EDUCATIONAL PLANNING FOR SCHOOL EDUCATION: A STUDY OF THREE DISTRICTS IN KARNATAKA ANITHA K. INSTITUTE FOR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE ,.··· .. ·r . '.' A"i...:.L'., __ , ' :«--' ':';,.1 BANGALORE - 560072 '-:;T TO r,' L'""":I) A THESIS SUBMITIED THROUGH THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MYSORE, FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION 1997
396
Embed
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING FOR SCHOOL EDUCATION… planning_ for_ school_ education.pdf · educational planning for school education: a study of three districts in karnataka anitha k. institute
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING FOR SCHOOL EDUCATION:
A STUDY OF THREE DISTRICTS
IN KARNATAKA
ANITHA K.
INSTITUTE FOR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE ,.··· .. ·r . '.' A"i...:.L'., ~ __ , ' :«--' ':';,.1
BANGALORE - 560072 '-:;T TO r,' L'""":I)
A THESIS SUBMITIED THROUGH THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION,
UNIVERSITY OF MYSORE, FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF
PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION
1997
CERTIFICATE
I hereby certify that I have guided and
supervised the preparation and writing of the Thesls
entitled "EDUCATIONAL PLANNING FOR SCHOOL
EDUCATION : A STUDY OF THREE DISTRICTS IN
KARNATAKA" by Ms Anitha K. who worked on this
topic at the Institute for social and Economic change,
Bangalore, from January 1992 to June 1997.
I also certify that the Thesis has not previously
formed the basis for the award of any Degree, Diploma
or Associate Fellowship of the University of Mysore
or any other University.
Date :)7 ,-. '1+ C·.\_Il~
(c. s. NAGARAJU) Associate Professor
Institute for Social and Economic Change Bangalore - 560072.
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the present thesis entitled
"EDUCATIONAL PLANNING FOR SCHOOL EDUCATION: A
STUDY OF THREE DISTRICTS IN KARNATAKA" is the
outcome of the original research work undertaken and
carried out by me under guidance of Dr. C.S. Nagaraju,
Associate Professor, Education Unit, Institute for
social and Economic change, 8angalore 560072. Due
acknowledgments have been made wherever anything has
been borrowed from other sources.
I also declare that the material of this thesis
has not formed, in any way the basis for the award of
any Degree, Diploma or Associate Fellowship previously
of the University of Mysore or any other University.
,I ,Ii,,;;, k
(ANITHA K.)
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This thesis is the outcome of the work done at
the Institute for Social and Economic Change,
Nagarbhavi, Bangalore under the supervlslon of
Dr. C.S.Nagaraju. I place on record my profound
grati tude and indebtedness
interest in this particular
to him for provoking my
field. His benevolent
encouragement, valuable insights and enduring support
have all made this endeavor possible.
I thank the Institute for Social and Economic
Change, in particular to the Director, Dr. P.V. Shenoi
and facilities to for providing me an opportuni ty
undertake this pursuit. I have benefited from the
academic interactions wi th the faculty of the
Institute for Social and Economic Change. Mention must
especially be made of Dr. Abdul Aziz, Dr. A.S.
Seetharamu, Mrs Vani and Dr. M.D.Ushadevi, who were
willing to share their wisdom and gave encouragement
needed in this regard.
I like to record my Slncere thanks to the
Department of Education, University of Mysore for
extending their support and encouragement in completing
this study. I am particularly grateful for the
Public Instruction, Officials of Zilla Panchayat,
DDPI's, AEO's, Gram Panchayat, SEC members,
Headmasters, Teachers and Villagers of Chickmaglore,
Mandya and Mysore districts for furnishing the required
information.
I acknowledge with Slncere appreciation the help
of Mrs. Malini Nagaraju, who took pain in editing the
draft of the thesis.
My friends Vibha, Geetanj al i, Dr. Benny,
Puttaswamy, Ramakrishna have been a reassuring presence
and of immense help during the course of my work. My
thanks are due to each one of them.
I am thankful to Mr. Krishna Chandran, for
rendering useful assistance in data processing. I
also thank Mr. K.S. Narayana for word processing and
editing of the thesis.
lowe a special place for my Father and Mother.
They gave me immense support in accomplishing this task
without which I would not have brought the study to
frui tion. I am beholder), to them both for ever .
.. il! ,Jj,:Aj,. (ANITHA K.J
CONTENTS
PAGE NO.
CERTIFICATE
DECLARATION
ACKNOWLEDG1ENTS
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
I
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
II
2.1
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
DPEP in Karnataka
Need for the study
The statement of the problem
Explanation of the terms
Research issues
Scope of the study
Limi ta tions of the study
Overview
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Introduction
2.2 Studies in the area of Economics
of education
2.3 Studies on disparities in education
2.4 Studies on a few aspects of planning
and implementation
1-22
1
8
9
12
12
20
23
23
24
25-65
25
26
31
36
2.5 Studies on educational administration 39
CHAPTER
2.5.1 Educational administration related to
universalisation of elementary
education
2.5.2 Status and problems of educational
40
administration at different levels 44
2.5.3 Practices of state educational
department related to specific
aspects of educational administration 48
2.5.4 Role of Zilla Panchayat and educa
tional departments in educational
progress 52
III METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY 66-100
3.1 Introduction 66
3.2 Nature of the research study 67
3.3 Objective of the study 68
3.4.1 Qualitative analysis at the state
level 71
3.4.2 Statistical analysis 72
3.4.3 Quantitative analysis at the
district level 73
3.4.4 Qualitative data analysis 73
3.5 Operational definitions 73
3.5.1 Description of indication 76
CHAPTER
3.6 Sources of secondary data
3 . 6. 1 Method of analysis of secondary data
3.7 Sample selection of collecting
primary data
3.8.1 Steps involved during field work
3.8.2 Procedure followed in the collection
of information
83
83
93
94
97
3.8.3 Recording the information 98
3.9 Method of analysis of primary data 99
IV
4.1
4.2
SECONDARY DATA ANALYSIS
Introduction
101-204
101
Analysis of State plan document
4.3 Distribution of plan outlays during
Five Year Plans
4.4 Analysis of statistical time series
data
4.5 Influence of plan expenditure on
access, retention and quality input
indicators
4.6 Effect of introduction of ZP on
education
4.7
4.8
Analysis using district as unit
Analysis of literacy rates
102
117
124
151
156
163
188
CHAPTER V
4.8.1 Literacy gains of SC, ST and
General population 189
4.8.2 Gender-wise literacy gains of SC, ST
and General population 193
4.8.3 Literacy gains of SC, ST and
General population ~n urban
and rural areas 196
4.8.4 Literacy changes in D~stricts during
5.1
5.2
5.3
Seventies and Eighties
ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE DATA
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING PROCESS:
Introduction
Method of qualitative data analysis
Structure of educational planning
5.3.1 Initiation of planning process
5.4 Nature of plans
201
205-276
205
206
211
213
227
5.5 Plan procedure for different programme 229
5.6 Procedure of educational planning 242
5.7 Perception of officials related to UEE 252
5.8 Nature of Information and
Information Flow
5.10 Information base for the development of
the proposal
5.11 Reliability of the information
257
260
270
5.12 Outcomes of the Analysis
CHAPTER VI A VIEW OF PRIMARY EDUCATION AT THE FIELD LEVEL
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Educational planning at
field level functionaries
6.3 Dynamics of expansion of
schooling
6.4 Implementation of the scheme
6.5 Provision of additional teachers
6.6 Perception of local people
CHAPTER VII SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
APPENDX
BIBLIOGRAPHY
272
277-310
277
279
283
288
297
302
311-346
LIST OF TABLES
Table No Title Page No
3.1
3.2
Location selected for the field work at
the district level
Number of respondents at the state level
and designations
3.3 Number of respondents at the district
3.4
4. 1
4.2
4.3
4.4
level designation
Number of respondents at the block level
and designations
Distribution of outlays under various
categories of interventions under five year
plans starting from IV plan
General enrollment rate during 1971-1994
Comparison of enrollment rate between
SC/ST and non-SC/ST during 1971-1993
Gender equality in enrollment at primary
level during 1971-1994
4.5 Gender equality in SC/ST and non-SC/ST
94
96
96
97
120
127
130
133
enrollment at primary level during 1971-93 135
4.6 Gender wise general retention at lower
primary level during 1971-92 138
4.7
4.8
SC/ST and non-SC/ST retention
at lower primary level during 1971-94
Growth of school from 1971-1994
140
144
4.9 Growth of teachers at primary level from
1971-1994 147
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15
4.16
Annual plan expenditure on Primary education 152
Results of linear regression obtained by
considering plan expenditure as indepen
dent variable
Results of linear regression with correc
tion for autocorrrelation obtained by
considering plan expenditure as indepen
dent variable
Enrollment per ten thousand
population before and after the change
in the educational administration
Gender equality index in
enrollment before and after the change in the
educational administration
Retention before and after the
154
155
157
159
change in the educational administration 160
Provision of schools before and after the
change in the educational administration 161
4.17
4.18
4.19
4.20
Quality input before and after the change
in the educational administration
District-wise total lower primary enrollment
rates at different plan periods
District wise Higher primary enrollment
rates at different plan periods
District wise gender equality ratio in
162
166
168
LPS enrollment at different plan periods 170
4.21 District-wise gender equality ratio in HPS
enrollment at di:ferent plan periods
4.22 District-wise LPS boys retention rate at
different plan periods
4.23 District-wise LPS girls retention rate at
different plan periods
4.24 District-wise primary schools per ten
4.25
4.26
4.27
thousand population at different plan
periods
District-wise primary school teachers per
ten thousand population at different plan
periods
District-wise pupil-teacher ratio at
different plan periods
District-wise standard-teacher ratio at
different plan periods
172
174
176
179
182
185
187
4.28
4.29
4.30
4.31
5.1
Comparative picture of Literacy ga1ns
of SC, ST and General population
Comparative picture of Male and Female
Literacy gains of SC, ST and
General population
Comparative picture of Rural and Urban
Literacy gains of SC, ST and
General population
Comparison of growth of literacy rates
190
195
197
in different districts of Karnataka State 202
Grid representing the categorisation of
information from field notes 210
No.
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
•
4.9
4.10
4.11
LIST OF FIGURES
Title
Plan outlays on Primary education
General enrollment rate as percent of
population during 1971-1994
Enrollment of SC/ST and non-SC/ST as
percent of population
Gender equality in enrollment during
1971-94
Gender equality in enrollment of SC/ST
and non-SC/ST at LPS & HPS levels
during 1971-93
General & Gender-wise retention at
lower primary level during 1971-92
Retention of SC/ST and non-SC/ST at
lower primary level during 1971-92
Growth of school as proportion to the
population from 1971-92
Teachers as per ten thousand population
Pupil-teacher ratio at primary level from
1971-94
Standard teacher ratio at primary level
from 1971-94
Page No
121
128
:31
134
136
139
141
145
148
149
150
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15
4.16
4.17
4.18,
4.18a
5.1
Enrollment before and after the
change in the educational administration 158
Gender equality in enrollment
before and after the change in
the educational administration
Retention before and after
the change in the educational
administration
Provision of school before and
after the change In the educational
administration
Quality input indicator before and after
the change in the educational administra
tion
Literacy of population categories
based on the census 1971, 1981, & 1991
Gender-wise literacy gains 71-81 & 81-91
within each population category
Rural & Urban literacy gains 71-81 & 81-91
within each population category
CHART
structure of educational planning for
primary education
159
160
161
163
191
195
198
212
U.K:
UNICEF:
DPEP:
NIEPPI.:
UNESCO:
GDP:
USA:
SC:
ST:
U.E.E. :
ZP:
DEO:
PEl:
LPS:
HPS:
:;:SEC:
SBC:
CPI:
DDPI:
AEO:
ABBREVIATIONS
United Kingdom
United Nations International children's Emergency Fund
Distr~ct Primary Education Programme
National Institute Of Educat~onal Planning and Administration.
United nations Educational, Scientific, Cultural Organisation
Gross Domestic product
United States of America
Scheduled Castes
Scheduled Tribes
Universalisation of primary Education
Zilla Panchayat
District Educational Officer
Panchayat Raj Institutions
Lower Primary School
Higher Primary School
Institute For Social and Economic Change
School Betterment Committee
Commissioner of Public Administration.
Deputy Director of Public Instruction
Assistant Educational Officer
BEO:
CEO:
MNP:
NFE:
lOS:
FDC:
SDC:
EMs:
MLA:
BDO:
MP:
OBB:
NGDO:
Block Educational Officer
Chief Executive officer
Minimum needs programme
Non-Formal Educatlon
Inspector of Schools.
First divlsion C:erk
Second Division Clerk
Headmasters
Member of Legislative Assembly.
Block Development officer
Member of parliament
Operation Black Board
Non-Governmental Development organisation.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction:
In recent years, a new found interest in planned
development of prlmary education lS prevalent in India.
This new interest originates from the changed policies
of the Government of India to gradually open up the
Indian economy to international market forces. The
opportunity to create a cultivable market has attracted
the attention of industrialised countries.
Even though India has a sizable population living
below poverty levels, the sheer absolute Slze of the
population having some purchasing power is quite large
and the potential size of the market lS promising enough
for the mult:national companies and industrialized
countries to show :nterest in asslsting the creation of
the market. They have realised that the first step in
this direction is to make the society literate and hence
many international agencies and governments of
industrialised west have corne forward to invest in basic
education through soft loans and grants.
1
In fact, the entire country is being parceled out
for the development of basic education to agencies like
World Bank, Overseas Development Agency of UK, European
Commission, GTNICEF, etc. The new strategy adopted in
post liberalisation period for the development of
prlmary education lS through the District Primary
Education Programme (DPEP).
The framers of the Indian constitution had
recognised the Primary education as the fount of energy
to realise the ideals of the new nation. The
Constitution directs the state to provide free and
compulsory primary education for all children below the
age of 14 years within a period of ten years from the
date of the commencement of the constitutional rule.
Since, school education was kept in the State list,
all state governments passed during sixties. Compulsory
prlmary education acts applicable to their respective
regions. At present, the school education is kept in the
concurrent list making the state government and the
central government jointly responsible through the
Constitutional amendment (Forty Second amendment) .
Education at all level has been an integral part of the
planned development right from the commencement of the
2
Constitutional rule in India. But. the progress achieved
in this direction, particularly at the prlmary education
stage is far from satisfactory. One readily available
indicator to come to such a conclusion is the literacy
level. The literacy rate has been crawling up very
slowly and has not caught up with the population growth
rate. Along with the lncrease In nillnber of literates,
the nillnber of illiterates have also increased over the
past four decades.
This failure is closely linked with the performance
of primary education in the constituent states of the
Indian Union. While education sector, particularly the
primary education, has been an aspect covered by all the
Five Year Plans, the disappointing outcomes have
remained under-analysed. National Council of Educational
Research and Training (1991) conducted a study on
achievement levels of students at the primary level In
different states of India. Result of the study reveals
that Karnataka has scored the lowest achievement level
compared to other states (World Bank report 1996). And
the sluggish growth rate of literacy has not attracted
the attention of the planners to identify the issues
which are embedded in the planning process i tsel f. The
failure of education 'system' is seen more as the
problem of economy and society and less as the problem
3
of educational system from within. While the collective
political will 1S un-disputably expressed the
Constitution, the plurality of political wills in real
world 1S working in counter direction. Very little
insight into the processes of educational growth is
available from the point of view of planning. If each of
the successive Five Year Plans had aimed at the
universalisation of primary education, then, Why 1S that
they have simply reiterated the same broad objectives?
Why is it that the disparities across states have
remained more or less similar over the years? Why is
that inspite of the successive Five Year Plans
concentrating on universal access, a large proportion of
the children have remained out of school? Why is it,
even those who enter the school, do not remain in school
and those who remain do not learn at the expected
levels?
A little knowledge that exists in the field of
education begs these questions. For example, poverty has
been blamed as the main cause of the failure of primary
education. But, the very rationale for planned
develcpment emerge out of the context 1n which large
proportion of the population live under poverty ln the
society. Similarly are the inequalities arising out of
gender and caste. Much of the literature in Sociology
4
of Education 1n the Indian context confirms the
persistence of disparities 1n educational indicators
across regional, gender and caste lines. This raises a
ser10US doubt about the role played by educational
planning in the past in changing the status quo as far
as educational disparities are concerned. A pr1me
example in this direction 1S the development of primary
education in Karnataka.
A larger part of present Karnataka was an
independent state of Mysore before independence and
merged with the Indian Union to obtain the status of a
constituent state in 1947. The princely state of Mysore
before independence was considered as a model welfare
state and became a show case example of the British
policy of autonomy to the princely states. Under the
reorganisation of the states of the Indian Union on
linguistic lines, the Mysore state gained territories
from erstwhile Bombay province, Madras Province and the
Hyderabad state ruled by Nizam in 1956 and was later
renamed as Karnataka, meaning the land of Kannada
speaking people. Except for the region added from the
state of Hyderabad, all other territories were under
direct British rule for more than 150 years before
independence. But, these parts formed the periphery of
the respective British provinces. Therefore, at the time
5
of reorganization of the states, many of these districts
were educationally backward. The most backward districts
were the ones added from the erstwhile state of
Hyderabad. The situation of Karnataka as a whole was not
very bad in educationa~ status as compared to other
major states of the Indian Union.
According to the Census of India 1971, literacy
rate of Karnataka was 31.52 per cent as against National
average of 29.45 per cent. During 1971 census, Karnataka
had 11th position in the literacy rate among 23 states,
excluding union territories. The literacy percentage
increased to 55.98 per cent as compared to all India
average of 52.11 per cent. But Karnataka declined to
14th position during 1991 census.
As is evident from the comparison of the inter
census figures of literacy, Karnataka state has declined
in position in relation to the major states and also the
intra-state disparities in literacy has remained more or
less same over the years. This observation raises the
question about the role played by the educational
planning during the past four and half decades.
6
Evaluation of the contribution of planning to the
realisation of the policy objectives 1S practically
absent 1n the context of Karnataka. A recent study
conducted by National Institute of Educational Planning
and Administration :NIEPA) focusing on the educational
administration does not st'Jdy planning as an input. The
policy makers in the Karnataka context have been relying
on educatlonal plans all these years without having any
evidence to indicate the contribution of planning 1n
realising the intended goals. \'lhatever growth is
observed periodically is taken as the indicator of the
effectiveness of planning by default.
There has been no systematic effort to account for
the earmarked outlays during the implementation. It is
suspected that the plans are totally forgotten as soon
as they are approved and sent for implementation. But, a
time has come ln the changed context when, such an
approach would prove dysfunctional. The centrally
sponsored programme of District Primary Education and
Planning (DPEP) expects accountability of both processes
and outcomes of district specific planning. Karnataka
has committed to join the DPEP states on a large scale.
7
1.2 Dl.stnct Pnmary Education and Planninc, (DPEP)
in Karnataka:
This centrally sponsored scheme expec:s each of the
selected district to prepare :he distrlC: specific
medium term perspect:ve plan for unlversalisi:;g ;:;rimary
education In 5 to 7 years keeplng a ce2.2.:ng 0: Rs. 400
million i:or each distri.ct. Any dlstr:et · ... 1 th female
literacy lower than the national average quallfies fo!"
the intervention. The funds for this plan is a!",
additionality to the allocations made by the stat~
government. The participatlon ln ;:ne scheme , c
conditional. The state goverrunent should agree to bear
15 per cent of the cost of the proJect and should agree
to continue financing the primary education at the
current level.
