KLAIPĖDA UNIVERSITY STUDY MODULE PROGRAMME (SMP) Study module code (module) S 280 M 007 Accredited until 2014 09 01 Last updated Branch of science Progr. Reg. No. Course title Educational management (Coaching) Prerequisites Heterogeneity Management, Introduction to Andragogy Expected outcomes of the study module No. Learning outcomes Study methods Methods of student’s learning achievement evaluation 1 Will be able to understand the main principles and functions of educational management (coaching); to identify the main categories of educational management Debate, discussion, literature analysis, practical tasks, exercises, reflection of activity Reporting for practice work, presentation 2 Will be able to apply the techniques of educational management (coaching) in the field of adult education by creating favourable learning environment. Information search tasks, Simulation of real-life situations Reporting for practice work, Test 3 Will know peculiarities, methodology of categories of educational management (coaching) and will be able to apply some coaching techniques when solving various learning problems of the adult learners. Case analysis (case study), discussion, literature analysis, exercises Reporting for practice work, Test 4 Will be able to make innovative decisions when supporting the adult learners. Debate, exercises Case analysis, Reporting for practice work The main objective of the study module To develop abilities of the future andragogists by providing support for the adult learning persons who seek high-scoring learning, by supporting a learning person by developing his/her available internal powers and by creating a favourable learning environment.
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KLAIPĖDA UNIVERSITY
STUDY MODULE PROGRAMME (SMP)
Study module code
(module)
S 280 M 007 Accredited
until 2014 09 01
Last
updated Branch of
science Progr.
Reg.
No.
Course title
Educational management (Coaching)
Prerequisites
Heterogeneity Management, Introduction to Andragogy
Expected outcomes of the study module
No. Learning outcomes Study methods
Methods of
student’s learning achievement
evaluation
1
Will be able to understand the main principles and
functions of educational management (coaching); to identify the main categories of educational
management
Debate, discussion,
literature analysis, practical tasks, exercises,
reflection of activity
Reporting for
practice work,
presentation
2
Will be able to apply the techniques of educational
management (coaching) in the field of adult education by creating favourable learning
environment.
Information search tasks,
Simulation of real-life
situations
Reporting for practice work, Test
3
Will know peculiarities, methodology of
categories of educational management (coaching) and will be able to apply some coaching
techniques when solving various learning
problems of the adult learners.
Case analysis (case
study), discussion,
literature analysis, exercises
Reporting for
practice work, Test
4 Will be able to make innovative decisions when
supporting the adult learners. Debate, exercises
Case analysis, Reporting for
practice work
The main objective of the study module
To develop abilities of the future andragogists by providing support for the adult learning persons who seek
high-scoring learning, by supporting a learning person by developing his/her available internal powers and
by creating a favourable learning environment.
Summary
The study module consists of the following three parts: conception, areas, categories functions, theoretical aspects of the phenomenon of the educational management (coaching) are revealed in the first part. The
second part is intended for the analysis of possibilities of the andragogist who provides coaching services
and for various measures, methods, techniques and their application in the field of the adult education. The third part is intended for analysis of activity peculiarities of coach.
The purpose of the study module
Level of university studies Subject group (under the regulation of the study area) Subject level
Cycle Type
Second Master Special courses related to the field of study Going deep into
Study area or field according to the method of study funding
4. Architecture, education and training, study fields of physical sciences’ study area (except mathematics),
study fields of biomedical sciences’ study area (except sports, rehabilitation, nursing, medicine, veterinary medicine and odontology), study fields of technology sciences’ study area (except education of pilots),
psychology, philology (specific languages, translation)
Sections and themes
No. Title Responsible lecturer
1. Conception, areas, categories, functions of educational management
(coaching) 744 doc. dr. Birutė
Jatkauskienė
1.1 Theoretical aspects of coaching. Searching for the reconstructive model. 744 doc. dr. Birutė
Jatkauskienė
1.2 Coaching mechanism. Coaching abilities when solving problems of
organizational and personal nature 744 doc. dr. Birutė
Jatkauskienė
1.3 Individual, collective (team) coaching. Coaching and organizational
culture 744 doc. dr. Birutė
Jatkauskienė
1.4 Strategic coaching and professional improvement. Cycles of professional improvement and learning
744 doc. dr. Birutė Jatkauskienė
2. Possibilities of coaching application in the adult education 744 doc. dr. Birutė
Jatkauskienė
2.1 Links between problems of learning and areas of coaching application 744 doc. dr. Birutė Jatkauskienė
2.2 Anticipation and preservation of activity area (intervention) of the
andragogist who plays coach’s role 744 doc. dr. Birutė
Jatkauskienė
2.3 Anticipation of goals 744 doc. dr. Birutė
Jatkauskienė
2.4 Ability to hear out and to ask 744 doc. dr. Birutė Jatkauskienė
2.5 Leading conversation and technique of questions formulation 744 doc. dr. Birutė
Jatkauskienė
2.6 Tune of verbal, paraverbal, nonverbal communication. Conception of neurolinguistic programming (CNP)
744 doc. dr. Birutė Jatkauskienė
2.7 Demonstration of positive acknowledgement signs 744 doc. dr. Birutė
Jatkauskienė
2.8 Adaptation to the cognitive style 744 doc. dr. Birutė
Jatkauskienė
No. Title Responsible lecturer
3. Activity peculiarities of coach and competence, abilities required for the
activity 744 doc. dr. Birutė
Jatkauskienė
3.1 Deontological code of coach 744 doc. dr. Birutė
Jatkauskienė
. Evaluation procedure of knowledge and abilities:
A ten-grade and cumulative grading system is applied. The semester’s individual work tasks are evaluated by
grades; the final grade is given during the examination session through multiplying particular grades by the
lever coefficient and summing the results obtained.
References
No. Title
Edition in KU library
Available in
the KU bookstore
Number of
copies in the
methodical
office of the dept
Pressmark Number
of copies
1.
Jatkauskienė B., Jatkauskas E.,
Jovarauskaitė A. (2008). Kaučingas ir jo
taikymo galimybės suaugusiųjų švietimo srityje. Mokytojų ugdymas, Nr. 11 (2).
Šiauliai: Šiaulių universiteto leidykla. ISS
Yes 2
2. Downey M. (2008). Efektyvus koučingas.
Koučerių mokytojo pamokos, UAB ,,Vadybos pokyčių konsultavimas"
658.3 Do-382 2 Yes 3
3. Strateginės individo kompetencijos. (2007).
KTU, Ekonomikos ir vadybos fakultetas,
Personalo ugdymo centras. No 2
4.
Weiss T., Kolberg Sh. (2003). Couching Competencies and Corporate Leadership.
Boca Raton London New York Washington,
D. C.
No 1
5. Račelytė D. (2008). Apie konfliktus ir jų
sprendimą. II dalis. Vilnius:VPU leidykla 316.48(075.8)
Ra-38 1 Yes 1
6. Andrašiūnienė M., Jakimavičienė I. (2006).
Analizuokime ir spręskime. Vilnius: Ciklonas.
37.015.3(075.8)
An-3 2 Yes 1
7. Goleman D. (2008). Emocinis intelektas. -
Vilnius : Presvika 159.94 Go-159 2 No 1
8. Misiukonis T. 2012. Asmeninio ugdymo
praktika. Vilnius: Vaga. No 1
Additional literature
Nr. Title
1. Richardson L. (2006). Pardavėjų treniravimas. Kaip viršininkui tapti pardavėjų treneriu.
Vinius:Smaltija. 2. Teresevičienė M., Gedvilienė G. (2003). Mokymasis grupėse ir asmenybės kaita. Kaunas.VDU.
3. Covey S.R. (2009). sėkmės lydimų žmonių įpročiai. Asmenybės pokyčių pamokos. Kaunas.VDU
Nr. Title
4. Grugulis I. (2007). Skill, training and human resource development : a critical text.Basingstoke :
Palgrave Macmillan.
5. Zohar D.(2006). Dvasinis kapitalas: Gerovė, kuri gali padėti išlikti. Vilnius: Tyto alba
Rooms (premises), technical base, and software required for the lectures
Type of lecture Type of the room
(premises) Nominal number of seats in the
room Required
equipment/notes
Theoretical Amphitheatric room 20 Computer, projector,
board
Independent work
(Traditional) room 20 Computer, projector, board
Coordinating lecturer
Position Degree, full name List No.
professor doc. dr. Birutė Jatkauskienė 744
Subdivision
Name Code
Department of Andragogy (Andragogikos katedra) 1901
Study module teaching form No. 1
Semester Mode of studies Structure Total
hours ECTS
T P L NK S
R P D 40 20 0 0 100 160 6
Languages of instruction
Lithuanian L English A Russian R French P German V other Kt.
Plan of contact hours
No. of theme Academic hours
No. of theme Academic hours
T P L T P L
1. 4 2 0 2.3 2 1 0
1.1 2 1 0 2.4 2 1 0
1.2 2 1 0 2.5 3 1 0
1.3 2 1 0 2.6 2 1 0
1.4 4 2 0 2.7 2 1 0
2. 3 2 0 2.8 2 1 0 2.1 2 1 0 3. 4 2 0
2.2 2 1 0 3.1 2 1 0
Total: 40 20 0
Schedule of individual work tasks and their weighting on the final grade
Type of task No. of
syllabus (-es)
Total
hours Exam
weighting, %
The week when the task must be performed (*), and submitted (o)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17-
20
Reporting on practice work
1-3 30 35 * 0 0
Mid-term exam 1-2 35 35 * 0
Test 1-3 35 30 * 0
Total: - 100 100
Study module teaching form No. 2
Semester Mode of studies Structure
Total hour ECTS T P L NK S
R P N 40 20 0 0 100 160 6
Languages of instruction
Lithuanian L English A Russian R French P German V other Kt.
Plan of contact hours
No. of theme Academic hours
No. of theme Academic hours
T P L T P L
1. 4 2 0 2.3 2 1 0
1.1 2 1 0 2.4 2 1 0
1.2 2 1 0 2.5 3 1 0
1.3 2 1 0 2.6 2 1 0
1.4 4 2 0 2.7 2 1 0
2. 3 2 0 2.8 2 1 0
2.1 2 1 0 3. 4 2 0 2.2 2 1 0 3.1 2 1 0
Total: 40 20 0
Schedule of individual work tasks and their weighting on the final grade
Type of task No. of
syllabus (-
es)
Total
hours Exam
weighting, %
The week when the task must be performed (*), and submitted (o)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17-
20
Reporting on
practice work 1-3 30 35 * 0 0
Test 1-3 35 30 * 0 0
Mid-term exam 1-2 35 35 * 0
Total: - 100 100
KLAIPĖDA UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF CONTINUING EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF ANDRAGOGY
ANDRAGOGY MASTER PART-TIME COURSE PROGRAMME (621X30001)
EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT (COACHING)
Module prepared by:
Prof. dr. Birutė Jatkauskienė (KU)
Co-authors:
Mgr. Ph. Dr. Pavel Neumeister
(Palacky University, Czech Republic)
Klaipėda - KU TSI – 2012
Project Renewal of Graduate and Postgraduate
Andragogy Course Programme Klaipėda University Contract No. VP1-2.2-ŠMM-07-K-02-052
Table of contents
Main Notions and Abbreviations.................................................................................................. 8
Foreword ..................................................................................................................................... 11
1. Coaching Conception, Areas, Categories, Functions ............................................................. 13
1.1. Theoretical Aspects of Coaching. Searching for the Reconstructive Model. ........................ 20
1.2. Coaching Mechanism. Coaching Abilities when Solving Organizational and Personal
Problems ................................................................................................................................... 24
1.3. Individual, Collective (Team) Coaching. Coaching and Organizational Culture ................. 32
1.4. Strategic Coaching and Occupational Improvement. Cycles of Professional Improvement and
Learning .................................................................................................................................... 38
2. Possibilities of Coaching Application in Adult Education .................................................... 44
2.1. Links Between Learning Problems and Areas of Coaching Application .............................. 46
2.2. Determination and Preservation of Activity Field (Intervention) of the Andragogist who
Plays Coaching Specialist’s Role............................................................................................... 51
2.3. Setting of Goals .................................................................................................................. 52
2.4. Ability to Listen to and ask Questions ................................................................................ 64
2.5. Conversation Management and Question Formulation Technique ....................................... 68
2.6. Verbal, Paraverbal, Nonverbal Communication Consistency. Conception of Neurolinguistic
Programming (NLP).................................................................................................................. 74
2.7. Demonstration of Positive Recognition Signs ..................................................................... 82
2.8. Adaptation to Cognitive Style ............................................................................................. 88
3. Activity Peculiarities and Competence of Coach, Abilities Required for the Activity ......... 94
3.1. Deontological Code of Coach ............................................................................................. 97
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 102
APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................... 105
Main Notions and Abbreviations
Aspiration [Latin “aspiratio” — blowing in, inhalation]: 1. techn. suction of polluted air or gas
out of mechanisms, work zones, premises; 2. med. exhaustion of liquid (matter, exudation, blood)
or air that has accumulated in some part of the body during the course of the illness; 3. Rustle which
reminds of a surd “h” audible after a plosive, separating consonantal phonemes, aspirate, or
highlighting consonantal hollowness; 4. striving, ambition (Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas, 2010).
Communication is an interaction between people when thoughts, emotions are exchanged,
when people get acquainted and social commonness is achieved (Karlof, Lovingsson, 2007.).
Undoubtedly there are more conceptions and definitions of communication. Each of us can
understand communication differently - some people are happy to be silent together, others - do not
imagine communication without stormy discussions, the third group of people consider
communication as a constructive speech. To each his own. Currently psychologists divide
communication into the following three types (Mead, 2009):
verbal communication encompasses words, word meanings. Generally speaking - it is a
language. However notice should be taken that some words have several meanings in
certain cases sarcasm is used;
paraverbal speech. It shows itself in what loudness we pronounce words, it is necessary
to understand what silence means, companion’s interruption, intonation etc.;
nonverbal communication reflects our signs, mime, even posture.
Effective [Latin “effectivus” — efficient, creating] - action that gives the necessary or the best
results (Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas, 2009).
Entropy [Greek “en” — inside + “tropē” — turn, conversion]: 1. Physics - a variable defining
the state of thermodynamic system; expresses irreversibility of phenomena of isolated system; 2.
information theory — measure of indeterminacy of test result. Important part of general theory of
evolution in physics is (strictly in materialistic science) the established law of entropy. According to
the law of entropy, energy outspreads from that place where its surplus is to the place where its
shortage is (e.g. we have two gasbags, one is empty, another is full; after joining them the gas will
transit from the surplus to the shortage, and with one gasbag it is possible to blow the other only
until pressure in both gasbags gets equal). It is called the entropy increase and it is said that “all
processes of the universe occur in the direction of the entropy increase”. Thus the conclusion was
made that life, like other processes, is the movement of substance caused by entropy, and that’s all.
(Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas, 2010)
Frustration [Latin “frustratio” — disappointment], unpleasant, tense emotional state
occurring due to inability to satisfy some need, to implement goal, to overcome difficulties
(Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas, 2010).
Intervention – in its primary sense, intervention [Latin “interventio” — interference] - is a
breach of international law - interference of one or two countries (armed, economical, political) into
internal affairs of another country or into their relationships with the third countries (Tarptautinių
žodžių žodynas, 2009). Intervention in coaching is pursued in the crossing of human personal
improvement, interpersonal relationships and strategic management (Cruellas, 2003). Normally
process of coaching intervention may be divided into several stages: diagnostics, situation analysis,
scenario creation, organization of scenario implementation. Process of intervention differs
depending on the area of coaching. Sometimes intervention is directed towards client’s behaviour or
practice of professional activity, sometimes - towards reflection, when seeking for effective solution
of situation. However the intervention process always sustains the same stages. In any case activity
of coach is based on the interests of client and organization, consequently a coach must give
absolute freedom and responsibility for his/her client as he/she makes any decisions, since the aim
of intervention process of coaching is to help to improve.
Intuition – is a necessary, unlimited, innate, subjective, cooperating and the first acting in the
thinking process (Kant, 1949). Intuition is related with activity of sub consciousness.
Coaching – is help/support, instrument of optimization of human potential and effectiveness of
activity that reveals individual’s potential when seeking for goals, high-scoring and effectiveness
maximisation (Уитмор, 2000). It is applied in order to achieve the more effective personal
improvement, learning, communication, competence of employees. Its possibilities to help to find a
way out of current situation both in personal and professional activity, to make the right decision in
order to achieve personal or professional goals are interesting (Turner, 2006).
Coaching categories – individual coaching, as it is seen from the name itself, it is directed
towards individual persons. Individual coaching is intended for making decisions and education of
personal improvement, identification of individual internal obstacles and their control is emphasized
(Grant et al., 2009).
Corporate (team) coaching – in the collective of activity (e.g. team, managers, technical
personnel, subdivision of learning adult group). Strategic coaching related with professional
improvement of leaders and employees of organization, when implementing goals of strategic
activity of organization. Strategic coaching encourages persons to improve their professional
activity, concurrently by improving themselves (Duijts et al., 2008). Individual, corporate and
strategic coaching is characterized by different structure however all of them are oriented towards
the improvable situation, practice or behaviour (Židonienė, 2009). In case of individual, corporate
and strategic coaching the best way for accomplishing of the set ambitious goal is being searched.
Although in all cases there is a goal to reveal conditions for success, however coaching of separate
categories differs in its perspective, since identification of obstacles and their control are not
identical ways for achieving the goal (Amar, Angel, 2006).
Coaching client - in principal provisions of the International Coach Federation (ICF) coaching
client is defined as a solid, creative, internal resources having personality that is able to achieve and
learn much more than it thinks. Also it is important for a person who is growing in one area of life
to evaluate the influence of growing on all other areas of life by thus maintaining the balance.
Coaching client is a person or a team that take part in the process of coaching and receive services
of coach (Amar, Angel, 2006).
Coach is a person who has a certificate of International Coach Federation (ICF) of completed
courses and who provides coaching services for persons or organizations (Spence et al., 2008). In
the adult education coach is equated with an andragogist who provides coaching services, and client
- for adult learning person who receives the mentioned services.
Coaching techniques - technique [Greek “technikos” – artistic, masterly < “technē” — art,
trade, craft]: activity skills, ways, methods of coach, knowing how to use these methods (Pousa et
al., 2010).
Coaching role is to develop, expand, human potential that can be developed only by equally
distributing attention to all elements of the client who participates in coaching (physical, mental,
emotional).
Metidicity - in Greek language (Μĕτις / Mễtis) means caution and wisdom – metidicity. This
term is related with Metis - daughter of god Oceanus and Tethys. Metis was the first spouse of
Zeus. She persuaded Zeus into giving a potion to cause Kronos to vomit out Zeus' siblings. Metis
foisted on Kronos the drink by herself, and ordered to Titan to return children. As Metis wanted to
avoid close relationships with Zeus she often used to change her appearance, but Zeus got lucky and
impregnated her. Gaia (goddess of Earth) had predicted that she would bear a girl, but the next child
who would be born out of the relationships with Metis, would be a boy, who would remove Zeus
from the Olympus, just like Zeus removed his father Kronos. Zeus got scared and swallowed the
pregnant Metis - goddess of wisdom and Caution. That day when the baby was supposed to be born
Zeus had a headache. He asked Hephaestus to cleave his skull. The beautiful Pallas Athena leaped
from Zeus's head, and she inherited the wisdom from her mother. Even Metis had been swallowed
though she used to give wise advices to Zeus. In iconography sometimes Metis is represented as a
small creature hiding behind Zeus’s throne. It is often stated that Zeus swallowed Metis not only
because he was afraid to lose his power, but also because he wanted to pocket her wisdom, since
Metis was goddess of wisdom who knew more than all the gods and the mortality. Image of Metis
is ternary. On the one part, she is goddess of wisdom, on the other part, she is goddess of caution,
and basically she leaves an image of artfulness. Psychologists have borrowed from Metis an idea of
adaptation. Adaptation is treated as ability to adjust to the environment. A living creature is gifted
by nature with certain plasticity that allows adapting to the environmental changes, and herewith to
maintain spiritual balance.
Metidicity has become as a general term meaning the art to adjust a delicate situation
for one’s benefit. With future Metis is related hypothetically as a possibility conditioned by
coincidence. Her predictions are problematic, they only reveal, but do not indicate how to sneak out
of danger. Metis interferes in person’s life only when the heavenly world is still bubbling over,
boiling or when balance of forces of the heavenly world is disturbed at least for a short time. She
shows courage and power, and herewith a reasonable initiative, craftiness and wisdom.
Thought is power, energy however at the same time a subtle substance that acts in a
very remote area from physical world (Aivanhov, 1997).
Learning problem – [obstacle, difficulty, task] – 1. an objective question that occurred
in the cognitive process, of which decision has basic meaning for cognitive advancement; 2. an
objection that originated from consciousness that must be settled by the individual. Problems are
educational, scientific, practical, artistic, domestic, personal, etc. (Jovaiša, 2007, p. 233). Task of
learning as an objective new requirement in the consciousness of the learner becomes as a problem,
that sometimes may be solved easily, and sometimes more efforts are required. Personal problem is
considered to be an internal difficulty that may not be settled on one’s own efforts that is limiting
normal living, that encourages seeking for help (Jovaiša, 2007, p. 233). Difficulty is a state of
personality that prevents from adaptive and adequate behaviour and work, which is experienced as a
tiresome, troublesome, burden. Difficulties originate from innate weak ability to adapt of an
individual or from unfavourable environmental conditions. Pedagogists, andragogists, psychologists
help to overcome difficulties according to their competence, by considering the extent of the
difficulty. Difficulty becomes as a personal problem when there is a wish to get rid of it and to ease
internal state (Jovaiša, 2007, p. 279). Therefore it is possible to state that difficulty is not identical
to the learning problem that mostly depends on external factors and is quite of temporary nature.
Difficulty mostly depends on internal factors and requires bigger efforts in order to remove it.
Types of learning problems: problems of cognitive, psychomotoric, psychosocial,
affective - motivational nature (Jovaiša, 2007).
Sub consciousness is thinking of image character up to verbal thinking intended for
initiation, distribution and gestation of ideas supplemented by function of evaluation of emotional
type. Sub consciousness depending on the field of science may also be treated as initiative thinking
or simply as intuition. Human internal world - is thoughts suggested by consciousness in the sub
consciousness (made according to J. B. Watson (1913), I. Pavlov (1927), S. Freud (1960), M.
Polany (1967), C. Jung (1971), O. M. Aivanhov (1997), H. Simonas (2001), D. M. Wegner (2002),
R. Wilson (2002), B. Libet (1985, 2004), A. Meneghetti (2003, 2004), G. R. Henden (2004), R.
Winston (2005) et al.).
Potential: 1. scalar or vectorial function of space and time that defines vectorial field,
e.g. electricity, gravitation, velocity, force; 2. level of capacity, power, e.g. martial potential of some
country (Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas, 2009). Human potential is individual’s current physical,
mental, emotional sources. Potential is not the same as personality since human potential first of all
is characterized by biological and not by psychological nature (Paul, 2004).
Rationality is a method by which mind takes measures. Rationality is not the mind, but
the technique, set of rules, which is based on evident factors and does not reject evidence itself
(Менегетти, 2002).
Reflection is the acquired ability of consciousness to concentrate and to understand
oneself as an object having his/her specific stability and specific meaning - able not just to cognize;
not just to know, but to know what one knows (Шарден, 1987).
NLP – neurolinguistic programming.
TA – transactional analysis.
All people deep inside have a big potential, many talents. Unfortunately, not everybody knows it. Probably it is a bigger joy to help other people to discover their spiritual riches and to help them to bring those hidden
riches into the day light than to discover those talents in yourself.
Foreword
More and more often it is possible to hear not only business organizations, managers
and employees speaking about coaching or coaching culture. University, school and adult education
are interested in it. This study book is intended for students of Andragogics master studies which go
deep into the study module of Educational management. However this book may be also useful for
students of other study modules and lecturers, andragogists practitioners.
Coaching originated from the juncture of three separate social areas - psychotherapy,
training and management, however it is important to notice that these sciences try to achieve quite
different goals and the goal of coaching, methods, techniques were created in their synthesis
(Malinauskas, 2009). Goal of psychotherapy is to remove client’s discomfort; goal of training is to
help for the sportsman who goes into training to actualize maximum possibilit ies when trying to
achieve for good results; goal of management is identification of goals and measures for achieving
goals of organization.
In the adult education in certain cases discomfort of learners also exists (learning
problems of cognitive, affective nature, unfulfilled professional, career expectations, difficult search
for personal, professional identity, problems of relationships with other persons, et al.), when adult
learners also have to mobilize all of their potentials when trying to achieve the best or good
learning results, and andragogists being next to the adult learners, may help when achieving them
(Agarwal et al., 2009). Thus coaching may be not only applied but it also should be applied in the
activity of every andragogist, in every institution of adult education.
There are many discussions about the way in which coaching helps when achieving
goals, to be more creative and more flexible, to free the potential and to find new spaces. However
in Lithuania coaching is quite widely used only as an instrument of management consequently it is
not that different from standard management. In order to increase efficiency of organization
heads/managers should have coaching instruments when applying them it would be possible to
improve process of communication both inside and outside the organization (Grant, Spence, 2010).
If there is a wish to develop abilities of application of coaching instruments, there are many courses
organized where students are introduced with coaching theory and methods, technique, these
students have possibility to acquire practical abilities of coaching area. However coaching and adult
education, application of coaching in the meaning of andragogist’s activity, by helping to solve
problems of various natures of the learning adults in Lithuania it is practically not analyzed area.
Meanwhile in foreign countries coaching has crossed the limits of sports, psychotherapy or
management. During the last twenty years hundreds of books about coaching have been published
in foreign countries, thousands of websites have been created in the internet and thousands of
people have started to practice this profession, not only thousands of managers, businessmen have
started to use coaching services, but also thousands of adult learners, andragogists, students,
lecturers, teachers, parents (Grant et al., 2009). Andragogists try to understand how knowledge,
abilities and skills of coaching area may e useful to each of them, especially in these times of rapid
changes, information, knowledge increase.
Currently in the available resources more than thousand published studies and
researches are calculated. Specialists of social sciences encourage to go deep into knowledge of this
area and to analyze principles of coaching activity. The first scientific publications on this subject
have appeared in Lithuania (Čibonis, 2007; Jatkauskienė et al., 2008; Mažutytė, 2009; Samulionytė,
Juknaitė, 2009; Židonienė, 2009 et al.). However little attention is given to the actions which occur
during the coaching process and how this process helps people. It should be useful to repeat once
again that in Lithuania there is no much research intended for application of coaching techniques in
the adult education and herewith in the activity of andragogist. Another important and unexplored
subject is to answer the question if coaching could provide and if it provides coaching services a
professional andragogist, though he/she does not have coaching certificate. This fact has supposed
the idea of educational management subject.
Coaching, as a phenomenon of social reality, first of all is based on humanism, i.e.
support for person who tries to solve personal or professional problem of activity (Richez, 2006).
Specific role of coaching is to develop, educate human potential that may be developed only by
equally giving attention to all elements of client who participates in coaching (physical, mental,
emotional). Human potential (current physical, mental, emotional sources) is not the same as
personality, since human potential firstly is characterized by biological and not by psychological
nature (Paul, 2004).
Book structure. The book consists of three parts according to the anticipated subjects
of the study module. A list of notions and abbreviations is introduced in the beginning. Each topic
has its own main question into which students are encouraged to answer at the end of the topic.
Many questions are presented in the topic for the group discussion. After each topic questions are
indicated which are intended for self-control. Tasks of independent work with descriptions of
performance of the task are presented in the appendix 1; Mid-test and its answers and final test and
its answers are presented in appendix 2; Strategy intended for group discussions in the appendix 3 is
used to help the students to facilitate becoming a master of art of discussion and to finally learn to
discuss; Exercises with instructions are presented in appendix 4; a real example of coaching session
is provided in appendix 5 according to which it is going to be easier to participate in coaching
exercises; allegoric stories intended for illustration of coaching use and problems solution, for better
understanding of coaching phenomenon are presented in appendix 6. At the end of the book you
will find list of literature and appendixes.
Crosswords and a puzzle intended for independent tasks are prepared by students of
Andragogics master studies of 1st course (2012) of KU TSI: Ieva, Žilinskienė, Darius Sidabras,
Jonas Liorancas. In opinion of these students and the author of the book when solving crosswords it
is easier to remember notions of coaching.
The allegoric stories have been collected and have been sent by Master of Andragogics
studies, Natalija Bagdonienė. These stories will help student’s to better substantiate, illustrate
coaching phenomenon and measures of activity of the andragogist who provides coaching services.
I am thankful for my students for their help when preparing this study book and
especially for suggestions, evaluations and expertise to which a corresponding attention was paid.
The author wishes you enjoyable reading and meaningful activity
1. Coaching Conception, Areas, Categories, Functions1
The main question of the theme is what is the conception of coaching in the aspect of
crossing of various social phenomena and areas?
Portmanteau coaching conception in the aspect of clash of social phenomena and areas. Word
“coaching” in Lithuanian language is often translated as educational management2. It is applied in
order to achieve the more effective personal improvement, learning, communication, competence of
employees. Its possibilities to help to find a way out of current situation both in personal and
professional activity, to make the right decision in order to achieve personal or professional goals
are interesting (Turner, 2006).
Coaching’s success depends not on knowledge, experience, wisdom or intuition of
coach, but on individual’s (coaching client) wish to improve for his own sake, to think for his own
benefit and to be creative (Downey, 2008). In principal provisions of the International Coach
Federation (ICF) coaching client is defined as a solid, creative, internal resources having personality
that is able to achieve and learn much more than it thinks. Also it is important for a person who is
growing in one area of life to evaluate the influence of growing on all other areas of life by thus
maintaining the balance.
Foundation for a successful coaching process is relationships between coach and client.
In principal provisions of the International Coach Federation (ICF) coaching client is defined as a
1 Think which Allegoric story from the stories presented in appendix 6 you may apply when analyzing each topic
of the subject. 2 Such translation of this term raises doubts since many theory specialists and practitioners consider educational
management to be only as one coaching category among many others. On the other hand, according to E. Savickienė
(Mažutytė, 2009), coaching is an educational process however it is disputable if it is appropriate to use word
“management”, since it encompasses such main functions as planning, organization, motivation, coordination and
control.
solid, creative, internal resources having personality that is able to achieve and learn much more
than it thinks. Also it is important for a person who is growing in one area of life to evaluate the
influence of growing on all other areas of life by thus maintaining the balance.
Rules of the game set team wise and mutual participation when creating the
relationships makes coaching as a special partnership where internecine trust, respect, not criticism,
openness and sincerity merge into a strong synergy.
After performing analysis of scientific literature and documents, it is possible to state
that some consider (Devillard, 2001) coaching as art, and others (Amar, Angel, 2006) as an
intervention of its own type that is pursued in the crossing of human personal improvement,
interpersonal relationships and strategic management, the third group (Cruellas, 2003) considers
coaching as a peculiar management practice of which goal is to help to the manager or to the whole
team (Jatkauskienė et al., 2008).
Discussion
3:
What is meant by this affirmation?
“...coach and client, sort of dancing partners, step by step moves together in that direction and in that
rhythm that is dictated by the client. Choreography is created together, but elements of dancing are chosen and
approved by client himself...” (Pousa, Mattheu, 2010, 85 p.).
Lithuanian coaches state that coaching is a unique methodology of development of
personal effectiveness helping people in their lives to make positive changes by mobilizing their
internal potential (Čibonis, 2007; Mažutytė, 2009; Samulionytė, Juknaitė, 2009; Židonienė, 2009 et
al.). Coaching is a communication when a coach helps client to discover his best personal
characteristics and to achieve the results that have been anticipated by the client both in personal
and in professional activity (Pousa and Mattheu, 2010).
F. Délivré (2002) emphasizes a conversation practised in this field, since coaching is the
whole gamut of conversations with oneself and with the third person (coach); goal of these
conversations is to agree with one and to anticipate and to try to achieve goals both in personal and
in professional areas (Jatkauskienė et al. 2008). Coaching is a process of help, support for
professionals or for a group of professionals in the area of their professional activity. All the
mentioned above authors agree that coaching directed towards individual who seeks to maintain
optimal level of high-scoring, to better understand himself/herself, others and environment. It helps
revealing the available intellectual, organizational, creative powers of person. At the same time
coaching helps to manage contacts with others on the basis of peculiarities of psychological and
internecine relationships.
Coaching at the same time is and support and a common process of creation of coach
and client. During the intervention coach becomes as an escort of professional, personal activity of
the client. The goal of coaching is to create conditions for the client allowing him finding not a
simultaneous way out, but a method of problems solution that leads to global and perspective
personal improvement (Lenhardt, 2002).
It is said that coaching is a rather mysterious and new phenomenon. The term
“coaching” itself was used in Oxford University in 1830 (Grant, Spence, 2010). It would look like
that it is a very old discipline and not to believe in it would be sort of some little self-deception.
Certainly, there have been needed much improvements and alterations in the coaching until we have
it such as it is approved now by the majority of proficient, experts and international federations. Discussion:
All coaching “truths” finally were defined quite recently and as a separate discipline coaching has been living for more
than 15 years. Is it a long or a short period?
3 Strategy of discussions is presented in appendix No. 3.
Each of us would have our own answers but the fact that coaching is “in movement”
most likely would remain indisputable. Popularity has been increasing, more specialists have been
appearing, and the number of people believing in it has been increasing.
One of the secrets is the genesis of term “coaching”. It is apparent that the term itself is
of Anglo-Saxon origin. “To coach” means to train, to help, to instruct, to warm up, to give special
lessons, etc. Publications issued in the second half of the twentieth century in the USA and Canada,
allows presuming that coaching of that time mostly confined itself to the sports world. Today
coaching has progressed from sports to other spheres of activity (production, services, education,
etc.). Consequently it is natural that search for the roots of coaching phenomenon have been started.
Socrates may be considered as the pioneer of coaching. Socrates was a great teacher who instead of
traditional learning asked difficult, powers of the mind aggrandizing questions for his students
(followers). One of the most famous quotes of Socrates suggested: “I cannot teach anybody
anything. I can only make them think”. This idea may be considered as one of the main principles
of coaching. Legacy of Socrates’ teaching has been living until nowadays, especially valuable are
the methodologies of formulation of his asked questions. These methodologies are built upon the
main principle - student’s answer to the question he has been asked must encourage another
question to which he is going to need to find answer. Thus a dialogue will be developed until the
student finds the truth being searched for. When going deep into thoughts of another person,
according to Socrates, there is a goal for him to recognize, improve and learn. First of all, on the
basis of his positive methodological aspect - maieutics, Socrates tried to remove errors of
companion’s reasoning, by making the companion formulate the new, correct affirmation. Discussion:
“S. Soria notes that Jesus Christ is considered to be as one of the biggest coaches of all times”.
How would you explain this affirmation?
Advisors of royal estate, “grey eminences”, spiritual fathers and fools of the kings are
also considered to be as coaches.
Although it is stated that “to coach” is of Anglo-Saxon origin but there are some
opinions (Jatkauskienė et al. 2008), that it is a French word (“une coche” in French language means
antique carriage), and in French language “un cocher” is a coachman who used to accompany
travellers towards the anticipated destination of the trip. By prolonging the idea it should be
mentioned that in the nineteenth century in cultural area (in theatre, lyrics, cinematography) also
existed coaching that used to be implemented by an accompanist, artist, artist’s assistant, helper.
There is one more version of origin of this word “coach” originated from a name of the
Hungarian village Kocs, this village was known for the fact that in the Middle Ages an extremely
comfortable, strong and quite easily manageable postal carriages (kocsi) were built in it (Amar,
Angel, 2006). “Coach” in the contemporary English language until nowadays means a bus, a
wagon, a carriage. In those days when there were no any navigation systems the only guarantee for
successful coachman’s trip was his metidicity (cunning knowing, artfulness).
In Lithuanian texts often instead of coaching now is being used word “training”,
“trainer” but it would be more suitable only for sports area and it not very well reveal common
activity of coach and client by which behavioural changes are being tried to achieve,
encouragement of reflection in other areas than sports. There is another Lithuanian word
“counsellor” however it is not very suitable either, since foundation of coaching is helping client to
discover and apply personal, individual ways when solving problem of personal or professional
activity. Coach does not give advices, does not convey any measures or methods for the client,
simply helps to create a peculiar individual tactics of problem solving. Coach sometimes is
compared with guru or mentor however he is neither guru nor mentor. Guru creates negative image
and mentor makes us think about his higher social status than that of the client and absence of
client’s autonomy. Mentorship is too narrow area it can be only as a part of coaching. In Lithuania
coach sometimes is also called “counsellor”. And again that would be too narrow as well.
“Educational management” not very well satisfies with regard to the fact if we speak about clients,
about adult people, as there are no any ways to educate them (it is unethical), and as there is no time
for that (they have already completed their studies) (Jatkauskienė, 2008). It is possible that many
people do not know this but coaching is not learning since it is built upon conveyance neither of
knowledge nor of abilities. Discussion:
Why is it suggested that “coaching is based on the conception of pulling, and learning is based on the conception of
pushing (Grant, Curtayne, Burton, 2009)”?
Coach’s task is to help client to understand that the latter has all sources necessary for a
successful activity (knowledge, competence, attitudes, abilities, etc.).
It is suggested that coaching is not therapy, but some authors (Longin, 2006, Richez,
2006) note that coaching is used in the psychotherapy. However psychoanalyst, psychologist or
psychiatrist during sessions will always present to the client some recommendations (to read, to get
acquainted, to go in for sports, etc.), when pursuing therapeutically goals. Meanwhile a coach does
not do this. Coach and client concentrates on the current situation and focuses the prospective,
desired by the client, but not anticipated by the coach, situation.
Coaching is different from mentorship because a mentor, as an expert of his field, helps
and teaches a person who does not have professional experience, shares his experience, ideas,
knowledge with the latter. Consequently as they interact, a mentor is a dominating person, as if a
model of representative of the profession. Meanwhile activity of the coach is neither dominating,
nor preponderant. Nature of mentorship is even more different. It is suggested that mentorship is an
integral part of coaching seeking to reflect revelation and development of the meaning (work,
particular situation, professional life, etc.) (Guyon 2005). In such case a coach must figure out well
external factors of organization (market, fashion, social, technological, political changes, etc.).
Mentorship, when performing function of stabilizer, seeks for balance among
professional values, personal identity and the being performed activity. A mentor is a person who
has personal and professional experience that allows giving to the tutored colleague the certain
toeholds, and it requires from every mentor much true to life wisdom, experience, since to the
tutored person values and experience of all generations is conveyed. Mentorship preserves the
requirements of educational interaction - student/teacher, fulfils the peacemaker’s function and
especially in a chaotic situation. Discussion:
In opinion of some coaches (Turner et al., 2007; Amar, Angel, 2006; Lenhardt, Buratti, 2007 et al.), mentorship is a
part of integral coaching.
What could you say to these authors?
Coaching expands its practical activity by encompassing various areas. In the USA
another tendency occurs; in this country the mentioned above coaching forms are considered to be
as three separate coaching approaches. This tendency is also certified by the fact that in these latter
years many publications intended for educational management, technical coaching and mentorship,
have been published. It means that it is possible to expect that professions of all mentioned
activities will appear since currently practitioners of coaching often specialize according to its
separate forms and categories.
The coach and the client are equivalent persons. Discussion:
Why a coach is compared with a companion?
“M. Paula (2004) equates coaching specialist to a companion. A verb accompany (French - accompagner) means to
choose a companion. To accompany means to join someone else and to go in the same direction and time with another
person. We are going together, the companion does not have a priority right, he just accompanies.”
Accompaniment means direction, pursuit of aim, transition from one condition to
another. Consequently coaching dimensions are as follow (Richez, 2006): domination of the client,
priority rights; being together, interrelations; pursuing the goal together; transition from one
situation (state) to another; transience in time and space.
Thus, from the social approach coaching is an object of individuals’ agreement, limited
in time and intended for solving of a complicated social situation, for pursuing commonly set goals.
A proficient of coaching is not a magician who indicates what has to be done. Such
specialist applies methodologies, techniques which normally are based on questions on perspective,
decisions, are oriented towards the goal. It is proven that human thinking works in the form of
questions-answers. Therefore after conscious repeating of specialists’ questions we find the most
suitable answer by ourselves (Turner, 2006). Coach is only a tool helping person to work with
himself and to find decisions.
Differences between coaching and other areas are summarized and provided in Table 1: Table 1. Differences between coaching and other areas
Area Main differences
Psychotherapy Principle of psychotherapy - mostly work with the past and the cause is done, and coaching
is oriented towards the future.
Counselling The basis of counselling is advices. During the coaching session advices are not given,
personal opinion is not pressed on the client. This technique helps to person to discover his
goals, mostly related with values, by himself and to find the most suitable way towards
them. Coaching is a fight with advices. Since advices is an intervention into the course of
thinking of another person. Every person is unique and extraneous advice only limits that uniqueness.
