect data Mailed surveys

Advantages – efficient, inexpensive, easily standardized, easy to score, anonymous or confidential

Disadvantages – low response rate, inability to probe

E-mailed surveys Advantages – quick, efficient, inexpensive, easily

standardized, easy to score Disadvantages – can only assure confidentiality,

respondents might not have access to e-mail

Obj. 4.4


Telephone surveys Advantages – high response rates, efficient Disadvantages – requires lists of telephone

numbers, requires training Personal administration

Advantages – efficient if respondents are in close proximity to the administrator, allows for probes

Disadvantages – time consuming, expensive, requires training

Personal interview Advantages – rich complete responses Disadvantages – little standardization, takes time to

administer, expensive

Obj. 4.4


Types of items Two approaches to writing an item

Structured items – closed-ended, selection Unstructured – open-ended, supply

Two disadvantages are that respondents will not take the time to respond and the responses are difficult to score objectively

Specific types Scales

Likert Semantic differential

Rankings Checklists Free responses

Obj. 4.6 & 4.7


Qualities of good items Address single concept Avoid jargon Include point of reference Avoid leading questions Avoid sensitive questions Do not assume facts not necessarily true Pretested Provide information on how to respond

Questionnaire design Do not crowd items Number pages and items Do not put important questions at the end

Obj. 4.8

Conducting Survey Research Constructing a cover letter

Explains what is being asked and why Content

A brief description of the study Contact information Organizational endorsements and

support Deadline for responding Stamped self-addressed return envelope

Obj. 4.7


Cover Letter Characteristics Is brief, neat, and personalized Gives reason to respond Gives means to respond Promises anonymity or confidentiality

Anonymity and confidentiality Anonymity means no one can trace the respondent to

his or her responses Confidentiality means the researcher knows who

responded but promises not to divulge that information

Used to track respondents and non-respondents Usually ensured by coding names when the data is

entered

Obj. 4.9 & 4.10

Conducting Survey Research Pretest the questionnaire

Reviews by three (3) or four (4) individuals Provides information about deficiencies and

suggestions for improvement Follow-up activities

Reminder postcard Second survey with a cover letter politely

requesting a response Telephoning a small sample of non-

respondentsObj. 4.11 & 4.13


Two types of non-responses Respondents not returning the survey

First mailings usually result in 30% - 50% response rate

Follow-up postcards usually add about 20% Sending a second survey with a polite cover

letter requesting participation usually adds about 10%

Obj. 4.13


Respondents not returning the survey (cont.)

Concerns with generalizing from the results of the respondents given the lack of information from the non-respondents

Use of telephone interviews to collect responses from a few non-respondents

Comparing these responses to those of the respondents

Comparing respondents and non-respondents on demographic variables to ascertain any systematic differences

Obj. 4.12


Two types of non-responses (cont.) Respondents not completing items

Be certain this is taken into account when summarizing scores

Simply adding scores will not reflect the true score of a participant if he or she has left some items blank

Averaging those items to which a participant has responded takes into account his or her blank responses

Obj. 4.12


Tabulating responses Closed-ended items

Scantrons Electronic spreadsheets (e.g., Excel) Statistical software (e.g., SPSS-Windows)

Open-ended items Code answers according to perceived

patternsObj. 4.14


Analyzing results Total sample size and return rate Responses to each item

Average score and percentage of the sample responding

Subscale scores Average score of items on the subscale

Total score Average score of all items

Obj. 4.14

Conducting Interviews

An interview is the oral, in-person administration of a questionnaire to each member of a sample.

Obj. 5.1

Interview Studies

Advantages More in-depth Flexible Gives opportunity

to establish rapport

Allows immediate follow-up

Disadvantages May be biased by

interviewer Time-consuming

and expensive Requires skill

Obj. 5.2

Conducting Interview Research

Define the problem Identify potential interviewees Construct an interview guide

A written protocol that indicates what questions are to be asked, in what order, and how much prompting and probing is permitted

Obj. 5.4 & 5.5


Interview Guide (continued) Assures that all interviews will be

conducted in the same manner Generally uses semi-structured and

unstructured items Pretest the interview

Identifies deficiencies and suggests improvements

Obj. 5.5 & 5.6


Administer the interview Conducting an interview effectively

requires training, effective communication skills, and good interpersonal skills

Guidelines Be as brief as possible Explain terms that the interviewee might not

understand Do not use leading questions Do more listening and less talking Obj. 5.3


Record the responses Manually recording

Cumbersome and slow Likely to miss important information

Mechanical recording Cassette tapes and videos Captures most, if not all, of the information Permits reviewing of the information Causes potential discomfort on the

interviewee’s part Can malfunction

Obj. 5.7

Educational Research Chapter 6 Descriptive Research Gay, Mills, and Airasian.

Documents

research studies

chapter descriptive

research effort

descriptive research

descriptive research

reliable data

observation data

airasian slide