In other words, the funds from the centra':'
government cannot be substituted for state eornrni t:ne:;ts.
The project management .• 1 Wl..L~ be through an autonomous
registered society created f0r the purpose 1:; the state.
The districts are expected to trans2.ate the medlum term
plans into annual plans and i:npleme,.t them. The
implementation is subjec~ periodic superv1s1cn by
teams consisting of the representatlves of the
Government of India and representat:ves of donor
agencies (Ministry of Human Resource Deve:oprr.e:;t, 1995!.
8
Another important feature of this programme is that
the planning has to be done in a particlpative framework
within the district. The perspective plan thus prepared
is accepted for funding after due appraisal process. The
funds earmarked for the project is channelised to the
respectlve district through the registered society.
Currently, 10 districts in Karnataka have been
identified under the DPEP Programme out of 21 districts
which have lower female literacy rates as compared to
the national female literacy level based on 1991 census.
1.3 Need for the study:
The Government of Karnataka passed the Compulsory
Primary Education act in 1961. Each of the five year
plans from the Second Five Year Plan onwards, provided
for development of primary education. The priority In
allocations for prlmary education kept on increasing
through successive Five Year Plans.
The interventions initially took the form of
increasing schooling facilities during seventies. Large
scale efforts were made through varlOUS forms of
incentives to attract families to send their children to
school. Allocation to primary education was around
9
Rs. 9.5 crore fanning 47.7 per cent of the total plan
outlay on education ln Fourth Five Year Plan. This
reached to Rs 137.87 crore ln Eighth Five Year Plan
fonning 42.40 per cent. While educational statistics
reported by the Department of Public Inst.::-uction showed
steady increase in gross enrollment over the years, t~e
data on lite.::-acy from census indicated that the literacy
increased on an average by 0.7 per cent per year during
1971 to 1981 and by 0.82 per cent during 1981 to 1991.
In other words, the reported gross enrollments were not
processed effectively to result ln increased literacy.
This situation raises serlous doubts about the
effectiveness of plan process itself.
Educational planning as an issue for research has
remained neglected. A few studies that are available in
the field of educational administration and management,
more often, have focused on administrative structures
and procedures. Even such studies have not tried to
relate the adminlstrative processes to the objectives
using management perspectives. Instead, they use a
bureaucratic perspective akin to any other fonn of
public administration evolved to maintain social order.
10
Changed context of decentralised educational
planning and management considers primary education as
the foundation for all other development. Intensive
efforts with additional investments are being made
available to primary education. A large proportion of
such investments are in the form of long term loans and
hence a high degree of accountability is expected from
the pianners and managers. There are instances In the
past when considerable allocations went unutilised by
the system. Viewing educational planning and management
In a bureaucratic perspective may become dysfunctional
in those circumstances.
In order to develop necessary attitudes and
competence among the personnel, there exists a need to
understand the current structure and processes of
educational planning and management. There is a need to
take stock of the actual plan expenditure and its
relation to the changes in varlous educational
parameters over the years. The outcomes of such analysis
need to be examined from the point of view of the
objectives of successive Five Year Plans. The successes
and failures thus identified need to be related to the
planning structure and process currently practiced at
different levels of educational system in Karnataka.
11
1.4 Statement of the Problem:
Keeping the above concerns in mind the following
problem has been identified =or the study:
Educational Planning for School Education:
A study of Three Districts in Karnataka.
1.5 Explanation of the terms:
Educa tiona 1 planning: Planning for educational
development exists ln all kinds of states, be it
socialist or capitalist. But the purposes and thrusts
vary from ideology to ideology. In developing countries
like India, during the post independence era planning as
a major intervention by the state to achieve growth and
distribution received highest priority. It was also felt
right from the beginning of the planned development that
education plays a major role in the process of economic
growth and development and hence planned resource
allocation became a part of the Five Year Plans adopted
by the Government. Initially, the first few Five Year
Plans provided for investment in higher levels of
education in line with the policy of the State occupylng
the commanding heights of the economy. The economlC
growth model envisaged large scale direct participation
of the government ln industrial production through
12
public sector undertakings like steel and power. The
thousand population, pupil-teacher ratio and standard-
teacher ratio are represented in table 4.17 The
proportion of teachers in the population has decreased
during the new system of educational administration.
The pupil-teacher ratio increased while Standard-
teacher ratio remained same (Graph 4.16).
The above analysis shows that the introduction of
ZP did not make any marked difference to the provision
of quality education, while it improved access and
retention of children in schools.
Table 4.17 Quality input indicators before and after the change in the
educational administration:
Year Teachers per ten Pupil- Standard thousand teacher -teacher
population
Before ZP 32.63 43.12 1.51 (1979-1986)
AfterZP 31.33 51.00 1.52 (1987 -1 994)
162
Graph 4.16 Quality input indicators before and after the change in
the educational administration:
60
60
40 Q f- lO ~
20
10
0
Teacher Pupil- Slandar a per teacher d-ten teacher
thousan
YEAR
4.7 Analysis using District as unit
Educational planning aims
II Before ZP (1979-1986)
_After ZP (1987-1914)
at reducing the
dispari ties across districts on educational parameters.
One way of looking at the effectiveness of planning is
to see whether such thing has occurred on each of the
parameters in Karnataka by using the secondary data on
different parameters and the distribution of the Average
values of the indicators at the end of each plan. By
grouping the years under plans, Average and standard •
163
deviation of the districts were obtained at the end of
each plan. The districts were classified as Poor,
Average and Good as follows.
Poor = Values below standard deviation - mean
Average = Values between standard deviation + mean
and standard deviation - mean
Good = Values above standard deviation + mean.
The parameters considered for the analysis are.
• Lower Primary Enrollment,
• Higher Primary Enrollment,
• Gender Equality at Lower Primary stage,
• Gender Equality at Higher Primary Stage,
• Primary Retention Rate of Boys at LPS,
• Primary Retention Rate of Girls at LPS,
• Total primary schools per ten thousand population,
• Primary teachers per ten thousand population,
• Pupil-teacher ratio and
• Standard-Teacher ratio.
I. Lower Primary Enrollment:
The indicator used for lower primary enrollment is
lower primary children as per cent of popUlation. Total
population was taken as denominator to overcome the
problem of variations in the school going population in
164
the districts. Table 4.18 glves the placement of
districts at the end of each plan period with the
indicator value. The mean value of the indicator has
increased through out. Among the eighteen districts,
fourteen were placed as Average and Raichur, Gulbarga
and Bidar (all in Hyderabad-Karnataka region) were under
the Poor category at the end of IV Plan. Dakshinakannada
remained in Good category :n all the Plan periods. And
the other districts remained in the Average category
Kodagu and chickamaglore. Kodagu was in Good category
till VI Plan periods and declined its position and moved
to Average category in the VIII Plan and Chickmagalore
showed erratic movement. Among them, Raichur district
stayed under the Poor category at the end of each Plan
period. Bidar which was placed as Poor at the end of the
IV Plan shifted to the category of Good district at the
end of the VI Plan and continues to show highest
enrollment rate through out. Shimoga was the only
district which was classified as Good at the end of IV
Plan. The coefficient of variation at the end of each
Plan has gradually decreased till VII Plan period
indicating the narrowlng down of inter-district
variation. Only during the VIII Plan period coefficient
of variation has slightly increased.
165
Table 4.18 DISTRICTWISE TOTAL LOWER PRIMARY ENROLMENT RATES AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS
Category IV Plan(1971-1973) V Plan(1974-1978) VI Plan(1980-1984) VII Plan(1985-1989) VIII Plan(1992-1994) District Score District Score District Score District Score District Score
IV Plan VPlan ------- V1Plim VII Plan VIII Plan Mean 10.49 10.56 10.46 10.99 11.54 Standared deviation 1.42 1.10 1.15 1.09 1.31 Coefficient of variation 13.56 10.46 10.98 9.95 11.33 Mean+Standard deviation 11.91 11.66 11.61 12.09 12.85 Mean-Standard deviation 9.06 9.45 9.31 9.90 1024
II. Higher Primary Enrollment:
This indicator is also calculated by taking higher
primary enrollment as per cent of population. According
to the ~able 4.19, the mean
considerably from Plan to Plan.
Gulbarga occupied Poor category
value has increased
Ini tially Raichur and
and continued through
out the period under consideration. Dakshinakannada and
Kodagu obtained the classification as Good district out
of which Dakshinakannada continued to occupy the same
position through out.
The Average of all districts increased through out
from Plan to Plan. The standard deviation came down at
the end of V Plan and increased at the end of VII Plan
and came down at the end of VIII Plan.
Most of the districts have remained Average through
out in the HPS enrollment. Bidar which showed abnormal
movement from Poor category to Good with respect to
lower primary enrollment, remained steady at the Average
category through out in the HPS enrollment.
167
Table 4.19 DISTRICTWISE TOTAL HIGHER PRIMARY ENROLMENT RATES AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS
IV Plan(1971·1973) V Plan(1974·1978) VI Plan( 1980·1984) VII Plan(1985·1989) VIII Plan(1992·1994) Category District Score District Score District Score District Score District Score POOR RAICHUR 1.52 RAICHUR 1.63 RAICHUR 1 86 RAICHUR 2.27 RAICHUR 284
IVPI VPL VI PL VII PL VIII PL Mean 3.08 3.21 3.59 4.14 5.24 Standared deviation 1.02 1.00 0.81 118 0.96 Coefficient of variation 33.17 31.19 22.65 28.45 18.33 Mean+Standard deviation 4.10 4.21 4.40 5.32 6.20 Mean·Standard deviation 2.06 221 278 296 428
III Gender Equality at Lower Primary Stage:
The mean value Gender Equality Index at LPS
decreased from 81.85 at the end of Fourth Plan to 80.13
at the end of Fi~th Plan (Table 4.20). The indicator
shows considerable variation with respect to Shimoga,
Raichur and Kodagu during different Plan periods.
Initially, Raichur, Gulbarga and Bellary were classified
as Poor districts and Shimoga, Chitradurga and Kodagu
were placed as Good districts at the end of IV Plan.
The coefficient of variation at different points
under consideration shows reduction of inter district
variation at the end of VI Plan and increased from the
VIr Plan onwards. What is to be noted here is that
Raichur and Gulbarga remain Poor districts throughout
the period. Shimoga and Kodagu carne down to Average
category and while most of the other districts remained
under Average category through out.
169
Table 4.20 DISTRICTWISE GENDER EQUALITY RATIO IN LPS ENROLLMENT AT DiffERENT PLAN PERIODS
IV Plan(1971-1973) V Plan(1974-197B) VI Plan(19BO-19B4) VII Plan(19B5-19B9) VIII Plan(1992-1994) Category District Score Dlslrlc1 Score Dlstrlc1 Score District Score District Score POOR RAlCHUR 58.66 RAiCHUR 56.12 SHIMOGA 74.22 SHIMOGA 66.22 RAICHUR 66.95
at Higher Primary stage decreased from 65.46 at the end
of Fourth Plan to 58.27 at the end of Fifth Plan. Later
on, the mean value has increased throughout to reach
79.46 at the end of the three years of Eighth Plan. It
:luctuates with respect to Dakshinakannada and Bidar
districts. Gulbarga and Raichur districts have remained
the Poor category in all the Plan periods.
Dakshinakannada in the initial periods was classified in
Average category but declined to Poor category during V
Plan, and gained the initial position during the
subsequent Plan periods. Kodagu remained in the Good
category in all the Plan periods except during VII Plan.
Chickmagalore which was grouped in Good category in
the V, VI, VII Plans, moved to Average category during
VIII Plan. Uttarakannada and Chitradurga have moved from
Average to Good category in the VIII Plan.
Rest of the districts remained grouped under the
Average category. The coefficient of variation shows
reduct:ion in the inter district variation across
districts after VI Plan onwards till VIII Plan.
171
Table 4.21 DISTRICTWISE GENDER EQUALITY RATIO IN HPS ENROLLMENT AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS
IV Plan(1971-1973) V Plan( 1974-1978) VI Plan(1980-1984) VII Plan(1985-1989) VIII Plan(1992-1994) Category District Score District Score Dlstrlc1 Score Di>trlct Score District Score POOR RAICHUR 39.25 RAICHUR 32.97 RAICHUR 44.88 GULBARGA 5103 RAICHUR 6201
The mean retention rate of boys increased from Plan
to Plan. The lncrease was greater during the Fourth
Plan. (Table 4.22) Disparities across districts
represented by the coefficient of variation initially at
8.01 during Seventh Plan decreased to 7.89 during Fifth
Plan, increased to 8.77 during Sixth Plan drastically
decreased during the next two Five Year Plans to reach
4.56 during Eighth Plan. This indicates that inter
district differences have narrowed down over the Plan
periods. Relatively speaking, Bidar has shown low
retention, amongst the districts at the end of each Plan
period. Similarly, Gulbarga remained Poor till VII Plan
and improved to move up one step during VIII Plan.
At the other end Dakshinakannada remained under
Good category followed by Kodagu which was categorised
as Good district till VII Plan and became Average during
VIII Plan. Raichur district after remaining under the
Average category for most of the period shifted to Good
category during Eighth Plan. Most of the other districts
remaln clustered under Average category through out.
Both Kodagu and Dakshinakannada show the annual
retehtion rate above 100 per cent at the end of VI Plan
indicating high rate of grade repetition.
173
Table 4.22 DISTRICTWISE LPS BOYS RETENTION RATE OF AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS
IV Plan(1971-1973) V Plan(1974-1978) VI Plan(1980-1984) VII Plan(1985-1989) VIII Plan(1992-1994) Category District Score District Score District Score District Score District Score
increase from IV Plan to VIII Plan and decreased in the
value of the coefficient of variation (table 4.23) .
This indicates that the inter district disparities
are reducing. Gulbarga from the Poor category moved to
Average category in the VIII Plan.
Shimoga and Dharwad shifted from Average category
to Good category and Hassan receded to Poor category
from Average during Eighth Plan.
Kodagu stayed under the Good category till Seventh
Plan but declined to Average category ln the Eighth
Plan. Dakshinakannada stayed in the Good category in all
the Plan periods under consideration.
175
Table 4.23 DISTRICTWISE LPS GIRLS RETENTION RATE OF AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS
IV Plan(1971-1973) V Plan( 1974-197B) VI Plan{19BO-1984) VII Plan{1985-1989) VIII Plan{1992-1994) Cate ory District Score District Score District Score Dlslrlct Score District Score POOR BIDAR 53.88 BIDAR 55.17 BIDAR 62.57 GULBARGA 73.68 CHICKMAGLORE 76.50
IVPI VPL VI PL VII PL VIII PL Mean 70.37 72.25 78.37 86.39 89.37 Standared deviation 8.75 8.24 8.72 5.47 5.52 Coefficient of variation 12.43 11.41 1113 6.33 6.17 Mean+Standard deviation 79.12 BO.50 87.09 91.86 94.89 Mean-Standard deviation 6163 64.01 6965 8092 8385
VII Pr1mary schools per ten thousand population:
In the table 4.24, The prov1sion of school has
steadily decreased from 11.62 to schools per ten
thousand populatlon In Four-:l1 Plan to 9.95 1n Eighth
Plan. Pattern of distribution of the districts on the
variables under each of the Plans indicate that the
supply of schools is closely associated with the Average
size of population of rural habitations and the number
of rural habitations.
For example according to Second All India Survey,
Belagum district has relatively fewer
habitation i.e. 1628 as compared
number of
to 3458
rural
rural
habitation 1n Tumkur. Belagum district has higher
population than Tumkur. Population of Belgaum was
1904630 and that of Tumkur was 1413093. Since the norm
followed to open new schools 1S the population size and
walk-able distance of one kilometer, districts like
Belgaum and Dharwad obtain schools in each village at an
early date compared to districts like Tumkur, Hassan
Which have larger number of small habitations gradually
becoming eligible for schools at a later date.
177
The gradual decline of the number of schools per
ten thousand population indicates that all districts had
attained the normative criterion for physical access by
the end of Fourth Plan. Therefore opening of new schools
were few and the population served by each of the old
schools increased resulting In fewer schools per ten
thousand popu:ation.
There is a marginal and gradual increase in coefficient
of variation value from Fourth Plan to Eighth Plan. By
and large, most of the districts have retained their
initial classifications of Poor, Average and Good.
Dakshinakannada and Dharwad have Poor position of
prlmary education whereas Tumkur, Hassan and
Uttarakannada have had Good position through out.
Belgaum district moved from Poor category to
Average category at the end of VI Plan. Raichur moved
down from Average to Poor category at the end of VIn
Plan. Kolar improved its position from Average to Good
at the end of VII Plan and continued in the same
category.
178
Table 4.24 DISTRICTWISE PRIMARY SCHOOLS PER TEN THOUSAND POPULATION AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS
IV Plan(I9.71-1973) V Plan(1974-197B) VI Plan(19BO-1984) VII Plan(1985-1989) VIII Plan(1992- 994) Cal ory District Score District Score District Score Dlslrlct Score Dlslricl Score POOR SOUTHKANARA 7.30 DHARWAD 7.34 DHARWAD 6.68 DHARWAD 6.53 DHARWAD 6.18
The mean value of teachers per ten thousand . population has fluctuated In an narrow range form Plan
to Plan (Table 4.25), it was 33.78 in the Fourth Plan
and came down to 31.19 in the Fifth Plan and increased
to 33.34 in the Sixth Plan and again decreased to 32.72
in the Seventh Plan and finally increased to the 33.84
in Eighth Plan. the coefficient of variation remained
constant at 18 from Sixth Plan onwards.
Districts were distributed in an narrow range
though out. Uttarakannada remained in the Good category
through out the period under consideration. Chickamglore
was In Good category in IV and V Plans and moved to
Average category In VI and VII Plan and again moved back
to Good category In VIII Plan.
Kodagu was categorised as Good in IV Plan and moved
back to Average in V and VI Plan and again became Good
category district in VII Plan and became Average
180
district l.n VIII Plan. Hassan moved to Good category
from Average category in VIII Plan.
Among the districts at the lower end Raichur
remained as Poor district throughout. Bidar which was
classified as Poor till V Plan moved to Average category
from VII Plan onwards.
Gulbarga moved to Average from Poor category agal.n
moved back to Poor category in VIII Plan. Mysore stayed
l.n Average category till V Plan and moved to Poor
category l.n VI and VII Plan and again moved to Average
category in the VII Plan. Dharwad was in Average
category till VII Plan and became Poor in VIII Plan.
All other districts which were not mentioned
remained l.n Average category through out. As far as
supply of teachers is concerned there is not much
variation across districts and it has caught up with
increase in enrollment over a period of time this gets
confirmed when the changing pupil-teacher ratio from
pla~ to plan are examined.
181
Table 4.25 DISTRICYWISE PRIMARY TEACHERS PER TEN THOUSAND POPULATION AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS
IV Plan(1971-1973) V Plan(1974-1978) VI Plan(1980-1984) VII Plan( 1985-1989) VIII Plan(1992-1994) Cale 0 Dlslrlcl Score District Score District Score District Score District Score POOR RAICHUR 21.56 RAICHUR 19.26 BELGAUM 33.86 RAICHUR 2050 RAICHUR 22.45
IVPI VPL VIPL VIIPL VIII PI Mean 33.78 31.18 3334 32.20 3384 Standared deviation 6.156 5.36 6.04 5.81 6250 Coefficient of variation 19.44 17.20 18.12 17 71 1847 Mean+Standard devlallon 4035 36.55 3938 3853 4009 Mean-SIandard devlallon 27 21 2581 2729 2690 U ~8
IX Pupil-teacher ratio:
Table 4.26 shows an ~ncrease In pupil-teacher
ratio over plan and also inter-district variation was
relatively very high during VI Plan.