Teaching Teaching provides knowledge for creation of effective model of life. Coaching is not based
neither on conveyance of knowledge, nor on conveyance of abilities. Vice versa: it
encourages using experience and the already accumulated knowledge. Essence of coaching
is to help to person to discover in himself and in others the sources required for activity:
knowledge, knowing, attitudes and abilities.
Mentorship In case of successful mentorship the client becomes similar to the mentor. According to
coaching principles, everyone by using his talents, available potential, creates his own way
of life, image, identity, and is capable of finding decisions which are the best for him.
Mentorship is a process, when successful specialist of the certain area (pedagogies or
andragogists) shares their experience and teaches to follow their example. It is expected
during the coaching for a person to find the most suitable way to success by himself.
Friendship Friendship is oriented towards intercommunion, support, meanwhile coaching is oriented
towards self-knowledge, problem solving, mobilisation and use of one’s own potential and not of friends.
Tutorship
Tutor means direction, pursuit of goal, transition from one professional condition to
another. In such case tutor is leader in the full sense of the word and client when following
the leader does not have a priority right. Meanwhile coaching means client’s and not tutor’s
(leader’s) domination, priority right. Coach does not share with the client experience,
knowledge, abilities, but is able to figure out client’s experience, knowledge, abilities, but
is able to figure out and to observe client to evaluate situation and obstacles which limit
client’s activity. At best tutorship or mentorship is only one of coaching categories.
Educational management
Educational management “borrows” the philosophy of coaching but does not pay attention
to the important aspect of coaching - dimension of exteriorization that makes up the added
value of coaching. One of coaching’s advantages is difference that is seen between
responsibility of capacity and responsibility of improvement. Undoubtedly in this case there
should be an issue of ethics addressed. Is it ethical when having management education to run courses of educational management? Where is their added value? Is there any
difference with regard to perspective of such courses or sessions?
The so called educational management - search for new method of management of which
goal is to build upon the current abilities of colleagues. However this search will not change
the necessity of the third person - external coach, who is able and capable to anticipate the
dimension of system of the connection - manager - subordinates. And this happens do to a
very simple reason: both and the manager and the subordinates would be involved into the
same activity too closely, consequently it is difficult to look in yourself with another (e.g.
external coach) eyes. In other words manager and subordinates ca not at the same time and
play basketball and look when basketball is played. Educational management, on the basis
of abilities of colleagues cannot serve coaching functions and especially function of his
mirror effect.
It is clear that coaching is a new form of help, intervention, and Lithuanian equivalent
may be provided by coaching professionals but it is stated that for the meantime any equivalent has
not settled, communities of linguists, scientists and coaches have not yet agreed on the term that
will be acceptable for all parties.
Coaching areas and categories. Variety of conceptions is reflected in coaching
practice. Coaching practice is extremely diverse, complex coaching is applied in areas of personal
improvement, situation analysis, evaluation of changes, systemic alteration and in other areas.
Maybe that is the reason why there is no general definition of coaching (and maybe it can not be
present?). It is a comparatively new activity rapidly developing not only in business organization,
among single persons, in educational institutions, etc., consequently is it difficult to describe it by
already known terms of previous activities, professions.
Areas of coaching application are various: behavioural improvement, career
projection, improvement of practical activity, development of personal internal powers, support
during strategic changes, etc. They may be divided into more detailed elements (Lenhardt et al.,
2007): career management and self-management - is the help to purify goals of career and to draw a
plan of actions; education of personal effectiveness; management of flow of knowledge and
information; self-education, adult education; time management; development of goals, where
coaching helps to find suitable ways towards the goal; development of interpersonal relationship’
business development where coaching helps to orient in labyrinths of this area and to purify the
necessary strategies; education of life balance is a unique area. It is useful when pursuing harmony
in various areas of life. Currently it is very popular. It is not difficult to explain. When a person puts
all of his efforts in order to achieve the set goals in one area, other ones often are neglected. For
example, person who gave all of his attention to financial well-being, few years later comes to his
senses and understands that he does not have friends, family, leisure time anymore. Coaching of life
balance helps to puzzle out what areas have been damaged the most and to find ways for alteration
of the situation.
Everyone who wants to improve results of his personal, professional activity when
working with coach may achieve more than he used to have, however these achievements of every
person will be different. Coaching will not help to each person alike. Even the clients of the same
coach will achieve different results and any specialist of this field will not be able to increase them
more than the person himself wants it.
Coach simply helps to purify that potential which resides inside us and to raise it above
our understanding. Namely that is achieved with coach’s help who in his activity builds on the
following main principles of coaching:
each person has unlimited potential;
each person believes that he is capable to do more;
each person deep inside him knows ways how to achieve more. Only it is necessary
by asking special questions to help him to find these ways.
According to the already mentioned areas of coaching (behavioural improvement, career
projecting, improvement of practical activity, development of personal internal powers, support
during the period of strategic changes, etc.) coaching categories are divided into – individual and
team (corporate) coaching (Devillard, 2001)4 and their various forms. Other authors (Lainé, 2005
5,
4 Devillard O. (2001). Coacher. Efficacité personnelle et performance collective. Paris: Dunod.
Turner, Hévin 20076) also single out the organizations’ coaching (strategic coaching). It should be
mentioned that the number of areas increases.
It is considered that coaching areas are divided not only for the clients’ sake, and
convenience, but also for the benefit of the coaches. Although, on the other hand, the abundance of
areas allows choosing for the client the particular coaching that corresponds client’s problem, but it
is necessary to make sure if the selected coach is capable of comprehending the problem.
Team coaching emphasizes both technical and humane cohesion in respect of goals of
the organization and activity of members of the team. Individual coaching is intended for decisions
making and for the development of personal improvement, identification of individual internal
obstacles and their control is emphasized. In case of behavioural improvement the best way of
pursuit of the set ambitious goal is being searched for. Although in both cases there is a goal to
reveal conditions for the success, however from another mentioned forms coaching is different by
its perspective since identification of obstacles and their control are not identical to the way of
achievement of the goal (Whitmore, 1998)7.
Coaching of different categories and forms is based on different methodologies.
Coaching of decisions making is applied in case of often or constant professional problems of
employees: unsatisfactory effectiveness of activities of employees, lack of communication with
others or unsatisfactory quality, poor management of stress or time, conflicts, not preparation to
hold another duties or to take another work place, etc. In this case method of psychology,
transactional analysis (TA), neurolinguistic programming (NLP), systematic analysis (SA) are
applied.
Such coaching is divided into several stages: diagnostics, development of perception
field, decision making and implementation. The coaching of decisions making is completed by the
solution of the behavioural problem or the complicated situation.
Coaching of education of personal (improvement) development (personal
effectiveness) more emphasizes the anticipated, desired situation than the acting person. Common
activity of the coach and the client is based on this form of coaching. Coaching of education of
improvement is pursuing to optimize conditions for success with the help of analysis of the
situation. The factors influencing the situation, possible obstructions, advantages and disadvantages
of the situation are analysed. The stages of such coaching are as follows: detailed plan of
preparation, implementation of the plan, determination of conditions for success, anticipation and
evaluation of obstacles and disturbances. Coaching of education of improvement is applied when
the client needs to prepare for important events (meeting, presentation of report, negotiations,
conference, appointment, presentation of strategy, etc.). This coaching’s form is closely related to
client’s style of management and efficiency, consequently the coach must possess diagnostic
abilities and knowledge of social psychology, communication, negotiations, systems analysis.
.
When summarizing it is possible to state that coaching conception is portmanteau,
since the phenomenon itself is analyzed and practiced in the crossing of various social sciences and
activity fields. Coaching is neither a measure, nor a technique, but only a specific personal or
professional situation (state). By using its technologies there is a goal to connect coaching’s
theoretical basis with practice. Coaching is beyond comparison more effective than that of advices,
lessons, persuasion or exchange in opinions. People who live and manage in coaching style believe
that each person has his unlimited potential; each person wants to be more successful as he is now;
5 Lainé S. (2005). Management de la Différence, Apprivoiser l‘interculturelle. Paris: Afnor. 6 Turner J., Hévin B. (2007). Manuel de coaching. Paris: InterEditions. 7 Whitmore J. (1998). Le Guide du coaching. Paris: Maxima.
each person knows how to become more successful - only it is necessary to help him/her to reveal
it; each interference (advice) impedes person to realize his potential. Consequently it is possible to
state that coaching is a world outlook and life style. However coaching encompasses not only the
above mentioned principles, but also various techniques which help persons to understand goals of
professional activity and personal life, to draw up an effective plan of actions, to achieve them, to
purify and to understand values of himself and other people.
Basically coaching everywhere and always is the same, is based on the same principles, simply the
person who uses services of coaching or coach gains different results. And it would be impossible to
achieve the same result since everyone is very different and our objectives are different.
1 task for independent work (see Appendix 1).
Self-control questions:
1. What were the separate social areas in which juncture the coaching occurred?
2. What is the main goal of coaching?
3. What are the differences between coaching, training and education?
4. Does the coach share experience, knowledge, abilities with the client?
5. Coaching is intervention of its type, in what areas it may be performed?
6. What are the main principles of coaching?
7. Why is the coaching conception portmanteau?
Check if you are able to answer the main question of the subject - what kind of the coaching
conception is in the aspect of intersection of various social phenomena and areas?
1.1. Theoretical Aspects of Coaching. Searching for the Reconstructive Model. The main question of the subject is on what the main method of recognition of coach is
predicated?
It is considered that theoretical basics of coaching are in the process of formation at the moment.
Scientists are looking for the restorable model of coaching which would provide anticipated and
reliable results. Y. Richez (2006) states that the search for such model is hopeless since coaching
itself is considered as a three-dimensional (physical, emotional, mental), complex state of help.
Coaching – is the antithesis “I feel, therefore I think” for the Descartes thesis “I think, therefore
I am” (Damasio, 2001). If we agree with the assumption that the specific role of coaching is to
develop and expand human potential that may be developed only when there is an equal distribution
of attention for all three elements (physical, mental, emotional) then it is possible to state that
coaching - is a complex phenomenon. Human potential (available physical, mental, emotional
sources) is not the same as personality since human potential first of all is characterized by
biological and not by psychological nature. Therefore the breakthrough of person’s potential
sensually depends on the primary conditions.
Discussion: Is it true that internal human potential requires attention even for the smallest particulars and details, sensations?
“...I pity the people who look without seeing, listen without hearing, touch without feeling, eat without tasting, move
without physical awareness, inhale without awareness of odour. They are the mediocrities with their potential
sleeping” (Leonardo da Vinci).
One way out to make coaching as restorable, foreseen and reliable process is the removal of any
sensual element determining sensual dependence. Only later as H. Gardner (1997) indicates it is
possible to limit person’s bio-psychological variables, focusing attention on measurable and really
realizable aims of a person.
Therefore, the breakthrough of person’s potential sensually depends on primary conditions. One
way out to make coaching as restorable, foreseen and reliable process is the removal of any sensual
element determining sensual dependence. Only later as H. Gardner (1997) indicates it is possible to
limit person’s bio-psychological variables, focusing attention on measurable and really realizable
aims of a person.
Some authors (Delivré, 2002, Millman, 2008) support the idea of “situation’s potential” that
coach refers to when trying to help the client to understand the situation and to strengthen
effectiveness of help.
Coach is not a magician he can fully control neither the process nor the consequences. Instead
of equation: (plan) + (projection) + (circumstances) = friction / stress / psychological failure, the
coach uses the following equation: (plan) + (anticipation) + (circumstances) = success and lower
risk of psychological failure. Coach may only prognosticate the situation but he can not anticipate
all circumstances. He can prepare the client emotionally for every situation, help him make
decisions, but for this not only professional but also personal experience of the coach is required.
First of all the coach must understand the situation very well, want to experience it together with his
client. From this point coaching may be considered as a rather unsecured phenomenon, but although
this phenomenon is complex and sophisticated it is not complicated (Richez, 2006). Therefore the
coach gets closer to the form of restoration, recovery which would be adjusted to circumstances and
available person’s sources, potential of powers. Consequently the coach may not only foresee but
also to prevent from unfavourable circumstances using his personal characteristics and perception
of variables of environment.
The activities of each coach differ because of the applied coaching’s ways, methods, means,
even if all of them have completed the same courses, even if they work with the same clients since
the conditions will always be different and bio-psychological potential of coaches.
Another question of theoretical basis of coaching: is it possible to restore, to standardize, to
rationalize the method of recognition of the coach?
Discussion:
“If we relate the coach with the guide we must agree that in those days when there were not any break amplifiers,
GPRS connection, fog-lamps the only guide’s support and help was his bright knowing - methodicity (gr. Μ�τις),
rational, practical mind with three characteristic features: smartness, sharpness of the eye and insight of the mind.”
Why even nowadays any certificate cannot give and ensure possession or acquisition of these qualities since expression
of these features depends on various circumstances and situations?
Smart knowledge appears in any personal activity that requires the razzle-dazzle with hostile
powers, too powerful to control them directly, disregarding them that we could use them, not to
meet them face to face, with the help of unforeseen thing would pursue the anticipated goal (Fortin,
De Konik, 2006, p. 57).
Smart knowledge – coach’s way of recognition – is not of restorable nature but it is learnt. In order
the coaching was of restorable nature it is necessary that it was of limited duration, space, would be
characterized by a relatively calm emotional state, determined circumstances, measurable,
accessible, new tasks. However, the task is not a goal, a dream, a victim or a search, to which coach
would be able to respond. Consequently it is possible to speak about “logics of the thought” and not
about “logical thought” and referring to this at the same time to satisfy the imperatives of coach’s
professionalism and humanism of the activities.
Naturally, it is very important to introduce the theoretical basis of coaching but it is more important
not to wander to the labyrinths of descartism that R. A. Damasio (2001) respectfully but firmly
raised by transforming the famous thesis “I think, therefore I am” into antithesis “I feel, therefore I
think”. E. Morin (2004) stated that the purpose of theory is not to transform complexity into
simplicity, but to transform complexity into theory. Therefore it would be interesting for him to
know which part of complexity of coaching would be transformed into theory: coaching’s practice,
effectiveness, state, professionalism, process, interaction, methods, technique or something else.
Maybe most probably coaching’s goal should be transformed into theory – to help to develop and
emphasize the potential of human powers of the client. Y. Richez (2006) also states this.
The same author emphasized a three-dimensional (auto-, hetero-, eco-) educational factor of
coaching. H. Gardner (1993, 1997) substantiated a bio-psychological dimension of coaching.
Theoretical substantiation of coaching by Richez (2006) and H. Gardner (1997) limits itself only to
coaching’s reality, social, anthropological, cultural substantiation of phenomenon that refers to deep
structures of person’s intentions when integrating neuropsychological dimension (Damasio et al.,
2007). Discussion:
How do you understand this affirmation: “Theory is not a bearer of certainty, and this means that it may transform
into the dogma” (Gardner, 2001).
Definitely the difference between science and theory exists. Paradox of theory – rationalization,
standardization, normalization of coaching as actually existing phenomenon may become dogmatic,
whereas coaching itself is in the stage of constant evolution and dynamics. “Scientist must have
pragmatism and intuition” (Gardner, 2001). Here we encounter the paradox of science and scientist
(practitioners – thinkers) when referring to own senses a scientist might transform his intuition into
theory. “Not conceptualised intuition is an empty intuition but trying to ground everything
theoretically we risk changing everything into dead and inhuman ideology (Devillard, 2001).
Question:
What particular examples you know and may provide when illustrating this affirmation?
“None of the scientific services has not changed history, however big changes have been brought into it by several
scientists-volunteers who pursue their personal goals and are led by their intuition” (Gardner, 2001).
Coaching area of scientific researches. Coaching conception is portmanteau, consequently the
field of its scientific research is wide that expresses itself in the intersection of various social areas
of activity. The attention given by business and academic world for this area proves that coaching is
not just a passing fashion. Coaching area of object of scientific researches, although wide, but in
Lithuania has not been analyzed sufficiently. Coaching, such as we know, is about 20030 years old
(and in some places even less), however studies and researches of coaching have been started to be
performed in the beginning of last century. For example, a publication published in 1937 about the
fact when by using coaching, the more experienced leaders may help to new employees (Gorby,
1937), and an article published in 1938 about the fact when coaching may improve the curriculum
of sales employees (Bigelow, 1938) (quoted Grant, Spence, 2010). Meanwhile the first scientific
research (Gershman’s doctoral dissertation) on coaching was published in 1967, in it conditions that
should be implemented in order relationships of employee and his employer encouraged the better
activity of the employee were analyzed (Grant, Spence, 2010). Later appeared more exhaustive
researches intended for coaching, there was a search for its relationships with counselling
(Frohman, Kotter, 1977). There also should be mentioned researches of coaching of the ninth
decade of the twentieth century: Ponzo Z. (1980), who analyzed various roles performed by the
coach (sponsor and mentor); L. Tyson and H. Birnbrauer (1983) were one of the pioneers who tried
to substantiate coaching instruments and measures; E. M. Duffy (1984) analyzed in the dissertation
the feedback received during the coaching intervention; S. J. Stowell (1987) revealed links
between leadership and coaching in organization; C. D Orth., H. E. Wilkinson et al. (1987) again
substantiated various roles of the coach; A. D. Jr. Thompson (1987) was interested in educational
evaluation and individualization, when implementing coaching course intended for professional
managers. Therefore, it is possible to state that coaching is studied in many perspectives, however
the biggest attention is given for analysis of its efficiency in various areas. A question may occur
why science is interested in coaching? In a philosophical sense it would be thinking, subsistence
(Spence, Grant, 2007). Discussion:
Why is it stated that: “coaching first of all is a philosophy that is interested in questions of human subsistence and
potential (Spence, Grant, 2007)”?
Coach observes regularities, habits present in client’s life, speech, behaviour which encourages
or impedes new growth and new habits. Each person creates for himself behavioural models which
are substantiated by experiences from the past. Sometimes these models, which once were effective,
show wear, cease to be valid, but they are used anyway and the received results are resented.
Analysis and synthesis of values, beliefs, fortes and shortages, generation of new behavioural
alternatives and evaluation help to create new more powerful models (Gyllensten, Palmer, 2005).
For example, researches show that coaching reduces tension and stress and improves sense of well-
being in work (Gyllensten, Palmer, Farrants, 2005; Duijts, Kant, van den Brandt, Swaen, 2008),
coaching encourages bigger responsibility when pursuing for the set goals and better adaptability to
changes in the organization (Spence, Grant, 2007; Grant; Curtayne and Burton, 2009). And it is
achieved in such environment of organization where less directivity or policy of “hard hand
management” is present (Spence, Cavanagh, Grant, 2008). Coaching helps to consolidate the
abilities acquired when learning (Miller, Yahne, Moyers, Martinez, Pirritano, 2004). Managers
working in sales’ area who apply coaching help their employees to better master of the desired
sales’ skills (Agarwal, Angst ir Magni, 2009; Pousa, Mattheu, 2010). There should be noted a
monography of M. Paulos (2004) where theoretical basis of coaching functions are introduced. Y.
Richez (2006) analyzed and introduced a conception of human potential. This is only a small part of
all researches of coaching areas.
As it was mentioned above currently more than thousand published studies and
researches currently are calculated in the available sources. Specialists of social sciences encourage
to further deepen knowledge in this area and to analyze coaching principles. Hence, today we
cannot state that there are no scientific works about coaching, its analysis and researches. However,
according to some authors (Fortin, De Konnick, 2006)8 at present there is no one common theory
that grounds coaching and that is recognized by the community of world coaches’ practitioners.
Variety of coaching theories, models, methods, means, techniques flourishes, consequently, there is
a large number of criticism directed towards coaching. When normalizing, standardizing,
rationalizing state of coaching there is a goal to simplify the phenomenon, but simplification cannot
deny the existence of the phenomenon. It is easy to criticize (and it is possible) when the
phenomenon has past. However, the respect should be paid to the pioneers of coaching. Even
though current coaching is not perfect, but its representatives at least try to protect it from excessive
dogmatism and incompetence.
When summarizing it is possible to state that coaching has basis of humanism, and
that is the only theory upon which this phenomenon may be based. Consequently coaching, as a
phenomenon of social reality, first of all is grounded on humanism since it is help for a person who
tries to solve problem of personal or professional activity). Specific role of coaching is to develop,
expand human potential that may be developed only by equally giving attention for all elements of
the client who participates in coaching (physical, mental, emotional). Human potential (available
physical, mental, emotional sources) is not the same as a personality, since human potential first of
all is characterized by biological and not by psychological nature. Coaching is a complex
phenomenon. According to Y. Richez (2006) there are the following four registers: social - bio
cognitive, semantic, vital, intercultural. The first register is considered to be as the most important.
8 Fortin J.P. , De Konnick Th. (2006). L‘apparaître humain: essai sur la signification philosophique du principe
anthropique. Institut Interdisciplinaire d‘Etudes Epistemologiques.
In its case the coach wakes up client’s bio-psychological potential (many ways of thinking), he
pushes the client towards the activity that is required by the latter.
Coach becomes as a manager and supervisor in the moment of “liberation”, later
possible ways of activity are enlighten, but at the same time the client is warned and informed about
differences between previous, current and future way and available bio-psychological potential.
Although by nature coaching is a complex phenomenon, but it may be standardized,
and the thing that has been standardized may be certified.
2 task for independent work (see Appendix 1)
Self-control questions:
1. On which theories coaching are grounded?
2. Why the coach is unable to fully manage neither coaching process, nor consequences?
3. When and where the scientific researches of coaching area were started?
4. Are scientific researches of coaching necessary? If yes then where and for what purpose
they may be used?
Check if you are able to answer the main question of the subject: on what the main way of coach
recognition is grounded?
1.2. Coaching Mechanism. Coaching Abilities when Solving Organizational and
Personal Problems
The main question of the theme is – how does coaching mechanism exist when removing
problems of organizational and personal nature?
It should be remembered that Y. Richez (2006) named coaching as a “complex but not
complicated” phenomenon, which complement is revealed by semantic, social-bio cognitive, vital,
intercultural categories (Jatkauskienė et al., 2008). Coaching complexicity is also explained by its
mechanism and systemic structural nature of coaching intervention.
Coaching mechanism. Coaching practice and mechanism are oriented to a situation, practice or
behaviour that is to be improved. Coaching’s objective is to overtake obstacles by overtaking
oneself. To overtake oneself means a wish to escape from the current situation, to return to own
convictions, values, attitudes, to risk despite restrictions of the everyday life, to experience new
thing that has never been experienced before. Coaching exists in the intersection of two spaces
(Figure 1):
Figure 1: Coaching space according to O. Devillard, 2001.
Coaching space is in the intersection of two factors influencing one another – in the situation of
resources possessed by the person (potential) and specific activities. The main mission of the coach
is adjustment of resources possessed by the client and specific situation when pursuing optimal
results of the activity.
Discussion:
1. In organization term “high potential” is also used when speaking about persons who have university degree
and high intellect, but what does it mean?
2. What is revealed by “low, little human potential” and how it is different from “high potential”?
The mission may be implemented in three ways: power to say, power to hear, and power to be
activated (stimulated).
Power (capability) to say is expressed like an occasion to state what was impossible to say
due to lack of time during conversation or due to the settled practice, relationships. Mostly
organisation is not the place for reflection even though the organisation would request this,
but reflection is disturbed by corporate interests, objective of productivity, profitability
determined by organization’s culture. Many things remain unexpressed by employees
because of the institutional reasons. Conversation will not only disclose policy of the
Specific
situation of
the activity
Potential
possessed
by the
person
(resources)
organization but also will help the members of the organization to understand themselves.
This is the goal of coaching – to strengthen practice of reflection of the organization.
Power (capability) to say is opposite to power to hear. We may say many things but not
always there is someone that will listen to us, will hear and understand. The coach creates a
favourable space for listening and understanding. Differences in image, age, social state,
duties, degree, experience of another person disturb listening and understanding. When
communicating with coach everything is different since the client and the coach, even
possessing the mentioned differences, are not related by links of dependence to the same
organization.
During coaching intervention special means and methods are used in order to activate the
clients, the internal powers possessed by them. Often people want to find the source of their
problems, to find out why it is so difficult to achieve the things they want. People want to
understand what they do in the wrong manner and why they feel the lack of their influence.
The answer is simple - people know their internal powers too little, and often they are afraid
of them, they are suppressed. But the truth is such that internal powers are just powers,
potential, and person whether is able to activate it and to use it or unable.
Consequently it is possible to state that coaching mechanism is grounded on: power to say,
power to hear, and power to be activated (stimulated). Discussion: In your opinion, what is more difficult for us - expressing of our opinion, or listening to it, or hearing? On what does it
depend?
What does this photo mean in the context of human intercommunion?
One of the problems which impede when pursuing for professional improvement, good
intercommunion, satisfaction in the being performed activity is the created negative system of
communication flourishing among the protagonists. Such subordinate and manager learn to
maintain personal or professional relationships which satisfy neither one side, nor the other, but
which are suitable for the nonce. All of this knocks back for organization: lower usefulness of the
employees; emotional wear and tear of manger and subordinate, loss of energy; degradation of
common microclimate; presence of conflicts (often) reducing productivity; for the usefully working
a work load increases since they must work instead of those who solve conflicts; conflict,
information crosses the limits of the organization and is harmful for its image.
Manager sometimes tries to change situation by first of all changing his own behaviour.
Then he tries to speak openly with the subordinate. However it is little effective because only the
manager may let himself speak openly about the recent conflict, the subordinate will not evaluate
manager’s behaviour, consequently it is only a one-way action that will not satisfy need of the
subordinate to acquire new competencies, to pursue for high-scoring. Solution: problems of few
people (common) must be solved when looking for common baselines. Both of them need coach
who, as the third party, would support, help, hear out, suggest looking for the solution together.
Systemic-structured nature of coaching intervention. Usually the process of coaching
intervention may be divided into several stages: diagnostics, situation analysis, creation of
scenario, organisation of implementation of scenario.
Intervention process differs depending on coaching area. Sometimes intervention is
directed to client’s behaviour or practice of professional activity, sometimes – to reflection when
pursuing for effective solution of the situation. However, process of intervention always maintains
the same stages. In any case coach’s activity refers to the client and interests of organisat ion, so
coach must provide absolute freedom and responsibility for his client when making any decision
since with help of intervention of the coach there is a goal only to improve personal and
professional activities.
Therefore, coaching is not the one-time means but a creative activity of activation
helping the client to change while new provisions and behaviour are forming, inviting to review
mental maps, world outlook of every person, conception and vision. External knowledge, provisions
are not imposed on the client, but he is activated to understand and to make decisions by himself.
Coaching abilities when solving problems of organizational and personal nature. According to
the law on entropy it is known that for each organism in a certain degree functions of activity may
disarray, problems of various natures may occur. We also know that immune system of life
organism fights with these disorders and try to maintain them minimal. In every group of activity
(also and in the adult learners’), in the organization there are many disarrays of organizational or
personal activity. They negatively affect results of activity, cause frustration, tension that reduces
productivity or high-scoring of persons. A group of learning adults is not an exception also for
which may help an andragogist by applying coaching techniques.
It is instituted that tension among group members is caused by three disturbances (kinks) of
activity (de Wilde, 2006) :
lack of recognition, evaluation of person and his activity;
lack of good intercommunion (anger, jealousy, open or closed conflicts, rumours,
mistrust, etc.);
absence of vision of final goals (organizations, teams, people).
These kinks of activity of organizations by M. de Wilde (2006) are named as triad of
organization or external triad (trinity). It should be mentioned that triad of organization or external
triad is closely related with kinks of personal activity which were named by the same author (de
Wilde, 2006) as individual or internal triad:
lack of recognition of one’s own needs, aspirations;
inadequacy of intentions and their expression (behavioural or verbal), that is noticed
by the surrounding people, inability to convey own aspirations, aims and desires, and
frustrations (disappointment);
lack of vigilance, when playing various psychological games and especially the
dramatic triangle.
Thus, it is possible to speak about twofold triad - organizational and individual.
Figure 2. Interaction of organizational and individual triad according to M. de Wild (2006)
It is possible to state the fact that work with organizational/external triad will be little
effective, if fundamental changes do not occur in the sphere of individual/internal triad. Discussion:
How should the coach know when it is necessary to direct his activity to external (corporate coaching), and when to
internal triad (individual coaching)?
Everything goes on that way as if a big gear (organization) stopped functioning well, if
its smaller wheels (employees of the organization) rejected to function. To apply collective
coaching when individual coaching is necessary is faulty as much as to try to adjust the clock,
irrespective of its broken parts. Thus, a certain methodology, technique is necessary in order to
transform the negative dynamics of triad into positive.
M. de Wild (2006) distinguishes the following elements of individual (internal) triad
and their interaction:
cognition/recognition of personal one’s own needs, aspirations. This means
cognition/recognition of one’s own deep powers, aspirations, talents, peculiarities,
abilities, capabilities. In other words - it is a reply to the famous phrase of Socrates,
graven on Delphi shrine “Know yourself”. Good self-knowledge gives self-confidence
and stability, at the same time it is like the main direction allowing finding of necessary
position, considering external events. A person who knows himself much less depends
on signs of external recognition. As recognition of one’s own needs, aspirations it is
possible to name ability to acknowledge one’s own particularity with its all darkest
sides, with all limitations. He will be able to communicate better with the surrounding
Recognition of
persona and his
activity
Organizational
(external) triad
Recognition/cognition of
aspirations
Individual
(internal) triad
Vigilance by
involving into
psychological
games
Quality of
intercommunion
Equivalence of
intentions and
expression
Visibility of
goals
people, he will be characterized with a smaller characteristic of tendency to
psychological games;
Discussion:
Will the person who has acknowledged to himself that he has negative characteristics tolerate more the shortages
of others?
equivalence of intention (purpose) and its expression (behavioural and verbal). All of
us have experienced, even though led by the best intentions, sometimes are unable to
express it in words and, not wanting to do it, we offend or displease another person. To
express oneself clearly is not that easy since it demands special vigilance in regard to
one’s own and listener’s ability to accept information. A particular proficiency is
required. Meanwhile an effective communication allows avoiding many cross-purposes,
frictions, creates relationships based on trust, positive dynamics, basis of synergy. Discussion:
If companions think that they understood each other, can they always mobilize their energy intended for creative
process or reflection? Do they always want it?
vigilance in respect of psychological games. It is horrible to think how wide various
psychological games are distributed in organizations. S. Karpman (2008) defines a
dramatic triangle that is present in organizations, where are discerned various
psychological roles played by various protagonists9, who were involved in the
psychological game. There are talks about roles of victim, pursuer, saver, their links, i.e.
conscious or unconscious manipulation, where the outcome was worsened
intercommunion, decreased energy. A number of such dramatic triangles were smaller if
people did not lose their vigilance and understood at once that they are about to be
involved into the game of which outcome are always negative. If we take a neutral
stance and encourage other protagonists to do the same then we will refuse of negative
energy intended for the game and at the same time we will be able to look for a way out
of the current situation acceptable to everyone. Discussion:
Is it always easy to not get involved in the psychological games? What would you suggest doing in order to avoid
this?
Elements of external triad (de Wilde, 2006):
recognition of person and his activity. All of us need recognition of personal and our
activity. This gives trust in one’s powers and own abilities, gives positive energy that
may be used for our reflection, creativity, improvement of the intercommunion and
other subjects. Consequently any organization has/would have to feed each its member,
as a certain sign of acknowledgment. Naturally, quantity of acknowledgment signs and
their rate alters depending on each characteristics of personal activities and beliefs,
provisions; Discussion:
Is it a positive or a negative sign of recognition: praise, adulation?
quality of intercommunion. We are social creatures, therefore we need communication
with the surrounding people. Organizational environment often is favourable to stressful
situations therefore there is enough of the intercommunion between very different
functional disarray of personalities. In such case organization tries to encourage
9 Protagonist [gr. prōtagōnistēs < prōtos — first + agōnistēs — actor], ancient Greek theatre — player of the most
important role (Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas, 2010).
reciprocal understanding, to develop filed of reciprocal hearing and understanding and
to implement effective methods of communication. Here activity of team formation is
useful;
need for global, collective and individual visibility of goals (vision). Each person wants
to understand the meaning of his personal and professional life. Consequently
organization tries/will try to very clearly to set his goals, mission, vision, values for
each member of organization. Organization also will try to achieve for its global goals
to coincide with the goals of persons and members working in it. This coincidence will
be more clear if administration of the organization demonstrates with its behaviour the
declared values and provisions. A clear visibility of goals is the basis of the
organizational triad. Positive energy especially strongly reduces until finally melts after
it clashes with implementation of unclear or even contradictory goals. Discussion:
Why does the positive energy strongly reduces until it melts after clash with implementation of unclear or even
contradictory to each other goals?
If individual’s activity is not optimal it means that there is a disarrayed interaction with
the surrounding people and the whole external world. Individual sensually reacts to the disorder of
external functions. Even the slightest disorder of organizational nature may emotionally unsettle the
person and he will start acting inadequately, strangely, incorrectly, by thus more increasing the
disturbance of functions of the organization, by threatening to professional improvement of its own
and other employees. Also the following may be named: moral oppression or a syndrome of the
programmed failure. According to the data of the research performed in the USA (Campone,
2007), 42% of office employees work in such environment where are many conflicts, harassment
and bickers. In addition 27% of all workers of the USA are terrorized by their employers, they are
treated badly. Similar researches were performed in other countries. The results are similar. In
France M. F. Hirigoyen (2008) performed a research intended for identification of outcomes of
moral oppression. (Currently moral harassment is punished with deprivation of freedom or fine of
15 000 Euros).
Outcome of the moral harassment: in 24% of employees work quality and quantity reduced;
28% waste work time by trying to avoid moral oppression; 52% lose work time when imposing all
thoughts for fear regarding moral oppression; 50% think about changing the job; 26% of employees
are ill with chronic diseases; loss of high-scoring of organization is not identified.
Syndrome of the programmed failure: causes. Managers and coaches of all levels must know
how a manager may, even by not knowing it, destroy his, colleagues’ and organization’s effective
dynamics of activity. A case analysis was performed. It’s basis was a pre-programmed failure. Discussion:
Why in the example mentioned below a syndrome of pre-programmed failure is seen? What would you suggest
for the manager? For the employee?
Manager decided himself that the employee is not that useful like others. Consequently he was given less tasks of the
activity, they were easier than that of the others, only the control of the subordinate was enhanced. Thus manager for
such employee does not allow the possibility for even the smallest success or education of new competencies.
It is identified that a direct relationship between manager’s expectations and
subordinate’s usefulness. It is the Pygmalion’s effect, only the manager’s expectations may be both
positive and negative. Even if not that high-scoring employee (in manager’s opinion) reaches good
results, then it is considered to be as a coincidence. If after work hours the high-scoring employee
remains, mostly managers consider it as an expression of professionalism, and if less useful - as
incompetence (Farfel, 2002). Therefore anticipatory expectations of manager and the created filters
of monitoring of behaviour create a syndrome of programmed failure.
The mentioned syndrome has even more negative outcomes: subordinates conflict
with each other, because there is avoidance of communication with the manager due to
formation of possible negative tendencies; subordinates who work less usefully try to hide
problems and at the same time part of information; subordinates who work less usefully accept
the behaviour of retreat; if the intercommunion among subordinate and manager is tense and
negative, manager may break emotional relationships with the subordinate. When the
subordinate feels that he pays for the current situation with stress, spiritual discomfort, alteration
of productivity.
“The loser” subordinate also has his opinion about the manager. If the opinions are already
known (both to managers and to subordinates), then the subordinates after entering the group of
losers take the behaviour that guarantees failure: avoid communicating with manager; despise any
feedback; make a victim of themselves; transit to opposition (the only way to consolidate
themselves); seek for alliance with deputy manager/manager No. 2), and this step makes the
manager No. 1 irritated (Sherman, Freas, 2004).
Disarray of functions of organization causes stress for the individual, and he will start
working by activating more or less archaic10
mechanisms of defence: manipulation, aggression,
secret intentions, etc. Thus appears a negative dynamics that may cause disorder in activity of the
group or organization. Though is it possible to transfer a negative twofold triad into11
positive?
Each dynamics implicates energy. Scale of energy quality is wide: from a very positive
until very negative. If we agree with a postulate that work with internal/individual dynamics of triad
is necessary before work with organizational/external triad, then first of all it would be possible to
concentrate on individual triad and to transform its negative energy into positive.
It may be done by encouraging individual to assume responsibility and to “educate” his
needs, desires, etc., as a good father educates his children. After taking a corresponding distance of
one’s own thoughts, emotions, in respect of behaviour, as an adult would do when educating his
child - benevolently but without indulgence, person may take in his hands his destiny and well-
being. Thus mental human energy becomes positive and constructive. Consequently a person starts
to more optimally communicate with the surrounding people, to manage daily problems and at the
same time encourages occurrence of positive dynamics of organizational triad.
Positive dynamics of individual triad may be improved as follows:
support for a person when revealing, finding, one’s own needs and aspirations and by
accepting them. Organization has a possibility to implement a strategy of support when
improving personal effectiveness with particular actions: learning and coaching, which
may be initiated by members of the group. If that organization, where is a department of
development of human resources, it should take care of content and quality of services
of the learning and coaching;
support for persons when pursuing the more effective communication of members of
organization, for example, by clearly and in understandable manner formulating
applications or complaints. Many methods and techniques of this area exist (conflict
management, Marshall Rosenberg communication confident, P. de Taibi Kahler et al.);
support when educating vigilance regarding involvement into psychological games
(applied transactional analysis, neurolinguistic programming (NLP) or systemic access).
If in the level of individuals’ triad a positive dynamics starts to dominate, then
organization may expect success in the level of organizational triad as well.
When summing up it is possible to say that analysis of organizational and individual
triads and their interactions highlights the necessity of application of coaching mechanism, when
10 Archaic [gr. archaios], archaic, outdated (Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas, 2010). 11 Dynamics [gr. dynamikos — power, powerful]:1. science, analyzing the relationship among mechanical movement of
system (faster, much slower than the speed of light) and external and internal powers which influence it; 2. variation,
expansion of some phenomenon; 3. music, the unity of sounds related with loudness creating the emotional tension of
music piece, emphasizing culmination, theme’s contrast; 4. alteration of intensity of flow of speech sounds
(Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas, 2010).
first of all removing disorders of functions of individual triad. This is the basis of functionality of
the whole organization. Only after individuals assume their responsibility for the development of
their personal effectiveness, and after coordinating goals of the organization with aspirations of an
individual, when effectively managing the unpredicted problems, solving conflict situations and by
transforming their negative energy into positive that helps solving problems, only then it is possible
to find a compromise that is acceptable for each party not to involve into psychological problems,
to speak about the more efficient activity of the whole organization. Thus organization acquires
more possibilities for enhancement of its immune system and may become as a useful and a long-
lived system. Therefore, in the first place an individual is emphasized, and not a team or a strategic
coaching.
3 task for independent work (see Appendix 1)
Self-control questions:
1. On what the practice of coaching is oriented?
2. In what intersection of two one another influencing factors functions coaching mechanism?
3. What is the basis of coaching mechanism?
4. What kinks of activity cause tension among members of group, organization?
5. What does external organization triad mean in the context of coaching?
6. What does individual triad mean in the context of coaching?
Check if you are able to answer the main question of the subject: how does coaching mechanism
exist when removing problems of organizational and personal nature?
1.3. Individual, Collective (Team) Coaching. Coaching and Organizational
Culture
The main question of the theme is – what are the similarities and differences of individual
and corporate (team) coaching what are the similarities and differences of individual and
corporate (team) coaching?
“One does not make a donkey drink if it isn't thirsty”
Spanish proverb
It was already mentioned that coaching is a complex and miscellaneous phenomenon.
It was emphasized that according to the coaching areas (behavioural development, career
projecting, improvement of practical activity, development of personal internal powers, support
during strategic changes, etc.) coaching categories are divided into – individual and team
(corporate), strategic coaching (Devillard, 2001). Each coaching category is divided into separate
forms of coaching:
individual coaching and its forms: technical coaching (education of person’s
development, coaching of decision making/problem solving, tutorship, mentorship,
educational management);
team coaching and its forms (team Building, team Development, coaching of system
activities etc.);
organizations’ coaching (strategic coaching), intended for organization’s managers of
various experiences. Discussion:
Why separate coaching categories and forms exist? What determines it?
According to the name itself, individual coaching is directed to single persons, and
corporate coaching – to collective of the activity (e.g. team, managers, technical personnel,
subdivision or group of learning adults). Individual and corporate coaching is characterized by
different structure. However both of them are oriented to the improvable situation, practice or
behaviour (Židonienė, 2009) .
Team coaching emphasizes both technical and human cohesion with regard to goals of
organization and activity of team members. Coaching of education of personal improvement
(personal efficiency) more emphasizes the anticipated, desirable situation than the acting person.
In order to ensure in the competence of the coach it is necessary to specify the principles
of his activity. A competent specialist has a required certificate, and his practice and methods are
different from that of counselling, observation or training. The mentioned areas of practice are
based on knowledge, learning. Coaching is based on “insight”, understanding, when pursuing for
approach with regard to the alteration analyzed by the situation (Turner, Hevin 2007). This
coaching peculiarity allows relating the separate elements into the unit for understanding when
transiting from one state into another. Coach helps client to understand the situation but he can not
do it instead of him. It is similar to birth during which doctor only helps to give birth for a woman
(Devillard, 2001). Discussion:
As it was already mentioned, coaching client, and not the coach takes a central place. Then why the coach is
necessary?
Client knows himself, situation and has enough competencies. If client agrees to
participate in coaching then that is only because he wants to feel better, to perceive better, to
acquire a different attitude with regard to complicated situation, and not in order to know something
more. After acquiring a different attitude to the situation client will find a way out of it more easily.
Coaching will let to the client to improve his competencies, style of activity, depending on the
possessed talent, internal potential.
In case of andragogists also may be applied both and individual, and team coaching. For
example, andragogists often complain of the adult learners by stating that they lack of initiative. In
such case coach may help andragogist by suggesting making a list of two parts. In one part
andragogist writes everything what he does, in the other - what he does not do. Coach asks adult
learners to do the same. After comparing the lists of andragogist and learners, it is possible to
identify if the andragogist does not take initiative from the learners, by performing the majority of
their functions and consequently he overworks in his job or he does not perform his main functions
as an andragogist. The coach is able to find out this during the first meeting. During the second
meeting, a coach will find out why andragogist does not allow for the learners to perform their
functions and will identify the reasons for such behaviour. According to researches (Richez, 2006),
andragogists take imitative and perform functions of learners since they are afraid that the learners
would not make mistakes that could have influence on prestige of organization, andragogist, on
social stability or growth, number of clients, etc. Even the best courses intended for delegation of
functions will never reveal to andragogist or to the learner his fears and their consequences with
regard to enterprise of activity. For such andragogist coaching not only gives more knowledge in
the field of delegation of functions, but also allows looking in the distrust in learners and at the
same time to enhance the efficiency of his activity.
Currently next to individual and collective categories of coaching (education of personal
development and decisions’ making) there is coaching of another form - technical coaching
(observance, tutorship, mentorship, educational management etc.). Discussion:
During technical coaching colleague teaches another colleague when conveying technique of activity, task (ways
of activity, methods) and to apply them practically. What a colleague may teach another colleague what cannot
be found in any book or instruction of duties?
Technical coaching differs from classical teaching because of the fact that during
coaching individual ways of activity, application of methods, on the basis of activity of the coach is
being looked for (Spence et al., 2008). Technical coaching is different from decisions’ making
coaching. This affirmation may be illustrated by the following example: manager who is afraid to
communicate with heads of higher rank, may know his activity very well (it may be a consequence
of technical coaching or education), but not to understand reasons for the fear and ways how to deal
with it. Therefore technical coaching - as a measure for taking over of technical things and
application, will not be helpful for such manager. Coaching of decisions’ making comes to help.
Individual coaching. Individual coaching is created for making decisions and
educating person’s development, determination of individual internal obstacles and their control is
emphasized (Grant et al., 2009). In case of behaviour’s development the best way of pursuit of
determined ambitious aim is searched. Although in both cases the conditions of success are tried to
be disclosed, but from the other mentioned forms coaching differs in perspective since
determination of obstacles and their control are not identical to the way of aim’s achievement
(Amar, Angel, 2006).
Structure of individual coaching (Devillard, 2001):
1. Description of problem and its context, formulation of demand of coach’s services,
anticipation of tasks of sessions, anticipation of results and their indicators.
2. Analysis of various scenarios of sessions by applying approach of both (emotional),
intercommunion (left hemisphere), and logics (right hemisphere).
3. Search for possible scenarios, techniques.
4. Advantages, disadvantages of possibilities of their application, criticism.
5. Final anticipation of coaching tasks, drawing up of actual plan of activities.
6. Coaching process and observing.
7. Generalization and intervention (coaching evaluation).
Aim of the individual us coaching is to overtake obstacles and to overtake oneself. To
overtake oneself means a wish to escape from present situation, to return to own convictions,
values, attitudes, to risk despite restrictions in everyday life, to experience new thing never tried
before. The most apparent criteria of coaching efficiency is achieving of the set result. Client at the
beginning of coaching process sets a result that will have to crown his work with a coach. In the
coaching process client and coach shares responsibility. Client is responsible for liability to perform
actions discovered by him and leading to the result, and coach - for professional and ethical
process.
Coaching is not one-time event (but sometimes it could be), but a process that leads to
the goal set by the client and to the more full-fledge life. It is quite difficult to describe this process
since it depends on client’s wishes, on coaching contract, etc. It is possible to name its composite
parts, some methods, but it is impossible to repeat or to copy its atmosphere and energy. Discussion:
Why coaching cannot be applied in all situations of professional activity?12
Individual coaching session usually lasts for one hour. During the conversation with the
client, there is help provided to purify goals, anticipate actions for their achievement and to move
towards the goals without losing balance between professional and personal life. Usually in
coaching sessions participate people who:
feel that they live not such life as they have always wanted;
want changes but do not know where to start;
lack support at work, from the family or relatives;
believe that they use not all potential and they want to change it.
12 It is possible to base upon the answer provided at the end of the subject.
However in any case coaching session will be effective when the client is ready for
changes. Mostly the first coaching session intended for getting to know the client lasts for one hour
and is free of charge. It is necessary to make sure that the communication between coach and client
will be useful. During the first session client’s situation is discussed, coach introduces his methods
and both companions make a decision regarding further communication. Separate sessions are
possible according to the advance agreement or a cycle of sessions when it is discussed beforehand
what situation of life will be solved and how many times. Coaching sessions can take place “live”
by actually meeting, on the phone, e-mail, “Skype”.
Team (corporate) coaching. In scientific literature it is possible to find two terms:
team and corporate coaching. They are synonyms basically. Team (corporate) coaching emphasizes
both and technical and human cohesion with regard to goals of organization and activity of team
members (Masalskienė, 2008). In the eighth decade, in the twentieth century it was identified that in
team of education of personal improvement (team of personal efficiency) coaching more
emphasizes the anticipated, desired situation than the acting person (Frohman et al., 1977). Team
coaching helps teams to purify goals and to anticipate actions in order to achieve them. Duration of
the session depends on size of the team and on its needs. But anyway team coaching is a supportive
process for professionals or for a group of professional in the field of their professional activity.
Individual coaching is directed to individual who seeks for optimal maintaining of useful level, for
powers of better me, others, environmental recognition, meanwhile team coaching helps to reveal
intellectual, organizational, creative powers possessed by the whole team. In addition coaching
helps to manage contacts with others on the basis of peculiarities of psychology or intercommunion.
Structure of tem coaching (Devillard, 2001):
1. Introduction, getting acquainted with the coach.
2. Rules of activity (coaching) (protection).
3. Theoretical part: literature, means of information communications, measures of
dynamics of group (technique).
4. Practical part: representations sharing, work with vision, regulation, confrontation,
strategic processes etc.
5. Feedback regarding coaching content, characters (clients and coach).
6. Generalization and evaluation of intervention. Discussion:
Which elements of structure distinctly coincide and which distinctly differ in the structure of individual and
team coaching?
When speaking about context of organizations researchers try to analyse how and in
what ways coaching influences the results of activity of organization what disturbs and what
encourages its development in organizations (Agarwal et al., 2009). Such tendencies allow
presuming as follows: coaching is a very young discipline thus it is natural that criticism of
coaching or a certain speculation are very vital. On the other hand, the fact that coaching currently
receives attention from representatives of academic and business world allows presuming that
coaching successfully catches on as a new way of management, support/help or learning.
Coaching and organizational culture. During the course of coaching, two, and often totally
different, cultures meet: my culture and another’s culture. My (coach, client) culture becomes as the
initial position of coaching. Other’s (organization) culture helps to open out through my culture and
we are able to change with the possessed cultures (Turner et al., 2007)
If coaching is grounded on organizational culture, then first of all it is necessary to
comprehend it, to make oneself master of it and only after that to ground on it. Organizational
culture, like other cultures, encompasses manners, habits, rituals, beliefs, values, etc. Example:
closed office door may mean that its owner is busy and he is in the office, in another organization -
it may mean that the office is empty, and owner of the office is not in the office.
Particularity of organizational culture in the aspect of values. Managers in politics are
influenced by values dominating in the society (Délivré, 2002). Meanwhile it is differently in many
organizations: managers of the organization may create only values significant for the organization
and impart them or impose on the employees on the basis of the possessed authority or power. It is
not a secret that often members of organization have their specific language in order to encode its
meaning from undesirable surrounding people. Thus in social meaning encoding of language of
members of organization indicates that they belong to some organization, profession, trade. It is
rather difficult to comprehend a professional jargon (encoded language) and even more difficult it is
to learn it. Professional jargon may be considered as protection from information leak, knowledge
embezzlement, etc. Every coach knows or should know that mostly organization does not tolerate
those who do not stick to the set or the well-established norms in it. Discussion:
What would you suggest to do to the coach who goes to unknown organization for the first session of team
coaching?
When speaking about values of organization, dominating or fundamental values and
principles of activity should be discerned. Values dominating in organization give meaning to
organization itself. Various symbols of organization reflect various rituals. Thus symbolism of
coach or client is not neutral, therefore a saying “I work for you” or “I work with you” reveals
different symbolisms (Devillard, 2001). Language used among members of organization is like one
of elements of organizational culture. Knowledge and competencies possessed by employees of
organization also become one of elements of its culture.
S. F. Duijts et al. (2008) indicate that two tendencies show up in organizational
culture: growth of complexity of activity (for many organizations it is difficult to deal with, even
implementation of IT does not help); increase of speed in the rhythm of activity. Organization
imposes on its members a very rapid rhythm and those who are unable to deal with it drop out of the
organization. Rhythm and pace become as one of the main criteria of assessment of employees’
activity, consequently system of values changes as well. Nowadays often we do not count
kilometres during our trip when driving a car, but we want to know how much time we will spend
during that trip.
Thus organizational culture experiences organized and voluntary alteration. The most
important alteration is growth of complexity of activity (organized alteration), but permanent and
voluntary alteration is also important, of which goal is efficiency that is not identical to
competencies possessed by employees, although the latter are included into the conception of
efficiency. Efficiency appears in a particular situation of activity and requires not only making
oneself master of competencies but also of the whole organizational culture. In order to make
oneself master of organizational culture it is necessary to asses the following factors (Lenhardt,
2002):
level of organization’s adaptability to the environment. Consequently a coach on this
issue should create a global vision of adaptability to the environment only after
assessing the institutional context of organization;
ethnological approach, that is essential in order to use or make oneself master of
organizational culture. Ethnological approach allows the coach separating elements of
organizational culture. For example, discernment of the certain symbolism is the
beginning of another cultural recognition;
breaking of the old procedure. Challenge of the contemporary organization is changes.
And initiators and characters of changes mostly express themselves as breakers of the
routine, as marginals. Therefore the coach must get to know the routine breakers if he
wishes to comprehend organizational culture. Discerning and identification of facts of
breaking of the old procedure is a very important factor of survival of organization in
the aspect of constant alteration. However it is possible to say that alteration not always
is drastic, bringing tension, frustrations, fear; it can take place gently, easily, with regard
and respect to various differences of members. Not necessarily breaking of the old
procedure must take place in the similar manner as it takes place in whammies of
African magicians13
. Breakers of the old procedure, marginals may be identified in
organization from the fact that they normally are in organization with one foot, and with
another foot elsewhere. If managers of the organization are followers of the old
procedure then they show huge resistance to any alternation and resist followers of
changes;
cultural diagnostics. It may be performed by a coach by visiting organization. Usually
to the coach, though he has different organizational culture, it is not that difficult to
notice where, when and what kind of problems of activity occur, conflict situations
appear, what main elements of organizational culture dominate, etc. It is worth
remembering the proverb “Nobody will reveal culture of the country better than you by
wandering all over the unknown country” (Hungarian proverb).
Coach may help when selecting a certain dynamics of culture (Cruellas, 2003):
in case of assimilation dynamics organization imposes on its members certain
behavioural models (cars are parked with front facing street from the main entrance,
jeans’ day - Friday, during the financial crisis nobody flies by planes, etc.);
in case of employment dynamics social professional field is reduced to minimum.
Employees are not integrated into the organization, but they are paid out minimal
income intended for employment in such case social professional filed gets extremely
narrow, not everybody can enter it;
in case of integration dynamics exchange of values of organization members are built
upon. This cultural dynamics takes a mediate position with regard to dynamics of
assimilation and employment.
Coaching quality, impact, escape from threatening situation depends not only on
cultural dynamics, but also on style of management. It is possible to discern various styles of
management; hierarchical, bureaucratic, value-based, procedural, project-based, etc. (Grant et al.,
2009). Coach, when suggesting selecting a certain type of cultural dynamics, must know what the
style of management of organization managers is. All of this ensures dynamic exchange of values of
coach and client. On the other hand, organizational culture determines by itself factors which
influence values. One of such factors is successful or threatening situation. Consequently coach
during the course of intervention process must act in such way that it would be possible to escape
from threatening situation. And for this, factors which influence the threatening situation must be
assessed, clients’ attitude must be comprehended, their thoughts about the threatening situation, its
consequences and the things which do not satisfy individual expectations of group members must
be understood.
When summing up the theme, it should be added that individual, team and strategic
coaching are characterized by certain common characteristics - coaching may take place when
communicating individually, on the phone, during collective sessions, even in a specific
environment (e.g. in work place).
The main goals of different categories of coaching do not contradict one another, but
supplement one another, since their purpose is to provide for the organization a useful orientation,
to select its tactics and to anticipate possible ways of retreat; to create effective team that would
fulfil the main missions of activity - to manage its group as effectively and enthusiastically as it is
13 African oracle or magician is also considered to be as a marginal since often his tenement is out of the limits of
village or forest, consequently he is a marginal, but out of his tenement he “gives order” to change or to alter.
possible; to coordinate personal and professional aims, to perform functions of its activity as
efficiently as it is possible; to survive the changes being dictated by the environment, to restore a
difficult situation of managing or professional activity, to reorient its career, to integrate into new
bar of activity as rapidly and effectively as possible.
Coaching is suitable not for everyone. It is the most useful for those who want to
improve and are accustomed to learning. Coaching in organization may be the most useful for
those who have high competency and enough experience in order to learn from it. Team coaching –
it is a common work of coach clients that lasts for set period. It is intended for development of
professional or managing abilities of the team that does not depend on the possessed purely
technical nature of competence. During coaching clients are offered the whole gamut of methods,
means which help to solve problem, to adapt to professional situation, to improve one’s efficiency
and autonomy.
It is very important for the coach who provides coaching services making oneself
master of organizational culture, discerning of cultural elements, cultural diagnostics, discernment
of values (and especially of dominating), identification of factors influencing values.
Self-control questions:
1. What determines variety of categories and forms of coaching?
2. What does individual coaching emphasize?
3. What dose team coaching emphasize?
4. What does “strategic coaching” mean? Does it understudy other categories and
forms of coaching?
5. How activity of coach is related with organizational culture?
6. Why is it so important for the coach to comprehend culture of particular
organization at the beginning?
Check if you are able to answer the main question of the theme: what are the
similarities and differences of individual and corporate (team) coaching?
Possible answer to the question of the discussion: Coaching will not give knowledge, it will not
help to discover material resources, learning courses or sessions of strategic planning perform these
functions. However coaching may help to consolidate good experiences, to learn from them, to look
for new solutions and ideas. In other words - to grow and improve personally or for the whole team.
1.4. Strategic Coaching and Occupational Improvement. Cycles of Professional
Improvement and Learning The main question of the theme is - what are the links between strategic coaching and
professional improvement?
Strategic coaching (differently called by different authors: organizational, managing coaching)
systemically joins elements of interrelationships of organization and individual into one entirety by
emphasizing problems of activities of employees, managers with regard to challenges, changes,
organizational strategy and vision by assessing reality, possessed representations of employees,
context of locality of professional activity and globality when pursuing for strategic goals of
activity.
The necessities of strategic coaching are encouraged by:
occurrence and implementation of new forms of activity organization;
continually accelerating rhythm of activity implicating networking, collective
competencies;
new needs of managing related with occurrence of (new) generation of employees X
and Y and domination of their activity (new) and domination of their activity in the
organization;
internationality of projects of activity interculturality, interculturality of teams working
them;
new types of leadership and leaders implicating new ways of management,
communication, more global visions and strategies of organization;
advanced IT have created new ways of communication which invite to review the
ecosystem of relationships of individuals considering the requirements of time, distance
and space;
new personal and professional expectations, needs of employees with regard to their
regularity, competence, life-long learning;
new challenges for organizations when developing, maintaining, managing human
resources, capital or talents.
Consequently organizations need strategic and dynamic coaching that systematically would join
individual, team coaching with organizational development, therefore vision of strategic coaching
“here and now” in order to help to the managers, employees of organization, for managers,
employees to solve the occurred problems considering to the continually accelerating temp, history,
culture, presence and future of the organization. Discussion:
What could be the meaning of Confucius’s thought in case of constant alteration in our century and how this could be
related with strategic coaching: “Phenomena do not change, changes only our attitude towards them. And is this
enough”?
Strategic coaching approach, characterized by various parameters, allowing analysing space in
which organization and people within it develop. Consequently strategic coaching suggests first of
all to managers or to their teams, groups, irrespective of work experience or possessed experienced
of managing, help in the following fields of their activities:
strategic directions, vision of organization;
professionalism, competence, talents of employees, etc.;
communication and use of IT;
international business management, management of intercultural nature;
development of human resources, management of human capital;
improvement of economical model of organization, etc.
One of possible areas of application of strategic coaching is development of human resources
where professional improvement of employees of organization is emphasized when
implementing goals of strategic activity of organization. Strategic coaching encourages employees
to improve professional activity as they improve themselves (Duijts et al., 2008). This is the most
effective means of personal development in professional environment. Professional management of
employees of organization - is an investment that several times pays dividends, where coaching
means learning when working. It is a powerful means allowing developing employees’ abilities and
believing in success. Coaching allows seeing the lacking links of business administration when
pursuing for goals, creating optimal relationship between common strategic goals of organization
and personal or professional improvement of employees.
Coaching philosophy encourages insight by increasing consciousness as educational
accelerators allowing employees who have gone through the coaching course finding means
enhancing the being carried out activity and which determine what has to be done in order to
achieve next level of activity (Devillard, 2001). Discussion:
In what order the following words should be presented in the “formula” with regard to strategic coaching?
“Professional improvement Competence Coaching Efficiency”
+ + + =
Substantiate your “formula”.
Professional improvement in the contemporary world is understood as a long-term
process of versatile cultural growth that is built on communication. It is important for individual to
constantly learn in the environment of his work, to cooperate with his colleagues, to behave in such
way as he would like the surrounding people to behave, and thus to incessantly to participate in the
process of professional improvement.
Professional improvement may be described as education of professional competence of
person, its composite parts - competencies (knowledge, skills, abilities, experience, provisions of
values, ability to learn and other sources required for a successful professional activity) (Le Boterf,
2010).
For a long time professional improvement of persons was understood in the world as
short-term courses when a certain information was provided related with particularity of work and
education of persons. And only in the last decade professional improvement started to be
understood as a long-term process encompassing daily experience and possibilities which
systematically contribute to personal professional growth and improvement.
The contemporary approach to professional improvement shows itself in the following
certain features:
professional improvement is more predicated on constructive, and not on transmission
model of orienting, i.e. employees are considered to be as active characters and who are
involved into various tasks when performing them they improve abilities of professional
activity, observation, self-assessment and self-analysis (instead of only transferring
particular information and providing certain provisions - that would be the model of
transmission orientation);
it is a long-term process where persons learn for the whole life. The possessed previous
knowledge they relate with a newly gained experience and information. This method of
links is irreplaceable accelerator in a constant process of changes;
the most effective form of professional improvement is the one that is built on real
processes which take part in organization and is related with daily activity. However it is
important to pay attention that traditional approach to organization alters and it has been
started to be understood as learners’ community professional and providing internecine
support; and this is the open centre of information. Therefore the most favourable and
successful possibilities for professional improvement is learning in work place, analysis
of changes and adaptation to them also initiation of new changes;
professional improvement determines the comprehensive cultural growth of employees
and not only improvement of their professional skills. Consequently employees must
learn of such behaviour which they want to see in the surrounding people;
employees should be considered as practitioners of self-reflection. With their underlying
professional knowledge, when observing and analysing the environment they acquire
new knowledge and experience, more thoroughly understand the contemporary theories
of activity and thus educate the competence of their area;
professional improvement is a process of communication. Even if professional
improvement is more often considered to be as an independent work of which efficiency
increases by analysing oneself and the environment, though more often success of
professional improvement unfolds when communicating (not only among employees,
but also among employees and administration, partners or other members of
community). Discussion:
What is the meaning of this Confucius’s though in the context of organization: “Going from unknown to known, from
invisible to visible opens the door of improvement”?
Each case of professional improvement is very unique - there is no one particular model
of professional improvement that would be better than the others and that without any exceptions
would be suitable for everyone, in all cases or under any circumstances. Members of organization
should assess their problems, needs, cultural beliefs and practice in order to find out which model of
professional improvement is the most suitable for them.
Today it is possible to state that in some organizations, though everything looks good from
the first sight, strategic goals of organization are implemented, however professional improvement
of employees is kind of suspended, implementation of strategic goals needs much and expensive
efforts of employees. The problem is that sometimes neither the manager nor the employee sees
causes - chain of consequences. Let’s say learning method is not related with professional
improvement, experience.
Cycles of occupational improvement and learning. For the majority of us notion of
learning is anticipated and/or unconditional. In some cases learning means learner’s actions as a
response to learning - “If you do not pay attention to me, you will not learn this”. Usually learning
is compared with acquisition when remembering - “I want you to learn this for tomorrow”. Our
poor understanding about learning is often reflected in the fact that there is a lack of common
agreement among andragogists and lecturers, also learners, what learning process actually means.
Thereof originates an attempt to create a model of learning that could be the basis for meaningful
dialogue about learning process and results.
Table 3. Learning and cycles of learning
Superficial (what?) Deep (how?) Thorough (why?)
Ways Saving Reflection Intuition
Achievements Information Knowledge Wisdom
Evidence Repetition Understanding Meaning
Motivation External Internal Authentic
Attitudes Obedience Interpretation Creativity
Relationships Dependence Interdependence Independence
One-fold cycle Two-fold cycle
Three-fold cycle
First of all it is important to emphasize that this model is not hierarchical, but features of different
ways of learning are described in it. In some cases a superficial learning is totally acceptable - I
know only superficially how engine of my car works however I hope that knowledge of auto
mechanic is, if not thorough, deep at least. Also it is very important not to apply academic values
for this model. Thorough learning encompasses mysterious branches of philosophy, consular
characteristics and child’s insight. Discussion:
This statement needs your comments:
“In many cases superficial learning is similar to the dominating ways of learning since it is built on saving of
information and repetition. Though it does not prevent from deep and thorough learning, however, learning of such
nature limits possibilities for avoidance of superficiality”.
Superficial learning was totally sufficed in such society and in such work places where a
high level of dependence and obedience was present. If we believe that world gets more
complicated it means that dominating way of learning will have to change. Maybe the superficial
learning was totally suitable for a rather simple world where less option were present and more
political and economical dominance, however that kind of learning will not be sufficient in the
world where many various options are present and which is lacking in commonness of opinions. It
is possible that the worst feature of superficial learning is the fact that when learning superficially
the biggest attention is given to external motivation, obedience and dependence.
Meanwhile the deep learning gives ground for understanding, i.e. for the events which take
place when information of general nature becomes as personal knowledge which may be used at
any time in various contexts. Experience is understood through thinking, and motivation for
learning comes from the inside.
After choosing the deep learning it is possible to interpret, trust is gained through the
interdependent learning. Thorough learning is of totally different meaningful nature. When learning
superficially to systemically decide the correspondingly provided tasks are learnt. The deep learning
means that it is learnt to formulate, assess and apply many different solutions. When applying the
method of thorough learning, tasks and solutions are defined again. Thorough learning - is creation
of personal meaning that gives wisdom and stimulates creativity. Experience is formed intuitively.
Motivation to learn comes from moral incentives, and the result of thorough learning is ability and
wish to conflict with convention. Basis of such learning is interdependent thinking and solving of
tasks.
Learning of one-fold cycle is superficial. More often we concentrate on level “who?” than
on levels “how?” or “why?” Such learning is repetition. Basically those who choose deep learning
know how to create knowledge. They reflect on it, what and how is learnt. Thus deep learning os
learning of two-fold cycle that “takes place when the occurred errors are corrected by changing...
old norms, politics and goals” (Chris Argyris and Donald Schön, 1974, 67 p.). Learning of three-
fold cycle encompasses not only the levels “what?” and “how?”, but also the level “why?” When
learning thoroughly the understanding of the fact what makes us as the unique personalities
changes, therefore abilities to create valuable and meaningful for our life-style strategies are
developed.
Cycles of learning (loops) and professional improvement are closely correlated. With
reference to works of North American scientists Schön14
and Argyris, there is a suggestion to
discern four cycles of learning which may enable a professional to learn (Le Boterf, 2010):
Figure 3. Cycles of learning (loops) according to G. Le Boterf (2010)
This scheme explains four models of learning:
during the course of the first learning loop subject learns when limiting himself with
correction of his practice, when comparing the received results with the anticipated results:
he does not think about substantiation of his activity. Rules of the activity may be corrected,
but operational schemes which predicate practice, main principles, and theoretical basics are
maintained. He learns by approving the applied rules, he is ready to apply new or to correct
the existing rules of the activity. It is possible to learn the legerdemain or professional art
secrets: this first loop is the loop of ingenuity;
14 Argytis C., Schön D. Theory in practice: increasing Professional effectiveness. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1974.
INTENTION
AND GOALS
THEORIES OF
ACTIVITY,
PRINCIPLES,
REPRESENTATIO
NS
RULES OF THE
ACTIVITY
PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE RESULTS
OPERATIONAL SCHEME
4 loop
3 loop
2 loop
1 loop
during the course of the second learning loop subject learns when contravening the
operational scheme and theoretical basics of his activity. Initial goals or intentions remain
unchanged, operational scheme remains basically the same, only corrected. Some stages of
the being applied activity may be changed, others may be added. Reasoning may be purified
or changed. Theoretical notions may be deepened or enriched;
during the course of the third learning loop subject learns by changing the operational
scheme and/or theoretical basics. He must learn to act in a totally different way with
reference to new knowledge, by reviewing the main principles, by changing representations
of certain situation, it may be necessary to change his intentions with regard to the being
pursued goals;
during the course of the fourth learning loop subject learns to learn. The three previous
loops of learning become as an object of learning. He learns to better use them, to get better
lessons of experience.
The given figure illustrates a method how the learning process makes the discursive and logical
loops work. If we remove the loops, there will not be any learning.
Question:
In which cycle of learning (loop) you would “put yourself” with regard to knowledge of theory of educational management and making oneself master of its practice?
Strategic coaching is help for managers of organization or for a team of managers or group,
irrespective of their record of service and possessed experience, as they seek to implement strategic
goals of organization. One of strategic goals of organization is development of professional
improvement of employees, education of their independence. Consequently in this case there is a
goal not to repeat some already known model of professional improvement, but to educate
independent of employees by looking differently into real situations of activity, employees’
efficiency, regularity, adaptability to constant changes of activity.
When summing up it is possible to state that pursuing for regularity when learning underlies
professional improvement and difference of experiences and professional experience. Experience
and professional improvement related with it is a construct of the things which have been
experienced. Person may remain for a long time in the same situation of activity and not to gain
experience, therefore not to improve. For gaining of experience time is obligatory but insufficient
condition. Duration originates from linear, unity sequence. Time of activity may not be turned back.
The loops must be reflected for the experiences to become as the experience, for we could improve.
And in this activity a coach, who knows strategic coaching well, could be helpful.
4 task for independent work (see Appendix 1)
Crossword
Self-control questions:
1. How do you understand the strategic coaching?
2. What is it basically used for?
3. Can it be team-oriented?
4. How specifically the activity of the coach can manifest itself in case of professional
improvement?
5. How professional improvement may be explained irrespective the fact for how long the
person works in the particular organization?
6. Do all employees improve and learn in similar methods? What determines it?
Check if you are able to answer the main question of the theme: what are the links between
strategic coaching and professional improvement?
MID-TERM TEST (see APPENDIX 2)
Išvertė
UAB “Pasaulio spalvos”
Veiverių 134-218, Kaunas
2. Possibilities of Coaching Application in Adult Education The main question of the theme is – is an andragogist able to apply coaching in adult
education?
The activity of andragogist is characterized by multifunctionality. Specific fields of
activity may be distinguished: conceptualisation, realisation (some authors refer to as educational or
didactical), assessment, learners support/help, management and etc.
Application of coaching in adult education – is an andragogist’s practice different from
giving usual classes. First of all, it is a support/help for adult learners who are afraid of being
unsuccessful in learning even more than a child or teenager (Anužienė, 2006), but prefer to satisfy
professional/personal needs, improve skills and develop their potential. However, the andragogist
may apply coaching elements in almost all fields of his activity, except for conceptualisation,
because different learning problems may arise in any of the fields of activity related to
communication with learners. Discussion:
Why is an adult afraid of failure in learning even more than a child? Justify your answer
It is not only a process or instrument of support or help, but also a paradox – to help
other person to independently deal with complicated situation. Therefore the coaching applied in
adult education is an art of activity and andragogist’s talent in the sense of mission. Discussion:
What would be the benefits of application of coaching, if learner needed to deal with learning problems independently?
Coaching in adult education is justified by humanism, as it was mentioned in the
introduction (Richez, 2006). Andragogist providing coaching services believes that:
Everyone is a foreman of self-improvement,
The client (adult learner in our case) is first of all considered a potential improvement
doer.
Various techniques, instruments and means are applied in the course of coaching. For
example, neuro-linguistic programming (NLP). Coaching process also applies: systemic access
(SA), justified by the methodology of intervention of human systems (organisation, group,
individual), according to which any human system is organized and as a result of organisation
complies with rules and laws; transactional analysis (TA), theory of personality and
communication. „I“ is divided into three inter-transactional states: Father – F, Adult – A, Child – C;
biological decoding (BD); internal dialogue (ID); enneagram (E) – (gr. enna – nine, gramma –
figure) – typology of persons according to nine personality types: 1. I am self reliant / I am hard
working. 2. I love / I help. 3. I am successful / I am efficient. 4. I am individual / I am sensitive. 5. I
know / I understand. 6. I am loyal / I am persevering. 7. I am optimistic person / I am happy. 8. I am
powerful / I am right. 9. I am very calm / I am peaceful; Palo Alto School (PAS) – “invisible
college” (it is not important what do people say or think, but what they do). Individual is not
interested, his value is revealed only during communication with others within specific context;
feedback (FB), gestalt therapy (GT), Ericksonian hypnosis (EH); Myers Briggs (MBI) indicators,
sixteen types are widely used all over the world; Process Com (PC) – typology model of personal
features (six types: persevering, work addict, creator, dreamer, empathic, protester/rebel) etc. Discussion:
What studies or disciplines in university could give knowledge about the mentioned coaching techniques, means and
instruments?
The question is if a professional andragogist can, is able, is up to apply the mentioned
techniques and means in his activity. Professional andragogist providing coaching services should
have the following qualities:
First of all, he must be able to be ,,here and now”, i.e. available, easily found, what is of
high importance for adult learner;
He must be able to isolate himself from his thoughts and to listen attentively to adult
learner so that he could hear not only orally transferred information, but also read
between the lines, understand intonation, breathing, facial expression, sight and energy
prevailing in the coaching process (Agarwal, Angst, Magni, 2009);
He must be able to listen to adult learner using all sensors and intuition. Discussion: Why is it insufficient for andragogist to hear through „ears“ only?
Heard information becomes a foundation for questions increasing adult learners’
understanding about him and related micro and macro universal phenomena. In the
course of coaching the questions lead the adult learner to lose his piece of mind and
induce unusual and creative thinking, motivate to develop efficient solutions, find own
truths and answers. Silence fluctuating during the process is a feature of effective
coaching, because magic things take place in the silence… lurking personal powers
awake, fear disappears, courage and motivation appear, sight and body posture change
and face expands in a happy smile (Agarwal, Angst, Magni, 2009). But the best thing is
that this energy rush is long term.
It is thought that the following skills are important for andragogist who apply coaching in
adult education (Lenhardt et al., 2007):
Active listening to the deep, internal motivation of the client;
Positive assessment of others and yourself;
Conflict-solving ability;
Consideration of emotion while communicating with others;
Human change management;
Coaching technique management (e.g.: active listening, questioning, neuro-linguistic
programming (NLP), transactional analysis (TA), GROW method etc.).
5 task for independent work (see Appendix 1).
When summing up the assumption that the andragogist although he does not have a
coach certificate, but is a professional in the field, he can supply coaching services for adult
learners cause this art is manageable, techniques learnt and the mission stimulates the proper fulfil
of helper function.
There are no skills or techniques of realisation of specific help for adult learners that
the andragogist would not be able to acquire, manage or improve. Most commonly people do not
think that most experience ever gained and skills acquired in the course of studies could be
„...moved to other fields of activity or other field operational situations by proper modification of
activity diagrams and professional representations“(Le Boterf, 2010, 73 p.). However, apparently
it is impossible even too imagine how the andragogist could render assistance not having any clear
and particular conception of learning problem (difficulty) (Jatkauskienė et al., 2011).
Self-control questions:
1. In what field of activity could the andragogist apply coaching?
2. Why an application of coaching in adult education is a paradox?
Check if you are able to answer the main question of the theme: is an andragogist able to
apply coaching in adult education?
2.1. Links Between Learning Problems and Areas of Coaching Application
The main question of the theme is – how are learning problems linked to coaching
application?
Learning problem – [obstacle, difficulty, task] – 1. an objective question that occurred
in the cognitive process, of which decision has basic meaning for cognitive advancement; 2. an
objection that originated from consciousness that must be settled by the individual. Problems are
educational, scientific, practical, artistic, domestic, personal, etc. (Jovaiša, 2007, p. 233). Task of
learning as an objective new requirement in the consciousness of the learner becomes as a problem,
that sometimes may be solved easily, and sometimes more efforts are required. Personal problem is
considered to be an internal difficulty that may not be settled on one’s own efforts that is limiting
normal living, that encourages seeking for help (Jovaiša, 2007, p. 233). Difficulty is a state of
personality that prevents from adaptive and adequate behaviour and work, which is experienced as a
tiresome, troublesome, burden. Difficulties originate from innate weak ability to adapt of an
individual or from unfavourable environmental conditions. Pedagogists, andragogists, psychologists
help to overcome difficulties according to their competence, by considering the extent of the
difficulty. Difficulty becomes as a personal problem when there is a wish to get rid of it and to ease
internal state (Jovaiša, 2007, p. 279). Therefore it is possible to state that difficulty is not identical
to the learning problem that mostly depends on external factors and is quite of temporary nature.
Difficulty mostly depends on internal factors and requires bigger efforts in order to remove it.
However in any case the cause of learning problems arising in adult learning and difficulties must
be identified and eliminated. Discussion:
Solution of what learning problem or difficulty requires more efforts according to Yours learning experience?
Give examples of how teachers or andragogists helped/did not help you to eliminate these problems.
From the concept of provided learning problems and difficulties it may be stated that
the learning problem from the aspect of adult educational institution and andragogist‘s activity is
any difficulty negatively influencing an individual in the course of learning. Nonetheless,
andragogists take some active preventive measures (orientation, learning programmes complying
with the needs of adult learners, creation, creation and implementation of didactical situations
emphasizing learning goals, provision of previously acquired skills required for course assimilation,
selection of methods, sources and mediums etc.), it should be noted that learning problems
constantly arise in learning process constantly provoking failure and even fall out of formal and
informal educational system.
The concept of learning problem/difficulty is linked to the variety of elements of
learning situation: learning person and his various human complexes, learning person and his
relationship with learning contents, lecturer, andragogist and his activity style, educational
institution and social – economic context (e.g.: payment for tuition, courses, going for courses,
accommodation issues etc.) Each mentioned element could be considered a problem/difficulty.
Therefore every effort might be made to determine the problem in real learning situation, only then
specific ways, means and methods of help could be envisaged.
Learning problems may be summarised as follows: cognitive, psychomotoric,
psychosocial, affective - motivational nature
Fig. 4. Classification of learning problems
The problems are mostly of cognitive nature. These problems are related to knowledge,
coding and collection of information, processing of information and knowledge etc. They could be
related to verbal or written language expression, perception, rhythm of learning, remembering,
management of complex real activity tasks, transition from theory to practical application, planning,
spatial vision, concept of task, learning and activity, equilibrium between global and local access.
Another type of learning problem is affective – motivational nature (panic, loss or lack of
motivation, „blocking“, impulsivity, denial of theoretical knowledge (negation, rejection), lack of
concern for learning contents etc. (a totality of processes that stop, orientate, block cognitive or
motor activity). It may be stated from experience that this type of problems (especially nervous
disturbances, even panic) is quite often. It is thought that the reason of such problems is earlier
negative experience from learning (e.g.: stress as a result of tests, examination, failures experienced
at secondary school). Learning problems of psychomotoric nature often take place in the course of
acquire specific professional skills or develop professional behaviour. There are psychosocial
learning problems related to psychological, social factors that determine personal reciprocity (lack
of self-confidence, lack of confidence in lecturers, andragogists, group members, social learning
obstacles, adaptation to group activity, relationship problems etc.). Therefore it may be stated that
problems of different nature arise in the course of learning situation in learner‘s everyday life.
Learning situation is a complex phenomenon where several variables may be distinguished:
attitudes and position of person analysing learning situation (e.g.: the psychologist will
focus his attention not to the learning problem, but to the person at first; in coaching –
the attention will be paid to the problem and future projection);
the reasons of learning problems are of multiple nature. There is an interrelation
between cognitive and affective – motivational learning problems (e.g.: if a task of
cognitive nature is not understood, confidence in self-competence of the learner
decreases);
Learning
problems
Cognitive nature
Affective -
motivational
nature
Psychomotoric
nature
Psychosocial
nature
incomprehension of the reasons of learning problems (e.g.: the learner fails to
comprehend the reason of learning problem therefore is not able to perform deep
analysis of the problem).
To ensure effective support to the learner, not only learning problems/difficulties are
defined and described, but also means for verification of learning problem/difficulty hypotheses
formulated in the course of analysis are envisaged, i.e. observed problem and its reasons are
specified (Jatkauskienė et al., 2011). Such means could include various conversations, analyses of
learning styles, analysis of self-effectiveness etc.
As it was already mentioned, all learning problems are interconnected and influence
each other, therefore to eliminate a problem or provide support, the andragogist should play
different roles (tutor, coaching expert, mentor) and manage different supporting means, categories
and techniques.
Fields of application of coaching in adult education may be modelled after analysis of
publication of various authors listed in references, and linkage of coaching subject to the
classification of learning problems and difficulties (fig. 5.):
Fig. 5. Fields of application of coaching in adult education
Cognitive improvement refers to getting new representations, knowledge, development
of new knowledge, new interpretations, management of learning process itself; social improvement
refers to development of professional identity of a person, improvement of behaviour, promotion of
independence from other people (including the coach); affective improvement refers to self-
confidence, training by own efforts; personal/professional improvement refers to realisation
personal and professional goals (Turner et al., 2007).
The field of cognitive improvement should be analysed in detail. Here the andragogist is
a lecturer providing coaching services could help adult learners to achieve their learning outcomes.
Fields of
application of
coaching in adult
education
Cognitive
improvement
Social improvement
Affective
improvement
Personal/professiona
l improvement
Fig. 6. Methods and possibilities of learning
Discussion:
What can andragogist do from the perspective of the learning pyramid:
5 p.c. only are learned during lectures and 90 p.c. while learning others? (source: NATIONAL Training Laboratories,
Bethel, Maine, 2011).
Most andragogists are familiar with B. Bloom‘s taxonomy which is very important for
examinations and different tests. Examination matrix is created based on it. However, R. Marzano‘s
taxonomy of educational objectives is not less important in the learning process. According to R.
Marzano‘s taxonomy cognitive levels are divided according to the control of processes of psychical
activity, not to the degree of complexity – i.e. how the processes control another processes. R.