Considerable fluctuations is observed in the
relative positions of the district under different
plans. Initially Dharwad classified as Poor had high
pupil-teacher ratio till fifth plan and showed
improvement improved in the VI and VII Plan to shift to
the Average category and again came back to the Poor
category at the end of VIII Plan.
Similar thing has happened in the case of Raichur
and Bidar. In the case of Mysore, the pupil-teacher
ratio became unfavorable during VI and VII Plan
resulting in the district moving from Average to Poor.
Dakshinakannada was showing unfavorable pupil
teacher ratio at the end of IV Plan and improved till
183
the end of V Plan to be placed under Average category
and declined to Poor category in the VI Plan and aga~n
moved back to Average category in the VIII Plan.
In the case of Bijapur the teacher-pupil ratio was
favourable and district was classified as Good category
at the end of IV Plan. It moved down to Average category
at the end of V Plan and it further moved down to Poor
category at the end of VI Plan. Its position improved
under VII Plan and remained so in VIII Plan.
Chickmagalore classified in Good category at the
end of VI Plan and stayed in the same category through
out.
Tumkur and Kodagu has fluctuated between Average
and Good under different Plan periods.
Uttarakannada was the only district to remain in
the Good category throughout the Plan periods.
184
Table 4.26 DISTRICTWISE PUPIL-TEACHER RATIO AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS
IV Plan(1971-1973) V Plan(1974-1978) VI Plan(1980-1984) VII Plan(1985-1989) VIII Plan(1992-1994) Cate ory District Score District Score District Score District Score District Score POOR DHARWAD 4657 BIDAR 49.77 BIJAPUR 83.29 MYSORE 55.50 DHARWAD 6618
GOOD BIJAPUR 37.31 TUMKUR 40.56 NORTH KANARA 33.43 TUMKUR 40.47 TUMKUR 42 13 CHICKMAGLORE 36.64 CHICKMAGLORE 40.06 KODAGU 3131 KODAGU 38.24 NORTH KANARA 40 12 NORTH KANARA 36.57 NORTH KANARA 37.11 KOLAR 37.78 HASSAN 39.50
NORTH KANARA 3639
IVPI V PL VIPL VII PL VIIIPL Mean 40.87 43.94 45.53 46.86 51 41 Standared deviation 2.76 3.12 11.37 5.74 8.24 Coefficient of variation 6.77 7.10 24.96 12.24 1603 Mean+Standard deviation 43.64 47.06 56.90 52.60 5965 Mean-Standard deviation 38 11 4082 3417 41 13 43 t 7
X Standard-Teacher ratio:
The mean value of standard teacher ratio shows
decline from Plan to Plan (table 4.27). The coefficient
of variation shows fluctuations at different Plan
periods under consideration. But the coefficient of
variation has declined after the VI Plan showing
declining trend in the disparities among districts.
Hassan remained in the Poor category except during
VI Plan. Uttarakannada has showed improvement In the
position by movIng from Poor to Average category during
VI Plan and continued In the same position during VII
and VIII Plan periods, Dakshinakannada and Dharwad,
remained in the Good category and moved to Average
during VIII Plan.
Bidar has shown improvement from V Plan onwards.
Most of the other districts remained In the Average
category.
186
Table 4.27 DISTRICTWISE STANDARED-TEACHER RATIO AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS
IV Plan(1971-1973) V Plan(197 4-1978) VI Plan(1980-1984) VII Plan(1985-1989) VIII Plan(1992-1994) Category District Score District Score District Score District Score District Score POOR HASSAN 2.19 RAICHUR 2.20 BIJAPUR 2.74 HASSAN 2.08 HASSAN 1.77
RAlCHUR 2.16 HASSAN 2.12 MYSORE 2.28 CHICKMAGLORE 1.86 NORTH KANARA 2.03 NORTH KANARA 2.04
information is consolidated at the district level sent
to the State.
Based on the funds availability, physical targets
are allotted to each district by the State. The allotted
physical targets are usually less than the requirement.
Based on this allotment, at the district level again a
list of schools badly requiring additional rooms is
called from taluk level. Most needed schools are decided
by the DDPI based on the strength of students. Money is
sanctioned to ZP .. The DDPI gives the list of rooms
required in respective school. ZP decides the agency
249
for construction and the DDPI is only the supervising
authority.
The Case Worker at Chickmaglore while giving
addi tional information regarding the al:
for additional classrooms said that thE
for the part of the estimate. The
provides a fixed amount of the unit
Centrally sponsored scheme called Jawaha
The remaining funds are to be mobi
community.
Repair of class rooms: The Case We
of planning at Mandya DDPI's office said
for repairs is same as the room construc
has not given funds to repair but, every
asks us to send the proposal. We hi
proposal to Government after obtaining
for repair of schools from ZP engineers.
Manaranjana programme: Person in charge of Akshaya
Programme
allotted
said that,
11 lakhs
during 1993-1994 the State
for Manaranj ana (entertainment)
programme. The DDPI and CEO decide about the number of
books and types of books to be distributed and orders
are gl ven ~o book se:.lers. Only financial allotlnent is
glven by the State Government. Number of schools
selected for the distribution of the books are decided
at the Dlstrict level.
District specific programme: Mandya Case Worker said
that, previous CEO had asked, the DDPI to send a
proposal for district specific programme. Accordingly,
the proposal for giving prizes to SSLC rank students
was prepared and sent to the State Government. The State
Government agreed to include the programmes from 1993-94
onwards. Hence provision is made by the State for the
allotment of fund. 1.5 lakhs lS sanctioned for this
purpose. 1 lakh is spent for distributing prizes to
SSLC rank holders. 5 prizes are glven to 1st five
highest rank holders in 3 categories: (a) SC/ST;
251
(b) Boys; and (c) girls. Remaining 50,000/- lS glven to
the best teacher and the best school award. If the State
recommends for discontinuing this programme based on the
inspection reports then it will be discontinued and
deleted during the preparation of draft plan at the
district level also.
5.7 Perception of officials concerned with educational
planning about the VEE:
Since the section of the DDPI (planning) In the
office of the CPI is the origin of all plan proposals
fcr state schemes, the discussion with the officer
covered a wide range of issues like the basis of
allocation of funds for the district, efforts to
universalize elementary education, introducing new
schemes etc. His response for various probing queries
are summarised below.
It was interesting to note that the response of the
DDPI (planning) for the question, "Have you taken up any
252
addi tional programmes to support UEE?" To quote his own
words, "What is UEE? What additional programmes should
be taken up? All these programmes that are carried out
are only to achieve UEE. What other programmes one can
take-up?
When his attention was drawn to the fact about
children who have to go to work and for whom classes
can be conducted in the same building after 5 or 6
0' clock, he said, "No, we cannot do it, this 15 not
effective. Usually academicians visit two villages and
define the problems and generalise it to the entire
State. But the problems are different in each village.
Academicians, in the beginning, thought that poverty was
the only problem in sending children to school, but now
they feel social taboos are also hindering UEE and
prescribe non-formal education as the alternative to
formal system. But it is not so in practice, I argue
with them telling that, if parents want to send
children to school, they send children to formal system
253
and not to NFE. Because these two system are not
comparable."
for the question, "What can we do to the children
who are labourers and out of school?" The DDPI
(planning) said, "How many such children do you find in
a village? May be 8 to 10, 1n the entire State may be
8,000.
help.
Our country's problems are like that, we cannot
Because of the scarcity of resources we are
experimenting this NfE with the foreign funds (in DPEP
districts) and not with the State funds."
When the attention of the DDPI (Planning) was drawn
towards the allocation of money for districts and asked
to explain the basis of allotment, he said that it is
based on the population of the district and not the
backwardness. for the question, "Do they take into
account the backwardness of the district while allotting
the funds?" he sa1d, "No, for allotment backwardness of
the district 1S not taken into account. There are Tribal
Development Board and Backward Development Board to
254
support backward districts. For the question, "While
fixing expenditure, do you take into account per pupil
cost? Have you used any other indicators?" he said,
"We have calculated per pupil cost and it has corne to
around Rs. 875/- per year but we have not reflected it
in planning. Incentive schemes are not working out
effectlvely.
enrollment.
Even wi thout these schemes there lS 60%
We find problem only with 20% of children.
Even if the enrollment increases by 5%, we are happy.
It is very difficult to enroll these children."
The discussion was focused to know the efforts
towards universal enrollment and was asked "Do you
lncrease the allocation for education keeping in view
the cost involved in covering the last 20% of children?"
He replied, "No, we do not take into account children.
who are not In the school. But we do allot based on the
norms followed during five year plan. We have prepared
perspectlve plan taking into account the opinion of
experts. There are many things, which do not require
money but requlre change in the policy, e.g.
255
transferring the power of teachers' recruitment from
district offices to taluk boards. We cannot transfer
the power because it is a policy decision. Previously,
recruitment was taking place at the State level. Now, it
1S decentralised to the district level. It may be
decentralised further to the taluk level. But the
salaries are paid by the State Government." He
continued, "Related to appointment of teacher, the
Central Government wants us to recruit female teachers.
But "r l~ is not going to be useful because ( 1 ) teachers
are not prepared to stay 1n the village (2) they have to
travel from far off places (3) they take transfer to
city by bringing political pressure."
About the school timings, the DDPI expressed his
opinion relating to change of school timing according to
the convenience of the local people. The main problem is
that teachers are not available to teach the regular
schedule. They are given permission to declare winter
vacation any time in the academic year. Even the school
timing can be changed according to their convenience.
256
As teachers do not stay in the same village, they do not
agree with these timings. However in Belgaum class start
at 8 a.m. and close at 12 noon during summer."
5.8 Nature Of Information And Information Flow
Based on the discussions held at various levels the
following types of information are identified:
• Guidelines
• Proposals
• Statistical information
Decisions in the form of orders and circulars.
The nature of each of the above is discussed in the
following paragraphs.
Guidelines: The need of guidelines lS felt at all
levels. Guidelines originate from a higher level of the
structure to lower levels. They are needed when higher
level decides the outlays or allocates money for plans
to be prepared and implemented by the lower level of the
257
structure. This can be illustrated by the description
given by the Planning, Evaluation and Appraisal Officer
of Mandya Zilla Panchayat. According to him, "the St.at.e
Government. indicates t.he plan outlay for preparing the
district plan and gives guidelines during the month of
March. The guidelines indicate the priorities to be
given. On the basis of such priorities the total outlay
needs to be distributed across different development
departments."
Most of the guidelines contain a por forma to organise
the i terns of actions and financial requirements. They
also include the identification of authority to approve
the actions undertaken.
Proposals: Proposals are responses to the guidelines.
They go from lower levels to higher levels of the
structure. Normally they are evidence of compliance to
the guidelines. They include the information organised
according to the pro forma supplied along with
guidelines. Draft Proposals with details of action to be
258
taken are sent for approval to the agency as prescribed
in the guidelines.
Statistical Information The substantive aspects of
proposal consists of statistical information. Such
informa tion is always In the form of numbers
representing the 'reali ty' . But validity of these
numbers never gets questioned. The statistical
information is generated separately for each proposal.
In other words, each of the proposals using the same
information like enrollment, number of teachers etc.
Collects information separately without cross-checks
from lower level structures. The lowest link in the
planning structure is the school. All information flows
upwards from the Headmaster. During the discussions at
all levels starting from the state to the block, no one
mentioned the existence of a reliable data base.
Circulars and orders: The information is in the form of
instructions, approval and acceptance taken for
circulars and orders. They always flow in downward
259
direction of the structure. Information provides
legitimacy at the operational level to implement and
initiate actions in different areas.
In the following paragraphs an attempt is made to
capture the role and quality of information flow from
the qualitative data generated during field visits.
5.9 Information base for the development of proposals:
Realistic and achievable planning requlres a
reliable data base. This data base would contain unit
wise information on important educational parameters.
Whether the plan intends to expand or restructure, the
direction and magnitude of the task require the current
status of the system. The data base is also required
for diagnosis of the situation and specify objectives.
Discussions with the district and block level
officers revealed that information on same parameters
260
are sought and supplied separately for each programme
at the time of proposal and also at the time of
implementation. Data base does not exist at the block
level which can be updated every year from where the
information can be drawn for planning as well as
monitorlng the implementation. Discussions at the
district and block lev€l offices revealed the existence
of different sources of information which are employed
at different points of time for different purposes as
given below.
1) Monthly Reports: Each school sends a Mahevari
(monthly) report to the AEO through the IOS. Very
rarely the IOS goes to the school to collect the
required information. This Mahevari report contains the
position of teachers working, sanctioned number of
rooms, number of children on roll and the average
attendance separately for boys, girls, SC boys, SC
girls, ST boys and ST girls. The information contained
in the report is not trustworthy. According to the AEO
of Najanagudu " .. this.report would not be accurate as
261
the information given by the teachers ~s not correct.
Teachers increase the students enrollment. Teachers
fear that they may be transferred to some other school
if the enrollment figure ~s
problem of distribution of
less. This has led to the
incentives. Due to th~s
inflated numbers many text books and food packets have
remained ~n my office. For example, ~n one school
teachers had included additional 30 names, but they
were not present. When asked the reason for their
absence, teachers tell, students have gone to yathre,
or to attend festival in the village etc., lOS found
out the correct number of school going children. Last
year they had asked for ten quintal of food. This year
according to the survey I have given only 3 quintal of
food. "
When the Case Worker at the DDP1's office was asked,
"How is information received and processed?" the case
worker responded, "DDPI office receive information from
AEOs every month starting from June in the form of a
report named KDB report (Karnataka Development Board) .
262
When asked about the collection of data at taluk
level, he said, "The information is collected by each
Inspectors of Schools in monthly meeting of Headmasters
of the schools in their respective ranges. HMs are
required to bring the information pertaining to their
school in prescribed form and give it to the lOS. Such
information from each range is consolidated at the
AEO's office and reported to the DDPI in the form of
KDB report."
In fact there exists a post of Assistant
Statistical Officer in the office of the DDPI. But, in
all the districts visited, the posts were vacant at
the time of the visit.
It was also found that the same type of
information is used both at the time of sending plan
proposals and also at the time of implementing the
programme. There lS no mechanism to cross check the
information nor they are used for monitoring purpose.
For example the case worker in the DDPI' s office in
263
Mysore stated that, "state Goverrunent allots money to
glve equipments to HPS (chair, table, desk, sitting
planks, bench) . ZP and DDPI officials decide about
list of equipments to be supplied . There is also a
separate committee related to equipment. AEOs inform
about the equipments required by the schools. They
collect it from HMs." The present investigator asked,
"Who decides about the nwnber of equipments?" He said,
"Roughly we give 10 plank. During the distribution of
planks to respective schools we see the nwnber of
equipments already in the school. If it is more then we
give it to some other school.
2) Enumeration; Lot of time of teacherS/Headmasters 1S
taken away in compiling and supplying information in
different kinds of pro forma to the higher office. In
fact the teachers start collection of information
during the month of December every year about the
children who should be enrolled in school during the
succeeding year. This is called enumeration census. The
information comes from households. Teachers collect the
264
information related to date of birth, house number,
head of the household's name, number of brothers and
sisters. All these statistics are sent to the DDPI' s
office.
office.
Individual details are sent to the AEO's
Such a type of cens~s is done even in school-
less villages.
3) Occasional surveys: The AEO of Nanjungudu Block of
Mysore district mentioned about a survey conducted by
him. This survey was conducted to meet the instruction
given by the State Government which stated that the
incentives should be distributed to those children who
regularly attended the school. The survey attempted to
measure the number of students attending the schools
regularly. He also added that children attend the
school in large numbers till the distribution of
uniforms, text books and food packets and stop corning
after the distribution.
265
4) Programme Specific Information: Each time when a
progranune is to be implemented or proposal has to be
sent as per the guidelines, efforts are made to collect
the essential information for the purpose. Proposals
to create new posts of teachers or opening of new
school, lS decided based on the infor:nation collected
from the HMs. For example, the lOS reported that the
DDPI has glven new pro forma to collect information. A
copy of the pro forma is displayed on the notice board
during circle meetings. HMs are expected to collect the
information accordingly.
In one of the meetings attended by this
investigator in the DDPI's office, Mysore, she saw Case
Worker distributing pro forma during the meeting and
asking the AEO's to collect taluk level data within 3
days. The doubts raised by the AEO's on the certain
items in the pro forma one of the Case Worker clarified
by explaining that, "It is similar to last year's pro
forma and in addition you have to collect information
related to high schools also. H The city AEO objected
266
saying that, "I cannot collect High school information
wi thin 3 days as there are 67 High schools in his
taluk." The Case Worker then asked them to get
information from only Government schools.
In the same meeting, a person from Textbooks
Bureau came to collect statistics related to primary
and secondary schools. He wanted to know the total
enrollment in government and private schools, number
of books that are in the stock and SC/ST students from
V to VII standard of government schools. All the AEOs
were asked to give the needed information wi thin a
given date to the Textbook Bureau.
5) All India Educational survey: NCERT conducts
periodic all India Educational Survey of Education. But
information collected in such surveys are not kept for
use in the block or district level.
267
5.10 Reliability of Information:
Most of the programmes depend upon the enrollment
figures. But the functicnaries at the grass roots level
know that the enrollment figures are most often
inflated. Earlier, the AEOs remark has been cited to
show the distortions 1n the figures given by the
headmasters for reasons of their own. But, invariably
the information supplied by the schools are taken into
account for further planning and administrative
purposes. The present researcher during her visit to
the DDPI office at Chickamaglore came across a
situation in which the clerical staff were calculating
per pupil expenditure for the district. One of the
Second Division Clerk asked her senior as to whether
she should take attendance or enrollment into
consideration to calculate per pupil expenditure. The
First Division Clerk clarified that she has to take the
enrollment, otherwise the per pupil expenditure becomes
high if attendance 1S used in calculation. On the
268
expenditure side she wanted to find out whether she has
to take the actual salaries disbursed or salaries of
the teachers who are not paid at present. The FDC told
her to take the salary payable as the money has been
allotted to them.
In another incident, the CPO of Mysore showed the
researcher a letter which required certain information
about the district to be supplied to the State in
fi fteen days time. According to him, the work needed
more time. He remarked that since such unreasonable
requests were made the officials at the block and
grassroots level gave some figures and hence the
statistics did not tally from programme to programme.
To quote his own words "It is not consistent. Higher
officials are happy with the targets and statistical
figures. They take 10ts of time in asking for the
required information and we have to collect the
information within fifteen days. That is why our
implementation is failing."
269
Information used in the process 1S gathered by
different functionaries. No arrangement exists at the
block level to collect and make t~em cons1stent. Even
at the district level the position of the }\.SSlstant
Statistical Officer 1n the office of the DDPI has
remained vacant in all the three districts visited by
this researcher.
5.11 Role of Information in Planning:
Inspite of the discrepancies ln information and
its lack of credibility, plan proposals use convenient
form of information to satisfy the procedural
requirements and information is also used to justify
higher allocations.
This can be illustrated by several examples. The
statement made by the Case Worker in the office of the
DDPI, Mysore regarding the rationale for deciding the
distribution of the equipment as already been mentioned
earlier.
270
The same practice is evident from Mandya as well.
The case worker in charge of programmes in the office
of the DDPI reported that the State asks to send
proposal for number of additional classrooms required.
DDPI in turn asks the AEOs to send a list of schools
requiring additional classroom by fixing a norm.
Requirement of the addi tional classrooms is decided
based on pupil-teacher ratio and number of existing
classrooms. Taluk level information is consolidated at
the District level and sent to the State. Based on the
availability of funds physical targets are allotted to
each district by the state. The allotted physical
targets are usually less than the requirement. Based on
this allotment, the district again asks for list of
schools badly requiring additional rooms from taluk
level. Most needed schools are decided by the DDPI
based on the strength of students.
In another instance, as narrated by the same Case
Worker the State Government invited ZP and DDPI's
office asking to send a proposal for repair of play-
271
ground and fencing the DDPI instruc':ed ':he AEOs to send
a list of LPS/HPS schools having playground where
fencing was r~quired in their respective blocks.
Accordingly AEO's sent the reports based 'In '''''h.:.ch the
DDPI estimated that 175 school play qrc:unds required
fencing. Similarly, in 1993-94 the State hac .:.mposed a
ceiling of 5,000/- for repair to be glven to each
school and each legislative constituency was permitted
with 10 schools. Hence Mandya was al:otted 90 schools.
List of schools was sent to ZP by the DDPI. They were
approved without any change.
As discussed above each progranune generates its
own information on the same phenomenon, the maln
purpose appears to claim as much resources as possible
with the help of statistics and other forms of
information.
5.12 outcomes of the analysis: In the present chapter an
attempt is made to analyze the information generated
through interviews, discussions and observat:ons of p:an
272
related meetings carried out at state and district
level. Based on the analysis certain observations are
made:
1. All plan activities start from the decision regarding
the quantU!:t of funds by the cabinet or the Nat:conal
Planning Commission, whether the plan refers to new Five
Year or an Annual Plan of an ongoing Five Year Plan.
2. It has been indicated that the cabinet takes the
decision regarding financial outlays based on status
paper submitted by the secretaries of different
departments including education to the cabinet meeting.
The State Planning Board has no role to play in shaping
the educational plans. The status paper is prepared by
the planning section of the secretariat of the education
department on the basis of information obtained from
commissioners and directors. The discussions with the
officials of the planning section in the educational
secretariat did not indicate any systematic approach to
analyze the information in a holistic way.
273
3. Educational plan consists of three sections depending
upon the source of outlay. All the programs for which
the Central Government supports, are called, centrally
sponsored schemes. The programs for whlcn the funds come
from state account are termed as state sector programs.
Programs which are supported by the individual ZP are
termed as district sector programmes. Invariably the
officials involved in the planning process understand
educational planning as a bundle of discrete programmes.
They always think at the concrete level rather than
viewing the plan as a set of inter-related abstract idea
structure which have implication for action during the
discourse. No one talked about strategic plan,
objectives, diagnosis of a situation etc.,.
4. 7he planning procedure consists of guidelines and
proposals. Guidelines
procedures to prepare
authority to lower
guide I ines by the lower
communicate instructions and
a proposal given from higher
authority. Responses to the
level structure to the higher
274
level structure take the form of proposal. Even the
district sector programs are district specific In the
sense of administration than plan formulation. During
our discussions only one instance of proposal In the
form of giving awards to rank holders within a distr~ct
came to light as a sole example of District specific
programme.
5. The discrete nature of plan program clearly emerges
from the nature and method of data collected for
preparing the proposals. Even though the data may happen
to be the same for several programme proposals, each of
them seek data separately and the information collected
under one program is rarely used for another program. In
this process data on a given parameter may not be the
same when collected under different programmes. In the
entire planning structure, the notion of data base, its
update and analysis is completely absent.
From the above observation it may be concluded that
the plans are used as legitimizing instrument for
275
spending public :unds. Once the funds are earmarked for
differen~ programs the role of planning comes to an end.
The feed back from <::he evaluation of the implementatlon
of prevlous plans do not find any place in further
planning.
After looking at the plan process carried out at
the district level and the state level an attempt 1.S
made in the next chapter to describe the field level
activities and perceptions related to planning and
implementation.
276
CHAPTER VI
A View of the Primary Education
at the Field Level
6.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter the meaning and process of
planning emerging out of discussions at the district and
the state level was presented. In this chapter the
info~ation generated during the visits to the block and
community levels are analyzed. Block and community level
are active locations and they provide the information
needed for future decisions.
The relevance of planning from the view of bringing
about changes in the intended direction gets tested at
the field level. The degree of understanding and
commi tment to the aims and obj ecti ves of plans decide
the success.
277
Two blocks from each of the selected districts
were visl~ed during the field work. The block and
schoo~ level educational functionaries, district and
village level elected representatives, school
betterment committee members, and parents were
interv~ewed in each block. The objective of the field
work was t~ ascertain the role of the grassroots level
bureaucratic structure In expansion of education and
the responses of the client groups to the planned
development. Specifically, the field work served the
following purposes:
• To understand the role of field level functionaries
in educational planning and nature of information
base used for planning.
• To understand the process of educational development
In the form of new schools additional rooms,
•
additional teachers, deployment of teachers,
distribution of incentives, etc.
To understand the perceptions of the concerned with
respect to the above issues in the context of the
planned development of primary education.
278
• To obtain the perceptions of the parents who have
not enrolled or have withdrawn their children from
the school
The narrative recounted In the following pages has
been evolved based o~ the field notes on the interviews
and observation.
6.2 Educational Planning and Field Level functionaries
The Field level functionaries do not perceive their
role as of any importance in planning. Their basic role
is to respond to the circular sent by the higher
offices asking for specific information or directing
them to take actions. As one of the Inspectors of
Schools (IDS) puts it, "we have nothing to do with the
planning. It is the work of the Head Quarters. We only
supply information sought by them". Since the role of
information is crucial in planning, the researcher
asked the functionaries about the nature and source of
information they transmit upwards in each of the
blocks. The discussions revealed that Head Masters/Head
279
dropouts from parents. We just sit and write the reason and never visit houses."
As AEO of Nanjangudu pointed out that teachers inflate enrollment figures to ensure their place in the school in which they ~ike to continue. In one case he recollected, the teacher has reported thirty children on the roll who did not exist.
On enquiry about the number of school going aged child population in the vi~lage, the teacher in Alambur of Nanjangud Block said, "~tere are many children we do not enroll. If we enroll them all then the space in the school would not be sufficient. I was teaching all the classes alone three years ago. The second teacher under OBB was posted here. It is sufficient to enroll 70 or 80 children for two of us. I f we show less then that, one of us would be deputed to another school. Hence we enroll 70 to 80 students."
Puneeth aged 6 years of Tangali Tandya of Kadur Block stopped going to school. Gowrarnrna in Kanagondanahalli in the same block did not enroll to the school as her father opposed. He was against her going to school. Gowrarnrna takes food to her father who works in a farm. Hale Mudigere Jayalakshrni works as a coolie. She .is paid Rs.30/- per day. She is a 1st standard dropout. According to her father, Lakshrni did not show any interest in studies hence started working. Renuka of the same village is seven years old. She was enrolled to the school. But she did not attend the school. Now she takes care of her younger sister at horne. Her mother works as a labourer. Nagalakshrni in Mogarhalli of Srirangapatna Block stopped going to the school when she was in 1st standard She left the school . three years back to look after her sister. In the same village in Manjula's house, she has only one brother, both of them are not enrolled in school, because Manjula has to cook and look after the household work, when their
281
Teachers of all schools in each range ( a range is a
part of a block) and one lOS will be incharge of all
primary schools in that area meet once in a month in a
central place and provide the current information about
their scl1oo1 in a prescrlbed pro forma. Normally the
pro for:na includes the current enrollment and
attendance level of children ln gender-wise and
category-wise classifications, number of classrooms,
the ownershlp status of the school building, the number
of teacher posts sanctioned and the number of teachers
working and information about several accounts
maintained at the school. The information routinely
collected every month from each school is sent to the
district level office for physical storage. Based on
the information thus generated, the AEO would prepare a
development report and sends it to the Office of the
DDP1. The following excerpts are from the field notes
presented as illustrations to show the unreliability of
the enrollment data.
Teacher who accompanied researcher to Tangali Tandya enquired about the purpose of the work and appreciated researchers' effort to obtain information from villages . and said, "you have been honest in visiting villages to collect the information by going to houses. Often the department asks us to collect reasons for
280
dropouts from parents. We just sit and write the reason and never visit houses. H
As AEO of Nanjangudu pointed out that teachers inflate enrollment figures to ensure their place in the school in which they like to continue. In one case he recollected, the teacher has reported thirty children on the roll who did not eXist.
On enquiry about the number of school going aged child population in the village, the teacher in Alambur of Nanjangud Block said, "There are many children we do not enroll. If we enroll them all then the space in the school would not be sufficient. I was teaching all the classes alone three years ago. The second teacher under OBB was posted here. It is sufficient to enroll 70 or 80 children for two of us. If we show less then that, one of us would be deputed to another school. Hence we enroll 70 to 80 students. H
Puneeth aged 6 years of Tangali Tandya of Kadur Block stopped going to school. Gowramma in Kanagondanahalli in the same block did not enroll to the school as her father opposed. He was against her going to school. Gowramma takes food to her father who works in a farm. Hale Mudigere Jayalakshmi works as a coolie. She .is paid Rs. 30/ - per day. She is a 1st standard dropout. According to her father, Lakshmi did not show any interest in studies hence started working. Renuka of the same village is seven years old. She was enrolled to the school. But she did not attend the school. Now she takes care of her younger sister at home. Her mother works as a labourer. Nagalakshmi in Mogarhalli of Srirangapatna Block stopped going to the school when she was in 1st standard She left the school three years back to look after her sister. In the same village in Manjula's house, she has only one brother, both of them are not enrolled in school, because Manjula has to cook and look after the household work, when their
281
parents go to interested In scheol.
work. Her parents are not enrolling their children to
The above clted children could be traced because their
names happen to be in the school reglsters as enrolled.
The examples glven above indicate :hat the information
base used for planning purposes is not reliable. During
the field work, no one talked about the existence of a
data bank. The same information was collected
separately for different plan proposals. Since the
concentration of all previous plans was on expansion of
enrollment, the inflated figures given by the teachers
for various existential reasons also become useful for
justifying the interventions of previous plans and
place demand for continued flow of resources to do the
same thing in much more expanded scale. But, once the
resources are allocated, the dynamics of growth takes
over at the action level. At the stage of plan
formulation, the exerClse lS driven by supply based
politica: economy. Whether the same principle also
dominates at the action level becomes important to
hlghlight the role of planning. In the succeeding
paragraphs procedures followed in expanding education,
supplying infrastructure and human resources to the
schools are discussed with the help of field notes
based on observations and interviews.
282
6.3 Dynamics of Expansion of Schooling
The activities that take place at the field level more
or less conform to the plan programmes. But the
procedure followed to implement and the forces that
come into operation in the process differ from the
perspectives with which such programmes are planned.
Some of the major interventions are focused here to
bring out the field realities influencing the expansion
of education. Here, the term educational expansion is
used to differentiate the changes that take place at
the field level from the perspective of educational
development. The dynamics of expansion will be
discussed in terms of the opening of new schools, basis
of the decisions to distribute resources for existing
schools under construction, repairs and maintenance,
provision for additional teachers and reallocation of
existing teachers through transfers and deputation.
Opening of New Schools
The Government of Karnataka follows a norm for opening a
new school. Normally, the norm specifies that the
habitation should have a popUlation of 300 or should
have at least 20 to 30 school going aged child
population. Over a period in the last forty years most
of such habitations have been covered. Therefore, there
is little scope for opening new schools. But, at the
283
local level new schools are coming to existence through
an indirect route to circumvent the norm. Initiative for
this development does not emerge from the department of
education. I~ depends on the initiatives taken up by the
representatives of the people at the constituency level
(demand side) and the response of the department for
such initiatives. The following excerpts from the field
notes illustrate the procedure and the role of the
department of education at the block level.
When asked how the decision to open schools are taken, an lOS in Mudigere said, "We do not decide about the opening of a school. It has to come from local people. We can not feel the need of a school in a particular place. Local people should feel the need of a school."
The AEO at Kadur while discussing about the activity currently being carried out in the block said, "One of the activities carried out at the taluk level is opening of branch schools. If school going child population is 16 or more, then villagers write to us. The lOS visits the spot and based on the visit report we send the proposal to DDPI's office for approval. lOS carries out the- spot inspection to knO"'l whether the students' strength is between 15-20 and whether villagers accommodate the school in a private building for a year. AEO recommends for
284
deputation of a teacher. Within two years a Government building is constructed.
When asked whether he would fix priority to forward proposals, AEO, Kadur replied, "We do not fix any priority. We forward all the proposals to DDPI's office. During 1989-94 12 branch schools were opened. This year, we have recei ved 3 applications. These applications are pending with DDPI for approval."
In Mudigere one of the lOS on the issue of opening branch schools said, " We gi ve preference to SC/ST areas. We are not given any guidelines. We follow our own guidelines before sending the proposals to DDPI's office. We conduct spot inspection to check the population of school going children (6 to 13) which should be more than 15. We ensure that the villagers agree to run the school for two years in any private building and equip the school with necessary equipment. We recommend for the deputation of a teacher from the nearby school. The DDPI approves deputation of a teacher. At the end the of second year we send the proposal for building. The school building is constructed by the Government. Teacher's posts for these schools are created as soon as the State Government allots additional teacher posts in the district."
285
In another example, a hamlet called Laxmipura attached to Oddaradoddi village in Heggadadevannakotp. Villagers of Laxmipura managed through lobbying to obtain a branch school of the main school. and also diverted the additional room which was allotted to Oddaradodi village under OBB scheme.
Providing a teacher for a branch school is also complicated. The FDC in Kadur, answering to the question "Who decides the teachers allotment?" explained, "lOS, AEO and DDPI decide about posting of teachers to branch school. Usually one teacher is deputed from HPS school to branch school. HMs of these schools pressurise the lOS and AEO constantly to bring back the deputed teacher or they demand additional post. In such cases an additional post is created to HPS. After two years or wi thin a year, a teacher's post is created in the branch school. Hence AEO selects the schools where HMs pressurise more and the teacher is needed very badly. Strength of students are also considered for this purpose." When asked for the record in which guidelines are mentioned for the selection of the schools, he replied, "such things are discussed orally and are not available in written form."
286
In another case, Lokavali village in Mudigere had a branch school. The main school of which ~s situated ~n another village. One teacher ~s teaching in that school. There are cwo rooms in the branch school. One room ~s given to Shishuvihar (pre-primary). tour classes are taught by a single teacher in another room. This branch school is started for the benefit of SC students because these children were not coming to the main school. The main school has two rooms and students' strength is only 15.
The SBC President and Gram Panchayat Adyaksha of Laxmipura village said, "This village is dominated by SCs. All the benefits go to neighbour ing village dominated by STs. A Few years back these two villages got separated. Recently, Government gave a branch school and a teacher was deputed. Teacher's post is not created ~n Oddaradoddi school. AEO informed that, the teacher post cannot be sanctioned as ours is not an original Grama."
Out of the 12 villages visited three of them
had branch schools. All of them are located in SC
colony. Such schools are likely to continue as single
teacher schools. The local level Governments are not
empowered to create teachers post but rooms can be
constructed by them.
287
From the above field realities it can be surmised that
the expanSlon of schooling facility depends upon the
demand factors. The demand for school in a given
locality emerge frem the local power politics and social
6.4 Implementation of Schemes.
Apart from the administration of the existing
schools, the schemes envisaged under plans have to be
lmplemented by the block level educational
functionaries. The way ln which they go about
translating the schemes into action provides insights to
lnfer the outcomes of the planned development approach.
Generally they fol:ow a procedure which endorses the
local power structure. The following excerpts from the
field notes illustrate the above observation.
At the AEO's office in Heggadadevanakote block, Case Worker in charge of Akshaya programme was consulted to go through the files and collect names of schools selected for various progranunes. For the question "How are schools selected for various programmes?" he explained that, the Government order is circulated by the DDPI along with the guidelines to select school. For yatra programme guideline has been given to select 35 schools. Concerned Case Worker
288
collects the list of schools for yatra programme from lOS.
In the case of schemes like construction of class rooms, repair of school buildings, fencing the schoo 1 grounds etc., ros gives the list of schools separately for each scheme. and short list the number according to the target set by DDPI. And shows the list of schools to AEO before sending it to DDPI. According to him, "The previous AEO had the feel of local conditions but present AEO puts the signature to the list of names selected by me randomly. Actually lOS and AEO should decide about it but they are not doing accordingly. ross are not aware of the prevailing conditions in the villages. They are not maintaining any report. They have to write a report on every visit. This is not done by them. When we ask lOSs for list of schools which require classrooms or repair. lOSs inturn suggest us to refer to the consolidated monthly reports given by HMs. If an lOS feels that repairs are not required in a hobli circle then he would not give list of school names."
In Kadur, First Division Clerk (FDC) in charge of Akshaya programmes explained the procedure followed for implementing various schemes, "In Akshaya there are 9 programmes dealing with supply of uniforms, text books, foed, creating educational environment, providing play grounds, repair of school buildings, educational excursions and providing musical instruments to schools. ODPI fixes financial and physical targets. AEO selects the schools for implementation. Sometimes guidelines are given by cpr and DDPI. Sometimes AEO himself imposes norms."
The AEO of Kadur, during the discussion about the procedures selecting the locations/specific
'targets for implementation of the programmes and schemes, said that IOS's are asked to collect information related to problems of the schools
289
and discuss with HMs and teachers during their visit to the school and make a note of facili ties required for each school. Based on this information the schools are selected.
During the discussion with the lOSs at Kadur, researcher tried to cross check the information she had obtained earlier regarding the procedures of implementation by asking them to explain the steps involved In providing additional classrooms and teachers.
One 0 f them explained, "Orders corne from the CPI office to the DDPI. The DDPl asks the AEO to send a list of schools requiring additional classrooms. In June a list of schools requlrlng repairs and additional classrooms are prepared. In July, a list of schools requiring addi tional teacher posts is prepared. This is prepared after receiving the enrollment numbers of students. The prescribed norm is, One additional room to be given to HPS having 5 rooms. Additional room lS given based on the strength of LPS.H
In Mudigere, the issue of selection of schools was raised with the Case Worker in charge of building constructions in the Office of the AEO in Mudigere Block said, "it depends on 105, who give us a list. This list is sent to DDPI's office."
The above excerpts provide a general picture of the
procedure followed at the field level. It also shows
that the role of the 105 is crucial in the process of
implementation. It will be of interest to know-how far
the norms and procedures are adhered by 105. The
political structure and the education structure get
290
linked at the lOS level. His/her inspection report
provides official the official seal for accepting the
clalms for resources. In the following paragraphs
specific schemes are focused to know how they are
carr~ed out.
Adding classrooms to the existing schools form a maJor
component of civil works activities under the plans.
Irrespective of the source of funding of the schemes
like State Plan schemes, centrally sponsored schemes or
Zilla Panchayat schemes, the implementing authority is
ZP. But, the need for construction requires an
endorsement from the education department which follows
the general procedure mentioned earlier. The
construction acti vi ty involve tendering and contracting
for civil works to local contractors or to the public
sector construction corporations like Land Army,
Karnataka Construction Corporation etc. Most often, the
construction of classrooms and small school buildings
are given to local private contractors as the magnitude
of budget lS very small. But this activity of classroom
construction attracts much attention of the local
291
politicians and district level bureaucracy. There exists
a great scope for grafts and distribution of patronage.