Marzano‘s created system illustrates how a person decides starting a new task, explains processing
of information after such decision is taken: at first, so called human „Ego“ („Me“) system decides;
is it advisable and is it any use to start a new task (Marzano, 2005). It is a very important decision,
and any negative experience can negatively influence the decision. Only a good emotional mood,
positive attitude motivate to improve and overcome the obstacles. Then metacognitive system
envisaging task objectives and performance strategies is activated, and cognitive system starts
processing all appropriate task information (Marzano, 2005). All system levels apply learner‘s
collected knowledge of different fields. R. Marzano‘s taxonomy of educational objectives not only
shows the importance of knowledge, but also explains the importance of learner‘s motivation for
task completion. It is an activation of „Ego“ system, therefore the coach seeks for the most
interesting material and various work methods allowing for activation of the mentioned system. This statement needs your comments:
„Didactic strategies applying „Ego“ system increase the average value of achievement even 27 percent (Marzano,
2005). Therefore the andragogist should make an effort for the adult learner to perceive learning as an independent decision, not a pressure“
Learning others
90 p. c.
Practical application
75 p. c.
Discussion group
50 p. c.
Demonstration 30 p. c.
Audio and video material
20 p. c.
Reading
10 p. c.
Lectur
es
5
pro
c.
.„Ego“ system is activated when the learner unwillingly starts doing a task in case of
earlier failure with similar task, when his objective assessment shows lack of knowledge and
comprehension of the procedure. In this case the andragogists will motivate and ride at success the
learner by providing him with a set of instruments required for task completion.
Special technologies are applied in the course of andragogists coaching intervention
(e.g. conversation) – it is a totality of methods, relations between people, style of thinking and
techniques stimulating fulfilment of internal potential of personality, achievement of maximum
personal efficiency and life balance, providing clearer coaching technology – is a link between
coaching, andragogy theory and coach and client‘s practice. Coaching technologies is a wider
concept compared to coaching techniques. They help the learner to clarify objectives and find the
ways of realisation. It is also communication and education culture and even lifestyle. The most
important provision is to believe that „I“ and the people around have sufficient internal potential to
achieve more goals. According to experts (Devillard, 2001; Lenhardt et al., 2007), the future of
coaching depends on scientifically proven technologies.
All new subjects appear for reason. Coaching application in andragogist practice is not
an exception. Appearance of coaching some years ago was like a response to no longer effective
educational technologies. It may be stated by experience that earlier advices how to become a
successful student, learner, were a novelty. Nowadays, in the century of information, it is difficult to
surprise anyone. People have heard everything. However, we still try to accumulate more and more
knowledge. The trouble is that we do not put this knowledge into practice. Therefore coaching
reminds that exploitation of accumulated potential may help to implement objectives. Discussion:
„Knowledge is the key to success. Therefore like perpetual students we strive to gain as much as possible.
However, coaching experts say severe „stop“ and call not only to accumulate knowledge, but also finally start using it.
Coaching helps to achieve this. Coaching will not wash off traditional teaching from the ground surface. After all, good
results could not be achieved without valuable knowledge. However, an application of group coaching methods during courses or seminars showed that training has become more effective“ D. Čibonis, 2007.
The following activity elements could be distinguished in andragogists activity applying
different coaching techniques and methods (Amar, Angel, 2006):
determination and preservation of activity field (intervention);
definition of activity of andragogist who plays coach‘s role;
concentration to student‘s (client‘s) application for help;
ability to listen and ask;
conception of compatibility, conformity (verbal, paraverbal, nonverbal communication);
confidence in other person;
demonstration of positive acceptance signs;
adaptation to cognitive student‘s (client‘s) style.
All listed activity elements will be explained in complete detail in the sections below.
When summing up it can be stated that although the coaching applied in adult
education is based on the main principles and mechanism of coaching activity, there is a certain
difference: andragogist may be not a certified psychologist or certified coaching expert. He helps
adult learners driven by mission, andragogist‘s deontological codex and competencies.
6 task for independent work (see Appendix 1)
Self-control questions:
1. Is it possible to combine learning problem with difficulty?
2. What are the natures of learning problems?
3. What are adult educational fields where the coaching could be applied?
Check if you are able to answer the main question of the theme: how are learning problems
linked to coaching application?
2.2. Determination and Preservation of Activity Field (Intervention) of the
Andragogist who Plays Coaching Specialist’s Role The main question of the theme is – why is it important to define the limits of activity field of
the andragogist providing coaching services?
Concept of the field. Sociological vision of P. Bourdieu allows analysing the society applying
interaction of „fields“, because „society – is more or less a totality of autonomous social fields“
(Bourdieu, 1994).
The theory of fields is based on the statement that social peace is a point of
progressive differentiation process. Society attempts to reveal the universe, divide the fields as a
product (result) of social work division. Such division unlike technical work division covers the
whole social life because in the course of such differentiation process various religious, economic,
legal, political, social and other functions are segregated. Discussion:
What does the following statement implies in the context of coaching?: „The field could be understood as a market where characters behave as players (Bonnewitz, 2002“.
From the analytical viewpoint the field could be defined as a network or configuration
of objective relationship between taken positions. These positions are objectively determined by the
conditions of existence that specify certain requirements for representatives, characters and
institutions. P. Bourdieu named such phenomenon „universal law on field“. Comprehension of the
concept is possible by comparison. The truth of the matter is that the field could be understood as a
market with manufacturers and consumers. The manufacturers who dispose of special capital are in
conflict with each other. The reason of such conflict is a form of disposed capital that ensures
predominant position in the field. Herewith the capital becomes a tool or objective. The structure of
field in the modern history demonstrates power relationship between the players. Thus, the field is a
space of opposing powers.
For better explanation of behaviour of social players in the field P. Bourdieu continues
with game analogy (Bourdieu, Wacquant, 1992). Discussion:
What are the main players in coaching and what are the game rules in intervention of the coach?
The strategy of a player depends on the volume, structure of capital, aim of the game
(accumulate, preserve capital) taking into account the rules of game. The aim for individuals of
predominant positions is to preserve capital; the players can try to find different ways to change the
rules of game, for example, discrediting the value of opponent’s capital. Here the case is
devaluation strategy often used by not dominant individuals.
Concerning the specialities of each field, the fact that each of them has individual
history and rate. Therefore the fields are autonomous and independent. However, to separate the
fields is very complicated because of lack of clearly defined limits. Moreover, they influence each
other; the position of social player in specific field depends on their position in social space.
Determination and preservation of activity field of the andragogist providing coaching
services is important because it helps to understand and define the limits of fields of andragogist
and adult learner as well as their roles. The intervention to not agreed field is impossible (Lenhardt,
2002). After investigation of the activity of coaches it has been found that their activity field covers
not only direct work with clients, but also organisational work and determination of need for
support/help. The most important centre line here is determination of client’s needs and then –
creation and development of effective help strategies.
The following questions must be answered to determine and preserve activity
(intervention) field: who was left beyond the limits? How could it be understood that the activity
(intervention) happens inside specific field? Adhere to the deontological rules of coaches? How to
remind the learner about activity field in case he tries to overstep defined boundaries?
Coach’s (andragogist’s) activity field – concern of negotiation and agreement. Personal
and professional improvement, project of improvement (not the whole activity, work, family, love...
of the learner) defines limits of the field. Activity field implicates clear determination of roles of
coach (andragogist) and learner (not friend- friend…). Activity field is justified on personal request
of the learner (therefore is not imposed). Andragogist should clearly declare that the intervention
take place inside specific field: virtual (e-mail, telephone, support), real: (by saying „we are here
to… „). In any case the andragogist explains and applies five coaching deontological rules (Turner
et al., 2007):
Aim of coaching – support at improvement;
Absolute confidentiality;
Respect for person, his values and choice;
Control of behaviour;
No assessment of behaviour (or at the end of intervention only upon authorization or
request of the learner). Discussion:
Reminding about activity field, return of client to the field not always satisfy the client. What challenges does the
andragogist meet?
Reminding about activity field, return of adult learner to the field may be performed
with the help of the following questions: Could you, please, remind me the goal of our meeting?
Why do you ask me? What do you expect from me? How can I help you? What do you think is the
interrelation between our meeting and your current question? I realize that this is a problem for you,
but it has nothing to do in our case. We will be able to get back later if you wish (Amar, Angel,
2006). Reminding about activity field, return to it may displease the learner, but the andragogist
cannot allow violation of limits. The andragogist should define the limits between his personal and
professional field, separate his personality from task and say „no“ to the request without rejection of
applicant. If the applicant does not stop, say: „I understand your need, but cannot respond at the
moment“ (Lenhardt, 2002).
Activity element of the andragogist providing coaching services – determination and
preservation of intervention field – is compulsory for every coaching application area.
Self-control questions:
1. How would you explain the concept of field according to P. Bourdieu?
2. How do you understand coaching activity (intervention) field?
3. What could be the limits of this field?
4. Could the reminding about activity field, return to it, not satisfy the client? Why?
Check if you are able to answer the main question of the theme – why is it important to define
the limits of activity field of the andragogist providing coaching services?
2.3. Setting of Goals The main question of the theme is – how to set appropriate coaching goals?
Goal setting theories. People will work, act, learn, and improve hardly if they believe to get
a reward. It is Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (1964). According to the theory, people are interested to
behave in a way they would achieve desired goals. How person comprehends, interprets analysed
situation is determined by his thinking (cognitive powers). Vroom’s Expectancy Theory is focused
on personal expectations that his behaviour will allow to achieve desired goal, which is of different
significance (valence) and may assist in achieving second level (further) expectations
(instrumentality). In addition, the expectation goes along with certain belief of achievement
(expectation). Thus, the expectations of individual (valence, instrumentality) are psychologically
related and elicit internal powers (motivation), and „economy“ person chooses the level of activity
performance that meets his interests to the maximum. There is no motivation, if activity goals have
negative valence, no achievement of other level expectations, and the person does not believe in
fulfilment of his expectations in activity.
Another is goal setting theory (Locke, 1968). The main principles of the theory are as
follows:
Complicated goals determine better activity implementation than easy goals;
Specified goals determine better activity implementation than general goals;
Feedback information about activity implementation is necessary to get a benefit
from complicated specified goals.
It is claimed (Locke, 1968), there must be interrelation between specific task and activity goal;
so that the person gets motivation when he understands the activity goal and task relation to it. The
person must “find“ the goals himself, therefore he becomes responsible for goal realisation. Goal
setting for the andragogist providing coaching services is a compulsory element for every coaching
application area. It helps to find answers to two topical questions relevant for parties (both for
andragogist and learner) (Miller et al., 2004):
How to realise that learner’s request for help is realistic and what to do if he thinks it is
impossible to satisfy his request?
How to foresee appropriate coaching goals?
If there is no real request for help, someone may think that the learner considers
coaching unnecessary or forced. The request should often be reworded to make it real. If the learner
does not agree with the new request, it means he does not need any help. In case of paradoxical
request („I have a problem, have tried everything, nothing helps...“), the confinement of person on
victim position must be destroyed, and attention should be focused on stimulation of motivation.
After solution for the first question is developed pass to the second question – what is
the goal of the client (adult learner)? A particular measurable goal must be specified and realisation
data indicated. It is necessary to record the goal and data – in other words, to leave written sign
(proof). Pay attention, the client (adult learner), not coach (andragogist), must formulate the goal
(Turner, 2006).
Prior to considering possible strategies of work with client’s goals, type of goals in the
framework of coaching should be considered:
goals as essential objectives;
goals as a new (other) behaviour;
goals as events or new situations.
Apparently, professional coach should select different work strategies for each category
of goals. From the other hand, it is assumed that despite activity strategies, the client must at fist
evaluate the significance of his goal and how it answers his values in all cases. What does he get
from? Who does he become? How does it change him? It can be stated that the goal becomes
achievable when it corresponds to fundamental client’s believes and values. Then the client
becomes more motivated, more powerful for generation of ideas, discovers more creative and non-
traditional ways of goal achievement.
If the client will realize the significance of the goal he achieves, sense and benefits of
achievement, he will enable himself to taking risk and responsibility for action – go towards his
goal.
Despite the client’s goal is expressed in the course of coaching, it is no use to define it
and rush to find the ways of achievement. First of all, the person must clearly understand the
significance of his goal and its contribution to self-development. One gets the impression that we
somehow "control" client’s goals. Definitely not. For some reason I believe that people who want to
develop as soon as they realize their goal, analyse it and “examine” from all sides, become able to
act (Misiukonis T. 2012. Asmeninio ugdymo praktika. Vilnius: Vaga).
So coaching should be oriented not to some steps or actions, but to help the client to
understand himself, to see the wider context of his existence. It contradicts often mechanical and
superficial coaching models. If the coach will fall to “chase” client’s goals, rush “helping” to
implement, he may face the following risks (Misiukonis, 2012)15
:
clients may indicate superficial „false“ goals for the reason to please the coach and not to
interrupt coaching conversations. Every client wishes to be a good client;
clients may indicate too easily achievable goals. In this case really necessary changes will
not be discussed;
clients may indicate unclear goal priorities. All the energy will be focused on the analysis of
irrelevant goals, and the essential goals will be left not discussed.
Questions to clarify the illustration, realise client’s goals: what will you achieve by
realisation of the goal? What does the goal gives you? How is the goal linked to your values? Who
will you become (what will happen) after realisation? What will you understand after achievement?
What do you want to reach by this desire? What do you want to prove? What is the sense of your
goal for yourself? What greater subject does the goal constitute?
One psychology study (Oettingen, Mayer, 2002)16
has proved that that those too much
positive in regard to their goals (work, partner, examination, health) showed lower results in
achieving their goals than those who seem to be more pessimistic in the perspective of their goals.
Essential conclusion according to research authors indicates that people less positive in regard to
their perspectives analyse their abilities considering their own experience and justify their
expectations by the same experience. While too positive people support their expectation not by
experience, but by future visions, thus making a mistake. Moreover this study raises indirect
perspectives that a positive attitude to the problem solving only may draw our attention away from
objective obstacles to be sooner or later overcome. Research results showed that those who doubted
their abilities felt more obligated to achieve their goals. In addition, these people felt more drastic,
even aggressive and fast in making first steps. The researchers anticipate that such doubting method
is more effective for strong self-confident and motivated people able to objectively assess both
positive and negative perspectives.
Some coaches recommend imagining (visualisation) of the achievable goal.
We often do so ourselves asking questions: how does look like our goal?, How will I fill
myself after achievement? etc. However, the same process visualisation is missing. How does the
way I’ll go along towards my goal look like? Who will I meet on the way? What transitional
stations shall I pass? – these are the questions oriented to the process, not to the goal.
Pham and Taylor (1999) studied the influence of visualisation of the goal and the
process on the final result. It has been found that students who paid more attention to visualisation
of how they read and study (process) were involved in more intensive learning and got better
evaluation for performed tasks (goal). The researchers observed two main reasons determining that
the process visualisation was more effective than imagination of the final result. The first reason is
that the process visualisation leads to better concentration on intermediate tasks. The second reason
is because of the process visualisation the level of concern regarding possible unsuccessful
decreases. The stress during goal achievement could be a very strong demotivating factor. The
15 Misiukonis T. 2012. Asmeninio ugdymo praktika. Vilnius: Vaga. 16 Oettingen G., Mayer D. 2002. The motivating function of thinking about the future: Expectations versus fantasies.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol 83(5), Nov 2002, 1198-1212.
researchers provide an effective practical advice – pay most attention to planning how to reach the
goal. They recommend choosing step-by-step approach and directing much attention to the
completion of current tasks.
GROW method and goal setting. GROW method is often used for goal setting. The
conception and stages of the method are provided in the table below:
Table 4. Meanings of stages of GROW model
G
Goal
This is the end point, where the client wants to be. The goal has to be defined in such a way
that it is very clear to the client when they have achieved it.
R
Reality
The Current Reality is where the client is now. What are the issues, the challenges, how far are
they away from their goal?
O
Obstacles or
There will be Obstacles stopping the client getting from where they are now to where they
want to go. If there were no Obstacles the client would already have reached their goal.
Options Once Obstacles have been identified, the client needs to find ways of dealing with them if they
are to make progress.
W
Way Forward The Options then need to be converted into action steps which will take the client to their goal.
GROW method stages:
G – Establish the Goal
Goal setting stage has the highest impact on the overall GROW model process. Thanks to it
we decide on real actions. However, we have to think responsibly before defining the goals, because
it is quite complicated. Foreign literature often refers to the SMART goal setting method. It states
that the goal must be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-defined. Andriekienė,
Anužienė (2006) mention that the goal must be formulated and expressed in such a way that it could
be monitored and evaluated; the goal must be personified. The goal is not the things you should do
for any reason. The goal is not necessarily the majority seek.
In addition to the above-mentioned criteria, good goals must motivate and encourage
achieving them. Motivating goals are even better, because their achievement is enjoyment of the
process and emerging challenges. It sometimes happens to forget about achievement of something
important while enjoying the process, and finally, when you do not expect, the achieved goal
discovers his master.
It happens that people think about changes and get worried about their goals. Sometimes
they experience the first failure trying to reach perfect future and lose motivation, because the
dream did not come true. It is worth remembering the research of D. Goleman17
concerning the
brain influence on feelings. According to him, it is necessary to activate the left frontal lobe cortex,
because then the brain gives you a hope when you imagine the joy of goal achievement. The idea
becomes a great impulsion to ignore difficulties. Conversely, if delve into the present without
thinking about ideal life, you activate your right brain lobe letting in pessimistic thoughts that
weaken the motivation and impede success.
Questions on how to choose and develop effective, individual, and not forced environmental
goals are provided in table 5. Question formulation objective is provided next to each question.
17 Goleman D., Boyatzys R., McKee A. (2007). Lyderystė. Kaip vadovauti pasitelkiant emocinį intelektą. Kaunas:
Smaltijos leidykla
Understanding question goal is actual for better understanding of the direction and reason of
development of GROW goal stage. In addition, it provides clearer structure and benefits of
conversation management in coaching others.
Table 5. Questions contributing to development of a goal
Questions Question objective
Do I feel inspired when thinking of my goal? The best goal is the one encouraging feeling happy or smiling just
thinking of it.
Is my goal of manageable size and not so huge to
win power over me?
Setting too high goal is a self-programming to failure. If you think
that your goal is too high, try to create a sub goal, which can be
achieved within a few weeks.
Is my goal is higher than my competency?
All goals not only depend on us to some extent. However,
believing in goal accessibility, one can expect that his efforts will help to achieve it.
Did I specifically define my goal? Verbs “to identify”, “develop”, are less clear than the verbs “buy”
or “register”.
Is my goal measurable? Whether the goal is specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and
time-defined.
Is my goal formulated in a positive way? It is more effective to focus on what you want than what you do not
want.
Is there a clearly defined reachable moment
when I will know that I succeed in achieving the
goal?
It is important to know that clearly defined moment when the goal
has been achieved. The moment of some goals is obvious (e.g. the
phrase “Yes, I agree” spoken during wedding ceremony), otherwise
it has to be created (e.g., “I’ll travel by airplane” when a trip is
planned).
Whether the goal is more what I want than what
I feel “I should” do? The goal works best when the person desires to achieve it.
Do I know what I lose if fail to achieve my goal? Understanding of potential losses if failed to achieve the goal can
be very motivating.
Have I considered what I lose if manage to
achieve my goal?
When changing we always loose something, therefore it is
important to understand what you will lose if you reach your goal.
What are the potential risks of achieving this goal?
There are risks associated with goal achievement. The best way is to know what the possible risks are. Then you can get ready for
them in advance.
Is this a real goal I want to reach, whether I am
keen on that it remained my dream?
Is your goal something you really want from your life? Are you
ready for success?
Do I really asked myself about what I want, or I
did not think over something?
We make decisions to the best advantage at the second attempt,
because we are influenced by the fear not to achieve what we really
want.
Whether the goal does not contradict my other
goals or objectives?
Think about how much time, money and other resources can you
spend to reach the goal. It is also worth to consider other goals that
may be donated for the goal.
Table 6. Examples of goal identification Concise examples Elaborated examples
Improve efficiency of business. To get 10 thousands Litas net profit by the end of April 2010.
Learn French. Be able to speak French and understand discussion at a business meeting on 15 May in Paris.
Emigrate to Sweden.
To find a favourite work with annual wages of 100 thousands Euro,
accommodation to live the way a like, and to become a legal resident
of Sweden by the end of September.
R – Define the Current Reality
The second stage of the GROW method is an identification of reality. If the goal is our final
stop, so the reality is where we are now. This stage aims to accurately understand the situation and
its vision. The main task is not to analyse, solve or draw conclusions, but understand the essence of
problem and determine how far we are from our goal.
The dangers at this stage lies in that we can be engaged in the network of opinions,
persuasions, obstacles or thoughts before the reality is identified. You should understand and learn
more about the problem, be able to make better decisions and choices yourself at this stage; do not
respond to the influence of surrounding persons. According to L. Pečkaitis18
, board member of
„North European Coaching Association“, in his article “In fact, each of us is an individual with his
own authentic experience, perception of reality, it is only in ourselves we can find the answers to
our questions”.
This stage should also cover all the resources that can be used for gaol achievement, even
those that does not seem useful at first glance. In addition to the most important resources, such as
equipment or money, it is worth to mention the skills, contacts, achievements and enthusiasm.
Contribution of the surrounding people that is also considered a resource should be assessed: getting
useful information or borrowing necessary tools.
Table 7. Questions contributing to identification of reality
Questions Question objective
Is my reality expressed in the same terms as the
goal?
It is important to distinguish reality from realia. Assessment of real
situation should be as objective as possible and as much as possible
without strangers’ opinion.
What are the steps I have to do to reach my goal? If you know the steps you need to take to achieve the goal, the steps
you have already done identify reality for you.
How many things have I already done? It gives valuable facts.
Did I include facts and figures? Facts and figures are the best way to express reality.
Did I include assumptions? Such questions as “how, what, when, where” are used to stay closer to facts.
How many times have I tried to achieve the goal? Inclusion of information about previous attempts to achieve this goal
and feelings – is factual information.
What happened to my previous attempts to
achieve a goal?
It is useful information that now could become success - again it is
necessary to maintain objectiveness. The phrase “I always have my
favourite chocolate at home” provides more evidence than “I have no
self-control”.
How did I behave when I experienced a failure? If you know that you are apt to punish yourself in case of failure, you
should carefully plan your actions.
Are there any opinions and beliefs in my reality? Describe the facts and avoid strong judgements.
Did I include my feelings about the current
situation? It is important to know how you feel in the current situation.
Did I include information on obstacles? Pay attention to the information about obstacles, but do not include
them in this stage.
Does my reality strongly support my factual
position, rather than hopes and fears? Do not include information that is impossible to verify.
What skills and abilities helpful in goal
achievement do I have? Accessible resources.
What kind of inter-related information or
knowledge do I have? Resources covering information and knowledge.
Do I have any skills that I could use from other areas of life?
Resources covering skills.
Did I manage to do something like this before? Past actions to achieve similar goals can help to prepare for the
current attempt.
18 www.neca.lt/viskas-prasidejo-nuo-teniso/
Table 8. Examples of Reality Identification
Concise examples Elaborated examples
“I know a number of recruitment consultants” “I personally know three recruitment consultants. I can call them and
ask for help. I know four more consultants, but they do not know me“
“I'm overweight” “My weigh is 80 kg and it is 10 kg of recommended weight”
“I do not think I will find a job ever again” “I have been looking for a job for six months, and I had only two
interviews with employers during that time”
O – Define the Obstacles
The obstacles standing on the way of goal achievement are clarified, but the ways to
overcome are not analysed at the stage. It is important to identify all the obstacles as accurately as
possible and not to get lost in labyrinths of decisions or persuasions. One may identify the obstacles
himself or involve help of others. The obstacle can affect physical environment or lack of resources.
Perhaps, identification of many obstacles may lead to fear of making next steps; therefore
the adequacy of obstacles must be assessed. Some of the obstacles are fake obstacles.
Let's analyse the following phrase “I am too old”. This abstract expression could stop us
when we will consider it relevant and accept that it can really stop us. To overcome a certain
obstacle becomes easy if we reformulate emphasizing exactness and avoiding emotions (e.g.:
“you're not too old”). In the development of the example you should consider that you are let's say
55 years, you have valuable experience to share. Some managers feel uncomfortable because their
subordinates are their parents’ age. The following note can be emphasised: age can make job search
more complicated. Finding a job is becoming more difficult, but still possible.
Table 9. Questions contributing to clarification of obstacles
Questions Question objective
What stops me reach the goal? The obstacle is what hinders achievement of the goal.
How do I know that exactly these things prevent
my ability to reach the goal?
Sometimes what we perceive as an obstacle, not what is really
stopping us. The obstacles can be identified by the following three
criteria:
Important problem
No ways to escape the problem
It is not clear how it impedes achieving the goal.
What else can stop me (solving complex
problems, there are usually a lot more obstacles)?
It is important to keep asking this question until you feel that you
found all of the real obstacles.
Obstacle – Me
How do I have to change personally to reach my
goal?
Usually, there are personal obstacles that hinder achievement of the
goal.
What stops me to change? This question gives more information about what is a real obstacle.
How much self-confidence do I have to achieve
the goal?
It is important to know real cause of lack of self-confidence,
affecting goal achievement.
What are the possible risks or dangers I will
encounter, if I refuse to achieve the goal?
Not clarified dangers and their decisions in our minds will be
unclear, vague and triggering fears. It is much easier to plan
overcoming the risks when you know them.
Are the dangers real, or is it just an excuse for
being inactive? It is very important to be honest with yourself in terms of risk reality.
Do I do anything, directly or indirectly, in order to
keep the situation? This issue explains our role keeping beside the obstacle.
Do I have any expectations of how to achieve this
goal?
Such expectations as “have to” manage the situation can create
additional obstacles.
Do I process the current situation or the past one? Sometimes we do not see the current situation we deal with, because we remember the ones happened in the past.
Obstacle – others
Do other people are a part of the obstacle? How
exactly do they stop me?
An attitude or behaviour of other people often makes it harder to
achieve the goal.
What prevents others from cooperation with me? It is important to understand the reason why other people do not
cooperate.
What is the consistency of reasons of non-
cooperation?
Sometimes we think we know the reason, but it is not a real reason.
You may need to check it.
Obstacle - environment
Do I have the right physical environment to
achieve the goal?
Simple things such as bad organisation of environment can be an
obstacle.
What do I need to change in the environment in
order to reach the goal?
Finding out the things to be changed is mainly realisation of
changing.
What else? This question encourages thinking continentally.
Obstacle - resources
What resources do I need, but do not have by
now?
It may be time, money, support or knowledge. It is important to
consider carefully.
What skills and abilities do I need to achieve my
goal?
Sometimes the goal requires particular skills or abilities, which we do
not have at the moment.
Table 9. Examples of identification of obstacles
Concise examples Elaborated examples
“My work planning is hopeless”
“I cannot solve and classify received messages lying on my table for
three months already. Also is became difficult to find wanted object
on the table”
“I’m not motivated”
“I often stay in bed up to 10 hours in the morning in order not to
prolong the time before lunch, I’m watching TV. If I have to do
something important, I wait until the very last minute“
O – Explore the options to overcome the Obstacles
When all the obstacles are identified, it is necessary to make a list of possible problem
solutions and get closer to the goal. Some of the solutions are fulfilled when many of the obstacles
are overcome at the same time, others – can quickly lead to a dead end. It is advisable not to reject
ideas too quickly just because they look distant or create additional obstacles. Sometimes these
additional obstacles may be very useful.
It is relevant to use all possible sources that come to your mind, not to limit seeking of
information in traditional sources only at this stage of the method implementation. According to
suggestion of B. Griffiths, a great way to force you to think from a different perspective is to
imagine how other (different race, gender, ethnicity or religion) person would do. He recommends
considering the possibility of asking famous people for advice. What would Gandhi, Churchill, or
Donald Trump advice? You can ask anyone, whether he is alive or not, real or fictional. And it does
not matter that you really do not know what answer they will give you (it is a guess), the aim is to
look from new viewpoint.
In order to find the ways to deal with obstacles it is recommended to adapt the questions
below or their parts to each identified obstacle (by necessity).
Table 10. Questions contributing to finding possible options to overcome the obstacles Questions Question objective
What would be my first step to overcome this
obstacle? The first step is often all you need.
What is the simplest solution? Sometimes the simplest solutions are the best solutions.
Enlargement of mind
If I did not face an obstacle how would I behave? These questions help to free the mind and make solutions more
creative . If I had a magic wand what would I do to
overcome the obstacle?
What is the perfect solution?
Lack of resources
How can I create what I need? Often the resources are available, but we do not recognize them until
clearly asking ourselves about the issue.
Who could lend me what I need? This question helps to create options when other people can help us.
How else could I get this? Could I offer
something in return?
Mostly the options are related to cooperation not to payment for
service.
Who I can give me an information or knowledge I
need?
Very often there are people who could help us if we would dare to
ask them.
How do I acquire the skills that I need? Good actual question.
How can I find a free time which I need? This question is not valuable if you are sure you do not have the time
you need.
Efforts and challenges
Have I ever solved something similar in the past?
What did I do then?
We could remember the skills and knowledge used to solve past
situations and apply them to the current situation.
What have I already done to come closer to the
goal?
Often there are some factors that resolve in the process. If we are
able to recognize them we can use them, or even more to achieve
with them.
Are there any experienced and tested ways of how
I could overcome the obstacles? How could I find
this out?
Our mind often focuses on one way of solving the problem. This
question stimulates us to consider other ways to overcome the
obstacles.
Involvement of others
Is there anyone else who could overcome this
obstacle? How would he do it?
We can use the information about how other people would deal with
this situation, which quite complicated for us. Creation of new opportunities is performed without asking or directly involving other
people to the process, but thinking about such alternatives.
Are there any other people who would be willing
to help me? Many people are apt to “act alone” not involving external assistance.
What mistakes made by others did I notice? How
can I avoid these mistakes?
This question leads to think one step ahead and avoid potential
obstacles.
Me
What does really motivate me? If really motivating solutions are created, it is more likely they will
be implemented.
What will I gain by changing approach? Sometimes we limit ourselves by thinking about our chosen options
of solutions.
What would I do if I were more drastic and less
drastic? Decisiveness helps to create more potential options.
What would be a real risk that I would be willing
to accept?
It can be very interesting and motivated to cooperate with the risk in
order to avoid it.
What would be the real danger which I do not like
to happen?
The knowledge of the decisions we do not want to accept is also very
useful.
How could I change my reaction to a situation or a person to get a different result?
Since we usually are a part of the problem, changing our responses may be very helpful in developing options of solutions.
What rules do I refer to? Am I sure if they are
right?
It may be the rules created by ourselves, other people or institutions.
It is necessary to make sure they are real and truthful.
How could I deal with this obstacle applying
other unusual approach?
Thinking about how to change our normal thinking pattern may
distinguish other options.
Quantity and quality
Do I have enough options to move forward? When options are set, you should check whether it is now possible to
push the other identified obstacles.
Do I have to solve this obstacle to the end, or I
can just avoid negative consequences? It is not always necessary to solve the problem to the end. Another
way providing enough of what we want may occur. What would be the partial/ temporary solution
that would be relevant at the moment?
Table 11. Examples of overcoming the obstacles Concise examples Elaborated examples
“I could ask for help some people” “I could ask Jonas or Antanas to explain me how the program
operates”
„I will try to behave other way” “Next time when Antanas will be persuading me to overwork I will
be ready to suggest alternatives instead of acceptance of the advice”
“I will move to projects during the nearest few
weeks”
“I will draw personal motivation plan with certain stages and reward
for implementation of each stage in order to finish the project
delayed for quite a long time. I will ask Jonas and Antanas to meet
me every week for help”
“I will overcome financial difficulties” “I will review all the last financial difficulties, define what have I
done to solve these difficulties and apply these principles once again“
W – Establish the Will
The last stage of the GROW model is to determine the plan of future actions. This stage is
different because we used to choose sequences of actions and combinations of options to reach the
goal at the earlier stages, and here actions must be specific with established date and clearly
demonstrating how to get to the goal.
Sometimes you may need to explore actions before making your final decision. You can re-
use the GROW model to overcome new obstacle and improve your plan. If the plan is detailed, it
will become a consistent diagram of achieving intermediate goals or measures.
Each of the solutions is adapted following questions or parts.
The questions below or their parts are applied for each selected solution option.
Table 12. Questions contributing to creation of a plan of future actions
Questions Question objective
What is the first step I should do?
It is important to convert solution methods into actions. These actions
must be fulfilled during one to three weeks. In case it is difficult to
make actions to be implemented during this period of time it is worth
trying to split and implement faster.
How could I anticipate the second step I should
do? The first step often defines the second one.
Do I need:
Establish a contact?
Acquire new skills?
Acquire knowledge?
Take actions to change the template?
Take actions to remind myself the goal
and process?
Do something that requires a physical
power?
Finish something?
Ask anyone?
Propose something?
These items are the list of control actions.
What is the last step I should do? How could I
achieve my goal moving in backward direction from the last step to the first one?
It sometimes possible to move backwards from the last step to the first one in case you know the last possible step.
Comprehensiveness
Are my further actions realistic? If you do not feel that the actions are realistic it will be difficult to
accept obligations.
Did I consider all possibilities that may be useful? It is important to be sure that all the options have been considered.
What would be drastic and ambitious actions? Drastic actions can often push forward fasten than common ones.
What would be creative activity? Discovering creative activity may often turn established models
upside down.
How could I take actions solving my major
problem?
Pushing forward when solving particularly complicated problem
gives much energy.
Have I considered the ways to maintain
motivation?
Loss of motivation is a frequent reason of failing to reach the goal for
the majority. Therefore it is necessary to plan how to maintain the
motivation.
Support
Who will be willing to give me support? How and
when could I get this support? Support is the main factor for goal achievement. Be sure, you will
have enough support. Where is the first place I would turn to for help?
Where is the last place I would turn to for help? Sometimes the people whom we do not ask to help could give us
significant support.
Consequences
Who will be affected by my actions at most? Do I
need to notify them?
Thoughts about activity through consequences may enhance success
possibilities.
How should I manage with undesirable response
from other people?
Self-confidence is enhanced when knowing how to deal with
undesirable responses.
Obligations
(Evaluate according to 1 to 10 scale where 10 is
“completely sure”), To what extent am I sure that
I will complete all actions? (If lower than 10) Do
I have to check the task and time to get more
confidence?
To be honest with yourself regarding the readiness to act allows
enhance obligations level by plan.
Do I have anything that would help me to accomplish the steps? If yes, how could I get it?
It is an inspection of the last efforts that may disappoint. What will you then do with them?
Completion
What is the certain date for each step of actions? All the further actions must be dated.
Are my further actions specified, measurable,
achievable, relevant, and time-defined? The same criteria used for goal setting are invoked.
Am I sure that my further actions will allow
achieving my general goal? This question reminds the direction for actions.
How will I celebrate my achievement? The celebration of achievement is a very powerful motivating factor!
Table 13. Example of identification of further actions
Concise examples Elaborated examples
“I will ask Marius to give me a break” “I will speak to Marius and ask him to give me five day unpaid leave
by Tuesday”
“Improve French” “I will register for evening classes of French to get spoken language
fundamentals within three months”.
“Call a few people and ask for help” “I will call Edvard, Joana and Laura next week to ask if they are
ready to introduce me to the director“
Summary. The GROW method is not only a tool for achievement of goals, but also a
problem-solving tool. It is relevant to solving both business and personal problems. It works
anywhere you need to achieve goals or overcome obstacles standing on the way. The GROW model
can be applied in solving own problems and problems of other people, as well as in group work
where the members share common goal or problem.
Japanese Kaizen method. Every coach or andragogist playing his role and making an effort to help
others to clarify, define and achieve their goals can apply various techniques. It depends on their
creativity, ability to choose the most appropriate way of their intervention echoing client’s need for
help in its best way.
Japanese Kaizen method or principle is applied in personal or professional improvement.
KAI: change ZEN: for the better
Kaizen principle – continuous improvement
Kaizen basis – a tiny but everyday change
These interrelated pictograms mean continuous (everyday) improvement. Kaizen may
mean and continuous changes for the better till the second stage of improvement. Kaizen peculiarity
– it may be used by anyone. Kaizen is based on not drastic, but every day, tiny and continuous
changes towards continuous improvement. It is a contrary to western conception of brutal reform,
when everything is left and “started from nothing”. According to Kaizen conception, nothing should
be left and nothing should be started from nothing, but one should search how to improve various
activity processes (organization or individual) where and to what extent it is possible applying 5 S
principle:
SEIKETSU (Standardizing);
SEISO (Cleaning);
SEITON (Ordering/Arrangement);
SEIRI (Sorting)
SHITSUKE (Disciplining).
Kaizen may be applied in everyday people’s activity, learning, production, company,
institution, family etc.. To improve personally and professionally Kaizen suggests an original style
of management based on “healthy mind” logics. Kaizen is first of all a philosophy requiring
continuous development as a compulsory transmission to progress. Kaizen may change the life of
an individual in revolutionary and positive way.
Why is Kaizen method effective? All the changes even positive changes raise concerns.
Human brains seem to be programmed to stand against changes. In case of fear, concerns it suggests
the only alternative: run away or fight, resist. In Kaizen method human brains are as if fooled
because very small changes are not very noticeable, therefore an automatic programme “Danger,
changes!” does not work.
“Japanese Kaizen method is characterized by small actions leading to achievement of big goals,
because human being does not lose the courage to change” (Bill Marchesin).
Everyday small actions and initiative do not require big efforts from a person, but such
activity may last month by month. Man day by day sees small but stable outcomes leading to the
established goal. The main Kaizen rules:
1. Ask yourself a lot of questions about the problem. Confine yourself from fears while analysing
the problem. Stimulate your creativity in order to solve the problem.
2. Establish the goal and split it into small elements.
3. All the time, even in case of threatening crisis, solve small problems achieving your final goal.
Examples of application of Kaizen method:
1. You are dreaming of writing a 360 pages book. Yes...but how to do it? How to write such a big book? According to
Kaizen method, you should write one page per day, and it is completely possible.
2. You decided always to keep your working place tidy. To begin with try to put on pencil caps every day after work.
Do it to form a habit. Then every time try to orderly put all you writing after the work. When is become a habit, move
over to documents on your working table. First of all, sort some of the documents, then a file, then another etc. You will
be surprised by order in your office after some months.
And now say how and in what area do you personally could apply KAIZEN?
When summarizing it is possible to state that after andragogists have acquired coaching
knowledge, skills, abilities and various coaching techniques, they have the opportunity to apply
coaching in their activity as a major support/help tool for adult learners.
Self-control questions:
1. What risk could the coaching specialist face, if he would “chase” client’s goals, hurry
“helping” the client to achieve his goals?
2. How to explain the concept of goal visualisation?
3. What should a man do in case he does not have volatile fantasy and is asked to visualise
(imagine) his goal during coaching?
4. Why did the author decide to draw this picture? What is off screen?
5. Have you ever applied GROW methodology in practice? If so, please provide a specific
example.
Check if you are able to answer the main question of the theme: how to set
appropriate coaching goals?
PRACTICAL TASKS 1 (see Appendix 4):
2.4. Ability to Listen to and ask Questions The main question of the theme is – what are the main abilities of coach and how are they
expressed?
The main ability of coach – ability to listen. Very often certain communication obstructions –
“viruses” make it difficult to listen, but there are means of destruction of communication “viruses”:
Table 14. Elimination of communication obstructions with the help of questions
“Virus” Symptoms “Virus” destruction mean - questions
Inaccurate facts
Unclear, not definite actions,
What exactly do you want to tell me? Who? What /How?
Where?, When? Who with? With whose help?
story, context
Interpretations of said
words
Assumptions,
suspicions,
hypotheses, conclusions,
generalizations
Causality: how X depends on Y ? Who did say (prove) you
that?
Equivalence: X is one thing, and Y - another. How does X prove Y ?
Thought analysis : What did you refer to saying so….? How do
you know exactly?
Critical assessment
It is good, it is bad,
it is important, and
it is likely that,
unlikely that…
What was your statement based on?
Doubtful norms, rules
Must, do not must,
ought to, do not
ought to…
What does stop us? What would have happened, if we behaved
like that? (Determination of doubtful reason).
What would have happened, if we did not do so?
Generalizations
Always, never,
nobody, all are the
same...
Always? Never? All?
Request to provide opposite example
Explanatory conversation and focused listening – active processes of
communication. They require participation, response and sociability. Sometime there is a need to
participate in conversation because the main method of coaching is a conversation, sometimes to
listen.
The aim of explanatory conversation as a specific coaching method – to express in
words the activity performed by man. Therefore this conversation is interesting in order it gives the
individual a possibility to reveal thing he does not notice, see or perceive. The conversations help
the client to retrieve self-confidence, reveal his internal powers and resources he did not know about
before. The explanatory conversation is based on P. Vermerscho papers (2003). For example, well
performed activity task is verbally transmitted during the conversation. Activity concept is not
limited to only material actions, but also covers thinking. Discussion:
What do you say when you do not understand what others say to you? What do you do when you want the speaker to
rephrase? How do you understand that you perceived the information the way the speaker wanted you to perceive?