The following excerpts provide the picture of the
process of classroom construction.
One of the Nanjungudu 105 was interviewed to know the basis of selecting schools to implement varlOUS programmes. 105 explained that in general, ln any programme the physical targets allotted by the DDPI are shared equally among four circles. When asked," How are you going to select the villages in a circle for construction of school buildings?" 105 replied, ftpreference is given to the schools having no buildings and very interior villages. But in few places if the site is not available then we shift it to the place where site is available. For example, Banaj i village dominated by SC/ST has only one room. There are two teachers working in the school. When one teacher takes the class the second teacher has to wait outside. The class room is not spacious enough to accorrunodate all the students. A room was allotted to this school but villagers did not give a site. Hence the room is shifted to Kasovali. In Kasovali, villagers came forward to give a site. Now this school has 5 rooms. I asked, "How are you going to distribute the physical target, when there are eight backward villages in a circle and only 2 in another circle?" In reply he said, "for any programme, physical targets are distributed equally among 4 circles. If the backward areas are concentrated then the political leaders to come to the office to demand equal treatment for their constituency. There are 3 MLAs in Nanjangudu taluk. When a particular circle gets attention, MLAs from other, circles demand for the same. Hence, any benefit given by the government is equally shared by all the circles irrespective of the development."
292
lOS in Mudigere was asked, "what is the basis for selecting schools for additional classrooms?" Showing a pro forma he said, "This is given to HMs. They fill and give it to respecti ve inspectors of schools in the circle meeting. This pro forma gl ves information related to the strength of students and number of standards. Based on thiS information additional classroom are allotted to schools.H
The Case Worker working under the AEO in Muddur Block said, "This year the DDPI allotted 10 addi tional classrooms in the existing schools. The AEO and two lOS discussed and fixed the norms for selection. But it is not uniformly distributed among the circles. AEO and lOS selected the schools. This list of selected schools is sent to DDPI's office. The DDPI did not make any modification. If the SBC or the MIAs ask for a room, then DDPI writes to AEO and asks whether it is possible to fulfil the requirement. The AEO. based on the spot inspection report, conveys his opinion. Thus selected list 1S given to ZP. The work is entrusted to BDOs. After construction BDO gives the keys to AEO. The same will be communicated to DDPI and ZP."
In Kanagondanahalli when the school was started several years ago, the teacher was taking classes in Gram Panchayat office. It was very small room. Teachers felt very bad to teach in the small room and persuaded a villager to donate land. He gave 1 1/2 acres. The Head teacher also observed that the children were discontinuing their study after 4th standard and hence decided to obtain up-gradation of the school up to 7th standard. He collected 60,000/,to construct one room but was able to construct 4 more rooms with the grants from ZP and Taluk Panchayat. When school was visited by the
293
researcher, standards I to V"I. I were functioning with three teachers. Out of them one teacher was on deputation and the remalning twc pos~s belonged to the school. There were five rooms. Students' strength was around 200. The teacher was asked, "how did he manage to get sanction for so many rooms ?" Teacher explained, "application related to additional teacher's post or additional classroom can be sent by post or we can go to concerned office and hand over the application. If we give the application tc department (AEO's office) then 2 to 3 years are required to materialise because they have ~o wait for allotment. If we go through ZP, wort.: can be done in a year. Gram Panchayat member and SBC members can also give the application. Teacher prefers to go personally to move things faster. For the construction of a classroom, teacher can give an application directly to BOO. BDO takes permission from AEO and constructs a room. Application is sent through Gram Adhyaksha or SBC member to the department. Teacher should wait for 15 days or one week to know, whether the room has been sanctioned or not. In a month application is moved to ZP from taluk Panchayat. Teacher finds out from concerned caseworker in ZP, whether the room is sanctioned or not. Teachers usually go on Saturday after the morning classes. This may take a week or 1S days. If things are not materialised in this procedure then teacher meets MLA cr MP. If they tell the ZP, the school room is constructed within a year. But according to the teacher, things can be materialised even without MIAs help."
lOS of Kadur explained the process through which the schools get the additional facilities. According to his report, "Last year (1993-1994), DDPI allotted 14 classroom to Kadur taluk. Schools were selected by lOS and AEO based on their field reports. This list was given to BOO. BDO was entrusted with the responsibility of drawing the plan, estimating and constructing."
294
lOS at Heggadadevanakote answer~ng to the question "How are you going to select schools for implementing programmes?" said, "we select the most needed place. But things do not happen according to our specifications". When asked, "Do you consider SBC members application while allotting additional classrooms?" he said, "SBC members rarely ask for such things. In case politicians ask then the preference is given to them. If SBC or MLAs ask for a room then DDPI writes to AEO and asks whether it is possible to give or not? AEO based cn the field report and spot inspection report conveys his opinion on the case by case basis. Thus selected list is given to ZP. The work is then entrusted to BDOs. After construction BDO gives the keys to AEO. The same will be communicated to DDPI and ZP. Constructions are taken up under different Heads of account." If the proposal is the result of the MLA's ini tiati ve, they get cleared by DDPI without any problem. Otherwise, DDPI exercises cuts in the proposals according to her/his perception of the allotted resources and their distribution across different blocks."
Kanagondanahalli represents the implementation dynamics
of several schemes like construction of rooms,
deputation of teachers, and creation of posts. In the
above discussion, the mention of all levels of political
influence has been made by the teacher. It may be seen
that the criteria for identification of sites do not
follow the educational needs in terms of backwardness of
the sub-block regions. It gets divided equally among
them. During the process of the distribution of the
295
benefits equally, the provision always falls short of
the need. Hence, the politics of distribution of the
public resources takes over and status quo gets
maintained. Similarly, the repair of classrooms is
another intervention which attracts attention of the
local representatives elected either to Zilla Panchayat
or to the State Legislature.
In the AEO's office (Maddur), a few Villagers carne to his chamber, explained that, the school building is in very bad condition and requested the AEO to take action to repair the building. He sent them after assuring them that he would inform about their problem to the DDPI. Afterwards jokingly AEO remarked that all the buildings constructed after Independence are in bad condition and all the schools have to be constructed again.
In Maddur, Case Worker in charge of repairs of class rooms said, "This year MLAs and villagers have pressurised for repair of schools. This month MLA has asked for repair of 21 schools. We have sent the proposal to DDPI. Another MLA has asked for repair of classroom after we had sent the proposal. Now we have to send the proposal again.
Repairs are taken up under many pretext including the
state plan intervention. Repairs are not directly
implemented by block level education office. But they
have to endorse the request. The following selections
296
from the field notes indicate the issues involved.
Though repairs involve considerable allocation, an unit
of implementation is school. There is scope for a lot of
graft in awarding the contract: and also overestimation.
The work is normally carried out by the contractor and
supervised by the Zilla Panchayat Engineering
Department. Tenders are approved by the Zilla Panchayat
Office.
6.S Provision of Additional Teachers
Deployment of human resources in the form of
teachers recruitment and their placement forms an
important activity of the block level educational
office. As mentioned earlier, the documentary analysis
of the Five Year Plans revealed L'lat the macro level
projections of additional future enrollments form the
basis of projecting future demands for teachers and
accordingly allocations are made. For example in VI
Plan, provision for four thousand teachers was made in
the Five Year Plan to meet the target of 20 lakh
additional enrollment. But, in reality all the
297
additional enrollments do not take place 1n school-less
villages. Existing schools account for marginal 1ncrease
in enrollment. Further, a teacher-Pupil ratio of 1:50 is
used for locating the add1tional teacher. Schools, to
attain this marginal 1ncrease over the previous level,
require more than £:11e to S1X jears. Hence only a few
schools qualify for additional post. Invar iabl y,
provisions for salary component get postponed as much as
possible. The new posts sanctioned in any g1ven year 1S
always less than the projected demand. Hence, the
allocation of additional teacher's post corne under the
local power play.
In recent times it is the rural areas where such
demands have to be met. But, the teachers in rural areas
prefer to move to towns or to large central villages.
This also creates a demand for transfers. Transfers are
considered as purely administrative matters. But, the
re-deployment of teachers has greater significance 1n
the distribution of quality of schooling. Small schools
in interior areas continue to work with a single teacher
and the town schools have more teachers. The dynam~c
298
nature of the interplay of the demand and supply forces
for transfers and deputations require a separate study.
Glimpses of such power play could be discerned 1.n the
interviews with the field level functionaries of the
education departments. Some such statements are given in
the succeeding paragr~phs as illustrations.
Mudigere AEO said, "The criteria considered for the creation of the post is teacher-pupil ratio. Teacher-pupil ratio should be 1: 50. AEO sends a proposal to DDPI for sanctioning of addi tional teachers' post. In the proposal they mention students strength, number of teachers, working hours and number of required posts. SBC members also can send similar proposal for additional teachers' post to the DDPI."
Responding to the question, "do you fill up all the vacancies simultaneously in the block?", the AEO at Mudigere said, " When the sanctioned posts are less than the required posts, only teacher-student ratio is considered. This information is given by HMs in the hobli meeting. We see whether the school is LPS/HPS, number of students and teachers. We give preference to I to VII standards and schools having more number of students. E.g. in Komanahalli 2 teachers are teaching 20 students in LPS school. In the town school 450 students are taught by 4 teachers. Hence we depute a teacher from Komanahalli to town school. This year, DDPI informed us not to depute OBB school teachers to other places."
Maddur lOS explaining about the allotment of teacher posts said, "1: 50 teacher-student ratio norm is followed by the Government to allot additional teacher posts. Additional teacher post 1.S sanctioned to the schools having 1:80
299
teacher-student ratio. MLAs or SBC members ask for additional posts. AEOs are not in a position to give it. Hence deputations are done to such schools. Teachers can be deputed from LPS or HPS."
On the way bacK from the visit to the village to AEO'S office at Maddur blocK, HM who was accompanying researcher said, "I was transferred from Town School to a village school. Last year, I tried asking for a transfer to my native village as I have lands in the village and I have to take care of the irrigation work. AEO behaved rudely with me. He spoke without giving respect. Hence, I got him transferred to DDPI's office. There, he is given powerless superintendent post. Because of this incident, lOSs are scared that, they may also be transferred to far off places as graduate HMs. In the elections lOSs have supported Cong (I) (political party). I have canvassed for Janatha Dal(political party), this party has now come to power. If I am not transferred then I will go to the Chief Minister. And get my transfer this year."
The Case Worker in the office of the AEO stated that, during the period when a school having more strength is waiting for the sanction a f an additional post of teacher, a teacher is deputed to that school from a neighboring school. If classrooms are less than the teachers then teacher from that school is deputed to some other school having more strength. He showed a list containing school names, standards and number of teachers working and explained that, lOS, AEO and DDPI decide about it. Usually one teacher is deputed from HPS school to branch school. HMs of these schools pressurize the lOS and AEO constantly to bring back deputed teacher or they demand additional post. In such cases an ,additional post is created to HPS. Regarding the norms followed during deputation or transfers of teachers AEO of Heggadadevankote said,
300
"Transfers are recommended by AEOs to DDPI' s. We transfer teachers according to teacher student ratio in the class. We take into account 1: 50 ratio as the norm. For deputation, if an extra hand is required, the HM gives an application for deputation. Teacher is deputed within the Panchayat jurisdiction."
Nanjungudu lOS said, "When OBB Scheme was introduced, students' strength was around 18 in a class. Now due to migration and family planning only 2 to 3 children are in a class. In a class of two standards there are only 8 to 10 children studying. A teacher for 8 to 10 children is a" waste. In many villages 60 to 70 children are taught by one teacher in a class. Hence we have deputed one teacher to HPSs from LPSs having two teachers."
A teacher posted against the vacancy in a village called Mahadevanagar is at present working in Heggadadevanakote town school against the vacancy of a craft teacher. This teacher accompanied researcher on the instruction of AEO, to visit a village. On the way by travelling to the village she narrated the details of how she got herself deputed to the town school. According to her the village school where she is posted, is away from her home town. The school is a LPS and has an enrollment of 40 children. Only 20 attend the school. School has two teachers including her. She thought that one teacher is enough to teach 20 children and wanted to go on deputation to a school in her home town. But there was no vacant post in the town school. But the post of craft teacher was vacant. She persuaded the Headmaster of the school to write to AEO and ask for craft teacher and simultaneously requested the AEO to depute her to the school in town citing her problems. Her request was considered and she was posted against
'the post of craft teacher in the town school.
301
The above excerpts from the field diary indicate that
the centralised approach to recruit and deploy teachers
does not take into consideration the educational
concerns. Transfers of teachers become a fertile ground
for political power play. Teachers use their influence
to ~ina a place suitable :or their own well-being.
6.6 Perceptions of Local People
The targets of the plan intervention, namely the
poor and land-less live within their own circumscribed
space the system which expects them to change their
ways of life do not offer enough opportunity to do so.
Somehow the incentives get distributed without any
tangible educational outcomes for the beneficiaries.
They get co-opted by the entrenched educational system
to draw upon the public funds In their name. The
following excerpts represent the examples of non
enrolled, dropouts and neglected children and the
explanation given by the parents and elders of the
households for their educational deprivations. Some of
the examples highlight the drabness of education and
consequent failure in retaining the children, some
reflect the competing demands on the childrens' time by
the school and the parents and some reflect the lack of
faith in the ability of the school in providing useful
302
education. The examples given below are the examples of
the failure of planned development of education.
Kalamrna's father (Lakshmipura) 'going to school is of no use. children are not able to write cannot read and 'wr i te Kannada.
feels that, School gOlng
alphabets and A 4th standard
student cannot read 1st standard text book.'
In Mahadevanagara, the mother of a girl made the following comment when she was congratulated by the teacher for her daughter's promotion to the next class "what is the use of going to 3rd standard. She does not know how to write Kannada alphabets. It is not worth going to 3rd standard."
In Mogarahalli of Manjula's parents also are not benefited by the
Srirangapatna block, feel that the children school.
While talking with Kalamrna(Lakshimipura), a villager explained his grievance related to the functioning of the schools. There was a teacher working in the school for 3 years. He was corning very late to the school. Never strained himself to teach students. He was sleeping in the classroom. Kalamrna's mother complained that the teacher was asking students also to sleep in the class. "Can grown up children sleep in the class?" was her question. Hence, when Kalamrna said that, she did not want to continue schooling, her mother did not resist. Kalamma said that, once teacher told them that he is not going to lose any money if students did not corne to school. Government is going to give him salary". Kalamma' s father feels that, going to school is of no use. School going children are not able to write alphabets and cannot read and write Kannada. A 4th standard student cannot read 1st standard text book. Once a villager said to the teacher that, he has spoiled all the children for three years. Two
303
teachers came on deputation after retirement. They worked very hard, children were busy doing home work and preparing for next day's class. They were here only for a year. After they left, children came back to the original stage. Now they do not find any difference between school going and non school going children.
Jayalakshmi (Lakshimipura) stopped go~ng to the school after completing 3rd standard. She is not interested in going to school. Now looks after domestic work. Her mother also did not force her to go to school.
Madesha(Sindhuvalipura), 9 years old, stopped going to school. He was studying in 3rd standard. Once the teacher scolded him. Since then he has stopped going to the school. From then onwards he looks after cows.
Ranganath (Sindhuvalipura) left school last year on the pretext of stomach-ache. His father consulted a doctor and got him treated. Since then Ranganath started showing a dislike to school.
Savitha(Sindhuvalipura) stopped going to the school after 4th standard. Her parents go to work. They are economically sound. But she is not interested in going to school. She finds it less interesting, now she looks after the household work. She is not sent to field to do the work. Next year they are planning to get her married. This year they want her to learn domestic work.
Sivakumar(Alambur) who is a 2nd standard dropout, has seven brothers and a sister. Five brothers are elder to him. They are all engaged in agriculture. Si vakumar has no work to do. He plays near his house or near flowing water. His brother when asked, "Why is he not ,going to the school?" answered, "he would not listen, he goes with books to school and plays outside with his friends. They tried explaining
304
to him but now are fed up" When they had any financ.:.al problem? in the negative and said, comfortable financlally.
asleed, whether They replied, were quite
Manjula (Alarnbur) 1st standard dropout of 89-90 batch has 3 sisters and a brother. Ten year elder one is married. Younger one, Bhagya lS not interested in going to schoo':'. Hence, not enrolled. Her mother said, " my husband and I go to work. We are not here to see whether she goes to school or to play". "Do you expect them to do household work, when you go to worle", a question was asked to her mother. Her mother said, "no these children cannot coole for us, they are very young. I do all the household work and then go to work. But, in school they would not learn anything because they are not intelligent enough to grasp things. My son goes to tuition where few boys sit and study together. There also he is perfornung badly". When enquired, whether the financial problem stops them in sending their children to school"? She said, "Every thing is given by the school. Whatever we earn is sufficient for us. We do not send our children to work. In fact school gives them books, uniforms, food. We need not spend money for education but our children are not interested in going to schoo:".
R.Swarny (Alarnbur) 3rd standard dropout has 5 brothers, 2 of them are married and 3rd one lS In the 9th standard. Both his parents go to work. They have a very spacious old fashIoned house. Swarny's sister-in-law was at home. According to her, Swarny did not show any interest in studies. Swarny said that, he would not go to school. Now he is engaged in grazing cows.
..
Child labour
Belishetty (Soligarakaloni) has 3 sons and 1 daughter. He has not enrolled any of his three sons to the school. They are serving as bonded labourers in different places away from the village. Belishetty had taken loan from villagers and left his sons to serve in their houses. Hence they could not go to school. First son returned to the house 4 years back, second and third sons came back last year. His daughter is going to Anganwadi. His family depends on wage labour. They earn Rs .115/- per day during the season and during other times they do not earn much.
Shankar (Mogarha1i) stopped studying when he was in 4th standard. He went to Tirupathi for one year and came back. He wanted to join 4th standard again. Teacher refused to admit him as he was over aged for 4th standard. He goes to cut stones and earns 25/- per day. His parents depend on manual work.
Mahadev's younger brother (Mahadevanagara) is engaged in grazing cows and sheep. Hence he cannot go to school. Mahadev's father wants his third son to continue in school for a year and then send him to look after the sheep and has plans to train the second son in fishing. He is very poor. They cannot have two meals a day properly. Government has given 3 acres of land but they cannot depend on it because of uncertain rains. Even if the Government gives incentives, children cannot be sent to school. Work has been distributed equally in the family. Children should work and earn to maintain the family.
Basavaraj's(Mahadevanagara) father children. 3 girls and 2 sons are Married sons are staying separately.
has 7 married.
Basavaraj 306
3rd standard dropout goes to Kerala for fishing and comes back after two months. Other two sons have stopped going to school after third standard. Now they go for fishing with other friends. They also graze the sheep.
Manju (Lakshimipural1st standard dropout, left the school 3 years back due to her mother's illness. She takes care of household work. Her elder sister Neela has never been to scheol. She is a casual labourer and earns Rs. 25/ - per day. According to Neela's mother, money earned by her husband is not sufficient to maintain the family. Due to her ill health she cannot go to work. Hence her daughters are working.
Household work
Rathna(Kanagondanahali) has studied up to VI standard. Her father stopped her from going to the school. Because she has to take care of the house hold work when her parents go to work.