What do you do when you want the speaker to confirm your perceiving is right?
The coach tries to help the client to understand his simplified knowledge, skills during the
explanatory conversation, and it may be a secret key to professional improvement and application
of practical learning situation. The understanding comes with words, speaking, expressing
simplified knowledge. This is the aim of the explanatory conversation. It is possible to learn the
techniques of conversation, but some difficulties may occur:
To explain your activity in simple words is not so easy how it might seem. Here a new
statement and approach are necessary. Formulation of new statement, approach is not an
easy thing, therefore the main function of the coaching specialist is to help the client at this
stage;
To receive simplified information is not so easy how it is told about procedural knowledge.
The subject has procedural knowledge, the fact is proven by practical activity, but this
knowledge is not conceptualised, not expressed (not verbalize), therefore it can be stated
that it is beyond our mind. This knowledge is indirectly proven by client’s statement “I
knew, but could not say it”;
The help offered by tutors, mentors seeking to conceptualise procedural knowledge is often
ineffective compared to applied direct conversation methods. However, the coach must
know the methods of indirect conversation.
The explanatory conversation is not a conversation of the highest level. It has
distinctive objectives, techniques and their systemic structural access. Thus, the explanatory
conversation allows verbalising (saying): specific action, the thing that has been done for sure;
perceive action elements, comprehend the contents of non-effective/effective action; enhance
thinking efficiency of acting subject; enhance autonomy level of the subject.
Summarizing the ideas of many coaches in practice, it may be stated that very often
client do not really know what they know. Therefore they think they are not competent because they
have not ever analysed nor their experience, nor ways of activity. The whole process of explanatory
conversation is divided into the following stages:
• I can, I know;
• this is this;
• proof;
• return;
• learning.
The coach avoid “why?” questions during the explanatory conversation, because such
questions enforce the client to find reasons, and the aim of conversation is to reveal to the client the
things he does not see, recognize, perceive. General questions, questions with several possible
answers or requiring providing an attitude are also avoided.
Sometimes all you need during the conversation is to listen.
Discussion:
How do you know that anyone is actively listening to you? What do you do when you are listening actively? How does
look like actively listening person?
A very important thing is listener’s optimism. Optimistically-minded listening people
help to orient thoughts from self-compassion to more important and beautiful things as well as to
find the way out when it seems all the doors got closed (Mažutytė, 2009). The same author
distinguishes several types of active listening: optimistic, patient, sequential, good-natured,
sensitive etc. It is natural that at the worse moment of life we do forget how brave, happy, resistant
we are, thus, what a success to have listener-optimist at such moments of life. Maybe the majority
notices how difficult is it to get rid of personal thought and mood during the conversation with other
people. Many people instead of focused listening once in their life thought about the answer and
how would they felt in such situation, or he (she) is talking a “trash”. It is necessary to listen to
other person attentively trying to forget about yourself and your opinion. Even in conversation with
closest relatives we do not express our true feelings. We always keep something quiet, leave
unexpressed thoughts between words, that we do not dare to say or do not know how to say. The
coach must try to hear the unsaid, because the majority like to communicate with people who can
openly say: “I know your feelings, desires and dreams”.
Patience determines the ability to listen during conversation. There is no true listening
without the patience and no conversation without the listening. We often really do not have time to
listen to somebody. However, in such cases we should be open-hearted and not to lie saying we
have time to speak and even want to.
Patient listening during conversation means that: conversation partner is allowed to say
and he will not be interrupted by “I know what you want to say”; you are allowed to speak after two
or three seconds of silence (Masalskienė, 2008). Big and often poorly assessed danger aims at
selection of what we want to hear to be happy and what conforms to listener’s opinion.
Firstly, the sequential listening is an focused listening even when heard statements are
not pleasing and do not correspond to listener’s opinion; the listener must think about the things he
have heard, not to prepare his speech in his mind; actually to track the thought of conversation
partner and try as soon as possible to understand the structure of the language and goals; to
comprehend not only the spoken words, but also secondary features, posture, gesticulation, gesture,
voice timbre and speaking rate what helps to create general impression (Mažutytė, 2009). Discussion:
Why do not we listen to sometimes? What could be the internal reasons of not listening? External reasons of not
listening? Are there listening styles? Is the influence of status and gender to listening expressed?
We usually got used to listen with criticism and analyse in order to, for example, pay
conversation partner’s attention to unclearly formulated questions or to dishonourable
argumentation. In the course of good-natured listening: I am not only listening what is said, but also
understand what my conversation partner has in his mind in fact; I am simply listening without
trying to make fast and early decisions and conclusions; I try to feel into matters and understand the
causes of concern (Mažutytė, 2009).
Sensitive listening is a type of listening when we give signals (acceptance signs) to
conversation partner and express involvement in his statements and internal readiness to “accept”
them. Those conversation partners who feel constrained, in particular, are very grateful for the
friendly smile, affirmative nodding or other verbal encouragement such as: your experience will
help me to assess situation; I did not consider the problem from the aspect; could you please give an
example of your statement from everyday job? If we feel that it is obviously difficult for our
conversation partner to discuss any subject, in appropriate circumstances, we may directly ask:
would you like to take an occasion to talk about your concerns? I perfectly understand that you find
it difficult to talk about your problems now and here.
Some authors (Lenhardt, 2002; Grant, Spence, 2010 et al.) distinguish the following
strategies of listening: willingness to active listening; observance of listening objective; distinctions
of the information.
The following technique for development of active listening skills is suggested (Amar,
Angel, 2006):
clarify. Ask if something is not clear. This will give you more information and allow
demonstrating your interest and concern. “Tell me about it”. “Can you give examples?”
Some people are afraid of questions, so please be gentle, give support. Be careful with
“why” questions. Instead of “Why do you want to take coaching courses?” ask “Do you
want to learn something special?”
generalize things you heard from a person to check if you understood correctly.
hear the feelings. Let the person feel that you hear emotional content.
look deeper. What does the person feel, but do not say?
be empathetic “If I experienced that, I would feel certainly sad”.
learn to be determined. Politely but insistently defend your persuasions.
express your thoughts and feelings, express needs and desires.
There is no moment without connection during the conversation. Even when we listen
to (or sometimes do not listen) we consciously or more often unconsciously regularly influence our
conversation partner (Amar, Angel, 2006).
Self-control questions:
1. What makes the communication difficult in terms of focused listening?
2. What are the main features of explanatory conversation, main coach?
3. What are the strategies of active listening?
4. How could be the listening improved?
Check if you are able to answer the main question of the theme: what are the main abilities of
the coach and how are they expressed?
2.5. Conversation Management and Question Formulation Technique
The main question of the theme is – how to formulate appropriate questions in
coaching?
Managing the conversation the impact of question is decisive (Grant et al., 2009).
When asking you always to wait for answer and find out the essence of matter at the same time.
Questions stimulate provision of information, expression of attitude, whether to be against or
explain certain nuances. However, we know from our experience that questions can have another
impact under certain circumstances. The questions often invoke certain, but not always predictable,
reaction. For example, unreflective questions could disturb, provoke or even hurt the conversation
partner. There are questions extending conversation topic and sharply interrupting it. Questions may
help to satisfy curiosity, compromise the conversation partner or express true sympathy and trust
(Duijts et al., 2008). If the questions remain unanswered or partly answered in the course of
conversation, often the reason is not unwillingness of partner, but unclear formulation of the
question.
Types of questions (Agarwal et al., 2009):
Multiple meaning and complex questions are characterized by clear “deterrence” feature.
Usually short and clear answers are given to short and clear questions.
Not only answers, but also questions are the result of thinking. Often the questions trigger
hardly defined disagreeable feeling of general nature that shortly and easily transmits to our
conversation partner creating appropriate conversation atmosphere.
If the conversation is managed according to the partner, the questions should be raised in the
course of the conversation. If the questions have been prepared before starting the
conversation, often a risk to disorient from topic of interest of the conversation partner. The
most attention must be paid to avoidance of behaviour contradiction to verbal statements.
Feedback, compliments and support are necessary to enhance the efficiency, develop
work, and feel self-confident. It should be said to people that their efforts and achievements are
assessed. The complements are the most effective when related to certain activity, feature or
element.
All the technique of formulated and answered questions is based on philosophic
statement that the client, first of all, is clever, well informed about the problem solving, technical
dimension of efficiency (Pousa at al., 2010). The coach considers the client being an expert of the
activity under analysis. Only the client himself can find the most suitable answers and achieve his
goals. For example, the coach of Olympic champion in judo is not an expert in judo, not even on a
level with champion. Or the coach could take the place of the champion. If the coach forgets
himself and suggests a solution to the client, he will be always answered: “yes, but...”. Discussion
Attitude of professional coach – all the ideas dedicated to solve problems have been already considered and declines by
the client... Therefore it is natural to raise a question what is the coach doing by his client?
The essence of the activity of the coach as well as activity means, methods and
techniques etc., coach’s behaviour from the aspect of provided support and help must be discussed.
The most important thing is whether the coach is able to ask a question (formulate questions),
knows what and when to ask.
If we adhere to the attitude that the client is an expert of in his area and problem, the
following question arises: who needs the coach? The only answer is – the client analysed his
problem in detail and reached a dead end (Spence et al., 2008):
1. the way the client has formulated, defined and realised his problem made it impossible
to solve;
2. the way the client has formulated his goal made it unachievable,
3. the way the client treats the situation makes it impossible to solve, hopeless.
Here is the reference point of the activity of coach. The coach directs all his attention
to three mentioned subjects gathering all his listening abilities, creative powers, but professional
coach does not gather his attention to what is the problem the client has defined, raised, but to
how he has done it (Amar, Angel, 2006). The coaching specialist will not focus on client’s
ambitions, but on what is the basis for client’s goals. In other words, the activity of coach is based
on the following principle: it is easy to find the way to solve well formulated problem, and it is
complicated or even impossible to solve poorly formulated problem. Often the reason is that the
problem itself is formulated in contradiction (Amar, Angel, 2006). Thus, if the client does not find
solution or the way out, there is no point of finding them at the same place. Therefore the client
needs support, help to reconfigure the way of problem analysis. Such approach is implemented by
focused listening and asking questions. “Harmful” questions are the ones suggesting the client to
reassess his problems and analysis methods. Therefore the coach (Gyllensten et al., 2005):
is not so deeply focused on client’s problem as on the way the client formulates and
analyses the problem. He does not think together with the client, he focuses on the way
the client things;
not so much helps the client to give reasons for statements as makes attempts to help to
modify, change client’s arguments, logic of justification of statements and attitude to
the universe;
does not raise questions just to get more information what could provoke the client to
feel, think and act in different way;
is not interested in technical aspects of client’s problem taking the risk of involvement
in the labyrinth of the same arguments. It is called client’s search method;
does not help the client to analyse, explain his emotions, but makes attempts to help to
understand, see the situation differently, to reveal different emotions.
When summarizing it is possible to state that the activity of coach is focused on:
listening and intervention in order to understand the personality of the client; listening and
intervention in order to realise the way the client acts: comprehends, thinks, client’s viewpoints,
beliefs and system of values contributing to self-fulfilment, client’s emotions, scheme of thinking
and etc.
The client usually tries to involve the coach in detailed analysis of his problem. Discussion:
What is the meaning of the statement?
“Do not forget that it failed to find problem solutions, therefore the coach must avoid using the same perfume the one
who reached the dead end uses (Lenhardt, 2002).”
A professional coach will not fall into the abyss of client’s problems, but force the client
to see the situation differently. Inexperienced coach only could be identified with client, his
problems. Such identification will not lead to any results, resolution of problem and achievement of
desired goal.
Different types of questions (according to Grant, Curtayane, Burton, 2009). A huge
space, freedom to develop dialogue, his arguments, internal potential is left for the client in
coaching.
► Simple/complex questions. Such division of questions (simple/complex) mean almost nothing in
coaching. There are effective or not effective questions. If there are a lot of questions, they are long
or forcing the client to make a choice, they may be considered complex but not effective. It is a
mistake of not experienced coach. Actually they wish to be assessed by the client, appreciated,
speed up problem solution process or even force to take decision by asking questions. Such
questions are not effective. Though sometimes these questions may be justified by intentions of a
good coach, however they block client’s freedom.
There is another way. The simple question is not difficult, but sometimes it can become very
complicated, ambiguous and unclear. Complex questions are based on a complex approach, which
could be synonymous of “systemic approach”. Thus, complex questions are materialized by
different powerful strategies used by professional coaches. The matter will be discussed later.
► Neutral/Directive questions (open/closed). An object differentiates these questions. The
questions in coaching similar to general communication are used to get required information.
However, the question must not influence the answer. The question leaving freedom for answer
contents is a neutral question. Therefore such question is considered effective. Vice versa a question
suggesting an answer is directive (closed) question. The coach should avoid formulation of directive
questions. An example of such question: “Are you still angry?” – directs the client to emotional
area, i.e. specific contents. The client focuses on emotions and actually feels angry. It is not
necessary. Focusing attention on negative emotions blocks positive emotion that the coach fails to
notice. Instead, ask “What do you feel?” In the course of other coaching sessions when the client
has already at the stage of problem elimination, the following questions might be asked:
Do you prefer to start acting or wait a bit?
Choose A, B or C activity?
Do you want to hold on until the situation will brew?
Has this event annoyed or stimulated you?
Such questions offer alternatives, suggest the client to choose. The client can choose
any alternative offered by the coach. The coach must always remember that closed question could
lead the client towards activity, conclusion or solution. However, is possible to formulate the
question the way it should not influence the contents.
If the client is offered to choose (act or wait because to act is early), then he can not to
manage with the task. Then his answer will be approximately as follows: “I don’t know”. Such
answer will demonstrate non readiness of the client to act, and the coach is trying to speed him up.
Therefore the coach must always know when to ask closed question. Closed questions often end
with very short answer. Therefore it is likely that the coach will undertake communication initiative
asking the following questions helping the client to go deep into his thoughts, gradually transmit to
deeper dialogue with himself.
► Active/Analytical questions. Questions requiring analytical answers may be distinguished. So
called analytical questions initiate the client to deepen into his past and experience, concentrate on
own motivation, context, doubts, desires, goals etc. The client with the help of analytical questions
as if is invited to deepen into the situation, to analyse it wider and deeper (Turner et al., 2007).
However, it would be valuable to remember that the coach should avoid excessive use of analytical
questions, because his objective is to lead the client towards his future, perspective, and not to give
him “suspend” in the past.
Analytical questions start from word “Why?”. The coaches are trained to avoid question
“why?” at any cost at the first stage of training. Almost every time asking that question forces the
client to excuse. Certainly such question limits client’s emotional, mental mobility a lot. The answer
to “Why?” gives much information, but assumes client’s excuse, apology form; therefore it is
unethical (Spence et al., 2007). The answer to question “Why?” is related to client’s past,
surrounding people, perceived as obstacles for client’s future, perspectives. Therefore such
questions are not effective. They do not help to concentrate on the future, perspective, and orient to
analyse the past, get closed in unsolvable situation or problem.
There are a few exceptions, when the coach can ask “Why?”: the first is – to understand
thinking nature of the client, the second one – to understand client’s persuasions, values, attitudes
and all that he has gained from the experience (Paul, 2004). Then less attention should be paid to
the contents of client’s answers. No particularity of situation will be found in the answer, but only a
general view of the problem. Under such exceptional circumstances the general view of the
situation often gives references to obstacles limiting client’s persuasions, attitudes, values, and
powers.
Question “how?” focuses on activity, drives the client to the analysis of future
opportunities, creation of different more favourable future. Basically the questions are formulated as
follows: “how to make something in order to get ...?”. Such formulation of questions is the best and
the most effective in coaching. They are of active nature. Although the questions including word
“how?” are open, they can be neutral or directive at the same time, depending on the nature of
coaching. The question “How do you think to do something that it ...?” give a reference to that the
client has already decided to move to active activity and the strategy of activity or client’s
behaviour may be thought over, because the earlier questions (neutral!) have already prepared the
client. If the client have not decide to start activity yet, this question (“How do you think to do
something that it ...?”) will still drive him to choose A, B or C activity. But in this case the
questions will not be neutral any more. It will become directive and unsuitable to some extent.
Let’s analyse two examples. Here are the questions:
a) Will you explain your viewpoint for colleague?
b) How will you explain your viewpoint for colleague?
a) Question is considered neutral and analytical, because it suggests the client to think if
it is time to take action or to wait. Such question initiates conversation about positive and negative
aspects of future activity. The question is considered appropriate and timely, if the client is not
ready to act. It is considered inappropriate and untimely, if the client is liable to postpone the
activity;
b) Question is considered active and to some extent directive. It comprises a skill to be
explained, an explanation what the client will do when started to act. The question suggests the
client to work a little before taking an action and is based on the idea that decision to act has been
already taken i.e. the client has surely decided take an action. If the client has not decided yet he
may feel enforcement from the coach, encouragement to choose one of the directions which he had
not chosen himself yet. Conversely, if the client decided to take action, this question would lead to
determination of strategy and tactics.
Formulation of questions. The coach must not only pay much attention for selection of types of
questions, but also to formulation the question. During the first meeting it is mostly beneficial to
know how to ask, what about and when for the purpose of client’s concentration on the concept.
Thus, the following questions are possible:
How can I help you? or
So ... (after a long pause)?
What would you like to do during today’s meeting? or
What makes you do it? (for example, participate in coaching) or
What goals do you achieve during the session? or
What do you expect from me? or
What is your relationship with the environment? or
What result would you prefer to get this time?
Other
These questions comprise a routine for the coach though it is a preparatory work for
the main question in order to help the client to start his activity. Although the provided questions are
similar still each of them is designated to stimulate the client to take an active position and feel
responsible for his started activity. However, after reconsideration of these questions, all of them
seem to be relatively different form the linguistic point of view. Two of them are dedicated to make
the client active, the other two – for client to formulate a request for help, the following question is
used to summarize client’s situation, one more – for concentration of attention to the goals.
Therefore different questions at the beginning of coaching session may lead to different results,
even fully opposite results. All this proves that the coach must carefully think over the formulation
of questions. Attention must be paid to separate words, structure and meaning of words.
Thorough formulation of questions should remind the client that it is him, who will
manage his activity, not the coach. The client must himself develop autonomy and responsibility for
coaching powers by the help of questions. The below provided questions are dedicated for the
purpose:
What result do you expect from coaching today?
How will you start? What from?
How far you are now from the desired result?
What is your next step?
How do you prefer to finish this session?
What do you prefer to do during the next session?
Here we see that “you” or “You” is addressed in the formulation. Impersonal or
collective form is avoided. Such approach activated the client. It is necessary to wait out until the
client lets the coach to enter into conversation and to listen to attentively at the same time.
Therefore the questions and statements emphasizing the priority of coach instead of the client are
avoided (e.g.: I think that the problem was defined well; I suggest stopping now and summarizing
the activity). Such statements are inappropriate, because the coach is emphasized, his preferences.
Questions or statement of impersonal or collective form are not appropriate (e.g.:”It is
time to draw conclusions”; “What could be the continuation of our activity?”, “What should we
analyse in the first place?” “Is it possible to predict the activity during the second session?” etc.).
The space of coaching must, first of all, belong to the client. Therefore, the coach must express his
respect to the client and get acceptance of intervention before intervention into client’s private space
using the following questions:
Can I interrupt you?
Will you let me ask you a question?
Will you let me to paraphrase in my own words what I have understood?
Can I share my opinion with you?
Though it is a paradox (such questions), because the question “Can I interrupt you?“ already
interrupts the client, but at the same time a respect to client’s personal space is expressed.
The coach allowed for intervention must be able to focused listening.
In coaching all the questions helping the client to envisage tactics and strategy of the
activity, to plan desirable situation are considered more powerful than those dedicated for
rethinking and analysis of past or current situation (Duijts, 2008). The coach must not ask too
many questions. Each question must be “powerful”, strategic, suggesting the client an original,
thought over approach to activity. It is important to help the client to see the problem, unsatisfactory
situation differently. That is why such questions are called strategic, because they surprise the client
by opening new attitude to the result or goal to be achieved. The coach directs the client using
strategic questions, every time surprising him by revealing something new. Strategic questions are
possible in case of strong interrelation between the coach and the client, respect and trust.
Examples of strategic question formulation techniques:
Ideal – these questions are intended for the client for him to dare to look higher, better and stronger.
What is your ideal?
What is your best possible scenario?
If you would dare to express your hope, what would it be?
What is your highest goal including all the obstacles?
What is your definition to the very best thing in the world?
What is the best situation for you?
Other
Magic – is a type of questions with attributes of fairytales, heroes, mythology etc.
What would you do if you had a magic wand?
If you asked the goldfish to fulfil three wishes, what would they be?
How would you solve your problem if you had a magic wand?
What is your most favourite hero (model, sportsman, businessman ...) and what would he do
in your place to achieve the goal?
If you had an extraordinary power, what would you do in this situation?
If you were a foreteller what would you ask and advise yourself?
Future projection – the client is asked to relocate to the future in his thoughts and draw the best
way of solution of his problem, realisation of objectives, success, his happy life etc.;
Relocate to the future, after a few years you have successfully resolved your problem. How,
what did you do, what steps did you take?
Imagine yourself five years from now; everything is exactly the way you wanted. And how
do you feel then? Tell us, who is around you (people, environment);
Imagine that you have already solved the problem in the best way. So what is the end result?
This type of questions is suitable for those people who have rich imagination.
Search in the past – is a type of questions for realistic people to analyse past or everyday life
situations. These questions are dedicated to search powers from the past:
Did you face similar situation, problem, and people in the past? What did you do to
successfully deal with situation?
What would your best friend advise to do in this situation?
Moving in space – it is sometimes useful for client to stand up, to change his place and to see his
place from the other point. The following questions are to be asked:
How do you understand “his (her)” problem?
What would you suggest «him/her”?
What sources “he/she” could use?
What would you say about “his/her” coach?
It is useful to ask the client to return to his place and summarize his thoughts about what he decided
to do.
Search of small things – the client who things that his problem is huge, impossible to overcome,
the situation is frightening, is suggested to split the prom into small subjects. Resolving smaller
problems step-by-step come closer to desirable goal. The following questions are used:
What would be the first step leading to resolution of the problem?
What would you do firstly, the easiest things, in order to solve the problem?
If you split the problem into 10 pieces, which one will be the first you would take
tomorrow?
What is the first the most necessary change?
Anticipation of the worst. It is a paradox that the client is suggested to think about the worst what
might happen. Such suggestion is related to that the client thinks that his situation came to the
worst. Therefore, the coach makes an attempt to change the worst things with posit ive and
functional strategies:
What can happen really dramatic?
If the situation will become really dramatic, how will it be expressed?
If you really wanted that, what would you do? That would not you do?
If you wanted to set entire team against yourself, what would you do? That would not you
do?
Inversion of statements. “Is based on the principle that the problem is and may be considered
positive subject. Every crisis allows finding fresh novelty, the person you don’t like becomes a
chance to learn something new, things creating chaos and bringing confusion to well known routine
may be a pulse of unperceived life” (A.Cardon):
What would you do if you knew that the problem is a basis for radical changes?
What would be your response to current negative situation if you knew that it is the
beginning of resolution of your problem?
How should you change yourself if you wanted to accept this genial situation?
What would you do if this problem was the beginning of your personal growth?
How the person causing you the problem could be useful to your personal growth?
Change the topic. According to the principle that one train can block another train at railway
station, one problem may overlap another problem in coaching. The coach may use questions to
focus client’s attention and energy, and divert them in the right direction:
If the problem did not occupy all your thoughts, what would you be achieving? What would
you do?
If such situation did not happen, where and what for would you use your energy?
So what is the main theme of what you told me?
Summarising the theme, the following practical advices may be provided:
If the client analyses, explains, tells his problem, situation in quite a heavy or general way,
stimulation, activation and detalization is necessary. Here are the examples:
1. Client: “Could not complete my work“
Coach: “Could you, please, provide an example of such work?”
2. Client: “I hate irresolute persons”
Coach: “Who do you hate at the moment?”
3. Client: “I would like to improve relations with my colleagues”
Coach: “Whom will you start from?”
Thus, moving from general to concrete questions helping the client to solve similar
more general problems in the future.
Self-control questions:
1. What is the main question to be avoided in the course of coaching?
2. What is the nature of questions used in the course of coaching?
3. What question formulation technique among suggested ones is the most acceptable for you?
Why?
CONVERSATION TASKS 2 (see Appendix 4)
Check if you are able to answer the main question of the theme: how to formulate appropriate
questions in coaching?
2.6. Verbal, Paraverbal, Nonverbal Communication Consistency. Conception of
Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP) The main question of the theme is – how is NLP understood and when is it applied?
Communication is an interaction between people, interchange of thoughts, emotions,
introduction to and achievement of social community (Karlof, Lovingsson, 2007.). Surely,
communication has a lot of conceptions and definitions. Everyone can understand communication
differently – one enjoys silent communication, others do not imagine the communication without
lively discussions, for some people communication is a functional speech. Opinions differ.
Nowadays psychologists have divided communication into three types (Mead, 2009):
Verbal communication, includes words, their meanings. In the simplest terms, it is a
speech. Still an attention must be paid to that some words have several meanings,
sarcasm is used in certain cases;
Paraverbal communication. Here the concept is loudness of the speech, meaning of
silence, interruption of partner, intonation;
Nonverbal communication reflects our gesture, mimics, even posture.
It is known that people of different culture understand nonverbal and paraverbal
communication in their own way – in some cases one gesture or sign means prosperity and
satisfaction, approval, somewhere else the same sign or gesture can mortally offend someone or
cause other negative emotions and consequences.
Fortunately, it is possible to learn nonverbal language of other culture faster. In any cases we must
forget that interaction is two-way communication. No two-way communication, no interaction. No
matter how good we are in communication, we still will have problems communicating with people
of different nations, cultures, age and education etc. Discussion:
Whay is it noticed, that “that often fail to communicate those people who can not listen (Mead, 2009).”
In order to hear and understand you need to understand the consistency or conformity
of three subjects (verbal, paraverbal and nonverbal communication). Thesis “the client (the learner
is our case) says and does what he things and feels” is doubtful at least in some cases (Spence et al.,
2008). Verbal, paraverbal and nonverbal communication compatibility is necessary. Speaking
without words through our behaviour and gestures, mimics and eyes always fulfils its function.
During assessment of meaning of silent language we should (Pousa et al., 2010):
1) make an effort to behave naturally, truly, and it will be impressive;
2) remember that conversation partners keep watching over us whether we want to or not, whether
we notice or not.
Body language of both conversation partners should be observed in case of coaching.
The contact must be maintained when others speak. It demonstrates open-heartedness and trust.
Coach’s speech should be calm and tranquil without grimace. He should not bite lips, play with
things, relax hands and legs, should stand straight. The coach should use facts in his speech; avoid
words “always” and “never”. These words rarely reflect the reality and often invoke defence
reaction. Do not complain ever – instead develop certain appeals. To make your relations with the
learner less strained, say: “What should we do to make relations better?” So that functional actions
are activated, instead of saying: “Look at him. He does nothing for years”.
To believe in others and yourself is not easy. Here supporting/restraining beliefs,
Pygmalion effect, fulfilling prophecies (encoding) can help or hinder. Then neurolinguistic
programming (NLP) can come to help. Discussion:
Is it academically acceptable to rely on and believe in the Pygmalion effect or fulfilling prophecy providing coaching
services to learners?
Neurolinguistic programming (NLP). NLP genesis – works of language philosophers
Alfred Korzybski and Noam Chomsky, anthropologists Gregory Bateson and psychoanalytic Paul
Watzlawick. At the beginning of 8th
decade of XX century mathematician Richard Bandler and
linguist John Grindler started developing the basis for NLP. They were interested in psychotherapy,
such communication between people that changes human well-being and comprehension.
Therefore, they involved the most famous US psychotherapists – hypnosis specialist Milton
Erickson, psychotherapists Virginia Satir and the author of gestalt theory Fritz Perls. Since then
NLP penetrates into medicine, psychology, management and etc. This system or technique is called
NLP, because NLP refer to human nerve cell research (how they transmit and process information).
Thus, the word “neuro” appeared, “linguistic” because of analysis, how the language is used to
reflect world image, “programming” – because methods of our usual, automatic thinking, speaking
and behaviour are analysed (Délivré, 2002). Unfortunately, we often behave as programmed
computers and take no notice of it.
Discussion:
“The most part of the information during communication we communicate not by words, but by body language (55 %)
and voice qualities, intonations (38 %), only 7 % of information is communicated by words (Miller et al., 2004). We are
surrounded by million images, sounds and senses. It is impossible to perceive, transmit or keep in mind all the flow”.
Why our conversation partner often pays his attention not to what is said, but to how it is said?
The way we perceive another person is determined by the culture, views and usual
world perception ways etc. Therefore, the mind of conversation partner reflects us not as camera or
tape recorder. Inexact copy of us or our words may be formulated in his psychics. So called “filters”
work in this case. These filters partly erase the information from us, partly generalize it, partly
misrepresent. People also use “filters” giving an answer to the question. Exact these filters were
mentioned by S. Froid, talking about “expelled” from mind sexual fantasies (Cruellas, 2003).
NLP is not only a technique, but also a totality of viewpoints allowing systemic
studying and modelling of how do we create our subjective world with all pain and enjoyment
(Grant et al., 2009). NLP analyses the experience and methods of the best, the most successful
people, how this experience could be passed to people and applied for the achievement of personal
and organizational goals. Understanding the way we create our attitudes, beliefs, reactions and
habits we learn to change them (Paul, 2004). NLP is providing practical methods on how to achieve
success in personal life and business, how to learn in an effective way, how to successfully
communicate with people, how to deliver information so that it was correctly understood.
According to R. Bandler and J. Grinder (quoted Grant et al., 2010) the neurolinguistic
programming is based on the following main principles:
1. A map is not a territory. Every person has his own world experience and beliefs
that can be called a map of reality.
2. Respect. You and your conversation partner have enough resources required for
positive changes. There is no need to create something new.
3. Differences – is a beauty. It is easier to be flexible and achieve positive results when
people difference is assessed not critically and disapprovingly, but with an interest and sympathy.
4. 50/50 rule. Approximately half of advantages from communication is obtained
during nonverbal communication. Therefore it is important to believe in what you instinctively say
other people.
5. Manipulation is a communication. It is impossible to not communicate. Every
verbal or nonverbal signal evokes people response.
6. Opposition is a power. If you face a problem when person “does not want to
understand you”, it means you do not use partner’s reality map or do not involve him. It is possible
to successfully use partner’s opposition as a source of power.
7. Believe in subconscious mind. Human subconscious mind is an ever-living source
of creative solutions.
8. The most important source – yourself. Start improving communication from
yourself. When you are successful and self-confident, you obviously become an example of positive
thinking and changes for surrounding people that they could follow.
9. Right to learn. Let yourself and others make mistakes while learning. Realised
mistakes are a sign that you change, and changes speed up results. Discussion:
Which of these principles may be traced in your communication with the coach most often? How and when are they
expressed?
NLP provides variety of means and methods for communication process. Create a connection
(contact) is the first stage of communication. It may be done with our conversation partner in
different ways (welcoming, introducing, visiting etc.). the first stage of communication allows to
make sure that conversation partner (information receiver) paid his attention to us, at the same time
it is a possibility to specify the context, value and conditions of communication. One more term
used in NLP is “context”; vis-a-avis conversation if given public lecture requires different context
that will determine the future connections between us and information receiver (conversation
partner). After the connection is established, it is necessary to join the conversation partner.
Communication specialists state that positive objective interrelation is possible in case the
information deliver and information receiver are able to communicate on the same wave length, i.e.
on the same level. One of NLP merits is connection techniques - synchronization – formalisation.
Synchronization in its primary sense is somebody’s consistency or compatibility. Synchronization
in communication process means that the two conversation partners take the same position, accept
the same movements, gesture, speaking loudness and intensity. Synchronization in communication
process is easily observed. If both conversation partners get on well with each other, harmony
prevails during their communication. Discussion:
If the second meeting will happen depends on the first impression, and it is created very quickly – during the first
fifteen seconds of conversation. Nine of ten people will, first of all, remember the appearance of the speaker (orderly or
not), gesture (weak handgrip or instead unrestrained body language), facial expression (smile or concern), voice tone
(clear, pleasant speech or too quiet unconfident).
If the first opinion is not too favourable, what would you suggest the conversation partner to change it?
Different types of synchronization may be distinguished: verbal (words), nonverbal (not words),
symmetric, mirror (reflection), crossing (the ones cross their hands, others - legs) effect.
Synchronization in terms of time may be direct or dispersed. The main synchronization techniques:
body synchronization. It is expressed in postural pose (standing, sitting), body movements
(crossed hands or legs) and gestures;
voice synchronization. It is expressed in speech (faster, slower), speech rhythm (clipped,
floating), loudness, intensity, voice tone. It is possible to synchronize with partner in terms
of silence and interruptions;
word synchronization. It is expressed in application of the same words, expressions (verbs,
adverbs, adjectives etc.). To determine communication sensory dominants (visual, audio,
kinaesthetic) of our conversation partner, the same partner’s registers may be used. For
example, visual communication dominant (I clearly see, it is clear, it is not clear...), audio
dominant (I told myself, I hear well, it sounds satisfying etc.), kinaesthetic dominant (I feel,
I understood, it is concern of mine etc.);
criteria/value synchronization. It is important to establish what is important to the
conversation partner. Then the partner is shown that we understand and respect (even if we
don’t think so) his personal criteria (values). It is essential to try to convince the partner that
we fully understand his context;
emotional state synchronization. It is a sign of respect and attention to conversation partner.
If he is happy, let’s laugh together. If he is calm, we must be calm as well. If he is angry,
let’s take care about the reason. Discussion:
Do only NLP techniques allow noticing that you become more flexible and creative, see the solutions for each problem,
able to calmly respond to things you have been avoiding or those giving you unpleasant recollections, easily start
conversation with stranger and communicate with groups of people, give functional arguments, motivate and convince
the conversation partner? Explain your opinion.
The aim of synchronization, as it was already mentioned, to be on one and the same wave
length with the conversation partner, because it determines the chance of success of the first
contact; there is a possibility to create confidence atmosphere, create and maintain connection with
partner or the entire group throughout the conversation. Synchronization is not an adulation or
imitation of other person. It is a way to create harmony of interaction during the conversation. Of
course you need to be able to what your partner, but it is another object of NLP technique.
Calibration – another object of NLP technique designated to observation in order to
distinguish the main criteria of verbal communication. One of NLP postulates – body and mind (in
this case thinking) are the elements of the same cybernetic system. Both elements influence other
elements of the system and, thus, each other.
NLP representatives state that the person is represented (reflected) by three
components: behaviour, feelings (state), thoughts (intellect). It is sometimes difficult to guess what
person thinks about, predict his feelings, but it is easy to watch his behaviour. So the essence of
calibration is to watch the conversation partner and collect nonverbal information, be attentive in
the process of communication and be able to measure the influential possibilities of provided
nonverbal information (without interpretation and censure). It is worth to distinguish the indicators
of nonverbal information that are related to physiological expressions of partner’s behaviour and
state of mind. Several indication levels may be distinguished:
macrobehaviour indicators: posture, gestures, movements, appearance, voice, voice
tone, speech rhythm, manner, loudness etc. Breathing, frequent, slow, normal, changes in breathing
are also powerful indicators of nonverbal information.
microbehaviour indicators: includes facial expression elements, movements of
muscles (lower jaw, blinking, gathering of brows); position of lips (slightly opened, bitten lip);
grimace; colour of under lip, tonus, size, face colour (appeared spots of different colour, redness,
pallor).
Application of calibration technique is beneficial because it provides a lot of information
in the area of nonverbal communication, thus, helping to understand and notice some changes of
indicators in the course of conversation. Another information collection technique is applied in the
course of verbal communication.
Meta-model of information collection. Communication is an exchange of information. However,
the language is not only the source of misunderstanding of communication, but also of
interpretation or even confusion. Thoughts must be clearly expressed in order to understand
conversation partner and to be understood.
Bandler and Grinder have created a method designed for language accuracy called meta-
model of language. The latter helps to collect information about peculiarities of verbal
communication with the help of questions. This method is used in cases when an attempt to avoid
misunderstanding in communication is made. The model is provided in the form of tables according
to three categories (generalization, omission/emission, distortion (misrepresentation). Examples and
questions of each category are provided in meta-model. These examples and questions can be
modelled in every case taking into account certain situation, because of different meaning
depending on the situation.
Table 15. Generalization
Linguistic term Examples Questions Preferred effect
General quantifiers Everything, always, never,
nobody, everyone.
Nothing is wrong, everything
is not so
Nobody works here
To repeat the term making
and accent: everything?
Nobody works? Does really
nobody work? Is it true, all
that nobody works?
To explicate the
generalization.
To find opposite examples.
Usual sense
Rules
Provisions
So there you go.....
Such behaviour is bad
Such behaviour is honest
Is it Your opinion?
Who does state so?
What is the case of
application? What is the object of
application?
How do You know it?
To recover meaning,
Origin of rules and
provisions
Modals
1.in terms of necessity
2.in terms of
possibility
Ought to...
I need...
It is impossible...
I cannot do something
What if...?
What stops You?
And if You would try?
To find out and reveal
results, reasons,
consequences or obstacles
3.In terms of
normalization
A process transformed into suspended
(“dead”) matter
Here the communication is
bad.
Why is it bad?
In regard to whom is it bad?
From whose viewpoint is it bad?
To reveal process specific
features, clarify the object
Table 16. Omission/emission
Linguistic term Examples Questions Preferred effect
Simple omission/emission I do not agree
I am not satisfied
With whom? With what? In
what?
To find what is omitted
(e.g.: complement)
Omission of content
references
I don’t care
It doesn't matter.
I don’t know
About what exactly?
What doesn’t matter?
What exactly?
To recover references of
contents (reveal the subject
or complement)
Omission of comparison
element
It is better to leave
He is better
This is more expensive
Than what?
Than who?
Than what?
Compared to whom?
To find comparison
elements and recover
Not specific verbs He begged me
I used his advice
He won
How?
How?
How exactly?
To clarify verbs
Distortion
(misrepresentation)
Reason-result (x determines
y)
He makes me upset
He discourages me (If x,
than y)
Why does he make you
upset?
How exactly does he
discourage You?
Who discourages you to say so?
To ruin reason-result.
To find opposite example
Complex equivalence (x
proves y)
He never greets me, he
hates me
Why does the fact of not
greeting You prove that he
hates You?
If she smiled, would she be
satisfied?
Have You ever blamed and
thereby hated someone?
To recover equivalence.
To find opposite example
Reading thoughts (subject
thinks he is able to do it)
I know what he wanted to
say
He does so, because... He doesn’t like me
Where do You know from?
Why do you state so?
Who discourages you to say so?
To find and recover the
origin of information
NLP may be applied for anticipation of goals. NLP provides five goal anticipation and
formulation criteria.
1. The goal must be formulated in positive mood. The first question to establish the goal must
be “What do you want? Wish?”. The answer gives a possibility to check if the goal is
positively formulated. Actually, some people answer “I do not want x subject any more” and
so speak about the thing they do not want and not about they wish or want. Therefore, it is
very important to express the goal by positive statement, because our brains do not have
negative representation. Negation exists in speech only. If it is said “Do not think about red
sports car”, the first imagination will be exactly the red sports car.
2. Specific context. It is essential to determine certain context of goals. A question “What do
you really want? Wish?” is formulated for the reason. If we aim at holidays, we must exactly
know the context: where will we spend our holidays, when, in hat season, how much time,
who with? Thus, in order to explore the certain specific context, it would be valuable to
formulate questions of different nature contributing to concretize the goal. Non-specific goal
makes the person confused.
3. Realisation of goals must be controlled. The following questions are actual: “How will you
know (understand) that you reached your goal?” or “What will be your facts of goal
achievement?”. In terms of sensory the same questions would sound like this: “What will
you say, hear, feel at that moment?”.
4. The goal must be realistic. It is essential that the goal belonged to a person. The person must
decide to achieve the goal. Often people express their wishes, desires as if they were their
goal. “I want surrounding people to treat me kindly”. It is only positive purpose or intention,
but what can the person do himself in order to achieve the goal – that is the question that
needs immediate answer. Instead of asking surrounding people for kind treatment, it would
be beneficial to formulate the following goal: “I want to maintain good relations with
surrounding people”.
5. Ecological goal. Ecology is a part of environmental science. NLP distinguishes internal and
external environment. Internal ecology aims at professional, family, social environment of a
person. Internal ecology aims at different personal values, beliefs, provisions, attitudes,
criteria, feelings etc. Discussion:
What does “human ecology” mean today in terms of communication?
The questions ”what will happen, when the goal is achieved?” will force the person to thing
about change consequences, realisations, envisaged goal. The consequences may be very positive;
in this case personal motivation to achieve the goal is intensified. However, negative consequences
are not excluded. Such consequences must be thought over a priori, because they may have negative
influence on the person who achieves the goal.
NLP positive features and weaknesses. First of all, NLP involves effective methods,
technique, but not a territory. NLP today is applied both in personal and professional development.
In the area of personal development NLP allows the person developing his personal sources,
improving and changing himself. Most people decide to learn NLP in order to personally develop.
In professional area NLP methods are applied in sport (training, team formation, efficiency
achievement etc.). NLP methods are also applied in pedagogy and andragogy. Here they help to
develop abilities for learning. NLP technique is applied in therapy, consulting, advising etc.
NLP in the area of Continuing Vocational Education (CVE) is the first tool for training at
workplace. Discussion:
There is/there is no sales or management NLP, specific methods van be applied is sales or management area? There
is/there is no continuous professional development NLP, there are NLP tools applied to workers CVE? NLP is/is not an
additional or specific worker learning tool in CVE learning?
Specific NLP tools, approaches, methods are applied in adult education together with usual
tools and methods. Therefore, more effective competence change could be achieved by virtue of
application of NLP tools in worker learning.
One of NLP critics aims at the possibility to influence or manipulate people by the means of
NLP tools. Actually, the greatest communication paradox is that it is impossible for people not to
communicate. It is impossible not to influence other person in the course of communication. What
is said is intended for conversation partner in order to transmit information, but at the same time an
intention is made to impact the partner. Thus, one can stimulate partner’s anger, hate or vice versa –
provoke or don’t provoke partner’s interest. The question does not decide if we do influence other
person during conversation, but to analyse how to positively influence other people using NLP
tools? NLP distinguishes the terms “manipulation” from “management”. One is accompanied or
invited towards defined goal, while all manipulators are hiding their goals. Certainly, manipulator
could learn NLP tools and methods.
NLP weakness. NLP tools and methods seem to be too simple. Therefore, an illusion that
beginner knows everything may appear. Actually, to manage NLP tools and methods in an
advantageous and effective way, the provisions on new (preferred) behaviour must be changed.
Discussion with an author:
“World perception map of every person influences his life and abilities to achieve success in certain area a lot. John
Grinder and Richard Bandler, in their studies of people who reached great results, selected and systemized personal
features contributing to achievement of desired goals. By creating some sort of world perception map of surrogate
genius. It takes a very long time and accordingly is costly trying to change the traditional ways of human self-
consciousness (psychotherapy, psychoanalysis, life experience). Therefore, NLP creators watching the most effective
psychotherapists and hypnosis specialists have selected the most efficient methods and created the techniques of
destruction of self-consciousness confinement and consciousness “reprogramming” (changing the map) applying it to
easily reprogram their clients into genius” (V. Masalskis)
Your comments and arguments.
To summarize it can be stated that the most significant change is often the change of
our attitude, but not the changes of external world. Our usual perception of the world may be
changed at once. Thus, the aim of neurolinguistic programming is not a change of people and their
minds, but to help them to understand why they are the way they are. Such understanding is equated
with a consolation prize, therefore changes according to S.F. Duijts et al. (2008) are based on
propulsion.
Self-control questions:
1. Why NLP in communication would be considered not only as a technique, but also as a
specific attitude?
2. What is the thesis “Everyone says and does, what they think and feel” doubtful, quite in
some cases?
3. What is the necessity of synchronization of verbal, paraverbal and nonverbal
communication?
4. What does “calibration” in terms of NLP mean?
5. Where and when can the andragogist apply NLP technique and tools?
TASKS 3 - GAMES “Mafia” (see Appendix 4)
Check if you are able to answer the main question of the theme: how is NLP understood and
when is it applied?
2.7. Demonstration of Positive Recognition Signs The main question of the theme is: is it necessary to say or demonstrate the person if you
agree with him? Is it necessary to say what is good? bad? How to say these things?
Signs of acceptance. E. Berne used English term “strake” meaning stroke, petting and
stubbornness. So called acceptance signs constitute the object of transactional analysis (TA).
Transaction is verbal (wordy) or behavioural (nonverbal) interaction between two people or
transaction is a unit of communication. Transactional analysis constitutes a part of social
psychology. In 1970, TA was developed by E. Berne. During the last decades the theory has
expanded: it is applied in psychotherapy, education, covers interrelations, management, personality,
his relations and behaviour.
E. Berne’s theory and practice was focused on communication pathology determined by
psychological games. The author provided general principles of transactional analysis, revealed the
mechanics of faulty “games” leading to emotional damage of personality in his book published in
Lithuanian19
. According to E. Berne, human games are models of ritual transaction or interpersonal
behaviour that could be a reference to hidden feelings or emotions. Thus, transactionists along with
psychoanalytics in the course of game analysis return to past events, pay mush attention to the
structure of personality, however, their reference point – interpersonal relations (Gailienė, 1998).
Transactional analysis opened new opportunities to experience the person interacting with others. E.
Berne and his followers unambiguously state that for the person it is essential to be noticed,
19 Berne E. 2008. Žaidimai, kuriuos žaidžia žmonės: žmogiškųjų santykių psichologija.
“stroked”, recognized. Exchange of signs of recognition, strokes, creates the transaction. The person
receiving recognition signs – stimulations (by words, or information given by actions, gesture,
mimics or sight), at best loose emotional balance. In other cases, it could be reason for sufferings,
psychological disorders (Almonaitienė, 2004). It is possible to analyse communication as exchanges
of certain type, when we transmit information from one to another, and treat the transaction itself as
communication unit (Karpman, 2008). Discussion:
The acceptance (recognition) sign can be positive, negative, behavioural, objective or personal. What are these
recognition signs?:
I like/do not like your report.
I like/do not like the way you eat.
I like/do not like your voice tone.
I like/do not like your clothes
A person wishes to be noticed, recognized by others. Positive recognition signs are
expressed not only in words, but also by smiling, applause etc., negative – by cold glance,
disapproval, critics, knit eyebrows etc. However, negative recognition signs are better than lack of
any signs.
Structuring time in communication refers to the intensity of acceptance signs in terms
of time (Longin, 2006). The person feels uncomfortable in silence, i.e. during non-structural
moment of time. The need to plan the time expresses the need of person to avoid boredom. E.
Berne described 6 time structuring elements (transactions). They were classified according to
quantitative/qualitative features in terms of acceptance signs, from the weakest to the strongest
(Longin, 2006):
withdrawal: the person escapes physically or psychologically;
ritual: common, standardized encoded social relationship (e.g.: greeting style). Rituals
are the most secure form of transaction based on stereotype communication formed by
culture. There is no need to exchange big amounts of information between participating
people in such transaction; Task:
Provide certain examples of transactions from funeral and wedding rituals.
leisure: characterize the conversation according to stereotype characters (e.g.: talkee
talkee, business conversation). It is not binding and half ritual communication. It is
communication between people with similar hobby (e.g.: golf, pocker). Such
communication makes it possible to structure the time and avoid incidents that might
cause to much emotions; Discussion:
Try to establish the transaction between you and fellow-traveller in the airplane flying to USA (in terms of structuring
time). What recognition signs did you used? What recognition signs did you receive?
activity: refers to elements with objectives: to do something, take actions. Transactions
with other people are not necessary during activity structuring time (e.g.: preparations
for examinations, project preparation etc.). Sometimes people take actions in order to
avoid transaction. In other words, important for people acceptance signs are often
received and sent in activity when specking about professional activity or professional
recognition etc., Discussion:
What acceptance sign can be watched during lectures in teacher-student transaction?
What type of acceptance can be watched?
What is the type of most often transaction?
games: make possible exchange of intensive, but negative recognition signs. Game is a
tricky transaction. During the game people are wittingly or instinctively using hidden
schemes to achieve hidden goal. Games have their rules, players, predictable end. It is
an exchange of hidden transactions aimed at verification of solution of life scenario.
Game gives certain benefits, but usually causes negative emotions to all the players.
One person starts the game choosing the role in a dramatic triangle. Then different roles
appear in the triangle: victim, persecutor and rescuer;
intimacy: corresponds to open communication based on trust, respect and acceptance of
other person; gives possibility to exchange positive recognition signs of high quality
and intensity. However, sometimes intimacy transaction may be dangerous. These
transactions not structures in terms of time are usually avoided and changed to
structured and secure one;
As it was mentioned, the recognition signs can be positive and negative intended to products
(services) and person (Berne, 2006). Positive recognition signs make the communication and trust
between people stronger (table 17).
Table17
Acceptance signs and interaction according E. Berną (Karpman, 2008) Acceptance signs Communication Trust
Personal (positive) ++ +++
Behavioural (positive) +++ +
Behavioural (negative) ++ -
Personal (negative) - - - - -
Lack of acceptance signs - -
Recognition is important for every individual. According to the concept of recognition
signs or economics, the person distinguishes negative and positive signs much better, but not
recognition signs in the totality (Longin, 2006). If the person felt negative signs in the past then he
feels them stronger being adult. Therefore, the person may not notice positive recognition signs.
The economics of recognition signs requires abilities to send, receiver, ask for, reject
and provide for yourself. These abilities change individually. There are two limiting notions for
recognition signs: “not enough for everyone” (oneness, rareness) and “only some people will
receive them” (control) (Karpman, 2008).
The technique of transactional analysis (TA). The main TA technique both for
individuals and groups applied in coaching aims at the analysis of life scenario – change of
childhood solutions, decisive scenario and acceptance of new solutions (Agarwal et al., 2009). Life
scenario is a subliminal plan created by a child when making decisions, conclusions that seemed to
be secure in childhood and do not meet the reality today; all it happens under perennial influence
(Karpman, 2008). Thus, in case of stressful situation the person ignores all possible ways of
solution and instinctively chooses the common way of realisation of life scenario. The final aim of
the TA technique in coaching is to achieve clients’ autonomy. TA is a theory of personality and
communication based on interaction by transactions: Parent, Child, Adult. TA states that there are
three separately acting parts in human psychics: parent, child and adult (Karpman, 2008):
Child (Ch)- appears when person is born. Child perceives the world through games. He
ensured the emotional connection with the environment. Child can be happy, he knows
how to love.
Parent (P) – is created by surrounding people. He accumulates instructions given by
more experienced person. He can be angry.
Adult (A) – logically thinking being. He does not have any emotions.
“Child” needs his mother to be together since birth. Mother ensures his safety. When
the child is able to walk he gets into a world full of dangers. The system of logical thinking
(“adult”) develops since birth. However, during the first year of life the person have not
accumulated enough of experience and ability to think logically for he could care about himself. He
is dependable on advices of elder experienced people. A “parent” appears, who accumulates the
instructions from other parents and tutors.
Life positions. Child acquires self-confidence and confidence in others. This confidence
will become a basis for life scenario selecting the most favourite main life positions from the
following ones (Downey, 2008):
I’m OK – You’re OK (+ +): ideal relation according to TA;
I’m OK – You’re not OK (+ -): anger, disgust;
I’m not OK – You’re OK (- +): humiliation;
I’m not OK – You’re not OK (- -): withdrawal, denial position.
Graphical representation is provided below:
Table 18. OK-ness (according to M. Downey, 2008)
I’m not OK –
You’re OK Passive (- +)
Submissive coaching specialist:
Subjective intentions to improve self-respect
I’m OK –
You’re OK Normal (+ +)
Categorical
Emotional coaching specialist: His is successful, because is reliable, positive, has
objective intentions.
I’m not OK –
You’re not OK Do not moving forward
Passive-aggressive (- -)
Hopeless coaching specialist:
Doubts of coaching success and possible benefit for client.
I’m OK –
You’re not OK Criticizing (+ -)
Aggressive
Directing coaching specialist:
Subjective intention to manipulate the client.
Emotionally intelligent coaching specialist applies a combination of skills, “healthy”
statements “I’m OK-You’re OK”, self-conception and conception of others as well as competence
in order to make improvement and development of coached people easier (Karpman, 2008). The
coach must put all efforts to positively concentrate on coached person applying attitude,
understanding and skills to support the person.
When “adult” accumulates sufficient amount of information and experience, he might
could assume charge of management, but “parent” sometimes returns (Berne, 2006). It may happen
in critical situation, when “adult” does not know what to do. When a person is active; a parent often
categorizing statements may be heard in his speech, for example: “nobody is allowed to do
something”. In other situations “child” is revealed in “adult”. Child could use the following words:
“I’ll go. What shall be shall be”. TA states that during communication between two people, they are
influence by one of the three components. In addition, the person addressed a certain component of
the partner. Different people relations consist in communication between “parent”, “child” or
“adult” of one person and “parent”, “child” or “adult” of another person (Berne, 2006). Such
relations are marked by the first letter of the personality component P, C, A. If one person addresses
another to invite to play (not exactly infant games), then child addressed child (C-C). “Parent”
abuses his “child” (P-C). Parent addresses parent to get approval when criticizing something (P-P).
Business communication - both “adults” (A-A). “Child” admits to “parent” he committed a crime
(C-P).
TA allows understanding what happens here and now in the interpersonal relations (two
or group of people) (Berne, 2006). TA gives the possibility to understand problems of interrelation
and nature of intervention in order to resolute these problems. TA states that conflicts arise when
not appropriate side of person answers a question or the answer is given to wrong side of person.
Personal state (Parent, Child, Adult) does not depend on age. The state explains
different psychological games, happening exchange of words (typical), which constantly repeat
psychological games that always have bad end.
According to E. Berno statement – great life guides, directions are determined in
childhood and assume a form of life scenario (Berne, 2006). Good mental health is determined by:
consciousness (mind), spontaneity and intimacy, because the fullness of personality consists of
emotions, thoughts and corresponding behaviour: Parent (P) state – correspond to thoughts,
emotions, behaviour, which the person has formed imitating his parents or other tutors, teachers;
Adult (A) – correspond to hear and now emotions, thoughts and behaviour; Child (C) – correspond
to thoughts, emotions, behaviour that could be refreshed from childhood. Question:
What is the role of player in certain situation in the example below?
Sentence with money:
Client is a representative of law order and at the same time he conducts very profitable financial
operations. Is successful in investment seeking better benefits. Manipulates with big amounts of money
(X role?);
The same client is dreaming about making great donation for the benefit of society like his father did (X
role?);
He technically neatly steals a gum and other sundries from a shop the way he did it in childhood (X
role?).
Forms of transaction. Transaction can be simple and crossed (Berne, 2006):
Simple complementary transaction, when 2 people address each other being in the
same state.
1 example:
a) – Did you manage to prepare the report?
– Yes, I’m about to send it by e-mail (A-A);
b) – Would you like to cinema after this meeting?
– With pleasure, I can’t work anymore, what movie will we watch? (C-C);
c) – You were to tide the room (P-C);
– Stop making my life a burden, I’ll arrange it (C-P).
This way of communication is stable, although words change.
Crossed transaction. Communication changes if transactions cross when addressing
other person who is in different “I” state.
2 example:
b) – Did you manage to prepare the report? (A-A);
c) – Stop making my life a burden, I’ll prepare it (C-P);
d) – How to prepare the report on time? (A-A)
e) – Write by hand, secretary will print it (P-C).
This transaction raises communication problems.
3 example:
a) – Have you finally arranged you documents? (P-C);
b) – Look, I’m arranging them right now (A-A).
This transaction changes the balance of protagonists (main players).
double (ulterior) transactions. In case of such transaction the conversation is
performed on social level, and other transactions – on psychological, unexpressed
level:
4 example:
a) – I need you to stay in the office with me this evening (A-A) (body language shows clear
sexual intention).
b) – Sure. Answer, smile, wink testify that child (C) accepts ulterior motive.
Games. One of time structuring element – psychological games must be discussed in
detail. Psychological games (in Lithuanian they are sometimes called adult games) are time
structuring element prior to intimacy element. This element is characterized by plenty of negative
recognition signs. Therefore it can be considered an opposite to the intimacy. It is a network of
double transactions that ends with drama, always predictable, but always surprising. There are not
only destructive, but also constructive games (not many of them): discussion of various leisure
topics, support, help or care, even with selfish motives, but useful for both players. Most other
games has clear destructive nature.
St. Karpman in 1968 suggested a matrix of all psychological games: drama triangle:
Victim – Rescuer – Persecutor (Lenhardt, 2002). This matrix (see figure 5) may be applied in
coaching in order to solve manipulation problems. However, one must know how to discover the
drama triangle? How to avoid it? How to quit it?
Fig. 7. Drama triangle (Karpman, 2008)
The triangle reflects the power and implicates three different, but closely related roles
(Karpman, 2008):
persecutor (guardian): aggressor, assaulter. Persecutor may be a person, event
or situation. Although it is generally accepted that the persecutor is a negative
role, but in organization he might be a real innovator, initiator, new activity
inspirator etc.
victim: role player experiencing persecutor aggression. This role is also not
preferable, but in organization a victim can take advantage of imbalanced
power equilibrium and start positive changing or reform.
rescuer: defender, prince charming. From the first sight it is a positive role, but
often the role makes the dynamics of the entire drama triangle much stronger.
Without rescuer everything would be solved faster.
Task:
Provide an example for each specified case:
Possible players of drama triangle organizations: colleague – me – administration; colleague –
colleague – me; restructurisation – me – administration; discharge – me – labour exchange; problem
situation – client – coach.
There must be not necessarily three players in the drama triangle. There might be two of
them exchanging their roles without comprehension. For example, when the player accuses others
and plays persecutor role: “if it were not for you, I would be.....”, when conditions for realisation of
his desires are created, it turns out that it is too late. The player becomes a victim from a persecutor.
Persecutor Victim
Rescuer
The coach must, first of all, know the problematic situation of the drama triangle in
order to interrupt unpromising game. Coaches (Cruellas, 2003; Devillard, 2001 et al.) rest on the
statement that behavioural change of any of the protagonists will force and influence other players,
their behaviour and lead to the end of the game.
Five stages to leave the drama triangle (Cruellas, 2003; Devillard, 2001 et al.):
1) To begin with, the player is tired of the game. According to TA (- +), therefore thinks
the game should end. Escape is possible, but it would not solve the problem.
2) To withdraw and assess current role and situation of each player. Role exchange is
possible.
3) Activity strategy is studied according to the possibilities, abilities, form of humour etc.
of the player. Searching for positive intentions in other players’ behaviour, interactions,
used metaphors etc.
4) The player clearly provides situation analysis for himself. Submits it to other players in
order to create a neutral communication. Key points of agreement are envisaged, other
players are thanked for constructive communication in order to solve the problem and
standardize communication.
5) It is verified if all the players feel well after agreement. Attempts are made to realise
newly made “modus Vivendi”20
.
After some practice this process becomes easily implementable, natural.
Games – are certain behavioural and communication forms with hidden motives. Every
player strives for benefit or advantage, positive recognition signs. During the games all
encouraging factors are in subconscious mind, the players do not realize they are playing a game
with its own rules, pre-known players, predictable results. Some games become a very important
part of our lives, i.e. become a game of life that all one will ever end. Andragogist with TA
knowledge would be able to help adult learners to solve similar problems.
Self-control questions:
1. What is the input of E. Bern into TA development?
2. What are the acceptance signs and how are they expressed?
3. How to explain the sense of transaction?
4. Why do adults indulge in different games?
5. What games did you watch or play?
6. How did you quit the game?
7. What were the consequences of the game?
8. What did you learn from your or others’ game?
Check if you are able to answer the main question of the theme: is it necessary to say or
demonstrate the person if you agree with him? Is it necessary to say what is good? bad? How to
say these things?
COACHING SESSION TASKS 4 (see Appendix 4).
2.8. Adaptation to Cognitive Style21
The main question of the theme is – what must the andragogist providing coaching services
and seeking to adapt to learner’s cognitive style know?
Cognitive style is a widely accepted as a significant, predicting individual behaviour factor
(Brigham et al., 200722
). More than two last decades the scientists and practitioners are especially
20 modus vivendi [lot. Way of living]: 1. In international law — short-term international agreement, concluded for the
purpose of impossibility to conclude permanent agreement; 2. Format of co-existence, relationship (Tarptautinių žodžių
žodynas, 2010). 21 Extend the topic if students have not attended bachelor studies subject “Heterogeneity management”.
interested in the impact of personal cognitive style on learning, problem solving, decision making,
organization functioning (Hodgkinson, 200323
). Some of the studies of this area may be mentioned:
cognitive style is essential for personal behaviour, influencing solution making (Emsley et al.,
200624
), problem solving (Brigham et al., 200725
; Chan, 199626
), learning (López-Mesa, Thompson,
200627
), communication (Armstrong, 200428
), group processes (Buffinton et al., 200229
) and
creativity (Gelade, 200230
; Houtz et al., 200331
; Fagan, 200432
; Gallivan, 200333
).
Irrespective of specific method or theory the term cognitive style is usually related to common
preferable method (Cools, Van den Broeck, 200734
). Cognitive style has certain characteristics: (1)
it is a dimension that may be evaluated using psychometric techniques; (2) it is time-stable and does
not depend on mental abilities (intelligence); (3) has two directions (functioning in two directions)
and (4) may be differently valuable, i.e., the style characterises different, but not better thinking
processes.
Question to discuss:
1. Is there a “label sticking” risk speaking about learners group members if the cognitive style of a person is time-
stable?
2. Do not we take the opportunities of person to become involved in other activity, experience and improve at the
same time by referring the person to a certain cognitive style?
Two cognitive style concepts are distinguished in scientific research field: the first conception
characterises the cognitive style based on specific, various methods of activity and their typology.
Cognitive styles are discussed because the way of activity becomes an object of personal choice;
however, the concept of cognitive style here is not narrowed to activity method, tactics or strategy.
Therefore when speaking about cognitive styles not only favourite or chosen activity methods are
emphasized, but also the person himself, who may be characterized in various contexts of learning
or other activity. The second conception of cognitive style is based on the unique method of
combination of different activity dimensions by each person, seeking for effective learning activity.
22 Brigham K. H., De Castro J. O., Shepherd D. A. 2007. A Person-Organization Fit Model of Owner-Managers’
Cognitive Style and Organizational Demands // Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice. Vol. 31, No. 1. 23 Hodgkinson G. P. 2003. The Interface of Cognitive and Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology // Journal of
Occupational and Organizational Psychology. Vol. 76. 24 Emsley D., Nevicky B., Harrison G. 2006. Effect of Cognitive Style and Professional Development on the Initiation
of Radical and Non- Radical Management Accounting Innovations // Accounting & Finance. Vol. 46, No. 2. 25 Brigham K. H., De Castro J. O., Shepherd D. A. 2007. A Person-Organization Fit Model of Owner-Managers’
Cognitive Style and Organizational Demands // Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice. Vol. 31, No. 1. 26 Chan D. 1996. Cognitive Misfit of Problem- Solving Style at Work: A Facet of Person – Fit // Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes. Vol. 68, No. 3. 27 López-Mesa B., Thompson G. 2006. On the Significance of Cognitive Style and the Selection of Appropriate Design
Methods // Journal of Engineering Design. Vol. 17, No. 4. 28 Armstrong S. J. 2004. The Impact of Supervisors sors’ Cognitive Styles on the Quality of Research Supervision in
Management Education // British Journal of Educational Psychology. Vol. 74, No. 4. 29 Buffinton K., Jablokow K., Martin K. 2002. Project Team Dynamics and Cognitive Style// Engineering Management
Journal. Vol. 14, No. 3. 30 Gelade G. A. 2002. Creative Style, Personality, and Artistic Endeavor // Genetic, Social & Ge neral Psychology Monographs. Vol. 128, No. 3. 31 Houtz J. C., Selby E., Esquivel G. B., Okoye R. A., Peters K. M., Treffinger D. J. 2003. Styles and Personal Type //
Creativity Research Journal. Vol. 15, No. 4. 32 Fagan M. H. 2004. The Influence of Creative Style and Climate on Software Development Team Creativity: An
Exporatory Study // Journal of Computer Information Systems. Vol. 44, No. 3. 33 Gallivan M. J. 2003. The Influence of Software Developers’ Creative Style on their Attitudes and Assimilation of a
Software Process Innovation // Information and Management. Vol. 40, No. 5. 34 Cools E., Van den Broeck H. 2007. Development and Validation of the Cognitive Style Indicator // Journal of
Psychology. Vol. 141, No. 4.
Therefore, in this case not activity methods, dimensions are emphasized, but the person himself. If
the number of activity dimensions of the person is limited, risk of “label sticking” of the only style
arises.
What does the below provided extract reveal?:
“Because you have asked me, John, my dearest friend in Christ, how you should study to amass the treasure of
knowledge, such is the advice I give to you. You should choose to enter not immediately into the ocean depths, but
rather through small streams, for one should reach more difficult matters by going through the easier ones first. This is,
therefore, my admonition and your instruction. I bid you be slow to speak and slow to approach the chat-room.
Embrace purity of conscience. Do not fail to have time for prayer. You should frequently choose your own room if you wish to be led into the wine cellar. Present yourself as amiable to all. Do not look for deep, hidden meanings in the
deeds of others. To no one should you show yourself to be too familiar, because too much familiarity gives birth to
contempt and provides from its eagerness the raw material for backsliding. You should in no way involve yourself
concerning the words and deeds of worldly people. Above all else you should flee from common conversation. You
should not fail to imitate the steps of the saints and all good people. You should not consider the source from which you
hear something, but whatever good is spoken, commit it to memory. Those things that you read and hear, make sure
that you understand them. Make yourself certain about doubtful matters, and make it your business to shelve in the
bookcase of your mind whatever you can, as if desiring to fill a vase. Do not seek the matters that are above you.
Following those well-known paths you will bring forth and produce, as long as you have life, branches and fruits useful
in the vineyard of the Lord of Hosts. If you eagerly follow these points, you will be able to attain that which you are
striving after“.
Ignoti Auctoris. De mondo studendi. Corpus Thomisticum, textum.
XIII cent. Unknown author. Translation from lot. by Gintautas Vyšniauskas
Researchers analysed cognitive styles in coherence with various personality aspects, such as
personal features, abilities (Pounds, Bailey, 200135
), cognitive strategies (López-Mesa, Thompson,
200636
).
There are different ways of application of cognitive styles: in the context of task execution,
internal communication, carrier planning, consulting, team formation, conflict management,
heterogeneity management, learning and education (Cools, Van den Broeck, 200737
).
The authors who analysed the cognitive style emphasize that andragogists should almost
refuse “classical” opinions, according to which the cognitive style allows only classifying learning
group members according to their favourite and better managed learning method (Chevrier et al.,
2000)38
. Understanding of the concept of cognitive style in terms of andragogist’s activity could
serve not only for “label sticking”, but also for real help initiating self-analysis, forming beliefs,
provisions and values, initiating dialogue about whom we are and whom could become.
Repeating the expressed thoughts that “learning is an individual especially difficult
phenomenon which forces the interaction of dozen of factors related not only to learner personal
features, but also to understanding of learning context” (Romainville, 1999, p.111)39
, it may be
added that one of the main activity areas of the andragogist providing coaching services is support
/help for adult learners in understanding of their personal role in learning context. However, it
should be mentioned, what else is very important: the way the andragogist understands the learning
35 Pounds J., Bailey L. L. 2001. Cognitive Style and Learning: Performance of Adaptors and Innovators in a Novel
Dynamic Task // Applied Cognitive Psychology. Vol. 15, No. 5. 36
López-Mesa B., Thompson G. 2006. On the Significance of Cognitive Style and the Selection of Appropriate Design
Methods // Journal of Engineering Design. Vol. 17, No. 4. 37 Cools E., Van den Broeck H. 2007. Development and Validation of the Cognitive Style Indicator // Journal of
Psychology. Vol. 141, No. 4. 38 Chevrier J., Fortin G., Théberge M., LeBlanc R. 2000. La construction du style d‘apprentissage. Dans l‘Education et
Francophonie, Volume XXVIII (1), Québec:ACELF. 39 Romainville A. 1993. Savoir parler de ses méthodes. Bruxelles: De Boeck.
context of adult learners. Provision of activity reflection possibility for yourself and learners based
on cognitive style approaches is considered really essential factor of qualitative andragogist activity.
Determining and analysing favourite methods of cognitive activity of learners, the andragogist
should not forget to involve the learner (learners) (Honey, Mumford, 1995)40
.
To identify the style of learners, the andragogist may ask: what words might better
characterize individual style, what inspires learners to learn or solve their activity problems, and
what frightens, what can the andragogist do to ease learning process?
D. Kolbas specified that learning process has two dimensions: how new information,
knowledge etc. is perceived and how it is treated. Some people perceive by feelings, based on their
own specific experience (SE), others – by thinking over, analysing or systemizing – abstract
conceptualization (AC); how we treat what we perceive or how we transform and assimilate new
knowledge and information. Therefore, some people assimilate it (new knowledge and information)
through active activity and experimenting (AE), others – watch and think over the experience (TE).
L. Rieben (2000)41
emphasized “epistemological jump” of scientists, trying to understand and
explain the development process of cognitive style. Selection of learning styles or methods for
adults may be explained based on and limited to personal acquired features, genetics or
environmentally determined stable needs. However, it is possible to perform further analysis, what
was done by a group of scientists from Quebeck universities. They (Chevrier et al., 2000)42
raised a
hypothesis based on transactional approach: cognitive style is characterized not so much by
acquired or personal features, but by interaction with people important for the person from
childhood (e.g.: parents, teachers). The totality of activity significances created by a child and play
of interaction determine the selection and development of specific cognitive methods and styles and
rejection of other methods and styles. For example, encouragement of parents not to trust others
may form closed child method, closeness, resistance to novelties. Therefore, such person even being
adult will not like active experimenting. And it may impede improving cognitive activity,
developing different cognitive methods and styles.
To return to application of coaching techniques in the activity of andragogist, it is worth
to emphasize NLP once again, because it may help to adapt to cognitive style of a person. As it was
mentioned before talking about the previous topic, fundamental NLP element is that person
experiences not the real world as it is. Person uses carefully filtering internal mind maps, thus
creating the internal image of the external world. Mind map of every person is only a partial
subjective representation of external world. World map of a person is formed by interpretation of
information received from 5 sensory channels. Later the information is “coded” applying language
and words. Mind maps are only subjective interpretation, and the interpretation is not accurate.
Filtering system being a part of human mind map determines the spectrum of choices for person.
Everyone understands and treats the reality differently, because it depends on different person filters
(neurobiological, social, cultural and personal, through which the information about reality reaches
our minds (fig. 8.).
Discussion with author:
“Talking about objective and subjective reality, I think that objective reality is complicated and gives us so much
information that human mind is not and will not be ever able to fix and feel “all” the things happening around us” (V.
Masalskis).
Your comments and arguments.
40 Honey P., Mumford A. 1992. The manual of learning Styles. Maidenhead, Berkshire: PeterHoney Pub., Ardingly
House. 41 Rieben L. 2000. A quelles conditions la notion des styles d’apprentissage peut-elle devenir heuristique pour le champ
de l’éducation ? dans Education et Francophonie, Volume XXVIII (1). Québec :ACELF. 42 Chevrier J., Fortan G., LeBlanc M. 2000. Dialogue sur le sens et la place du style d’apprentissage en éducation.
Education et Francophonie, Volume XXVIII (1). Québec : ACLE., p.4.
Fig. 8. Reality perception mechanisms (Lenhardt, 2002)
Mechanisms of processing of information about reality are universal (general) for every
individual: selection, processing, generalization of data. So subjective reality treatment appears, and
representations are created based on these treatment. Discussion: One of mental perception process or representation, definitions, sounds like this: “perception is a one-piece reflection of
subjects, situations and events appearing as a result of impact of ultimate physical irritants on receptor surface of
sensory organs” [Psychology. Vocabulary. Red. А. V. Petrovskis, М. G. Jaroševskis. М.: Politizdat, 1990, p. 66.].
Perception models two perception functions – sensory and intuition. The above provided definition emphasizes sensory
component, i.e. subjective pole of the scale. And how are ideas perceived?
Usually the idea in psychology is treated as generalized form of reality. Is it possible to
perceive not a concrete-sensory image, but at once abstract directly without word-logic thinking, i.e.
idea? “If we answer positively, – and we do so, because we accept intuitive-irrational perception as
a fact, – we accept the idea to be individual existence, although together with material carrier” 43
.
So, different cognitive styles are distinguished according to the way we perceive and treat
reality. The most difficult is to change inborn psychological attributes, such as learning method,
dominating brain functions, temperament. Depending on them some adults give first place to
listening and speaking during learning, others – to visual information, third – to practical activity
etc. (Anužienė, 2006).
As it was mentioned, there are a lot of different classifications of cognitive styles (e.g.:
according to Kolb, Harrison, Bramson et al.). However special tests are necessary to identify them.
43 Гуленко В.В. 1993. Типологическая целостность социона. Образование соционических типов по базису Юнга
– Киев, 02.04. // СМиПЛ, 1996, № 5.
Reality
Ne
uro
logi
cal
Soci
o-c
ult
ura
l
Pe
rso
nal
Sele
ctio
n
Inte
rpre
tati
on
Sum
mar
iza
tio
n
F i l t ers
General all data processing
mechanisms
PERSONAL
REALITY
REPRESENTATIONS(past, current and future realities)
PERCEPTION
But these test may be not acceptable for everyone44
. The styles are recognised easily according to
the following classification and dominating owner’s expressions:
Optic (visual) – “I see well”, “It is clear”, “From my point of view”. Representatives of
this learning style like reading. They choose reading as a method of receiving
information instead of listening (for example, they would rather read a newspaper than
listen to the news on radio). Their answers to test questions are better when they see text,
not only hear. These people like individual learning method.
Sound (audio) – “I say myself”, “My internal voice says so”, “It sounds right”. Those
who prefer this learning style remember not only the things they have heard, but also all
the circumstances related: who and when said, told, explained. These people would
rather listen to the news than read in newspaper.
Speech-based learning style. “I say you”. Representative of this learning style like read
aloud, retell the text even if for a wall. They nicely check their knowledge by telling and
explaining to others. These people work in group with pleasure.
Activity-based learning style (kinaesthetic). “I understand that .... very well”. Activity
improves the efficiency of all learning styles for sure, because it generalizes, systemizes
thoughts and learning material. There are learners, “confessors” of the style, who make
schemes, pictures, use certain conventional signs to represent heard or read information.
There are people, who memorise the material after application in practice: transforming
in own way, imagining, creating scenarios in their minds or simply moving or walking at
that moment etc.
Thus, both children and adults perceive and manage information in three ways: visual,
sound and kinaesthetic. The first have good visual memory, characterize the scenes, objects and
faces seen several years ago. People with visual perception of information like visually represented
information: using pictures, schemes, photos, posters, highlighting essential words. Such learners
often speak quickly, in elevated tone, use many gestures, draw schemes in the air. Their working
table is kept in order not to bother the field of vision. Style of using senses. It is proved that learning
with involvement of activity, movement is very actual and effective and therefore the learners must
not only hear or see information, but also touch and feel it (Anužienė, 2006). A number of people
(Amar, Angel, 2006) distinguish a neutral learning style. In case of neutral style it might be stated
that the learner avoids giving his opinion and prefers staying uninvolved or is not very much
interested in the context and object of learning (Anužienė, 2006).
In order to adapt to the dominating cognitive style of the learner, andragogist is
recommended to:
Listen attentively to learner’s word (especially, verbs and expressions)
Determine dominating expressions.
It is difficult to specify exact number of existing cognitive styles, because there are a
huge number of different classifications. The andragogist, who wants to achieve better results, must
make it possible to work with certain task applying different methods – only then the learners will
reveal their skills to the extent possible.
The andragogist might be able to recognize individual differences. Gender, cultural
layer, place of birth, occupation, education, types of personality, cognition method – only some of
the factors contributing to different cognitive styles. If we will recognize and respect the
differences, we will reduce the probability of misunderstanding, conflicts or umbrage. Lots of
things depend on temperament. For example, extraverts may monopolize conversations, take
initiative and talk wild. Introverts, who think at first and then say, may think that extraverts are
impolite and annoying. Extravert consider introverts being doubtful loners. It would be beneficial
44 Some tests on determination of cognitive style and their interpretation are provided in the course of aandragogy study
subject “Heterogeneity management”.
for both to understand the differences of each other and accordingly correct conversation style. In
this case andragogist may help providing coaching services or who have taught learners to perform
some of his functions.
To summarize, not only andragogist’s objective to adapt to learner’s cognitive style
should be emphasized, but also it would be valuable to pay attention affective dimension of the
cognitive style during determination and analysis of cognitive style. Learners’ affective reactions
appear as an inseparable reality of cognitive style. There are both positive and negative affective
reactions. It depends on if the learner accepts, likes the learning context, if the context conforms to
his beliefs, provisions, values and etc. The conformity of the context is a very important factor
during organization of group learning activity. It is a very important factor influencing learning
motivation and results. The significance on affective dimension of cognitive style should be
accordingly assessed by the andragogist and should be not pushed to the end of his activity
priorities, because the affective dimension of cognitive style allows successful coordination of two
subjects relevant for every learner: recognition and feelings, emotions, values and attitudes.
Self-control questions:
1. What are the main characteristics of cognitive style?
2. What are the dominating cognitive styles expressed in your group?
3. What must andragogist do in case he doesn’t have psychometric tests dedicated for
determination of cognitive style, but want to help the learner?
7 task for individual work (see Appendix 1)
Check if you are able to answer the main question of the theme: what must the andragogist
providing coaching services and seeking to adapt to learner’s cognitive style know?
3. Activity Peculiarities and Competence of Coach, Abilities Required for the
Activity The main question of the theme is – what abilities does competent coaching specialist
require?
Although it is not the best way to begin with discussion of whom the coach is not,
because we do not think using negative images, but let’s try. So, coaching specialist is not a
psychotherapist or consultant, he is not an advisor or mentor, not a teacher, although he is somehow
similar to all mentioned people.
The coach considers his client an equal partner. Both of them determine goal,
environment, desirable results of coaching, but the client is responsible for his personal goals. From
this point of view the client is an owner of coach content.
Coaching specialist is an expert in coaching process and responsible person for
coaching environment at the same time. His function is expressed in partnership. Coaching
specialist is obliged to understand the peculiarities of the activity of his client, but he is not a
profession expert. If the coach will ask his client appropriate questions, the last will find answers
himself.
Functions of the coach:
To reveal and find out together with the client what would they like to do, what
measurements and time-defined goals they want to achieve after conclusion of fixed-term
coaching agreement;
To help the client to establish his motives, strategies, competences;
To discuss with the client all possible goal achievement methods;
To inform the client about goal achievement consequences unfavourable for the client;
To help the client to create his own strategy and methods of solution of personal problem;
To warn the client if coaching is not effective. In such case the agreement must be
terminated.
Professional coaching specialist must often analyse and assess the efficiency and performance
of coaching process.
International Coach Federation has distinguished eleven competences required for the activity
of coaches:
1. Setting the foundation:
1.1. meeting ethical guidelines and professional standards;
1.2. establishing the coaching agreement: to understand what is necessary and agree
with new client about the methods of coaching procedure and communication.
2. Co-creating the relationship:
2.1. establishing trust and intimacy with the client;
2.2. create open, flexible and calming communication atmosphere.
3. Communicating effectively:
3.1. listen to the client attentively, understand the things he says or does not say and
help him to express his thoughts;
3.2. ask the client questions allowing collection of missing information;
3.3. use direct and indirect communication methods.
4. Facilitating Learning and Results:
4.1. be able to integrate, precisely assess various information sources and provide the
client suggestions that would help to achieve envisaged goals.
4.2. together with the client envisage coaching success criteria and constantly revise
them, envisage everyday situations, actions that would help to reach results;
4.3. plan and envisage goals;
4.4. be able to focus attention to what is actual for the client leaving him a
responsibility for his actions.
8 task for individual work (in writing) (see Appendix 1)
Y. Richez (2006) states that today coaching is not a perfect phenomenon, however, it
will extend in future decade. He suggests professional development of coaching specialists based on
his researches and interdisciplinary approach to coaching. The main recommendations for
professional development:
Whereas there is no formal training of coaches in Lithuania, coach’s learning achievements
acquired in non-formal and spontaneous learning environment should be assessed and
accepted. A committee consisting of representatives of different disciplines and culture;
Assess coach’s experience based on methodology focused on practice theorization,
perception of interaction applying individual/environment model and application of the
model, symbolic recovery of meaning;
Assess coach’s personal creation (methods, model, questionnaire etc.) taking into account
acquired experience and education;
Assess the spread of personal creation, coach’s participation in conferences, seminars,
discussions etc.;
Assess coach’s publications (if any).
IFOD University (France) suggests training of professional coaching specialists. Head
of Deontology Committee of the university, the first university president, member of the French
Coaches Association O. Devillard (2001) states that coaching is an intervention process that aims at
development of internal potential (power) elements of a person or a whole group, related to talent,
style and synergy despite influencing them difficulties. Coaching is a method for client to reveal,
test and develop not reveals and not used power elements. The truth is that coach not so much helps
to resolute problems as facilitates personal development in terms of perspective.