Geetha (Kanagondanahali) of 3rd standard. stopped going to school due to ill health. But according to her friends she does all household work. She has a problem with her speech. She can not talk freely with children. Hence she stopped going to school. Manjunath has studied up to VI standard. He stays with his uncle. Parents are living in a different village. He was sent to study in this village. But his uncle asked him to look after the sheep. Because they cannot hire a person to look after the sheep.
Sunitha(Lokavalil stopped going to the school after completing 3rd standard because she was taking care of her sister's kid. After a year she refused to rejoin school. She was not interested in going to schocl. Her elder sister also did not go to school. She was also expected to take care of her brothers and sisters.
307
Radha (Halemudegere) stopped her schooling after 4th standard. Her mother removed her from the school. Her mother said," We are poor. We cannot afford education. Radha cooks and takes care of household work when I go to work." Ramaswamy stopped going to the school after 3rd standard. Now he earns money from manual work.
cattle rearing
Siddaraju (Sindhuvalipura) was removed from the school two years back. His father asked him to look after cows as there was nobody to do it. His brother continues to study as he has no work to do at home.
Parents apathy
Kusuma(Soligarakaloni) stopped going to school from 2nd standard. She is not going to work as she is young. Her grandmother tells that, her sons and daughters-in-law go to coolie work. They are not depending on their children's earnlng. Children do not show any interest in education. Kusuma's brother works as a casual labourer.
Nagesh(Soligarakaloni) is ln 2nd standard. He is very irregular to the school. His mother goes to sell bangles and father goes to repair locks. According to his mother, "children have to walk 1.5 km to go to school, so they do not go, instead they play near the running water and come to the house exactly at 5.30 p.m. Parents cannot check whether they go to school or not. Now children are not earning. After a few years, if they are not interested in going to school then they have to take up locksmith's work like their father."
Marappa (Soligarakaloni) a 4th standard student is irregular in attending the school. His mother a bangle seller carries her ware
308
from one village to the other to sell. The boy accompanies her to villages and assists her. Even his brother did not go to school. He is also not interested. Now, he works as a labourer.
Vijaya( Athgur) discontinued her study to look after her sisters and brothers. She has studied up to the 4th standard. A girl who had stopped going to school after Fifth standard was asked the reason for not going to the school? She said that, her mother is not willing to send her. She is getting married soon to her uncle. As her mother underwent a major operation, she was taking care of her mother.
Nagalakshmi ( Mogarhali) stopped going to the school when she was in 1st standard. She left the school three years back to look after her sister. Her parents work for wages. Nagalakshmi's grand mother told that the girls' mother is not interested in sending the children to school. In Manjula' s house, her parents and younger brother go to work in a factory. She has only one brother, both of them are not enrolled to school.
Pakura and Naga are dropouts of 3rd and 4th standards. Their mother passed away last year. Father got married again. Stepmother also goes to work and nobody takes care of them. They would not go to school but play outside the school. Because of this, parents feel it lS better to teach them fishing than sending them to school. Hence they accompany their parents for fishing.
The very purpose of educational planning is to counter
the living conditions of the children which are
diS8ussed in the above cases and provide primary
309
education for them. But the entrenched system of
education tends to equate pr~mary education to the
attendance in school, irrespective of the outcomes. The
schools operate uniformly in all the places and with
respect to all children, irrespective of their living
conditlons. There ere no alternatives. In such a
sit~ation the objective of educational planning becomes
the perpetuation of the existing system and not the
primary education of all children.
In conclusion the field data indicates that the
growth of education while drawing upon the resources
provided by supply dominated educational plans responds
to the demands articulated at the local. Most often the
demands are not governed by educational considerations
but by the local power politics.
310
CHAPTER VII
SUl+fARY AND CONCLUSION
7.1 Introduction
Primary education in the Indian context
attracted renewed interest in recent years.
has
This
interest is not confined only to Indian policy makers.
Even the international agencies and markets have evinced
keen interest in promoting primary education in India.
This change in the scenario is attributable to the
recent changes in the economic policies leading to the
opening up of the Indian economy.
Right at the inception of the constitution, the
framers of the Indian constitution had realised the
importance of primary education and hence directed the
state to make primary education free and compulsory upto
the age of fourteen years for all children. But, the
motivation behind the constitutional directive was to
ensure the development of a democratic and just society
311
which required a well informed citizenry. Another
impetus for the promotion of primary education during
the early decades of the constitutional rule came from
the planned economic development envisaged and
implemented through rive Year plans. The five Year
Plans, right from the rirst one, included education as a
distinct sector of planning.
Inspite of such early efforts to develop primary
education in India, due to historical and social reasons
the progress achieved was far from satisfactory in the
past. One important indicator in the form of literacy
grew with a snail pace. Over the period, the absolute
Size of illiterates also increased along with the slow
growth of literacy. The primary education forms the
foundation of all further educational outcomes,
including literacy. The failure of the educational
system in providing opportunities for the masses lie at
the root of the sluggish growth of literacy. The
educational discourse has blamed the poor economic
condition and unjust social arrangement in the society
for the educational backwardness of the society.
312
But the very rationale for planned development of
prlmary education militates against the notion dominant
In the educational discourse. Very few instances are
there to seek the reason behind the continuation of
educational disparities across population categories,
across reglons and sub-regions inspite of increased
outlays and expenditure through Five Year Plans. This
ralses serious doubts about the nature and purpose of
planning for primary education.
The experience of educational planning In other
developing countries also has given raise to serlOUS
criticisms. But, systematic studies into the approaches,
techniques and processes of educational planning are
very few in number. Not much work has been done in the
past regarding the relationship between planning and
actual practices that take place subsequent to the
formulation of plans In the field level.
313
Keeping the above issues In focus the present study
titled "Educational Planning for School Education: A
Study of Three districts ~n Karnataka.", has been
proposed to look into the nature :Jf educational plans
formulated in the Karnataka State, the process of
planning pursued and the nature of activities performed
by the field level functionaries while implementing the
plans.
7.2 ObJectives of the Study:
I The objectives for the State level analysis are.
1. To examine the Karnataka State Plan documents to
ascertain the methodology and priorities of educational
sectoral plans in IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII Five Year
Plans.
To develop indicators of educational parameters and
compute them to examine the changes in those parameters
over the period of time from 1971-1994.
31~
3. To compare the distribution of educational access,
retention and quality input indicators (educational
parameters) across different popu~ation segments over
twenty four years.
4. To compare the effect on varlOUS educational
indicators after
administration of
level.
t'le State sharing the power of
school education with the District
S. To Examine the effect of the plan expenditure on
selected educational indicators.
6. To examine the changes in literacy levels of different
population categories as indicated in census of 1971,
1981 and 1991.
II The objectives proposed for district level analysis
are
To compute the educational performance and
educational outcome indicators related to the progress
of primary education at the district level.
315
2. To compare the inter district disparities in relation
to educational indicators across Five Year Plans.
III The objectives for the study of the planning
process are:
1. To identify the linkages of educational planning
structure at the state, the district and the sub
district levels in Karnataka.
2. To study the roles played by various personnel in the
process of planning.
3. To obtain the quali tati ve aspects of planning like
information flow, information analysis during the
preparation of educational plans.
4. To understand the perceptions involved in educational
planning at various levels.
5. To know the perceptions of people at the grass roots
level related to primary education.
316
7.3 Research Methodology
Methodology followed in the present study lS a
combination of descriptive and analytical approach to
st~d! the data from secondary sources, and descriptive
st'Jdy of the qualitative data collected by the
investigator on the process of planning and
implementation.
The secondary data considered for the study are,
Fl ve Year Plan documents regarding the approach and
outlays for different aspects of primary education from
Fourth Five Year Plan through Eighth Five Year Plan,
the published and unpublished data collected from the
Office of the Commissioner of Public Instruction on the
educational parameters pertaining to primary education
in Karnataka and the demographic data from Censuses.
The primary data was collected through focused
interviews and non-participant observation of the
317
planning process carried out at the state, district,
block and community levels.
The secondary data on the educational parameters
covered the period from 1971 to 1994. The primary data
was generated from offices of the DDPI and Zilla
Panchayat secretariat in three districts, Block Level
Education Offices in two blocks each located In the
selected districts (six blocks in all), two rural
localities each located in the selected blocks (Twelve
localities in all) .
The indicators listed below were developed and
their values were derived for each year, starting from
1971 through 1994 for purposes of the study.
• Enrollment rate representing the enrollment as per
cent of population.
•
•
•
Gender equality index.
Annual retention rate.
Indicator for the provision of schools represented
by schools per ten thousand population.
318
•
•
Indicator of the supply of teachers represented by
teachers per ten thousand population.
Pupil teacher ratio indicating the size of the
learning groups.
• Standard teacher ratio indicating the degree of
multl-grade teaching.
• Literacy represented by the ratio of literates to
total population.
Different exercises to analyse the data as
indicated below were carried out.
• Descriptive analysis of the plan documents to
highlight the focus and approach of Five Year
Plans.
• Descriptive and comparative analysis of the
financial allocation for different programmes to
achieve the objectives of planning in the area of
primary education.
319
• Descriptive analysis of the annual changes in
indicator values representing important parameters
of primary education mentioned earlier.
• Regression analysis us~ng per pupil annual plan
expenditure at constant pr~ces as independent
variable and each of the selected indicators as
dependent variable was carried out. For each of
the variables, the annual time series data were
constructed using secondary data for the period
from 1971 to 1994.
• Comparison of the changes in the performance
indicators of primary education before and after
the introduction of Zilla Panchayat
administration.
• Plan wise changes in the relative positions of the
ranking of the districts on different indicators
of primary education.
• Descriptive analysis of the literacy indicators
used as proxy to educational outcomes.
• qualitative analysis of the field data on the
planning process and implementation process.
320
7.4 Findings of secondary data analysis:
I. Analysis of the state plan documents, strategies and
outlays
1. Star:ing from the fourth Plan, in each of the five
Year Plans it has been repeatedly reiterated to achieve
cent percent enrollment covering 6 to 11 age group
children. None of the plans, however, specified the
targets taking into consideration the current status of
enrollment.
2. The Second priority area was to improve the
retention rate in primary schools. The plan documents
at:ributed poverty and lack of parental motivation as
the maln reasons behind the phenomenon of school
The plans did not develop alternative
strategies. From the Fifth Plan onwards a mention was
made in the documents about continuing and part-time
education. But it was not worked out in detail as an
alternative to the formal system.
321
3. The review of the achievements of the previous plans
given in the documents of the succeeding plans starting
from Fifth Five Year Plan to Eighth Five Year Plan
mentions the phenomenal growth in the enrollments
achieved during prevlOUS Five Year Plan. The
adaevement also records improvements in retention of
children in the school. But none of the plan documents
mention the outcomes of schooling. There was not even
an attempt made to relate the changes in the literary
levels with the changes in enrollment and retention
rate to assess the impact of plan development during
Five Year Plans.
4. The analysis of the plan outlays in each of the Five
Year Plans indicates a narrow range of interventions to
develop pr imary educat ion. Only four major programmes
have been given high priority in all the plans. These
teachers' salary and at later stages of planning pre
school. Excepting the outlays of teachers' salary the
remaining three items represent facilitative measures
322
3. The enrollment rate of Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribe (SC/ST) at lower primary level shows
gradual increase as compared to t:-1e enrollment rate of
non-SC/ST which remained constant through out. The trend
indicates that the enrollment rate of SC/ST ',vas
considerably lower tLll 1975 and suddenly picked up and
reached the level of non SC/ST enrollment rate in 1988
and surpassed it afterwards.
4. The comparison of changes in enrollment rates
between SC/ST and non-SC/ST category shows that the rate
of growth of enrollment at Higher Primary level
increased gradually in the case of non-SC/ST at a slower
pace whereas the change of growth rate was at a faster
pace in the case of SC/ST. There was a large difference
In the enrollment rate between SC/ST and non-SC/ST
during 1971. Enrollment rate became more or less equal
by 1993.
5. Gender equality indicator developed in the present
study represents the ratio between enrollment rates of
boys and girls. This indicator in the case of lower
324
and not educational interventions directed towards
improving educational processes. Even among such
facilitative measures, the Incentives have claimed
increasingly large outlays over the successive plans.
The outlays on teachers' salaries ranged from one-fifth
to one-third in different Five Year Plans.
II. Analysis of state level time series data
A descriptive analysis of the time series data on some
major educational indicators constructed for the
purpose using secondary data sources revealed the
following:
1. The rate of enrollment as per cent of population
remained more or less constant from 1971-80 and
increased by one per cent since 1987 onwards at the
lower primary stage.
2. The enrollment rate improved gradually from 1971 to
1994 at higher primary level.
323
3. The enrollment rate of Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribe (SC/ST) at lower primary level shows
gradual increase as compared to t~e enrollment rate of
non-SC/ST which remained constant through out. The trend
indicates that the enrollment rate of SC/ST was
considerably lower till :975 and suddenly picked up and
reached the level of non SC/ST enrollment rate in 1988
and surpassed it afterwards.
4. The comparison of changes in enrollment rates
between SC/ST and non-SC/ST category shows that the rate
of growth of enrollment at Higher Primary level
increased gradually in the case of non-SC/ST at a slower
pace whereas the change of growth rate was at a faster
pace ln the case of SC/ST. There was a large difference
in the enrollment rate between SC/ST and non-SC/ST
during 1971. Enrollment rate became more or less equal
by 1993.
5. Gender equality indicator developed in the present
study represents the ratio between enrollment rates of
boys and girls. This indicator ln the case of lower
324
primary schools increased considerably but at a constant
incremental rate to reach from 78 t~ 93 between 1971 and
1994. But the rate of bridging the gap in the case of
Higher Primary School is found to be faster in the case
of Higher Primary School. It has changed from 57 to 90
during the same peri0d. Stlll a small disparity persists
between boys and girls. Which is likely to be bridged by
the end of this century if the present trend continues.
6. The gender gap amongst SC/ST was higher as compared
to non-SC/ST both at Lower Primary Level and Higher
Primary levels. But as compared to 1971 situation this
difference has been reduced At Lower Primary level. But
the di fference in gender equality index between SC/ST
and non-SC/ST has increased at Higher Primary level.
7. The annual retention rate of boys and girls
differed by 5-6 points in 1971 and became almost equal
at 93 per cent in 1992 at lower primary level.
The comparison of the retention rate Se/ST and non
Se/ST categories indicated the reversal of the position.
325
Initially in 1971 SC/ST retention was at 72 per cent and
the non-SC/ST was 76 per cent. The values of the
indicators with respect to both the categories increased
in subsequen~ years. The annual retention rate of SC/ST
reached 96 per cent whereas it could reach
per cent in the case of non-SC/ST in 1992.
only to 92
8. Availability of schools per ten thousand population
both at Lower Primary School and Higher Primary School
level indicated a contrasting trend. This indicator
value decreased in the case of the provision of primary
schools whereas it remained more or less constant
between 1971 and 1994 In the case of Higher Primary
Schools. The provision of Lower Primary classes to
almost all viable habitations had been completed by 1971
or around. Therefore opening new schools became marginal
activity during the greater part of period under
consideration. Since, this indicator measures the
availability of school per unit population, In the
absence of new schools and in the presence of population
growth in the locali ties served by schools this
indicator value declined from eleven schools to around
326
thousand population. Pupil teacher ratio increased from
37 to 52 during the period.
11. Since the creation of teaching posts depends upon
the enrollment in the school at the rate of one teacher
per 50 students. The nwnber of teachers working in a
school may not be same as the nwnber of classes taught
in that schooled. If the number of teachers is less than
nwnber of classes taught then the phenomenon is called
multi-grade school.
The standard-teacher ratio was used as indicator of
multi-grade teaching. The value of this ratio shows that
the modal school context in primary schools of Karnataka
is multi-grade and the ratio marginally declined from
1.58 to 1.39 from 1971 to 1994 respectively.
III Influence of plan expenditure on access, retention
and quality input indicators.
1. It was hypothesised that the variations in the
access, retention and quality inputs are influenced by
328
seven schools per ten thousand population. In the case
of Higher Primary School, opening of new schools is not
involved. It is simply an act of expanding lower primary
schools vertically by adding hlgher primary classes. The
constant value of this indicator reflects that the
process of up-gradation kept pace ',-.lith the populatlon
increase during the period 1971 to 1994.
9. One of the quality input in the form of teachers was
examined with the help of teacher per ten thousand
population as an indicator. This indicator behaved in a
cyclical fashion. It had initially a higher value in
1971 and started declining till 1979 to reach the lowest
point. From 1979 it started increasing at a faster rate
to reach another peak in 1984 and again experienced a
steep fall to reach another low in 1987 and there after
it started to increase every year till 1994. But the
value in 1994 was lower than its initial value in 1971.
10. The pupil-teacher ratio observed during the period
under consideration emerged as a corollary of the
interaction of changes in schools and teacher per ten
327
thousand population. Pupil teacher ratio increased from
37 to 52 during the period.
11 . Since the creation of teaching posts depends upon
the enrollment In the school at the rate of one teacher
per 50 st~dents. Tre number of teachers working In a
school may not be same as the number of classes taught
in that schooled. If the number of teachers is less than
number of classes taught then the phenomenon is called
multi-grade school.
The standard-teacher ratio was used as indicator of
multi-grade teaching. The value of this ratio shows that
the modal school context in primary schools of Karnataka
lS multi-grade and the ratio marginally declined from
1.58 to 1.39 from 1971 to 1994 respectively.
III Influence of plan expenditure on access, retention
and quality input indicators.
1. It was hypothesised that the variations in the
access, retention and quality inputs are influenced by
328
the plan expenditure. Hence, to know the influence of
plan expenditure on access, retention and quality input
indicators, linear regression technique with correction
for auto correlation was used. Positively significant
result at five per cent level was obtained for the
enp)llment lndlcator. The influence of expenditure on
other indicators were not statistically significant.
IV Change In the trend of education indicators after the
change in administrative system.
1. The mean value of enrollment, gender equality and
retention indicators were higher after the introduction
of Zilla Parishad in Karnataka in 1987. This increase is
applicable to both Lower Primary School and Higher
Primary School levels. Schools per ten thousand
population and teacher per ten thousand population
showed decline In their mean values after the
introduction of Zilla Panchayat. But Higher Primary
Schools per ten thousand population showed marginally
higher mean value after the introduction. Pupil-teacher
ratio increased and standard-teacher ratio remained more
329
or less same after the introduction of Zilla Panchayat
as compared to the situation before Zilla Panchayat.
V District wise analysis of educational lndicators.
The analysis of changes in the relative positions of the
districts at the end of each Five Year Plan on a three
point scale revealed the following:
1. At the end of the Fourth Year Plan, the
arrangements of districts on the 3 point scale indicated
that the districts belonging to Hyderabad-Karnataka area
were classified as poor and the districts which merged
from erstwhile Madras province in the coastal area
occupied the Good category on all the indicators. This
kind of arrangement retained more or less the same
pattern even at the end of Eighth Plan period. Only
Bidar district classified under the Poor category at the
end of Fourth Plan shifted to Good category with respect
to enrollment rate at the end of Sixth Plan. On other
variables Bidar did not show much change as compared to
its initial position.
330
VI Literacy Gains Of Various Categories
1. The literacy galns of General population was
slightly higher than the gains registered by SC and ST
categories durlng 1971-1981 decade. But during eighties
the gains of SC and ST population categories were
higher than the general population.