If we define coaching as an intervention process, we give it a shade of specific activity
designed to ensure personal development at the same time. Coaching specialist becomes a
companion or partner in personal development. It may be compared to personal sport coach, but in
professional or personal activity area (Le Deuff, 2002) with the main mission to help the client
clearly set his goals, envisage realisation strategy and be around the client.
The most privileged coaching tool is conversation. Many coaches communicate with
their clients through telephone or e-mail. To open dialogue is very important when coaching
specialist using different questionnaires, communication tasks, asking his client appropriate
questions at right time is trying to induce the client to his side and destroy non-confidence defence
activity. The coach tries to identify client’s powers and weaknesses, perform valuation and
revaluation of values as well as evoke all hidden powers of personal and professional development
(Gori, Coz, 2006, p. 73).
In the course of coaching session the client has to perform certain theory (e.g.: clarify
envisaged goals, create new strategy for goal achievement etc.) or practical (e.g.: to develop new
attitude to colleagues, do not crack nuts between dinner and supper etc.) tasks.
Coaching is a young practice requiring various scientific approaches. Terms
“coaching” and “coach” in foreign countries are not translated.
The status of coaching specialist today is not clear, but demand for coaching increases.
Statistics states that from 2000 till 2003 the number of ICF members increased from 1500 to 6000.
According to the Federation statement there were more than 20 000 coaching specialists till 2005,
who have ICF certificates and make a practice of coaching all over the world (three fourths of them
in USA).
Most of psychotherapists believe that coach has no right to overstep psychotherapy
boundaries, although they had necessary training. In fact coaching has no therapeutic objectives,
however, some coaches apply their methods systematically, helping their patients to experience
long and hard treatment period easier (e.g.: cancer, AIDS therapy) or forming new behaviour or
new way of life required for health.
After analysis of the results of scientific researches performed by USA scientists
(Vale, Jelinek, 2003; Jaarsma, Van der Wal; 2004; White More Melkus, 2004) it may be assumed
that coaching methods may be applied along with therapy methods (Lainé, 2000).
In 1997, 181 women with breast cancer were coached. Coaching helped to maintain
better relations with relatives during depressive period of treatment and recovery.
The second research was performed in participation of 792 patients with heart and
vascular diseases. The research aimed at helping to decrease cholesterol amount in blood applying
coaching – the goal was achieved.
1050 patients with heart and vascular diseases participated during the following
research. The research aimed at justification of efficiency of applied coaching. A conclusion was
made in 2005 – coaching application together with therapy helps the patients decrease the risk of
heart and vascular diseases.
The following research was performed in 2004. 53 women with type II diabetes
participated. The research aimed at coaching application in order to help the patients to understand
and “manage” diabetes. The research revealed that after five educational, behavioural changes,
emotional state coaching sessions, women began better “manage” their disease, desperation
decreased, treatment satisfaction increased.
Coaching specialist is often considered expert of changes, therefore it is very
important for him to know his client’s situation today and his desired situation for tomorrow. Only
then it is possible to envisage fastest and the most effective approaches and methods to change.
Diagnostic and prognostic activity functions of coaching specialist do not envisage elimination of
client’s problem basically, so he does no miracles. But he helps the client to achieve envisaged,
certain and easy-to- measure goal.
Check if you are able to answer the main question of the theme: what abilities does competent
coaching specialist require?
3.1. Deontological Code of Coach
9 task for individual work (see Appendix 1)
Deontology [deon (originated from deontos) + ↗...logy]: 1. the branch of ethics
dealing with duty commitment (Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas, 2009).
Ethics and position of coaching specialist towards the client is revealed in the main
competences. Deontology code elements may be as well observed. The main competences of
coaching specialists according to ICF standards are as follows:
A. Setting the foundation
1. Meeting ethical guidelines and professional standards
2. Establishing the coaching agreement
B. Co-creating the relationship
3. Establishing trust and intimacy with the client
4. Full-rate attention in the course of coaching
C. Communicating effectively
5. Active listening
6. Perfect listening skills
7. Direct, open communication
D. Facilitating Learning and Results
8. Creating awareness
9. Designing actions
10. Planning and goal setting
11. Managing process and accountability
A. Setting the foundation
1. Meeting ethical guidelines and professional standards – understanding of coaching
ethics and standards and ability to apply them properly in all coaching situations.
a) Understands and demonstrates competence in ICF behavioural standards (see the list)
b) Understands and adheres to all ICF ethics guidelines (see the list)
c) Is able to clearly name the difference between coaching, consulting, psychotherapy and other
assistance offering professions
d) If needed and knew when needed refers the client to other professional taking into account
available resources.
2. Establishing the coaching agreement – ability to understand what is required in
certain coaching interaction and agree with potential or new client on coaching process and
relationship.
a) Understands and effectively discusses with the client coaching relationship guidelines and
certain parameters (e.g.: logistics, pay, graphic, if required, other personal involvement)
b) Agrees on what will be acceptable and not during coaching, what will be suggested and not,
also on the responsibilities of coach and client. Determines if the selected coaching method
fully complies with potential client’s needs
B. Co-creating the relationship
3. Establishing trust and intimacy with the client – ability to create secure supporting
environment empowering mutual respect and trust.
a) Shows sincere interest in prosperity and future of the client
b) Always demonstrates personal honesty, probity and sincerity
c) Seeks for clear agreements and keeps his words
d) Shows respect to client’s feelings, learning habits and personality
e) Persistently supports and stimulates new behaviour and actions, including those with risk and
fear of being unsuccessful
f) Asks the client permit if during the session sensitive new zones are touched
4. Full-rate attention in the course of coaching – ability to fully understand and create open, flexible
and self-confident spontaneous relation with the client.
a) Demonstrates interest and flexibility during coaching, “dances with client at the current
moment”
b) Considers his intuition and trusts his internal voice – “listens to his internal voice”
c) Is open for strangeness and not afraid of risk
d) Sees a lot of methods of cooperation with the client and chooses the most effective of them
e) Effectively applies humour for creation of easy and energetic atmosphere
f) Safely changes attitude perspective and performs actions, experimenting with new
opportunities
g) Demonstrates stability in case of strong emotions, is able to recover and evade client’s
emotions
C. Communicating effectively
5. Active listening – ability focus attention on what the client says and does not say in
order to understand the meaning of said things and encourage self-expression.
a) Adapts to the client and his order not forcing the client to adapt to coach’s agenda
b) Listens to client’s bothers, goals, values and beliefs about what is possible or impossible
c) Distinguishes the meaning of words, voice tone and body language
d) In order to ensure clarity and understanding generalizes, paraphrases, repeats and reflects what
the client says
e) Stimulates, accepts, analyses and intensifies client’s feelings, perception, concern, beliefs,
provisions etc.
f) Integrates client’s ideas and proposals being the foundation for further process
g) “Seeks for essence” or perceives the essence of client’s knowledge and helps to understand him
though long explaining narration
h) Without suggesting his views or interfering allows the client to speak out or “clarify” the
situation in order to be able to move to the next stage.
6. Perfect listening skills – ability to ask questions revealing information especially
relevant for coaching relations and client
a) Asks questions showing active listening to the client and understanding
b) Asks questions stimulating opening, insight, undertaking of obligations or actions (e.g.: that
question client’s assumptions)
c) Asks open questions ensuring better clarity, opportunities and new experience
d) Asks questions that help the client go towards his desires, not the questions forcing the client to
excuse or move back.
7. Direct, open communication – ability to communicate effectively during coaching
using a language that positively influences the client.
a) Provides clear, well formulated and direct feedback
b) Reformulates and clearly expresses thoughts to help the client to perceive from other
perspective something he does not want or doubts about
c) Clearly defines coaching objectives, meeting agenda, objectives of applied methods and
suggestions
d) Uses appropriate and respectful language (e.g.: without androcentrism, not racial, not technical
and not slangy)
e) To highlight the essence or create wordy image uses metaphors and comparison.
D. Facilitating Learning and Results
8. Creating awareness – ability to summarise and precisely assess various information
sources and provide interpretations helping the client to perceive and achieve results.
a) Hears more than is said assessing client’s interests without devotion (may be not limiting
himself?) to the client’s characterization
b) Uses questions in order to improve understanding, perception and clarity
c) Identifies to the client his (her) concerns, typical or fixed self-perception in the world, the
differences between facts and interpretations, imbalance between thoughts, feelings and actions
d) Assists the client to discover new thoughts, beliefs, perceptions, emotions, moods etc.,
(strengthening) their ability to take action and achieve what is important to them
e) Suggests broader perspectives to clients and inspires them to share their views and discover
new opportunities for actions
f) Assists the client to see different interrelated factors that affect them and their behaviour (e.g.:
thoughts, emotions, body and biography facts)
g) Expresses his notices regarding the client as if it would be useful and meaningful for the client
h) Identifies the main strengths in terms of the main learning and growth areas, and the fact to be
considered during coaching (a very complex structure, I would change it to: “identifies the
main strengths of learning, growth and coaching processes”, though, of course, the meaning
must be considered)
i) Asks the client to distinguish trivial (simple or routine) and significant questions, behaviour
depending on the situation and repeating, when a mismatch between what is said and done is
established.
9. Designing actions – ability to create together with the client the possibilities for
continuous learning in the course of coaching and work/life situations (as if it is not needed) and
assumptions for new actions that will allow achieving coaching results by the most effective way.
(a) At the same time considers and helps the client to identify the actions enabling the client to
demonstrate new knowledge, apply in practice and deepen the knowledge
(b) Helps the client to focus on specific issues of concern and opportunities, which are the most
important in terms of agreed coaching objectives and analyse this systematically (very complicated,
I would change to: “Helps the client to focus on specific issues of concern, as well as key
opportunities for achieving agreed coaching objectives, and systematic analysis of these
opportunities)
(c) Involves the client to analysis of alternative ideas and solutions, assessment of options of
opportunities and related decision-making
(d) Induces active experimentation and self-discovery when the client immediately adapts what has
been discussed and learned during the session in his life/work environment
(e) Is gratified by client’s success and ability to grow in the future
(f) Questions client’s assumptions and perspectives to provoke new ideas and discover new
opportunities for action
(g) Promote or draw attention to things that meet client’s objectives, and (I would not put comma in
this case) impartially encourages the client to consider them
(h) During the training helps the client to “do it now” and provide immediate assistance
(i) Encourages overcoming boundaries and accepting challenges, but also a comfortable learning
speed.
10. Planning and goal setting – ability to prepare together with the client effective
coaching plan and adhere to it.
(a) Summarized the information together with the client and prepares coaching plan and
development goals, and also issues of concerns and the main learning and development areas must
be assessed
(b) Prepares a plan with results that may be achieved, measured, they are certain and have
envisaged terms
(c) Corrects the plan according to coaching process and situation changes
(d) Helps the client to identify and properly use various sources (e.g.: books, other professionals)
during learning
(e) Identifies and envisages the first success features relevant for the client.
11. Managing process and accountability – ability to focus attention on what is relevant for client
leaving him a responsibility for taking actions.
(a) Clearly requires actions from the client that move the client closer to his goal
(b) Requires realization to the end asking the client about actions he undertook in the previous
session(s)
(c) Identifies what the client has done or has not done, learned or knew during the period from the
previous session
(d) Effectively prepares, organizes and reviews the information obtained during the sessions
together with the client
(e) Monitors the development of the client between sessions paying attention to coaching plan and
results, agreed sequences of actions, topics of new subjects
(f) Focuses on coaching plan, but is ready to correct behaviour and actions taking into account
coaching process and “course change” between sessions
(g) Is ready to maneuver back and forth on a wide scale of what the client achieves creating a
context for what is discussed and to what the client wants to achieve (a very complex structure, I
would change to: Is ready to move flexibly taking into account client’s goals and creating a context
for discussed topic and client’s goals”, but context should be checked)
(h) Stimulates client’s self-discipline and responsibility for what they say or going to do, for the
expected action outcomes or for a specific time-squeezed plan
(i) Develops the client’s ability to make decisions, to analyze key problems and self-improve (get
feedback, determine priorities, set learning rate, think over and learn based on experience)
(j) Positively blames the client that he (she) has not taken agreed actions.
According to the provided deontology code, to be ideal coaching specialist one has to
acquire mentioned competences not only in the course of learning, but also from long experience.
Coaching specialist does not give advices or suggest solution of a problem, he only
helps his client to reveal existing internal powers, about which the client sometimes does not even
know or think. Such way of the development of internal potential and existing individual resources
leads to the best. Similarly to sports coach the coaching specialist may suggest certain activity
strategy, motivate players, claim for better result from everyone, but the coach will throw a ball
into a basket during a match. Sportsmen only are able to win competition with best result. The same
in coaching – clients only are able to achieve envisaged goals, if from the very beginning clients
and coaching specialist will be favourably disposed to exchange of their desires and needs, will be
ready to exchange.
Summary of the subject. After theoretical analysis of coaching phenomenon, determination of
efficiency and expression it was established that coaching is a complicated and many-sided
phenomenon. Coaching categories are distinguished according to coaching areas (behavioural
development, career projection, practical activity improvement, improvement of personal internal
powers, support during strategic changes etc.): individual and team (group), strategic coaching.
After establishment of coaching application areas in adult education and discussion of coaching
techniques, it may be stated that:
• caching is characterized by mulfunctionality from the aspect of application for
support/help for adult learner in order to help to solve various problems;
• coaching is applied in adult education for the purpose of cognitive, affective, social,
personal and professional development. These coaching areas are distinguished based on the
nature of learning problems of adult learners;
• andragogist’s support/help for the purpose of cognitive, affective, social, personal and
professional development may be considered coaching opportunity in adult education. Because
andragogists are able to provide support/help for adult learners, possess certain coaching
techniques (neurolinguistic programming, transactional analysis, explanatory conversation,
focused listening etc.)
Although andragogists are not certified coaching specialists they can apply different coaching
techniques, because coaching is, first of all, communication, when andragogist helps adult learner
manage with changes, reveal the best personal features and reach envisaged results both in
learning and professional activity.
It is possible to learn coaching techniques. They extend andragogist’s activity opportunities to
achieve better activity results in solution of various nature problems.
Sometimes andragogist may apply coaching techniques in his activity providing adult learners
with support/help, however, people who get the support/help may not even feel, or be not confident
in, i.e. do not perceive that coaching was applied, because they do not know these techniques and,
in addition, the coaching intervention agreement that is not obligatory in adult education was not
concluded. Accordingly, application of coaching itself is not obligatory for andragogists, because it
is not usually mentioned in strategy documents of adult education institution, is not a part of
institution activity. Therefore, usually coaching is applied at the discretion of andragogist and quite
accidentally.
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Klaipėda: KU leidykla.
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valdymo metodas // Lietuvos aukštųjų mokyklų vadybos ir ekonomikos jaunųjų
mokslininkų konferencijų darbai. Lietuvos ūkis ES erdvėje: procesai ir tendencijos:
dvyliktoji respublikinė doktorantų ir magistrantų mokslinė konferencija. Kaunas, VDU.
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of goal striving and well-being: An exploratory study. Journal of Positive Psychology,
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Training and Health Coaching: An Exploratory Study. Coaching: An International
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1
1. Individual work task:
Read the text and distinguish at least five statements that would integrate all the above
provided coaching definitions to one concept:
C. Higy-Lang, C. Gellman (2000): “Coaching is a help process for professionals or group of
professionals in the area of their professional activity. Coaching focuses on the person
seeking to maintain optimal efficiency level, better recognition of himself and others and
environment. Coaching helps to reveal personal intellect, organizational and creative
powers. At the same time, coaching helps to manage contacts with others based on
psychological or interrelation peculiarities”.
D. Millman (1997): “Internal power athletes only become their masters, because the divide
self-development efforts equally for all development elements (physical, mental, emotional).
So perfect equilibrium of all elements is obtained”.
F. Délivré (2002): “Coaching is an entire gamma of conversations with yourself and the
third person (coaching specialist). The objective of such conversation is to agree with you
and envisage and achieve the goals both in personal and professional area”.
C. Colona (2007): “The mission of coaching is to help to become continuous change master,
eat change paradigm and based on it sort out our life. Coaching specialist – a satellite of the
client seeking for greater competence, responsibility and self-confidence”.
J. Y. Arrivé, I. Frings-Juton (2004): “Organizational coaching is common coach and client
work during set period for the reason of development of professional and managerial
abilities depending on existing purely technical competence. The client is suggested a
gamma of methods, tools helping to solve a problem, adapt to professional situation,
develop self-efficiency and autonomy in the course of coaching”.
P. Longin (2006): “To be a coaching specialist is, first of all, good knowledge of yourself
and others and possession of required abilities”.
V. Lenhardt, L. Buratti (2006): “Coaching is at the same time a help and joined creation
process of client and coach. During the intervention, coaching specialist becomes a satellite
for client’s professional and personal activity. Coaching objective is to provide conditions
for the client enabling him to find not simultaneous solution, but the way of problem solving
leading to global and perspective personal development”.
M. Paul (2004): “Coaching – past failures cancellation. It is specific human position and
role”.
2 Individual work task
Read the text and mark all the facts proving coaching significance and all the
cases when coaching is criticized. Continue doing so throughout the course. Make three
groups at the end of the course and prepare poster presentation: “Vision of coaching
advantages and disadvantages”
Facts and critics. In cooperation with partners from France, we have the opportunity to observe the
development of coaching in the country for already a decade. We were acquainted with the
opposition, criticism, observed various manifestations. It should be noted that coaching in France
has its own nomenclature.
2004, VII university in Paris in two years trained 600 certified coaching specialists.
2006, 130 mil. Euro – annual turnover of coaching in Paris region. From 3000 – 4000
professionals only annual turnover of some hundreds reached 100 000 Euro. Most of them
earn approximately 25 000 Euro per year, therefore also practice another activities –
learning or consulting (Darres, according to the data of 2007).
AFNOR45
has accepted coaching specialist ISO competency norms. Every coach as if
is looking for better activity ways, certificates of higher level in order to satisfy and calm his clients,
opposition, organizations, future coaching specialists, public opinion and prove the value of
coaching. However, coaching has enough paradoxes, mixes of theories specified by coaching critics
(Gori, Le Coz, 2006)46
. The last consider coaching a humanistic psychology neoliberal modification
dedicated “to help us, adult adolescents, do not resist the course of life, say “yes” to everything
what must happen” (Gori, Le Coz, 2006, p. 23)47
.
3 Individual work task
Continue the above provided list of reasons of loss of workers efficiency based on the analysis of scientific
literature. Justify your opinion in writing.
The reasons of loss of worker efficiency in case of triads:
unfaithfulness to organization;
complaints (written);
negative provisions;
weak responsibility (energy);
lack of self-confidence;
insensibility to some nonverbal communication signs;
desire to know everything;
disrespect of the agenda of the head;
tendency to politicise;
work too much (Farfel, 2002).
4 Individual work task
Solve crosswords and brain-teaser prepared by
YOUR COLLEGUES in order to better memorize and
understand coaching phenomenon.
Correctly solved crosswords and brain-teaser will
be taken into account during assessment of final test.
CROSSWORD PREPARED BY DARIUS SIDABRAS, Ist YEAR MASTER’S STUDENT,
(2012)
45 AFNOR (Association française de Normalisation) – French National Organization for Standardization. 46 Gori R., Le Coz P. (2006). L‘empire des coachs. Une nouvelle forme du contrôle social. Alain Michel 47 Ibid, p. 23.
9
1 15
19 2
7 12 14
18 3 13
17
4
11 5
16
6 10
20
8
1. The main function of andragogist in adult education. (helper)
2. Efficient, giving the best or required results. (effective)
3. Shortened form of coaching specialist in spoken language, loanword. (coach)
4. The main role of coaching is to develop human…………. (potential)
5. Image misrepresentation because of different transverse enlargement of its parts. (distortion)
6. End of the famous phrase of R. Descartes ,”I think, therefore I…………” (am)
7. Integral part of coaching. (mentoring)
8. Information exchange. (communication)
9. Type of communication. (nonverbal)
10. Area of influence of coaching. (behaviour)
11. Learning style based on personal activity. (kinaesthetic)
12. A technique applied in organizations in order to make worker personal development more effective. (coaching)
13. Not pleasant, tensioned emotional state. (frustration)
14. Wordy or behavioural interaction between two people. (transaction)
15. Inverse relationship - …………… (feedback)
16. ……………effect. (butterfly)
17. Interaction between people with exchange of thoughts and emotions. (communication)
18. Most often raised learning problem. (cognitive)
19. It is required for moving, creation, activity. (energy)
20. The originator of coaching is….. (Socrates)
ANSWERS TO THE CROSSWORD
9
1 H E L P E R 15
E 19 E N E R G I J A 2 E F F E C T I V E Y
7 E 12 14 Š
18 M R K T Y 3 C O A C H B A 13 F R U S T R A C I J A
O N A U A 17
G 4 P O T E N C I A L Č N B
N O I 11 K I N E S T E T I N I S 5 D I S T O R T I O N N N A N
T Y I G K 16 D R U G I O
Y 6 E S U 10 E L G S E N A C R
V T 20 S I A
I Ė S J V
N 8 K O M U N I K A C I J A I
I K M
O R A
A S
T
A
S
CROSSWORD PREPARED BY IEVA ŽILINSKIENĖ, Ist YEAR ANDRAGOGY MASTER’S STUDENT,
(2012)
1 One of the areas of application of coaching.
2 The fifth logic level of adaptation to the environment.
3 The main ability of coaching specialist.
4 Type of transaction.
5 Structural part of individual and team coaching.
6 One of the meanings of “to coach”.
7 “Un cocher” in English.
8 Stage of coaching intervention process.
9 Who did distinguish the registers of coaching as a complex phenomenon?
10 “You can take the horse to the water, but you can't make it drink” – whose proverb is it?
11 Biological encoding.
12 Stage of explanatory conversation process.
13 Time structuring element.
14 To understand verbal and nonverbal answers of a person or a group and exactly identify what they feel and think at that moment.
15 Progress of actions to reach the results.
ANSWERS TO THE CROSSWORD:
1-SOCIAL 2-IDENTITY 3-HEARING 4-CROSSED 5-GENERALIZATION 6-COACH 7- COACHMAN 8-DIAGNOSTICS 9-RICHEZ 10-BE 11-SPANISH 12-LEARNING 13-RITUAL 14-CALIBRATE 15-PROGRAMMING
BRAIN-TEASER PREPARED BY JONAS LIORANCAS, Ist YEAR MASTER’S STUDENT,
(2012)
1 COACHING En. Term originated from “coach”.
2 WISDOM Exhaustive learning achievement
3 METHODOLOGY Smart brightness
4 PROBLEM Learning obstacle or...
5 PARAVERBAL Communication where intonation, volume and pauses are relevant
6 ABILITY Hearing – the main ... of coaching specialist
7 INTERACTION Communication or ...
8 BEHAVIOUR Area of coaching influence - ...
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9 VICTIM One of the players of psychological games
10 AREA Time management – one of the ... of coaching
11 ANDRAGOGIST A specialist who teaches adults
ANSWERS TO THE BRAIN-TEASER
K A U Č I N G A S
I Š M I N T I S
M E T I D I Š K U M A S
P R O B L E M A
P A R A V E R B A L I N I S
G E B Ė J I M A S
K O M U N I K A C I J A
E L G S E N A
A U K A
S R I T I S
5 Individual work task:
Continue the list of coaching abilities required for andragogist. Fill the list after you
114
have studied each of the following topics. Group these abilities at the end of the course
by the following areas: cognitive, affective, psychomotoric. Specify knowledge,
personal skills, experience and provisions required for the activity. Prepare 3 group
poster presentations on the topic “The competences of the andragogist providing
coaching services” at the end of the course.
It is considered that the andragogist providing coaching services in adult education
requires the following abilities and personal skills (Lenhardt et al., 2007):
listen attentively to client’s deep, internal motivation;
positive assessment of yourself and others;
ability to deal with conflicts;
considering emotions while communicating to others;
human change management;
possession of coaching techniques (e.g.: active listening, making questions,
neurolinguistic programming (NLP), transactional analysis (TA), GROW model
etc.).
6 Individual work task:
There is a Database in the Institute of Continuing Education of Klaipėda University. It gathers a lot
of the best students’ thesis, questionnaires etc. Selected the thesis works (2010-2012) analyzing
andragogist activity, his mission and deontological code. Add the list of skills, knowledge, personal
skills of the andragogist providing coaching services with deontological code. In other words,
extend the individual task 5 by new rubric – deontological code of andragogist.
7 Individual work task:
Analyse this scientific text and provide written recommendations on how the statements could
be used by andragogist providing coaching services
Extract from article - Гуленко В.В. Типологическая целостность социона.
Образование соционических типов по базису Юнга – Киев, 02.04.1993 // СМиПЛ, 1996, № 5.
The definition of perception in traditional psychology, as we have seen, is quite one-
sided. Many people do not agree with the thesis that an ideal exists in human mind only, and is
determined by what is reasonable. It follows that the four sociotypes – intuitive and irrational –
percept only illusions. Intuitive perception – direct perception of ideas, fixed material processes of
the second and third derivatives, – fact of reality identical to instant sensations arising from
touching an object by hand or exploring its surface with eyes. Unfortunately, physiologists have
paid little attention to the second way of functioning of sensory organs, which is different from
others.
However, anyway, socioanalysis rejects the treatment of intuitive image as derived from
sensory and analyses both perceptual scale poles – sensory, generating a concrete reality reflection,
and intuition, reflecting what is behind things and events – as equal.
Sensories involved in specific tangible world, associated with it by thousands of tactile
communications, they capably manipulate objects (F) or nicely differentiate derived sensations (S).
It becomes impossible to hide the details of object form or relief of image of visible event.
Intuitivists, vice versa, are far from the plenty of objects and are deep in the abstract
world of ideas and visions. They manage the contents of objects and events with confidence –
informs (I) or catch their shadows – visible content projection on any plane (Т).
Integrity feature typical for perception is highlighted in the definition of perception
115
provided at the beginning of the topic. In terms of socionics, the perception requires irrationality.
But, again, based on the completeness of the system, we cannot delete the opposite scale pole –
dispersion, fragmented perception (according to socionics, rational perception) or attribute it to
disadvantage category. Let’s analyse this dichotomy in detail.
Irrationality is a parallelism of perception of the whole picture, forming a single image
about it. In other words, reflectance uniformity and integrity of everything that affects person’s
sensory organs, in psyche.
Rationality is a perception of external picture, piece by piece in certain fixed sequence,
forming fragmented (discrete) image about it. Acceptance of the totality of the signals influencing
sensory organs is performed at different time with micropauze intervals.
Now we will provide an example. Are you able to listen for a long time to lecture
material (conversation, discussion etc.) on the same topic without attention diversion? You will
answer – depends on the level of interest. Let’s assume that it is very interesting. Remember some
cases and make conclusions.
Rationalists may concentrate their attention to one object for a long period of time, if it is
discrete. Lecture, as a speech communication in general, is a sequence of separate words or
sentences said one by one with pauses, i. e. rational form. Therefore, perception of meaningful
speech flow for rationalists is stable and effective.
For irracionalists to perceive discrete speech for a long time without additional visual or
kinaesthetic analisator irritants is practically impossible. Natural perception mode for them –
integral. At the lecture under unfavourable situation from informational point of view compared to
rationalists, they compensate this integrity by available ways – turn their attention to another object,
to outside conversations, looks over lecture hall etc. The discipline during lectures is mostly
violated by irrational extraverts.
Conclusion. Mental process of irrationals follows the following scheme “I see – I hear”.
Rationalists perceive and imagine the information according to reverse scheme “I hear – I see”. The
first part of the formula shows input channel, the second – representative system. Rationalist will
not call required picture in his head without wordy command, and irracionalists will not be able to
conduct internal dialogue without visual representation of discussed object.
Process of argumentation. A person is involved to information flow from two sides: as
a recipient (perception process or perception) and as a sender (reasoning process or argumentation).
Various perception types have been analysed in the previous section. Now we will review formation
of argumentation.
According to typology school of America [2], perception process prevails in irrationality
– irracionalists reflect the world in more adequate way thanks for their flexibility. Rationalists,
conversely, provide better argumentation and formulate conclusions then perceive external
situation. Strong point of view related to strictly formulated conceptions and sequential protection is
typical for rationalists. The fact that structures of mind (reasoning) is not only logical, i.e. formal
and objective, but also ethic, i.e. emotionally colours and external, must be considered. In logic
course book the reasoning is defined as one of the main logical forms of reality knowledge. Along
with logic discretisation (fragmentation) is perceived. In socionics this category is called rationality.
Logic in socionics is a marginal form of rationality. Such fragmentation when all its parts
are at the same position according to philosopher. In other words, has the same value. Ethic
rationality attribute to reasoning parts as if subjective weight coefficient, because of which they
become unequal. In speech it is expressed by special intonation used to say desirable and
undesirable words, as well as epithets, expressive words and expressions.
Irrational mode of thought, strictly speaking, is more natural, because it starts from
perception and ends with reasoning of what was perceived. This is a foundation for so called theory
of reflection. Rational mode of thought because of its initial discretisation in light of this theory
seems to be artificial and mechanical. In fact, rational knowledge is as if is turned on its head: it
116
starts from reasoning, relying on a priori (before trying out) concept, and only then moves to
already transformed reality perception. Viewpoint angle (intention) overtakes the direct reception of
information, appears as if it is incorporated to the type from the very beginning.
Excessive deviation to rationality – exclusive focus on the logic – leads to the
narrowness, blindness and superstition of perception. The odds on the irrationality side – an
exclusive focus on intuition gives birth to chaos, promiscuity and speculations. Competition
between these directions is psychologically justified only when they do not suppress, but
dialectically complement each other.
Groups of perception
Analysed vertically crossing socionic dichotomies “sensorics-intuition” and “rationality-
irrationality” create four perception groups:
..................................... Sensorics
........................................ .↨
.....................DISTRIBUTIVE ↨ COMMUTATIVE
rationality↔↔↔↔↔↔↔↔↔↨↔↔↔↔↔↔↔↔↔↔irrationality
.................... .DISSOCIATIVE ↨ ASSOCIATIVE
........................................ .↨
...................................... intuition
1. Sensoric irracionalists or COMMUTATIVES. Here belong sociotypes FL, FR, SP, SE
(Zhukov, Napoleon, Gaben, Dumas). Perception in this group is maximally clear and concrete, is
characterized by vision and tangibility – is mostly close to reality. When such sociotype falls into
indeterminacy situation, he follows his past experience or standard in such conditions scenarios of
event development.
The world for commutative sociotypes is a mosaic composition where every chuckstone
may be displaced (therefore, the picture changes as if in kaleidoscope), but not thrown out. Reality
perception is a little flat, but detailed. Representatives of this sociotype in everyday life collect a lot
of things, but they are out of order.
Commutativity (transference, transposition) as a law on mathematical operations reflects
exactly the following feature of this group:
а + b = b + a.
Commutative types are not afraid of upside-down images. It appears, that is the reason
why they take bearings in the locality, quickly find familiar objects or state their displacement.
One more notice. A modern trend in practical psychology – neurolinguistic programming
(NLP) represents concentrated expression of exactly this perception group. NLP method is actually
created based on conscious commutation (displacement) of sensoric channels.
2. Intuitive irracionalists or ASSOCIATIVES. Here belong sociotypes IL, IR, TP, TE
(Don Quixotes, Huxsley, Balzac, Yesenin). This kind of perception happens through freely
originating images. Any of details of perceived picture creates a single ideal image for these
sociotypes, associating with its contents.
A system for associative sociotypes is not a hierarchical formation according to any
criteria, but universal network between everything and everything that was ever seen on their
horizon. Thanks to the ability to catch similar to network relationships these sociotypes are good at
foreseeing or anticipating future – event development tendencies. They rely on well-known
“domino” principle: one fallen domino pushes another while all the formation will not collapse.
Therefore, they are always ready for the most likely event.
As you can see, I narrowed the sense of concept “associativity” bring in almost the same
117
content as Dzh. Grinder and R. Bendler bring into “anchoring“ [Bendleris R., Grinderis Dzh. Frogs
into Princes], i.e. having in mind coherence of stimulus and reaction of any nature. Associativity in
mathematics is recorded as “enclose in brackets” operation – free union of summands or products:
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c).
Sociotypes of this group have a great number of various ideas, but these ideas are poorly
arranged, freely overflow from one to another.
3. Sensoric rationalists or DISTRIBUTIVES. Here belong sociotypes PS, ES, LF, RF
(Stierlitz, Hugo, Maksim, Dreiser). They perceive unevenly, as if through traditionalism glasses –
ordered experience, which brings some objects to the front and sends others to the back making a
simple background.
Distributive psyche sets out the images around phenomena of surrounding world in a
certain order – divides them into the first, second, third etc. depending on the depth of distribution.
The first objects in such a row are perceived clearly and specifically, and the last – as if fall out of
perception, are almost not considered.
Distributive sociotypes harder of all raise ambiguity (even, uniform probability of
reaching the goal), because lose their reference point – possibilities to distribute forces and tools to
achieve certain goal. Therefore, they try to transfer to stable state as fast as possible – or to return to
the past or relocate to the future.
They are the most organized and punctual society members, closely following time
schedule and technological discipline. Thanks to these features and their part in a group of people or
social layer, their stability and devotion to traditions. They have less surrounding objects than
commutative, but they are kept more ordered.
Distributivity law in mathematics can be written as a change of product by sum, i.e. as
“removal of brackets” operation:
a (b + c) = ab + ac.
General multiplier “а” is equally allocate to both summands, symbolically expressing
firm adherence to traditions. Distributives involuntarily transfer everything new, newly perceived,
through their past experience – think through eidetic images. [(from Greek eidos – image) unusually
vivid subjective visual phenomenon. Eidetic imagines a missing item (and continues perceiving the
object, when it has already disappeared)]
4. Intuitive rationalists or DISSOCIATIVES. Here belong sociotypes PT, LI, ET, RI
(Jack, Robespierre, Hamlet, Dostoyevsky). They are a type reduced perception – transferring any
external information through a prism of main concepts of their worldview. The most part of their
perception is created by restriction complicated subjects to combinations of primary elements called
archetypes by Jung. So, dissociation is decay to natural minimal parts. Dissociative type may
synthesize an image of any complexity from these components.
In a state of ambiguity of event outcome, dissociative types envisage actions for all
possible options of development of the event. They calmly wait for future after preparation for
positive and negative outcomes of the event. Mathematical expression of dissociation is analogous
to “factor out from” operation – product of addition:
ab + ac + ad = a (b + c + d).
The dissociatives yield to associatives in number of ideas, but surpass in orderliness and
reduction to conceptual or “ideology” state.
No matter how strange it is, they can not reflect external image on their internal screens.
They involuntarily break it, and then re-assemble, drawing imaginary images that do not have
prototypes in reality.
Argumentation groups in socion
118
Argumentation groups are made by dividing socion according to the four Jungian
dichotomies – “rationality-irrationality” and “logic-ethics”. Exactly these socionic scales are used to
formulate attitude and agrumentate conclusions.
Scheme:
......................... rationality
............................. ↨
.......... GUARDIANS. ..↨....CONSTRUCTORS
ethics .↔↔↔↔↔↔↔↨↔↔↔↔↔↔↔↔↔↔↔..logic
..........DIPLOMATS....↨....RESTRUCTORS
............................. ↨
........................ .irrationality
I will analyse the obtained argumentation styles according to two main features of
reasoning – completeness and stability. Consider the fact that the structure of reasoning supposes
that there is a 1) subject of reasoning, 2) predicate (feature ascribed to the subject) and 3)
connection between them.
Completeness of reasoning means that all possible predicates of the paradigm are
ascribed to analysed subject exsplicically or implicically (in expressed or hidden form).
Stability of reasoning we will define as the impossibility to ascribe other reasoning
paradigm predicates to the reasoned subject, not related to analysed according to this context.
1. Logic rationalists or CONSTRUCTORS (PS, LF, PT, LI sociotypes - Stierlitz,
Maksim, Jack, Robespierre). They are characterized by both reasoning completeness and stability.
Therefore their argumentation is more constructive. Their reasoning results they provide in the form
of deduction as a certain cohesive logic structure, appropriate for basis for learning theory, law
code, organizational structure and technology etc. to optimal extent.
It is very difficult to expel the constructor from the chain of logic linguistic reasoning.
They easily orient throughout the whole discoursed material, therefore may start discourse it from
any point. The disadvantage of their argumentation style is an ignotnce of other paradigms seeking
to develop the thought in the boundaries of own system of viewpoints.
2. Logic irracionalists or RESTRUCTORS (FL, SP, IL, TP sociotypes - Zhukov, Gaben,
Don Quixote, Balzac). The reasoning is characterized by completeness, but not by stability.
Therefore thay have tendency to both material and ideal transformations and rearrangements of
logic systems. We will call their argumentation restructive. Not finding any tools to solve their
problems within the paradigm, restructors borrow them from other paradigms. Reasoning results
they formalize as a “deduction breakthrough” – finding a way out of the vicious circle. For this
reason, they are often characterized by wisdom and ingenuity in hopeless situations that seem to be
logic.
Restructors yield the constructors in outcome sequence. External listener constantly
comes across not motivated deviation from the main topic in their speech. Instead restructive
argumentation is free from dogmatism and is characterized by wider erudition.
3. Ethic rationalists or GUARDIANS (ES, RF, ET, RI sociotypes – Hugo, Dreiser,
Hamlet, Dostoyevsky). They are characterized by stable, but not complete reasoning. Control
compliance with the structures and paradigms, accepted by referential group and ascribed to “right”
category, paying less attention to their narrowness and imperfection. Reasoning results they
formalize in a form of comments, i.e. establishing the compliance of the newly perceived
information with the laws of paradigm.
119
Argumentation of guardians is based on authority, socially established norms and
treatment of concept names – terms, therefore it may be called normative (denominated). It is the
reason why their reasoning in many cases leads to dispute, if it is correct to name this or that
phenomenon by given name. Emotional side of argumentation of guardians is characterized by
stability and also appellation to partner’s feelings. Exactly this group has the risk to ripple to
uncreativity or scholastica.
4. Ethic irracionalists or DIPLOMATS (FR, SE, IR, TE sociotypes - Napoleon, Duma,
Huxly, Yesenin). They are characterized by not stable and incomplete reasoning. Their
argumentations are not very logic, therefore, ethic irracionalists try to compensate it by description,
i.e. providing all known information about a certain topic. By means of this they create the ground
for diplomatic manoeuvring – for change of one concept system with another. At that moment from
outside is looks like the person evades the answer, “turns away”.
Descriptive method is based on all various paradigms, even not interrelated, listing of
definitions known by reasoning subject, and provision of opportunity to the listener to draw
conclusions himself. Along it is commonly emphasized how difficult it is to come to unique
conclusion. Diplomats are mostly afraid of accusation intending to evade clear answer. Their
cognitive (recognition) problem is searching of truth criterion or excuse for use of one or another
paradigm.
8 Individual work task (written):
1. Fin information on topic “Competence of coaching specialist and abilities required for
activity” on web-pages of different coaching federations.
2. Prepare the most often emphasized competence list specifying the objective and
application area of certain competency or ability.
3. Complement the competence list of the andragogist providing coaching services.
9 Individual work task (written):
Based on provided deontology code of coaching specialist, determine what clauses could be
moved to deontology code of andragogist providing coaching services.
Substantiate your opinion.
APPENDIX 2 MID-TERM TEST
1. The interface of what separate social areas became a reason of coaching origin (select
correct answers):
1. psychotherapy,
2. educology,
3. training,
4. andragogy,
5. management.
2. Coaching is a sort of intervention in (score out incorrect statement):
1. the area of personal development,
2. the area of engineering and technologies,
3. the area interrelations,
120
4. the area of strategic management.
3. Complete the statement:
Coaching objective is to provide conditions for the client enabling him to find not simultaneous
solution,
but.....................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
.....
4. Coaching differs from learning, education, because (select all correct answers):
1. Coaching does not provide knowledge for creation of effective life model;
2. Coaching is not based on transfer of knowledge or abilities;
3. Coaching encourages using experience and accumulated knowledge;
4. Coaching aims at provision of help for person to reveal sources required for activity
in himself and others: knowledge, skills, provisions, abilities;
5. Coaching aims at creation of sources required for activity: knowledge, skills,
provisions, abilities.
5. Select correct statement:
1. Coaching specialist does not share his experience, knowledge and skills with the
client, but is able to interpret and watch the client, evaluate situation and obstacles
limiting client’s activity.
2. Coaching specialist shares experience, knowledge and skills with the client.
6. List the fundamental coaching application areas:
..........................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................. ........
..........................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................