2. The Literacy gain recorded by the General population
was on an average less than one percent per year
through out the period under consideration.
3. The gains of the Male population in general was
higher than the galns of Female population during
seventles and the trend reversed during eighties. But
in the case of Scheduled Castes, gains in literacy of
male was higher than the Females during the decades of
both seventies and eighties. Such difference was very
marked during 1971-1981 decade and it got reduced
during the next decade.
331
4. Li teracy gains of Urban population in general was
higher than the Rural counterparts between 1971 and
1981. The trend got reversed with ~ural segment showing
higher gains between 1981 and 1991. But in the case of
S Cs the Urban segment maintained higher gains as
compared to Rura: population through out the period.
5. The initial difference ln literacy rates of highest
ranklng district and lowest ranking district increased
in 1981 and further widened ln 1991. This widening took
place in the midst of increase in the literacy rates of
all districts.
7.5 Findings of primary data analysis:
I The processes of planning
1. All plan activities start from the decision regarding
the quantwn of funds by the Cabinet or the National
Planning Commission, whether the plan refers to New Five
Year.or an Annual Plan of an on-going Five Year Plan.
332
programmes. Invariably the officials involved ln the
planning process understand educat:onal plannlng as a
bundle of discrete programmes. They always thlnk at the
conc~ete level rather than percelvlng the plan as a set
of inter-related abstract idea structure WhlCh has
impllcatlon fer actJCi'.. cic one talked about strategic
plan, objectives, diagnosis of a sltuatlon etc.
4. The planning procedure consists of guidelines and
proposals. Guidelines communicate instructions and
procedures to prepare a proposal which 1S glven from
higher authority to lower authority ln the lower
section. Responses to the guidelines by the lower level
structure to the higher level structure take the form of
proposals. Even the district sector programs are
district specific 1n the sense of administration than
plan formulation. During our discussions only one
instance of proposal 1n the form of giv1ng awards to
rank holders within a distr1ct came to light as a
district specific plan proposal.
33~
programmes. Invarlably the officials involved 1n the
plar~ing process understand educat~onal plann1ng as a
bundle of discrete programmes. They always ~h1nk at the
concrete level rather than perceivlng the plan as a se~
of inter-related abstract idea structure ~hlCh has
implication for actlC:'c. ~tc one talked about strategi_~
plan, objectives, diagnosis of a situation etc.
4. The planning procedure consists of guidelines and
proposals. Guidelines communicate instructions and
procedures to prepare a proposal which 1S gl ven from
higher authority to lower authority in the lower
section. Responses to the guidelines by the lower level
structure to the higher level structure take the form of
proposals. Even the district sector programs are
district specific 1n the sense of administration than
plan formulation. During our discussions only one
instance of proposal ln the form of glvlng awards to
rank holders within a district came to light as a
district specific plan proposal.
33 ..
2. It has been indicated that the Cabinet takes the
decision regarding financial outlays based on status
paper submitted by the secretaries of different
departments including education to the Cabinet meeting.
The State Planning Board has no role to play in shaping
the educational plans. The status paper is prepared by
the planning sec:ion of the secretariat of the education
department on the basis of information obtained from the
Commissioner and Directors In the area of school
education. The discussions with the officials of the
planning section in the educational secretariat did not
indicate any systematic approach to analyze the
information in a holistic way.
3. Educational plan consists of three sections depending
upon the source of outlay. All the programs for which
the Central Government supports are called centrally
sponsored schemes. The programs for which the funds come
from the State account are termed as state sector
programs. Programs which are supported by the individual
Zilla Panchayats are termed as district sector
333
programmes. Invariably the officials invo:ved ln the
planning process understand educat.:.onal plannlng as a
bundle of discrete programmes. They always :hlnk at the
concrete level rather than perce1v~ng the plan as a set
of inter-relaced abstract idea structure ~hich has
implication fcr act:'2i:. ~lc one talked abcu: strateg~.:
plan, objectives, diagnosis of a situat1cn etc.
4. The plarL~ing procedure consists of guidelines and
proposals. Guidelines communicate instructions and
procedures to prepare a proposal which 1S gl'len from
higher authority to lower authority 1n the lower
section. Responses to the guidelines by the lower level
structure to the higher level structure take the form of
proposals. Even the district sector programs are
district specific ln the sense of administration thar,
plan formulation. During our discussions only one
instance of proposal .:.n the form of glvlng aY"i'ards :c
rank holders w1thin a district came to light as a
district specific plan proposal.
334
5. The discrete nature of plan program clearly emerges
from the nature and method of data collected for
preparing the proposals. Even though the data happens to
be same for several programmes, proposals for these
programs seek data separately and the information
collected under one program is rarely used for another
program. In this process data on a given parameter may
not be the same when collected under different
programmes. In the entire planning process, the notion
of a data base, its update and analysis is completely
absent.
From the above observation it may be concluded that
the plans are used as legitimizing instrument for
spending public funds. Once the funds are earmarked for
different programs the role of planning comes to an end.
In an on-golng plan development of education in
Karnataka, action plans are drawn without any feed back
from the implementation of the previous plan.
335
II The Process Of Implementation:
1. The Process of imp1ementat1on 1S found to be
counter point of the process of planning. The role of
the fiela level edc.cational structures in planning is
merely to follow guidelines and supply information. But
in the implementation process they have to communicate
decision to higher authorities 1n the form of
rec:)mmendations. Information used 1n the planning
process 1S aggregated and quantitative data which
serves the purposes of macro level politico-economic
decisions to deploy resources for primary education.
But, the process of implementation is guided by micro
level information and the decisions are responses to
local s:)cio-political signals. Here, the data is viewed
in the form of real communities and power structure.
2. The local level functionaries view their role in
planning as marginal. Their concern 1S to distribute
the resources transferred to them for growth of
education in their jurisdiction. They do not share the
336
perspectives of plans and even if they agree with the
view points underlying the plan llke social justice,
preferential treatment of backward classes and regions
etc, they find it difficult to act according to them.
The resources are expected to be equally distributed
across political constituencies. New schools are
recommended on the basis of the demands of local
political
deployed
leaders,
to cater
teachers are
to the interest
appointed or re-
of schools having
higher classes in towns and large villages. The local
leaders appropriate the benefits of incentives to
increase their respective political clouts. Much of the
activities of the educational administration and
supervision lS non-educational in nature and resembles
more the revenue administration.
3. The decentralisation in the form of Zilla
Panchaya ts has not yet empowered the local political
and bureaucratic structures to work out their own
development planning in social sectors, especially
education for which such decentralisation has been
moqted.
337
7.6 Discussion of the findings
The present study has attempted to assess the
experience of educational planning In the field of
primary education iT' Karnataka during the period from
1971 to 1994. The criticisms enumerated by Weiler (1978)
formed the theoretical framework for the present study.
One of the maln criticism of educational planning
lS that it tends to reproduce the current educational
system on an expanded scale. The researches in the field
of Sociology of Education in India, some of which have
been reviewed in this study demonstrate that, by and
large, the education system has worked towards
perpetuation of the status quo. In such a situation, the
expansion of the current primary education system would
be counter-productive to the goal of planning namely,
Universalisation of Elementary Education. This study has
indicated that the educational planning in Karnataka has
done precisely the same. The changes in literacy of
various population segments indicate that, while all
338
segments of population have gained in literacy rates,
the relative disparities have not changed over the
period of time and in some cases the disparities have
rather widened. In the absence of a precIse measure of
educational ou(comes, the .!.iteracy rate can be taken as
its proxy. The rationale for planning In the past has
been to attain growth with distribution. The literacy
outcomes belies this understanding. The analysis of the
plan documents in terms of their strategies, programmes
and outlays reflecting the priorities indicates that the
planning for primary education equates the expanSIon of
current education
universalisation of
system
prImary
with the
education.
goal
The
of
plan
priorities as reflected In outlays indicate that all
previous Five Year Plans have tried to physically expand
the access and provide incentives to encourage children
to attend the school. Actual educational process has
escaped the attention of the planners. The analysis of
the changes In the parameters of education indicate that
the plans have succeeded in tracking children and make
them come to the school to receIve the incentives. The
obs~rvations and discussions at the field level confirm
339
this observation. In the absence of educational purpose
the educational planning is guided by the consideration
of the political economy. In other 'Nords, the planning
is being used to legitimize the flow of public resources
to the current educational system. The critlcism of
educational planning in the context of developing
countries relating to the tendency of perpetuating the
status quo is applicable to the educational planning in
Karnataka too.
The second criticism that the educational planning
flows from top to bottom applies In the context of
Karnataka as well. The whole process of planning starts
from the political and bureaucratic apex at the State
level. This has continued even after the establishment
of decentralised development administration in the form
of Zilla Panchayats. All the districts have uniform plan
strategies and programmes even after the change in the
structure of governance. The decentralisation In
planning is confined to the distribution of plan funds
made available to the districts across different
340
departments and within a department, across different
programmes decided at the apex level.
The third criticism that the plans are pre-occupied
wi th the growth against development comes out true in a
very prominent way in the present sLldy. The entire
planning lS based on the current levels of gross
enrollment and projection of this enrollment as future
targets. All other plan interventions are made
subservient to the gross enrollment targets. Therefore
the whole of planning appears as an exerCise in
numerical manipulation of numbers. Even when these
numbers, educationally speaking are unreal, they acquire
the sanctity of official educational statistics and
processed for planning purposes. But, the same education
system which produces these statistics do not trust them
at the action level. A separate set of information are
used at the time of taking decisions for allocating
resources.
Another equally important criticism is that the
educ~tional planning neglects implementation. The
3~1
absence of official statistics on the educational
outcomes testify the truth of this observation with
respect to educational planning in !:Carnataka. The whole
purpose of schooling ln the form of learners'
ac~ievement is conspicuously absent ln the planning
j';'sc8urse. Successive plans have increasingly relied on
the same set of programmes. But those programmes have
not been viewed in an integrated fashion to understand
their implication at the action level. An example of
such unrealistic approach to planning is the provision
for salaries of teachers arrived on the basis of
enrollment targets aggregated at the district or at the
state level and arriving at the teacher requirements on
the basis of one teacher for 50 students. This would
work in a context where the educational system is being
introduced for the first time. But in an ongoing system
the incidence of increase in enrollment in each school
decides the teacher requirements in addition to the new
schools opened ln un-served areas. None of the plans
has looked into the existential dimension of the
distribution of additional enrollments. As a result, the
increase ln enrollments induced through incentives in
342
the existing schools have resul ted ~n the decrease in
the supply of teachers and schools per unit population,
increased pupil-teacher ratio and standard-teacher
ratio. In other words, the idea of 'school' has been
transfor:ned into day care centers of children
especially ~n rur31 areas. The qualitative data
generated from the field level about the process of
decision making with respect to the management of
schools confirm the criticism that the planning
neglects implementation. In fact it is the other way
round resulting In the same conclusion. That ~s, the
Implementation does not take the operational plan into
consideration while taking decisions.
The question still remaining to be answered is, if
the educational planning ~s not directed towards
educational objectives, then what is the function of
education in the whole scheme of things? The answer to
this question can only be in the form of a proposition,
subject to further verification, namely, since planning
is made as condition for appropriating public resources,
it is used as a tool for legi timising the claim for
343
resources by entrenched interests. In the field of
primary education, the vast bureaucracy itself has grown
over the years as a vested interest and survives by
l' . a~lgnlng with the interests
econcmy at different levels.
7.7 Policy implications
controlling political
1. The changed policy of the Central Government to fund
primary level education through DPEP should take note of
the outcomes of this study. The structures envisaged for
the continuous planning and implementation of the DPEP
depend heavily on the civil and educational bureaucracy
and inherently they are integrated vertically
replicating similar structures responsible for the
ongoing education system. The district level development
administration has a margi nal role to play in planning
and the DPEP has already become a section in the office
of the DOPI performing discrete functions and not the
interrelated set of activities. The functionaries wait
for the approval of proposals to take actions. The DPEP
needs to shoulder calculated risk of experimentation
344
wi th decentralised and representative structures taking
charge of planning and implementation at the district
level with support from autonomous academic institutions
made available to the district level initiatives. They
would provide the needed research and development
ac:ivities.
2. Efforts should be made to develop training programmes
to expose the functionaries performing both planning and
implementing functions at strategic levels to the theory
and practice of educational planning.
3. Immediate effort should be initiated by the State to
develop an educational data base which includes
information on educational outcomes and quality of
education.
4. Independent third party evaluation should be built
into the system from ninth Five Year Plan onwards.
345
7.8 Suggestions for further studies
1. Process studies of planning and implementation In
DPEP can be taken
functional/dysfunctional
practices.
up
aspects
to
of
identify
structures
the
and
2. Case studies uSlng social anthropological framework
can be taken up to establish the nature and function of
school in single communities of differing structures and
the nature of educational outcomes for different
sections in such communities.
346
APPENDX
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
Planning process
1. What are the objectives laid by the State to
achieve U.E.E.?
2. What are the targets you have set to achieve the
objects?
3. How is the educational development of the district
determined?
-Level at which this exercise ~s taken up.
-Indicators considered for determining educational
development.
-Method used for determining educational develop
ment.
4. What is the process involved in sanctioning of
educational facilities?
-Who collects the information?
-To whom it is reported?
-Who takes the decisions to improve the condition?
5. What is the information required at the State, the
District and the Taluk levels for planning purpose?
6. What are the sources of data available for planning
purpose?
7. What are the problems do you find in the informa
tion obtained?
8. What is the gap to be covered in each district?
9. What is the amount requ~red to cover the gap?
10. What is the target to be covered during each year?
11. Who fixes the physical targets £or dis~ricts each
year? Related to
-No. of teachers
-No. of schools to be opened
-No. of class rooms constructed
-What are the equipments to be supplied? How many?
12. Do they take into account targets set at National
and State levels?
13. What are the functions carried out at the State and
the District level in relation to planning process?
13a. What is the normal procedure followed to arrive at
the programmes?
14. What are the plan and non-plan schemes undertaken
by the State and the District?
15. Who decides about var~ous schemes to be
implemented?
or
How do you arrive at new programmes?
15a. How do you decide the cost of implementing
programmes sustaining the programmes?
16. Who evaluates the effectiveness of the schemes?
17. How are the set targets are translated in:c
programmes?
17a. What are the programmes formulated to achieve
U.E.E.?
17b. How do you encourage ~.E.E. and SC/ST education?
18. How are you gOlng to re-adjust the gap bet'l'Ieen
resources availability and resource requlred?
-Are you going to reduce the target
-Additional resource is sought
19. Do you have district specific plans? Do you give
guide lines to District?
19a. What are the guidelines
district plan?
followed to prepare
20. What are the aspects covered in the district draft
plan?
21. What are the aspects involved In the preparation of
the draft plans?
22. How is Five Year Plan prepared for the district?
-Personnel involved
-Basis for Fixing of amount
~Basis for Fixing of targets
23. How are the Annual Plans and Five Year Plan
related?
23a. How are Physical and financial targets distributed
for each annual plan?
24. What are the sources of finance at the district
level?
-Center
-State
-Local bodies
-Credit instltutes
-Contributions
-Others
25. Who decides about the allotments of funds to
district level?
26. What are the guidelines followed by the state in
distributing the funds?
-Geographical size of the District
-Population of the district
-Educational backwardness of the district.
27. In case of shortage of funds, what are the items
given more importance and money is allotted?
28. What are the maln items that are going to suffer,
during the shortage of funds?
29. What are the effects of these things on the
developmental activities of education?
30. What are the alternate methods you would suggest to
minimise the negative effects on educational
development?
31. What are the maln reasons de you th:nk weuld affect
the complet~on of the wo~k as per the sched~:e?
32. What are
mistakes?
your suggestlons to correct. these
33. I f plan programmes are not completed wi thln the
plan period it be<::omes burde!"! to next year as it
comes under non-plan. Hew are you gOlng to manage In
such a sltuations, where scarcity of funds
prevailing?
34. In the stages of planning, where are we failing?
35. What are the reasons for the failure?
36. "''hat are the ways do you think PRls would help to
achieve U.E.E.?
37. What are the challenges PRls shoulc take up?
38. What are the major problems at the implementation
stage?
39. How can these problems be corrected?
40. What are the factors that affect
-Realistic plan
-Regular flow of funds
-Flow of communication
-Monitoring
STATE PLANNING BOARD (SPB)
1. What are the activities carried out the SPB
related to education?
2. What are the activities carried out related to
primary education?
3. What is the normal procedure followed to arrive at
a programme?
4. Who are involved in the preparation of the status
paper?
5. What are the guidelines followed to prepare the
status paper?
6. Have you brought out any policy on education?
7. Have you formulated programmes related to primary
education?
8. Do you consult DDPI's, AEG's during the
preparation of the pr0gramme?
9. Whom do you consult during the preparation of
training materials?
10. How are going to collect the required information?
11. Have you formulated separate programmes for SC/ST
and girl child?
12. Do you consult finance department to know the
availability of funds?
13. Who decides the cost of implementing the
programmes?
14. Who write the action plan for the ideas given
by you?
Questions related to U.E.E.
1 ~ . What are the main reasons hindering the achievement
of U.E.E.?
2. How can we solve these problems?
3. Can we achieve U.E.E. by 2000 A.D.? How?
4. What are the target groups we should concentrate to
achieve U.E.E.?
How can PHIs help in bringing awareness among local
people to participate in educational development
activities?
6. Do you face any problem in enrolling students? If
yes, what are those problems? and, How can we solve
them?
7. What are the problems of retention? How can we
solve them?
8. What are the aspects we should take into account to
improve quality of schooling?
9. What should be the ratio of teacher and students?
10. What are the reasons for irregular attendance?
11. What are the problems of SC/ST and girl enrollment?
12. Suggest an alternate method by which we can cover
SC/ST and female children?
13. What are the measures followed to increase
enrollment of SC/ST and girls?
14. Hew are incentive programmes help in enrolling and
retaining children?
15. Comment on the effectiveness of incentive scheme.
(the supply of uniforms, text books, food items and
scholarship) .
16. What are the maln factors hindering the achievement
of DEE?
17. What is the role played by the PRls In achieving
U.E.E.?
18. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the
present planning process?
19. What are the aspects needed to be decentralised for
achieving U.E.E.?
20. Do you think the present delegation of power
helping in achieving U.E.E. in an accelerated
manner?
21. What should be the power and responsibility of the
State, the District, the Taluk and the village level
offices for accelerating the development
education?
22. What is the role played by elected members in
facilitating educational development?
23. What 1S the type of training required for them?
24. Is the financial assistance given by Government
insuff~cient?
25. Do you have any alternate plans to overcome the
financial constraint? Give reasons?
26. What are your expectations from district level
officers and elected members?
27. Why have district failed to plan their own
programmes?
Facilities available in the school
1. What are the equipments provided fer the school?
2. What are the equiprnents required for school?
3. Do you use these equiprnents? if no, glve reasons?
4. Do you think that you should be consulted before
supply of materials? Give reasons?
5. Have you requested higher officials to supply
equipments that are useful for school?
of
6. Express your opinion about the buildings, and
stationary provided for teaching purposes?
7. Do you think teachers find problem in commuting to
the school? If yes, suggest alternate arrangement to
solve problem?
8. How do teachers solve the problems faced by them in
the school? Whom do they report?
9. What are the complaints generally received related
to functioning of school?
Classroom teaching
1. What are the problems faced during enrollment and
retention of children?
2. Do you find it difficult to teach more than one
standard at a time?
3. How do you plan for teaching more than one class?
4. Can this be one of the reasons for decline in the
quality of teaching? If no, what are the other
reasons?
5. What are the other problems? Do you face in the
classroom while teaching?
6. What are problems faced by the teacher ln the
school?
About maintaining discipline
Relationship with Head Master and teacher
Relationship with PR members and officials
Relationship with parents and SBC members.
7. How can political leaders and local people support
the educational development of the village?
8. Do you feel better quality educatlon is imparted?
If no, what are the measures do you suggest?
9. How is inspection carried out? Explain merlts and
demerits of the inspection?
Parents
1. How do you feel about the present functioning of
the school?
2. What is your opinion about
- Teacher's punctuality
-Teacher's competency
-Teacher's political influence
3. What are the expectations do you have from the
school?
4. What are reasons for not enrolling/withdrawing
children?
5. Do you think education lS required for girl child?
YIN, Give reasons.
6. What are the problems do you find in sending girl
child to the school?
7. !'low is School Better:nent Committee (SBC: support
the efficlent funct~oning cf the school?
8. Do you think SBC ::ecrJl::es :ncre power to monitor the
functioning of the schoo:? ~xplaln.
9. What are the incenti·;e programmes implemented in
your village to support education?
10. .~e you happy wi~h tte lncentive programmes
lmplemented by the :;overnment? If no, give reasons.
11 . How are these programmes helping you to send your
child to school?
School Betterment Committee
1. How are SBC supporting the activities of the school
in the village?
2. What are the powers given to SBC?
3. What are the aspects do you think SBC can
interfere?
4. How are the villages support the stand taken by
SBC?
5. What are the changes brought about by SBC ln the
functioning of schooling?
6. Wha t aspects do you think are required :or total
enrollment, retention and improvement in the quality?
7. How are ~he incentive schemes help for the
educat:onal development?
8. ~hat are the steps that should be ta~en bj
offlcials to achieve U.E.E.?
9. How are PRls helping for better functioning of the
school?
10. What is the procedure followed to f~lfi:l the
requirement of school?
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abramovitz M, Resources and OUtput Trends in the United States, American Economic Review, 46:5-23, 1956.
Adams S Raymond, (ed.), Educational Planning Towards a Qualitative Perspective, International Institute for Educational Planning, UNESCO, Paris, 1978.
Aggarwal & Mural~dh2r
Education and Regional New Delhi, 1986.
(1986) , in Development,
Ti:'ai<. Yatan
B.G. (ed. ) , Publications,
Aggan-lal J C, Development and Planning of Modern Education, Vikas Publishing House, Delhi, 1982.
Aggarwal J C, Year Book of Education 1988-89, World Economic Overview, , Doaba House, New DeIhl, 1989.
}ucher S Margaret (ed.), The Sociology of Educational Expan sion, Take:"'off, and growth and inflation in Educational Systems, Sage Publications, Londen.
}\rcher S Margaret, Social Origins of Educational Systems, Sage Publications, London, 1979.
Baldev Mahaj an (ed. ) , Karnataka, Structures, Vikas Publishing House
Educational Administration in Processes and Future Prospects,
Pvt. Ltd., 1994.
Bereaday, George ZF and Lanwerys A Joseph (Jt. eds), Education al Planning, World Year Book of Education, Hazell Watson and Viney Ltd., Great Britain, 1967.
Bhousakar (1964), New approach philosophy of educational administration, 1n Buch M.B. (ed.), A Survey Of Educational Research in Education, Baroda, Center for Advanced Studies ln Education (CASE), M S University, 1974.
Blaug M, The Economics of Education and The Education of an Economist, University Press, New York, 1987.
Brown J Daniel, Decentralizaion The Administrators Guidebook to School District Change, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1991.
Bruce Ross-Larson (ed.), Developing Countries : An The World Bank, 1986.
Financing Education in Exploration of Policy Options,
Buch M.B. (ed.), A Survey Of Educational Education, Baroda, Center for Advanced Education (CASE), M S University, 1974.
Research in Studies ln
Buch M.B. (ed.), Fourth Survey Of Educational Research ~n Education, (1983-88), New Delhi, NCERT, 1991.
Buch M.B. (ed.), Second Survey Of Educational Research ~n Education, (1972-78), Baroda, SERD, 1979.
Buch M.B. (ed.), Third Survey Of Educational Research in Education, (1978-83), New Delhi, NCERT, 1987.
Byres J Terence (ed.), The State and Development Planning in India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1994.
Census of India, 1971, Series-I, India Primary Census Abstract, General Population, New Delhi, 1971.
Census of India, 1971, Socio-cultural tables, Karnataka series, New Delhi, 1971.
Census of India, 1971, Special tables for SCIST, New Delhi, 1971.
Census of India, 1981, Series-I, India Primary Census Abstract, General Population, New Delhi, 1981.
Census of India, 1981, Socio-cultural tables, Karnataka series, New Delhi, 1981.
Census of India, 1981, Special tables for SCIST, New Delhi, 1981.
Census of India, 1991, Series-I, India Primary Census Abstract, General Population, New Delhi, 1991.
Census of India, 1991, Socio-cultural tables, Karnataka series, New Delhi, 1991.
Census of India, 1991, Special tables for SCIST, New Delhi, 1991.
Chltnis, Suma (1974), "Soc~ology of education - A trend Report", in ICSSR(ed.), A survey of Research in Sociology and Social Anthropology, vol. III, PP166-219, New Delhi, Popular Prakashna.
Chitra (1982), in Educational Research NCERT, 1987.
Buch M.B. (ed.), Third Survey Of in Education, (1978-83), New Delhi,
(:::)cmbs, Research for educational planning. notes on emergent needs, UNESCO, in Platt published by International Institute for Educational planning, 1970.
Dabholkar et. al. , Integration of overall educational plans at district level, (1982), in Buch M.B. (ed.), Third Survey Of Educational Research in Education, (1978-B3), New Delhi, NCERT, 1987.
Danison J, Education, 1990.
and S Natarajan, Introduction to Economics of Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi,
Denison E F, "The Source of Economic Growth ~n the United States and the Alternatives Before Us", CED Supplementary Paper No. 13, 73, quoted in OECD Study Group in the Economics of Education, Economic Aspects of Higher Education, Paris, 1964, p. 63.
Desai A.R., (1969), Rural Sociology in India, Bombay, Popular Prakashna Ltd.
Education for all Summit, External and Internal Resource Mobilization for Education for all, Panel two, New Delhi, December 1993.
Epstein T S, From Below -Paris, 1983.
et. aI, Basic Needs Viewed From Above and the Case of Karnataka State, India, OECD,
Government of India, Selected Educational Statistics-197~-1978, planning, monitoring and Statistics Division, Ministry of education and culture, New Delhi, 19BO.
Government of India, Selected Educational Statistics-1978-1979, planning, monitoring and Statistics Division, Ministry of education and culture, New Delhi, 1980.
Government of India, Selected Educational Statistics-1980-1981, planning, monitoring and Statistics Division, Ministry of education and culture, New Delhi, 1982.
Government of Karnataka, Draft Eighth Five Year Plan 1992-97, Annual Plan 1992-93, Vol.l, Planning Department, December 1991.
Government of Karnataka, Draft Seventh Five Year Plan 1985-90, Planning Department, 1985.
Government of Karnataka, Karnataka Draft Sixth Five Year Plan 1980-85, Vol-I, Strategy, Outlays and Programmes, Planning Department, October 1980.
Government of Karnataka, Karnataka Economic Survey, DES, Bangalore, 1995.
Government of Karnataka, VIII Five Year Plan Proposals, Planning Department, Planning Department, 1992-97.
Government of Mysore, Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74), Policy and Programmes, Planning Department, 1970.
Govinda R and Varghese N V, Quality of Primary Schooling in India A Case Study of Madhya Pradesh, UNESCO, National Institute of Educational Planning and administration, New Delhi, 1993.
Govindaraj (1970), Administrative procedure followed in DEO's office in Bangalore city, in Buch M. B. (ed. ) , Second Survey Of Educational Research In Education, (1972-78), Baroda, SERD, 1979.
Gupta (1976), Educational Administration with a view to streamline it in Panjab, in Buch M.B. (ed.), Second Survey Of Educational Research in Education, (1972-78), Baroda, SERD, 1979.
Halsev A H, Jean Floud, Arnold Anderson (eds), Education, Economy and Society A Reader in the Sociology of Education, Free Press, New York, 1987.
Harbison F Hand C A Meyers, Education Manpower and Economic Growth, Mcgraw Hill, New York, 1964.
Hemalatha Regional 1986.
Rao (1986), in Tilak B.G. (ed.), Education and Development, Yatan Publications, New Delhi,
Hilary Perraton (ed.), Alternative Routes to Formal Education Distance Teaching for School Equivalency, A World Bank Research Publication, The Johns Hopkins University Press, London, 1984.
I:1amdar N R, Educational Administration in the ZP ~n
Maharastra - A Pilot Study, Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd., Bombay, 1974.
:nternat~onal Financial Statistics, Year Book, IMF, 1995. Iqbal Narain, Pande K C and M L Sharma, Panchayati Raj and Educational Administration, Aalekh Publishers, Jaipur, 1976.
Jain S P, Decentralisation, Panchayati Raj and Education, Journal of Educational Planning and Administration, Vol 7, No.3, October 1993, p. 413.
Jena, S. S, Village characteristic and schooling ; Some case studies of Typical in Balasore district of Orrisa. Unpublished Ph.D thesis, University of Mysore 1990.
Josaphine Regional 1986.
(1984), l.n Development,
Tilak B.G. (ed.), Education and Yatan Publications, New Delhi,
Joshi (1973), Administration and finances in primary education with special reference to role of PR bodies, in Buch M.B. (ed.), Second Survey Of Educational Research in Education, (1972-78), Baroda, SERD, 1979.
Kaul et al. (1969), The role of local authorities ~n
India, in Buch M.B. (ed.), A Survey Of Educational Research in Education, Baroda, Center for Advanced Studies in Education (CASE), M S University, 1974.
Kothari Investment in Indian Education - Size Source and Effectiveness, in H N Pandit's IIEP Occasional Paper No. 43, UNESCO, 1976, pp. 59-61.
Krishnamurthy (1968), Educational administration in Andra Pradesh, in Buch M.B. (ed.), A Survey Of Educational Research in Education, Baroda, Center for Advanced Studies in Education (CASE), M S University, 1974.
Kundu et al. (1985), in Buch M.B. (ed.), Fourth Survey Of Educational Research in Education, (1983-88), New Delhi, NCERT, 1991.
Kurien C Experience, p. 759.
T, Decentralized Planning The Indian 1987, Himalaya Publishing House, New Delhi,
Lauglo, Jon and Martin Mclean, The Control of Education: International Perspectives on the CentralizationDecentralisation Debate, University of London, Heinemann Educational Books, 1985.
Mehta R Shiv, Rural Development Policies and Programmes, Sage Publications, London, 1984.
Ministry of Human Resource Development, National Policy on Education, New Delhi, 1986.
Ministry of Human Resource Development, District Primary Education and programme: Guidelines, Government of India 1995.
Ministry of Human Resource Development, Report of the Comni ttee for Review of National Policy on Education 1986, Final Report, 26th December 1990.
MukherJee L, Problems of Administration of Education in India, Lucknow Publishing House, Lucknow, 1970.
Myscre State Draft Fifth Five Year Plan 1974-79, Planning Department, 1974.
Nagaraju, C.S., Educational Planning and Management: Need for Knowledge Of Micro levels., Perspectives in Education Vol. 9, No.3, 1993.
Nagaraju,C.S., Political Economy of Karnataka Historical and contemporary Unpublished research paper, 1996.
Education in perspectives,
Naik J P, Equality, Quality, and Quantity - the Elusive Triangle in Indian Education, Allied Publishers, New Delhi, 1975.
Natarajan Sterling
S, Introduction to Economics Publishers, New Delhi, 1990.
of Education,
National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration,Regional Seminar on National Policy on Education, Planning and Management Issues, New Delhi, September 28-29, New Delhi, 1985.
Natlonal Institute of Educational Planning, Universalisation of elementary education, Planning at Micro level, Guidelines, Un-published report by NIEPA, New Delhi,1987.
NCSRT, Populatlon and Human Resources Operations India Primary Education Achievement and
World Bank, Report No.15756-IN, September, Dl'J1S10n, Challenges, 1996.
NIEPA, A Study of administration of elementary education 1n relation to the programme of Universalisation in Andra pradesh, New Delhi, 1979.
NIEPA, A Study of administration of elementary education 1n relation to the programme of Universalisation in Bihar, New Delhi, 1979.
NIEPA, A Study of administration of elementary education in relation to the programme of Universalisation in Jammu & Kashmir, New Delhi, 1978.
NIEPA, A Study of administration of elementary education 1n relation to the programme of Universalisation 1n Madhya pradesh, New Delhi, 1979.
NIEPJI., A Study of administration of elementary education 1n relat10n to the programme of Universalisation 1n Orr1sa, New Delhi, 1979.
NIEPA, A Study of administration of elementary education 1n relation to the programme of Universalisation in Ra]as tan , New Delhi, 1979.
NIEPA, A Study of administration of elementary education 1n relation to the programme of Universalisation in Uttar pradesh, New Delhi, 1979.
NIEPA, A Study of administration of elementary education in relation to the programme of Universalisation in West Bengal, New Delhi, 1979.
NIEPA, A Study of administration of elementary education in relation to the programne of Uni versalisation ~n
Assam, New Delhi, 1979.
NIEPA, Decentralised System of Educational the District Level, National Institute of Planning, New Delhi, 1987.
Planning at Educational
NIEPA, School Mapping, Published by National Institute of Educational planning and Administration, New Delhi, 1986. Padmanabhan (1986), in Tilak B.G. (ed.:, Education and RegIonal Development, Yatan Publications, New Delhi, 1986.
Panchamuki (1981), In Buch M.B. (ed.), Third Survey Of Educational Research in Education, (1978-83), New Delhi, NCERT, 1987.
Panchamuki, Economics of Education in India: A thematic review, Unpublished research paper, 1991.
Patel (1960), in Buch M.B. (ed.), A Survey Of Educational Research ~n Education, Baroda, Center for Advanced Stuoles in Education (CASE), M S University, 1974.
Patel (1975), Impact of Panchayat Raj on Administration of Primary education, in Buch M. B. (ed.), Second Survey Of Educational Research in Education, (1972-78), Baroda, SERD, 1979.
Platt, Research for educational planning. notes on emergent needs, UNESCO, published by International Institute for Educational planning, 1970.
?opulation Research population and Health ISEC, Bangalore, 1995.
Cen ter, Selected indicators of in Karnataka, Un-published report,
Prasad L M, Education Policy for SC and STs and its Implementat~on, Indian Journal of Public Administration, October-December 1986, No 4, Vol XXXII.
PrIce H Fredriel
Reyard, Rural Reconstruction and Development, A Praeger Publishers, New York, 1967.
Psacharopoulos,G. The Macro-Planning of Clarification of Issues and a look into Comparative Education Review, June 1975.
Education: A the future,
Psacharopoulous,G. Education, Employment and Inequality in LDCs World Development, Vol. 9, 1981, pp. 37-54.
Radhakrishana (1984), state of Tamil Nadu, Educational Research NCERT, 1991.
Educational administration in the in Buch M.B. (ed.), Fourth Survey Of in Education, (1983-88), New Delhi,
Ramashesha (1972), The decision making processes in the office of JDPI, Bangalore Division, In Buch M.B. (ed.), Second Survey Of Educatlonal Research In Education, ! 19 7 2- 7 8', Baroda, SERD, 1979.
Ramashesha, Decision Making Process JDPI, Bangalore Division, M Banga10re University, 1972.
at the Office of the Ed Dissertation,
Rao (1981), Educational Administration and Management of school system in the State of Karnataka, in Buch M.B. (ed.), Third Survey Of Educational Research in Education, (1978-83), New Delhi, NCERT, 1987.
Raza Moonis (ed.), Educational Planning a Long Term Perspective, Concept Publishing Company, 1986.
New Delhi,
Report of the Expert Group, 2001, Vol 1, Government of 97.0ctober, 1989.
Report of the Expert Group, 2001, Vol II, Government October 1987.
Karnataka: Perspective Plan Karnataka Publication, 1992-
Karnataka: Perspective Plan of Karnataka Publication,
Robert Bogdam, Introduction to Methods, Inter science Publication,
Qualitative 1975.
Research
Ronald G Ridker, The World Bank's Role in Human Resource Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, World Bank Operation Evaluation Study, 1994.
Ross N Kenneth and Lars Quality of Education -for Informed Decision 1990.
Mahlck (eds), Planning the the Collection and Use of Data
Making, Pergamon Press, Paris,
Sahu (1980), Adequacy of PR administration in the tribal blocks of Orrissa, in Buch M. B. (ed. ), Third Survey Of Educational Research in Education, (1978-83), New Delhi, NCERT, 1987.
Sancho Antonio, Policies and Programs for Social and Human Development - A Handbook, An International Center fer Economic Growth Publication, California, 1996.
Shah (1951), Problems of educational administration ~n
India, in Buch M.B. led.), A Survey Of Educational Research in Education, Baroda, Center for Advanced Studles In Education (CASE), M S University, 1974.
Sharma (1964) , administration, in Educational Research Advanced Studies in 1974.
New Buch
concepts of M . B • ( ed . ) , A
in Education, Baroda, Education (CASE), M S
Educational Survey Of Center for University,
Shinde (1975), Panchayt Raj leadership in expansion and improvement of Primary education, in Buch M.B. (ed.), Second Survey Of Educational Research in Education, (1972-78), Baroda, SERD, 1979.
Sinha (1976), Educational system in Andrapradesh, In Buch M.B. (ed.), Second Survey Of Educational Research ln Education, (1972-78), Baroda, SERD, 1979.
Solow R M, Economics of Indian Education, in Balj it Singh's Meenakshi Prakashan, New Delhi, 1986, p. 55.
Theodore W Schultz, Capital Formation by Education, The Journal of Political Economy, December 1960, p. 571.
Theodore W Schultz, Education and Economic Growth, Social Factors Influencing American Education, National Society for the Study of Education, 1961.
Tilak B.G. (ed.), Education and Regional Development, Yatan Publications, New Delhi, 1986.
Trivedi (1974), The dynamics of pressures on certain practices in educational administration. ln Buch M. B. led.), Second Survey Of Educational Research ln Education, (1972-78), Baroda, SERD, 1979.
United Nations, Report of the Technical Mission on Community Development, New York, 1959.
Ushadevi M 0, A Study of Communication Process 1n Relation to Decision making process in the Offices of Department of Education, Unpublished Ph.D thesis, Mysore University, 1989.
Vertak (1971), Educational problems in Maharastra, ln Buch M. B. (ed. ), A Survey Of Educational Research ln Educatlon, Baroda, Center for Advanced Studies ln Educatlon (CASE), M S University, 1974.
Weller, ideology in educational planning, the internatlonal Encyclopedia of education vol.S. i-I, 1980.
Weiler, Towards a political economy Planning, Perspectives in Education Vol.8,
of educational No.3, 1978.
World Bank Review, Priorities and Strategies for Education, World Bank Publication, Washington DC, 1995.
Zaidi (1986), Tilak B.G. (ed.), Education and Regional Development, Yatan Publications, New Delhi, 1986.