7. The main coaching principles (score out incorrect statement):
1. every person has not limited potential;
2. every person believes that he can do more;
3. every person trusts coaching specialist;
4. every person knows deeply inside the ways how to achieve more. It remains to help
him to find these ways by asking specific questions.
8. Why is the coaching conception many-sided?
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
9. What is the way of cognition of the main coaching specialist based on (select correct
statement)?
1. good knowledge;
2. manoeuvring hostile forces;
3. manipulating people.
10. What are the theories coaching is based on (select correct answer):
1. humanism;
2. positivism,
3. empirism.
11. What is coaching practice focused on (score out correct answer):
1. improved situation,
2. practice,
3. the past of the person,
4. behaviour.
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12. Coaching functions on intersection of two interinfluencing factors (select correct
answer):
1. personal resources (potential) and specific activity situations;
2. personal resources (potential) and coach’s functions;
3. personal resources (potential) and client’s wishes.
13. The foundation of coaching mechanism consists of: (score out incorrect answer)
1. power to say,
2. power to act;
3. power to hear,
4. be activated.
14. What activity obstructions create tension in organization, between group members?
....................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................... ................
15. External triad in organization in the context of coaching means (select correct answer):
1. lack of assessment of a person, his activity recognition;
2. lack of good relationship;
3. absence of vision of final goals (organizational, team, personal);
4. all answers are correct;
5. the third answer is correct.
16. Individual triad in the context of coaching means (select correct answer):
1. lack of personal needs, aspiration perception, recognition;
2. discrepancy of intentions and their expression (behavioural or verbal), noticed by
surrounding people,
3. failure to communicate aspirations, achievement and desires;
4. lack of vigilance being involved to various psychological games;
5. all answers are correct;
6. the first answer is correct.
17. Team coaching focuses on (select correct answer):
1. technical and human linkage in terms of organizational goals and activity of team
members;
2. team activity;
3. input of team members to general activity.
18. Individual coaching focuses on (select correct answer):
1. acting person;
2. envisaged, desired situation;
3. activity of client and coach.
19. Why is it very important for coaching specialist to adopt the culture of certain
organization from the very beginning?
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
20. What does strategic coaching focus on and what is its purpose?
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................... ......................
ANSWERS TO MID-TERM TEST (CORRECT ANSWERS ARE TYPED IN RED)
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1. The interface of what separate social areas became a reason of coaching origin (select
correct answers):
1. psychotherapy,
2. educology,
3. training,
4. andragogy,
5. management.
2. Coaching is a sort of intervention in (score out incorrect statement):
1. the area of personal development,
2. the area of engineering and technologies,
3. the area interrelations,
4. the area of strategic management.
3. Complete the statement:
Coaching objective is to provide conditions for the client enabling him to find not simultaneous
solution, but the way of problem solving leading to global and perspective personal
development.
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
4. Coaching differs from learning, education, because (select all correct answers):
1. Coaching does not provide knowledge for creation of effective life model;
2. Coaching is not based on transfer of knowledge or abilities;
3. Coaching encourages using experience and accumulated knowledge;
4. Coaching aims at provision of help for person to reveal sources required for
activity in himself and others: knowledge, skills, provisions, abilities;
5. Coaching aims at creation of sources required for activity: knowledge, skills,
provisions, abilities.
5. Select correct statement:
1. Coaching specialist does not share his experience, knowledge and skills with the
client, but is able to interpret and watch the client, evaluate situation and
obstacles limiting client’s activity.
2. Coaching specialist shares experience, knowledge and skills with the client.
6. List the fundamental coaching application areas:
Behavioural development, career projection, practical activity improvement, development of
personal internal powers, support during strategic changes, other areas.
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................
7. The main coaching principles (score out incorrect statement):
1. every person has not limited potential;
2. every person believes that he can do more;
3. every person trusts coaching specialist;
4. every person knows deeply inside the ways how to achieve more. It remains to
help him to find these ways by asking specific questions.
8. Why is the coaching conception many-sided?
123
The variety of conceptions depends on the variety of coaching application areas. It is
comparatively new activity widely spreading not only in business organizations, but also between
individuals, in educational institutions etc., therefore, it is difficult to define it in terms of known
previous activities and professions.
9. What is the way of cognition of the main coaching specialist based on (select correct
statement)?
1. good knowledge;
2. manoeuvring hostile forces;
3. manipulating people.
10. What are the theories coaching is based on (select correct answer):
1. humanism;
2. positivism,
3. empirism.
11. What is coaching practice focused on (score out correct answer):
1. improved situation,
2. practice,
3. the past of the person,
4. behaviour.
12. Coaching functions on intersection of two interinfluencing factors (select correct
answer):
1. personal resources (potential) and specific activity situations;
2. personal resources (potential) and coach’s functions;
3. personal resources (potential) and client’s wishes.
13. The foundation of coaching mechanism consists of: (score out incorrect answer)
1. power to say,
2. power to act;
3. power to hear,
4. be activated.
14. What activity obstructions create tension in organization, between group
members?
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
............
Lack of assessment of person, his activity recognition; lack of good relationship (anger, envy,
open and closed conflicts, calumny, mistrust etc.); absence of vision of final goals
(organizational, team, personal).
15. External triad in organization in the context of coaching means (select correct
answer):
1. lack of assessment of a person, his activity recognition;
2. lack of good relationship;
3. absence of vision of final goals (organizational, team, personal);
4. all answers are correct;
5. the third answer is correct.
16. Individual triad in the context of coaching means (select correct answer):
1. lack of personal needs, aspiration perception, recognition;
2. discrepancy of intentions and their expression (behavioural or verbal), noticed by
surrounding people,
124
3. failure to communicate aspirations, achievement and desires;
4. lack of vigilance being involved to various psychological games;
5. all answers are correct;
6. the first answer is correct.
17. Team coaching focuses on (select correct answer):
1. technical and human linkage in terms of organizational goals and activity of team
members;
2. team activity;
3. input of team members to general activity.
18. Individual coaching focuses on (select correct answer):
1. acting person;
2. envisaged, desired situation;
3. activity of client and coach.
19. Why is it very important for coaching specialist to adopt the culture of certain
organization from the very beginning?
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
Every coaching specialist knows that usually an organization does not tolerate those who do not
follow established and effective norms.
20. What does strategic coaching focus on and what is its purpose?
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................ ..........................
Strategic coaching (different authors call it differently: organizational, managerial coaching)
systematically joins interrelation elements of organization and individual into one totality,
highlighting activity problems of workers and managers in terms of challenges, changes,
organizational strategy and vision, assessing the reality, workers’ representations, locality and
globality context of professional activity in order to achieve the goals of strategic activity.
FINAL TEST
1. In what area of activity may the andragogist apply coaching (select correct answers)?
1. conceptualization;
2. assessment;
3. realisation (educational);
4. support, help;
5. reflection
6. management.
2. Why is the application of coaching in adult education a
paradox?............................................................................................................................ .....
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
..........
3. Is it possible to identify learning problem to
difficulty?................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
125
.................................................................................................................................................
..........
.
4. Learning problems may be of the following nature (score out incorrect statement):
1. cognitive;
2. affective motivational;
3. pedagogical;
4. psychomotoric;
5. psychosocial.
5. What are the application areas of coaching in adult education?
................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................. ..............................................
................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................
6. What risk could the coaching specialist face, if he would “chase” client’s goals, hurry
“helping” the client to achieve his goals (select correct answers)?:
6.1.clients may provide superficial “not real” goals;
6.2.clients may not provide their goals;
6.3.clients may provide to easily achievable goals;
6.4.clients may provide too many goals;
6.5.clients may provide not clear goal priorities.
7. What makes communication difficult in terms or focused listening? (select correct
answers):
7.1.inexact facts;
7.2.interpretation of words of conversation partner;
7.3.critical assessment;
7.4.doubtful rules and norms;
7.5.all answers are correct;
7.6.the first and the second answers are correct.
8. What are the features of explanatory conversationo, main coaching
specialist?................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
...........
9. What are the strategies of active listening? (select correct answers):
9.1.Setting up for active listening;
9.2.observance of listening objective;
9.3.information distinction;
9.4.development of listening abilities.
10. What question during coaching is avoidable?
10.1. how?
10.2. when?
10.3. why?
10.4. what way?
11. What questions are used during coaching session? (select correct answers):
11.1. active/analytical;
11.2. neutral/directive;
11.3. passive/repeating;
126
11.4. simple/complicated.
12. How is verbal, nonverbal and paraverbal communication characterized?
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
13. Neurolinguistic programming is (several answers are possible):
13.1. specific communication technique;
13.2. totality of views of communication;
13.3. communication theory.
14. Disadvantages of neurolinguistic programming:
14.1. too complicated to acquire methods and techniques;
14.2. too easy to acquire methods and techniques at first view;
14.3. not complicated to acquire methods and techniques;
14.4. all answers are correct.
15. What are the recognition signs and how are they expressed?
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
16. Why are adults engaged in various psychological destructive games?
16.1. wishing to achieve their hidden goals;
16.2. wishing to achieve recognition;
16.3. wishing to conflict;
16.4. wishing to prove their truth.
17. What are the most often consequences of psychological destructive games?
17.1. changed for the worse relationship between players;
17.2. involvement in game of other people;
17.3. appeared emotional tension;
17.4. all answers are correct.
18. How to quit destructive game?
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
19. What are the main characteristics of cognitive style? (select correct answers)
19.1. it is a dimension that may be evaluated using psychometric techniques;
19.2. it is time-stable and independent from mental abilities (intellect);
19.3. it changes depending on the age;
19.4. it is two-directional (functions in two directions);
19.5. it has one direction;
19.6. it may be of different value, i.e., the style characterizes different, but not the best thinking
processes;
19.7. it may be assessed differently.
20. What must andragogist do if he has no psychometric rights dedicated to set cognitive
style, but wants to help adult learner?
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.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
ANSWERS TO THE FINAL TEST (CORRECT ANSWERS ARE TYPED IN RED)
21. In what area of activity may the andragogist apply coaching (select correct answers)?
1. conceptualization;
2. assessment;
3. realisation (educational);
4. support, help;
5. reflection
6. management.
22. Why is the application of coaching in adult education a
paradox?............................................................................................................................ .....
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
..........
Because coaching is applied to help, support the learner, however, andragogist must enable the
learner to solve his learning problems by himself.
23. Is it possible to identify learning problem to
difficulty?................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
..........
Difficulty is not identical to learning problem, which often depends on external factors and is quite
temporary. Difficulty often depends on internal factors and requires more efforts to be eliminated.
24. Learning problems may be of the following nature (score out incorrect statement):
1. cognitive;
2. affective motivational;
3. pedagogical;
4. psychomotoric;
5. psychosocial.
25. What are the application areas of coaching in adult education?
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................
Cognitive development is related to acquisition of new representations, knowledge, development of
new knowledge, acquisition of new interpretations, learning process management; social
development – to development of personal professional identity, behavioural improvement,
independence from other people (including coaching specialist); affective development is
associated with self-confidence, trust in self powers; personal/professional development is related to
realisation of personal and professional goals.
26. What risk could the coaching specialist face, if he would “chase” client’s goals, hurry
“helping” the client to achieve his goals (select correct answers)?:
26.1. clients may provide superficial “not real” goals;
26.2. clients may not provide their goals;
128
26.3. clients may provide to easily achievable goals;
26.4. clients may provide too many goals;
26.5. clients may provide not clear goal priorities.
27. What makes communication difficult in terms or focused listening? (select correct
answers):
27.1. inexact facts;
27.2. interpretation of words of conversation partner;
27.3. critical assessment;
27.4. doubtful rules and norms;
27.5. all answers are correct;
27.6. the first and the second answers are correct.
28. What are the features of explanatory conversation, main coaching
specialist?................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
...........
The explanatory conversation allows verbalize (tell): special specific action, what is done for real;
perceive activity elements, reconsider the content of not effective/effective action; enhance the
efficiency of brainwork of acting subject; enhance his autonomy level.
29. What are the strategies of active listening? (select correct answers):
29.1. setting up for active listening;
29.2. observance of listening objective;
29.3. information distinction;
29.4. development of listening abilities.
30. What question during coaching is avoidable?
30.1. how?
30.2. when?
30.3. why?
30.4. what way?
31. What questions are used during coaching session? (select correct answers):
31.1. active/analytical;
31.2. neutral/directive;
31.3. passive/repeating;
31.4. simple/complicated.
32. . How is verbal, nonverbal and paraverbal communication
characterized?........................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
............ verbal communication includes words, word meanings. Simply stated, it is speech.
Still an attention must be paid to that some words have several meanings, in certain cases
sarcasm is used; paraverbal language is the loudness of words, meaning of silence,
interruption of conversation partner, intonation; nonverbal communication reflects out
gestures, mimics and posture.
33. Neurolinguistic programming is (several answers are possible):
13.1. specific communication technique;
13.2. totality of views of communication;
129
13.3. communication theory.
34. Disadvantages of neurolinguistic programming:
14.1. too complicated to acquire methods and techniques;
14.2. too easy to acquire methods and techniques at first view;
14.3. not complicated to acquire methods and techniques;
14.4. all answers are correct.
35. What are the recognition signs and how are they
expressed?..............................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
............
36. Why are adults engaged in various psychological destructive games?
16.1. wishing to achieve their hidden goals;
16.2. wishing to achieve recognition;
16.3. wishing to conflict;
16.4. wishing to prove their truth.
37. What are the most often consequences of psychological destructive games?
17.1. changed for the worse relationship between players;
17.2. involvement in game of other people;
17.3. appeared emotional tension;
17.4. all answers are correct.
38. How to quit destructive game?
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................. ...................
................................................................................................................ .................................
It is possible to escape, but it would not solve the problem. One can withdraw from the game and
evaluate current role of each player and the situation. Activity strategy is considered according to
player’s abilities, skills, humour, etc. Searching for positive intentions in behaviour of their players,
interactions, used metaphors etc. Player must clearly provide himself with situation analysis;
submits it to other players in order to create neutral communication. The main points of agreement
are envisaged, appreciation is shown to other players for constructive communication in order to
solve a problem and normalize communication. It is checked if all players feel good after the
agreement. Efforts are made to implement the newly arisen “modus Vivendi”.
39. What are the main characteristics of cognitive style? (select correct answers)
19.1. it is a dimension that may be evaluated using psychometric techniques;
19.2. it is time-stable and independent from mental abilities (intellect);
19.3. it changes depending on the age;
19.4. it is two-directional (functions in two directions);
19.5. it has one direction;
19.6. it may be of different value, i.e., the style characterizes different, but not the best
thinking processes;
19.7. it may be assessed differently.
40. What must andragogist do if he has no psychometric rights dedicated to set cognitive
style, but wants to help adult learner?
130
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
To know different distinctive features of cognitive style, to hear out learners words (especially
verbs and expressions), establish dominating expressions.
APPENDIX 3 STRATEGY OF DISCUSSIONS
Students who do not dare to be involved to discussions have different reasons for that:
some of them do not trust their opinion, feel uncomfortable offering their opinion, maybe, some
have bad recollections from similar past experience and are afraid it will repeat again. Others,
maybe, do not know how to enter discussions and are afraid of new unknown not clear language,
vocabulary, expressions etc. This often happens to adults, especially when they have low self-
assessment and self-confidence. Discussion strategy is a perfect basis to start discussions,
especially with groups that have little or do not have any experience. This strategy helps to enter
into discussions, debates more actively, and at the same time enhances the possibility of acquisition
of positive experience that becomes a motivating factor for further involvement to and participation
in the process of studies and individual learning.
Advices:
Prior to starting discussions, an attention to the check-list of competences for discussion
realisation should be paid; read it thoroughly. You must follow it in the course of entire
discussion, therefore be sure that everything is clear and understandable (see the check0list
below).
How do you know that somebody is actively listening to? What do you do when you listen
to actively? How do such people look? What do you say, when you don’t understand what is
said?
What do you do when you want the speaker to repeat the same thing in other words? How
do you know that you have understood the way the speaker wanted you to understand? What
do you do when you want the speaker to confirm your correct understanding?
Sometimes people agree with each other and sometimes not. Sometimes they strongly
disagree; or disagree regarding some points. In any case it is very important to know what
other people think about outspoken thoughts and opinions. Examples of “constructive
answers” are provided not to “hang up’ the discussion and develop it in order student, not
lecturers, could enter into the discussion.
Before proceeding to other topic, the previous must be discussed and summarized,
conclusions made.
131
When different expressions, opinions are heard out, it is usually difficult to understand if
“speaker adheres to the initial opinion, or the opinion has changed”. Therefore it is worth to
check opinions once again and then generalize and present starting with “We adhere to the
opinion that”
The beginning could also be the following: “In our opinion....”; “After consideration of all
ideas and alternatives we came to a conclusion that ....”
Discussion participant should use the “check-list” during discussions.
If you have heard that someone is expressing his opinion in some of the ways and uses the
methods of active listening and etc., you should put a √ next to corresponding line in the
“check-list”.
Ask the speaker to control his expressions and speech in the same way.
At the end of discussion ask the participants to go through the “check-list” once again and
complement it more than it was said during discussions.
Finally spend 5 - 10 minutes to think over, how the group felt during discussions, if the list
helped to enter into discussions, if they would use it again in similar discussion.
Introduction with all explanations and discussion of examples may take up to 30 minutes. If
it is still unclear for participants what they are expected to do, additional time may be given
to discussion of competences. It is necessary during the first session to provide sufficient
attention to discussion of the “check-list”.
COMPETENCE CHECK-LIST FOR EFFECTIVE PARTICIPATION IN DISCUSSIONS
FORM OF ASSESSMENT AND SUPERVISION OF OURSELVES/COLLEAGUES
ACTIVE LISTENING
I’m actively listening to speakers and “filtering” their expressions in my mind (demonstrates
nonverbal response).
I generalize the main ideas in my mind.
I note the relevant things, ideas that seem to me to be valuable, write down raised questions,
am ready to participate in the discussion.
CHECK OF UNDERSTANDING
I ask for explicitation if necessary: “Could you explain, please?”
I ask for examples or confirmation of my thoughts if necessary: “Could you provide
examples, please?; Is such example appropriate?“
I paraphrase speakers ideas in order to check if I understood correctly: “In other words, …; I
understood that…; From what has been said I understood that …; do you think about…?”
CONSTRUCTIVE RESPONSE
I express partial acceptance/opposition: “I partly agree/disagree with your idea...; I do not
agree with your idea that...”
I emphasize what has been said: “I would like to emphasize that…”
I add my opinion to what has been said: “I would like to add….”
I express an opinion, beliefs and decisions: “I believe/I do not believe that it is appropriate
…”
ARGUMENTATIVE POSITION
I express my support/lack of support: “I agree/disagree with…”;
I summarize my ideas: “Based on the statements made, I conclude that ...” “Considering all
any ideas, I conclude that…”
132
The “check-list” is required to ensure “common language” for everyone during debates. It is a
reminder of basic rules; they should be useful in any “civilized discussion”.
The “check-list” is justified by determination of what makes the discussion more meaningful,
how to conclude it, make conclusions; example can help those who are a little “confused” at the
beginning of discussion.
APPENDIX 4
PRACTICAL TASKS TASK 1:
1. Find your personal goal and its realization stages according to the provided
GROW model.
2. Work in groups, where one will perform the role of coaching specialist (will
help to clarify the goal), and others – of clients.
3. You may exchange roles if you want to.
4. Prepare a report on performed roles and present it during the next lecture.
5. Specify what obstacles did you encounter, what was good, what failed to do
during the task, what should be done in order to perform the role of
coaching specialist in better way.
CONVERSATION TASK 2
1. Get into groups of three people and make coaching conversation on chosen topic
according to below provided roles.
2. Discuss the conversation with members of the group and lecturer.
3. You may read below provided appendix 5 with coaching EXAMPLE before the
conversation.
I role:
Aim of the conversation – speak and then point out ideas of the conversation.
Do I feel that I was listened to and heard, understood?
Do I feel certain of the man who asked me if I felt positive recognition signs (sympathy,
warmth, attention, sincerity, interest and respect) and if I felt the antipathy from them?
Did I feel that I could express my ideas freely unaffrighted by criticism, questioning,
inquiry, assignment to any stereotype, interpretations having nothing to do with me and my
practice
Did I feel that during the conversation I got help by rewording question, explaining to me
what was unclear?
II role:
Aim of the conversation – manage the time, ask questions, paraphrase statements, stimulate the
conversation.
What basic ideas and thoughts of conversation did I understand?
What was my impression towards the conversation?
Could I feel myself during the conversation and communicate without any obstacles?
Were my emotions towards this person positive (respect, sympathy, attention, sincerity)?
Did I allow the speaker to be himself?
Haven’t I fallen to temptation – to give advice, assess, accelerate reaction, listen to my
interpretations?
Do I feel I helped him?
How many times did I use paraphrase and what kind of paraphrase?
133
III role:
Aim of the conversation – to listen and point out what is happening.
The main idea of the
client/speaker
Behaviour of coaching
specialist
(+ -)
Nonverbal expression
A – assessment
I – interpretation
S – support
L – listening
S – solution proposal, search of
solution
R – rewording
P1 – understanding of other
person
Facial expression
Body movements
Mimics
Did you have possibility to distinguish conversation stages from what you have noticed?
What did you understand about the essence of the conversation (e.g.: education)?
About the person?
About the technique of the conversation?
TASK 3 – GAME “Mafia”48
Rules of psychological game
1. At the beginning of the game everyone receives a card with indicated participant’s role.
Roles are not known to other players until a certain moment of the game.
2. The following roles are distinguished: “Goodies” (Common citizens, Detective, Doctor).
“Baddies” (Mafia family members, Mafia boss)
3. There is a do-or-die war between “goodies” and “baddies” in a town.
4. The game ends when one of confronting sides is fully removed.
48 The author of the game, Dmitriy Davidov, was born in 1965. After he left secondary school he was accepted to
psychology studies at Lomonosov Moscow State University. He created the game in spring 1988. This event was
related to preparation of course paper. There is a rumour that the paper was prepared on request of KGB. The
appearance of the game was inspired by popular those days criminal serial “La piovra”, the story of fearless Commissar
Cattani. “Wink murder” game of the middle of XX century in Europe is deemed to be the prototype ‘Mafia” game.
However, there was a role of the only murder to be identified in the mentioned game. The game by Dmitriy Davidov is
well wider. The game became popular very fast. Soon the game was played in hostels of the university during evenings
and other students meetings. In summer, students were going to different camps so that spreading the game among a
huge number of higher educational institutions of the Soviet Union. When Dmitriy Davidov left his studied he started teaching student from Eastern Europe in the same Moscow University. It is not a surprise, that the game became
popular in Eastern Europe too. In early 1990s Dmitriy Davidov moved to USA. Nowadays he lives in Boston and
teaches in Harvard University. Thus, the game spread all over the world. In 1998 Kaliningrad Higher School, where
officers for Russian internal affair system were trained, the game was included to the programme of psychological
training. In Chine “Mafia” game is applied to treat gambling addictives. In Japan it is included to the jury training
program. “Mafia” belongs to 50 best games of all times. A huge advantage of the game is that it perfectly unites
entertainment, passion and possibility to effectively improve communication skills. The game may be played by two
players. The maximum number of players may reach 20 and more people. One game session depending on the number
of participants and experience may last from 0.5 to 2 hours (G. Masalskis, 2010).
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Game progress
1. All players sit around a table in order to see each other better.
2. The Moderator: “Night”.
3. All players close their eyes.
4. The Moderator: the members of mafia wake up, open their eyes and pick a victim.
5. The victim is silently gestured to indicate mafia target to the moderator.
6. The Moderator: Mafia close their eyes again.
7. The Detective wakes up.
8. The Detective opens his eyes and point to player to show the moderator assumed mafia
member.
9. The Moderator indicates the target’s innocence or guilt by using gestures such as nodding or
head shaking.
10. The Moderator: The Detective goes asleep.
11. The Doctor wakes up.
12. The Doctor “rescues” the victim. If the player he chooses was selected by the mafia as the
victim, the Doctor saves his life.
13. The Moderator: The Doctor goes asleep. The day breaks.
14. All are “awake” (open their eyes).
15. If the victim was not rescued by the Doctor, the Moderator names the victim of the night and
asks the victim to leave the cycle.
16. Now the citizens must find out who is the “mafia” in the cycle. The mafia wishing to divert
suspicion, of cause, also actively participates in the search. Mafia members take action by
asking different questions and sharing their reasoning.
17. The behaviour, reactions and responses to questions of the participants is watched.
18. The players give the names of suspects to the Moderator.
19. The Moderator writes down the names of “suspects” on a blackboard.
20. The suspects have a right to speak out and defend themselves.
21. The game proceeds with voting. The suspect who gets more votes is convicted and defence
dropped out from the cycle. The suspect reveals his real role.
22. After the judgement the Moderator continues the game saying that it is getting dark and
night is setting in…
23. New game cycle begins. The game lasts until a clear victory of “goodies” or “baddies”.
Analysis and discussion of the advice
Spontaneously arising situation during the game are a good ground not only for expression of good
communication skills of the participants. It is a chance to assess our strong and developed sides.
Whereas game session cycle is repeated several times during the class, a good opportunity appears
to “work” with improvable competences. Leading examples of behavioural situations and most
appropriate components to try to adapt to yourself may be found while watching the actions of
colleagues.
Foresights are shared, various treatment strategies are analyzed, personal experiences are expressed,
conclusions and generalizations are drawn during discussion. The way of effective transfer of the
experience acquired in the course of classes into the daily life and professional activity work is
discussed.
COACHING SESSION TASK 4
1. Get into groups of three people and make coaching SESSION on chosen topic
according to available roles (client, coaching specialist, observer (records coaching
progress) applying TA technique.
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2. Prepare a report on the session and discuss the session with members of the group
and lecturer.
3. Indicate problems and advantages revealed in the course of the session (in the
report).
4. Provide problem elimination suggestions (in the report).
5. You may read below provided appendix 5 with coaching EXAMPLE once again
before the conversation and use it as a basis during the session.
6. Duration of the session – 30 min.
7. Record coaching session on voice recorder or film.
8. Demonstrate to the group the most successful and failed part of the session. Provide
comments on what should be improved in Your and colleagues activity.
APPENDIX 5
PRACTICAL EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION OF COACHING TECHNIQUES (TA –
TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS)
E. Bern eight coaching stages (questioning, specification, confrontation, explication,
illustration, conformation, interpretation, clarification).
Summary of coaching sequence:
coaching agreement is made with a client;
coaching specialist watches a client to remain in a OK (+ +) position and in an Adult state;
coaching specialist is trying to make a client’s A state constantly active, which is isolated.
All E. Bern stages are divided into two parts:
I part. Intervention, designated for client’s A state clarification, client’s deflection into such a
position, where he could choose A state, taking into account his problem.
1. Questioning – coaching specialist is asking about the main client’s problem(s), given in a
contract (agreement).
2. Specification – reformulating some information parts received from a client, striving to record
and prepare it for the following stage.
3. Confrontation – coaching specialist is trying to present specified client’s contradictions by asking
questions.
4. Explication – coaching specialist is trying to strengthen client’s „A“ state and to encourage a
client to use his potential.
II part. Client’s state stimulation and interpositions, intended to insulate „A“ state from other
possible states.
5. Illustration – with a help of anecdote, analogy, comparison, trying to stimulate “C” state through
“A” state.
6. Confirmation – confrontation, forwarded to not clarified client’s A state, striving to strengthen A
state towards P and C states.
7. Interpretation – coaching specialist, or better the client himself interprets clarified A state of a
client’s situation.
8. Clarification – coaching specialist expresses to a client that A state should be chosen for
problems’ solving. It is better if a client chooses A state spontaneously himself. At this moment it is
better to hold P state, because P state harms all the procedure’s time.
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A problem situation in a coaching contract is described in the following way: a client is (pure)
elected to his company management, but he is afraid to speak publicly in it, he doesn’t express his
opinion, he doesn’t make any offers, stumbles, when is asked to make a speech.
Agreement basis – to acquire a faith into its strengths, that a client could clearly and
confidently express his opinion.
Indicators of coaching results are as follows:
compliments to a client from not less than two management members for the said or
expressed opinion;
client’s offers are presented once in three months at a management meeting, that will be
confirmed by management.
I part: Clients A state clarification and intervention.
1. Questioning. Coaching specialist presents questions, that help to specify points of a client’s
problem, which a provided in a contract. E.g.: „how many men and women make up your
management?“. Such a neutral question is intended to make sure, that a client’s A state is not
influenced by C or P states. If it is (A state is strongly subjected by P or C states) then coaching
specialist stops asking questions and works in a direction, that A-A transaction would be restored.
- How many men and women make up your management?
- How many do you need? (A-C)
- Tell a company’s statutes and you will know (A-P)
Coaching specialist, having restored A-A transaction, should not overload with plenty of
questions at this stage. Questions are intended only for problem’s points specification.
2. Specification. Coaching specialist reformulates in other words some received information, trying
to fix it in client’s consciousness. It is done in two ways: by approval „So, You like to work with
contracts more“ or by presenting information „Management consists of a chief executive and
departments’ directors“. Such specification will be needed later, before other decisive decision
stages or as a method to parry a client’s confrontation. Coaching specialist is trying to support A-A
transaction, without frightening a child, not making father angry. Coaching specialist does not
specify what a client has not expressed.
3. Confrontation. Coaching specialist exposes some contradictory information, which a client
presented him. Confrontation object may consist of several verbal information or discrepancy
between verbal and nonverbal information: „You told me, that better work with women, and now
you say that a financial director’s directive unbalanced you already during your first speech at a
management meeting“.
E. Bern notes than confrontation is considered successful, if a client starts laughing. It shows
that a client’s A doesn’t depend on P or C. A prolonged silence shows that a client’s P state or C
state, or A state of dependence is broken. Such a prolonged silence may end up doubtfully: either an
independent A will be clarified or unsatisfied father, child or an adult depending on them. In a latter
case coaching specialist will have to work again, trying to achieve client’s independent A state.
During a confrontation coaching specialist should pay all his attention to hold OK (+ +) stand
in life. Otherwise it may provoke a pursuit or a risk of being retracted into a game.
4. Explication. Coaching specialist briefly presents to the client his diagnostics and analysis
regarding a client’s problem. Explication goal – to strengthen the understanding of common
problem of the client and coaching specialist and try to induce the client to use his, but not others’
internal sources (consciousness, potential) while solving a problem.
Coaching specialist – „Is my analysis right, if I tell you that a strict financial director’s
directive activates a frightened child in you, and this means that you lose a speech power when you
are invited for a speech?“.
Coaching specialist makes sure that a client is in OK (+ +) position and listens attentively regardless
to A. In other case increases a risk of psychological game. If a client answers: „Yes, but...“, picks
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on words either argues for nothing, or contradicts, then coaching specialist should stop a process
and restore an independent A state OK (+ +) for the beginning.
Coaching specialist has to choose words carefully. They should understandable to a client, as
short as possible.
II part. Stimulation of interposition and C state. Task – to lead (take) a client to where he could
adopt a steady and long-term solution.
5. Illustration. Coaching specialist tells an anecdote, presents an analogy or a comparison
(humorous).
Example, being sure that the client has seen Shakespeare’s play „ The Taming of the Shrew“.
Coaching specialist – „But in the beginning you like Bianca more than Katherina, and in the end of
the play you suddenly changed an opinion“.
Illustration may happen suddenly in several instants after confrontation or significantly later
during the same or the following session, only after an additional illustration. Illustration may be
external, meaning a metaphor or internal, based on client’s impressions (a very delicate situation, as
risks to become a game if coaching specialist touches a client’s sensible place or a mental wound).
Coaching specialist will use an illustration at the time when a client’s A will listen, a child
will be nearby, easy reach, and a father will be not able to intervene and take dominating positions.
Illustration should be understandable to a client’s C state and directly connected with a
confrontation that was before.
Coaching specialist should not fulfil an illustration only because it is interesting for himself. It
is done only for client’s good.
6. Conformation. Relying on additional information presented by customer, coaching specialist one
more time will try to confront, intending to confirm existence of the same problem.
Coaching specialist: - „If suddenly Katherina, a financial director would become gentle as a lamb,
there wouldn’t be any problems for you to make a speech during a management meeting. However,
you told me that you were afraid to make a speech for guests that gathered at your son’s wedding.
You were afraid to talk with intimates and in an environment with people friendly disposed towards
you. Therefore, I think that your talking fear is neither connected with gender, not with nice people
around you“.
Coaching specialist makes sure that a client’s A state is strong and stands up a father pressure,
who will try to help a child that got into a difficult situation, and a child will not jump into coaching
specialist’s eyes.
Conformation is possible if confrontation or illustration have succeeded, that is a client in OK
(+ +) position and doesn’t intervene into a game.
As well as confrontation, a succeeded conformation may be confirmed by client’s gestures or
a smile at least. If a confirmation stage does not succeed, coaching specialist draws back and
changes tactics.
7. Interpretation. Coaching specialist prompts, encourages a client to imagine himself the best
possible way to solve a problem, correcting problem’s distortions (curvatures) and taking into
account a client’s experience. Example:
Coaching specialist: „- What specific possibilities you could analyse today, striving for being able
to talk publicly with pleasure?“
At this stage coaching specialist activates a client’s already strong, determined and competent
A. An activated child does not harm, but gives A enough strength to go forward bravely.
Coaching specialist is not trying to be in opposition with a father and will not ask too much
from a child to sacrifice oneself A. „Too much“ means that a child’s sacrifice to adults and his fear
will increase A state. In this case coaching specialist with his actions has to promise to a child a safe
digression, although a problem will be viewed already in a new, but not in an old way.
8. Clarification. Coaching specialist or a client himself describes his A position. At this stage
coaching specialist has fulfilled his mission – to lead (guide) a client to a position where he is able
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to choose A state, solving his public speech problem with as more adequate methods as possible.
Example:
Client „I am fully responsible for a possibility to talk publicly, paying no attention to who will
listen to me. I will find out myself tomorrow where and when public speech courses take place“
At this stage, if other stages where successful, client’s A and C crystallize enthusiastic and
joyful. Coaching specialist makes sure that a client’s father is ready to solve a problem just so and
approves it.
APPENDIX 6
ALLEGORICAL STORIES Because You Worth It
Once two friends went into the wide world to seek their fortune. It is not known how
many days they travelled, but one morning, tied up at the island, where a tribe lived, and the leader
had two daughters. The older daughter was a real beauty, and the younger – so-so. Still on the same
day in the evening one of the friends says to another:
“Done! I have found my fortune. I will marry tribe leader’s daughter and stay here to live.”
“Yes, you are right. The elder tribe leader’s daughter is a real beauty and clever. I agree with your
decision – marry her.
“You misunderstood me. I’m going to marry tribe leader’s younger daughter.”
“What – are you mad? She is just…. so-so.”
“I have decided this way. So, let it be.”
Friend did not argue, said goodbye and sailed far away to seek his own fortune. And
fresh-baked groom went to ask in marriage. Truth be told, it was accepted in the tribe to pay bride
price. The price was usually paid by cows. The price for a good bride even reached ten cows.
Delivered the groom to the yard of the leader ten mooing cows and said:
“Dear leader, I would like to marry your daughter. Here is the price – ten cows!”
“Well, you made a good choice. My elder daughter is beautiful and clever. She is worth the price. I
agree.”
“Dear leader, you misunderstood me. I want to marry your younger daughter.”
“Are you kidding? Don’t you see she is just… so-so.”
“But I want to marry exactly her.”
“All right, it is yours choice, but I’m an honest man and can’t take ten cows for her – she is not
worth it.”
After a short time of thinking the father said:
“I will take not more than three cows.”
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“Excuse me, leader, but I want to pay exactly ten cows.”
The leader did not object, and soon a wedding happened.
Some years have passed unnoticed. A long-time friend decided to visit the buddy who stayed to live
on the island and see how is his life going.
Arrived, landed, goes along the coast and sees in front of him coming woman of surpassing beauty.
The traveller greeted and asked her to help him to find his old friend. The woman showed him the
way. The traveller comes and sees his friend sitting and children running around:
“How is your life going?” he asked.
“Thanks. I’m happy.”
Here the same beautiful woman comes.
“Here, meet my wife.”
“What? Did you marry for the second time?”
“No, it is the same tribe leader’s younger daughter.”
The friend has lost his tongue.
“What has happened? Why did she change a lot?”
“Ask her yourself.”
Came the friend to the woman and asks:
“Excuse me for tactless question. I have a vivid recollection that you were just… so-so. What has
happened? Why did you become a beauty?”
The woman smiled and replied:
“Just once I have realized that I am worth ten cows.”
Morals of the story: all people have a great potential and many talents sleeping deep inside.
Unfortunately, not everyone knows it. Perhaps, the greatest joy of the joy of discovering these
talents is a joy to help other people discover their spiritual treasures and help them bring those
talents into the spotlight.
The Choice
Bruno Ferrero. 365 Short Stories for the Soul. Vilnius: Katalikų pasaulio Leidiniai. 2011, 309-310
p.
A man was depressed by the endless miseries of life. He came for solace to famous guru:
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“I can’t take in anymore! I can’t stand this life.”
The advisor took a handful of ashes and threw them into a glass of clear water on the table. Water
became cloudy and black. The guru said:
“These are your misery.”
And poured out the water. Then took a handful of ashes again and showed it to the man and threw
through the window into the sea. The ashes spread in a wink, and the sea stayed unchanged.
“Did you see?” asked the guru. “One must decide if to be water or a glass, or a sea every day.”
There are too many small hearts and fluctuating souls, too many narrow minds and rough hands.
We lack the courage today. Not stupid impudence, not dangerous recklessness, but true courage that
in presence of trouble would allow calmly saying: “There is a way out and I will find it for sure”.
The Fable of the Donkey
One day a farmer's donkey fell down into a well that the farmer had accidentally left uncovered.
The animal cried piteously for hours as the farmer tried to figure out what to do. Finally, he decided
the animal was old, and the well needed to be covered up anyway, so it just wasn't worth it to
retrieve the donkey.
He invited all his neighbours to come over and help him. They all grabbed a shovel and began to
shovel dirt into the well. At first, the donkey realized what was happening and cried horribly. Then,
to everyone's amazement he quieted down. A few shovel loads later, the farmer finally looked down
the well. He was astonished at what he saw. With each shovel of dirt that hit his back, the donkey
was doing something amazing. He would shake it off and take a step up. As the farmer's neighbours
continued to shovel dirt on top of the animal, he would shake it off and take a step up. Pretty soon,
everyone was amazed as the donkey stepped up over the edge of the well and happily trotted off!
Life is going to shovel dirt on you, all kinds of dirt. The trick to getting out of the well is to shake it
off and take a step up. Each of our troubles is a steppingstone. We can get out of the deepest wells
just by not stopping, never giving up! Shake it off and take a step up.
The Saucer
One old man moved to live with his son with daughter-in-law and four-year grandson.
An old man with shaking hands, poor eyesight and hobbling walk. The whole family ate together at
one table, but the old man’s shaking hands and poor eyesight was disturbing the process. Crumbs
were crumbling from his spoon on the ground, and when he was holding a glass in his hands, milk
was splashing on the tablecloth.
All these things little by little began to annoy the son and daughter-in-law.
“We need to do something”, said the son. “I’m sick of continuous splashing of milk, crumbling of
crumbs and loud hobbling.
The married couple placed separate table in the distant corner of the room. From now on the old
man was eating there, and the whole family could calmly enjoy their breakfasts, dinners and
suppers.
After the old man has broken his plate twice the food was served for him in a wooden saucer.
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Sometimes someone from family members glanced at grandfather occasionally; tears could be seen
in his eyes, he felt completely alone. Since then, the only words he heard were just sharp remarks
when his fork dropped of food spilled out.
Four-year old boy watched all this silently. One time, before supper, the father saw him playing
with a piece of wood on the floor. He nicely asked the boy:
“What are you doing here?”
The boy replied also nicely and gullibly:
“I’m doing a small wooden saucer for you and mom, from which you will eat later when I will be
grown up.
The boy smiled and continued his work. Parents were shocked with these words that they even lost
their breath for a while. Tears turned on their faces. And although no words were said, both knew
what must be done.
That evening a man came to the old man took him by his hand and gently escorted to a common
table. All the remaining days he ate together with his family. And for some reason, neither husband
nor wife was distressed because of dropped fork, spilled milk or dirty tablecloth.
The Story about Talmud, Socrates and Chimney
A Harvard scholar approaches a learned Rabbi telling him that he has a Doctorate in philosophy,
and would now like to learn the Talmud to round off or complete his knowledge. After summing
him up for a few minutes, the Rabbi told him:
“I seriously doubt that you are ready to study Talmud. It’s the deepest book of our people. If you
wish however I am willing to examine you in logic, and if you pass the test I will teach you
Talmud”.
The young man agrees. Rabbi holds up two fingers:
“Two men come down a chimney. One comes with a clean face and the other comes out with a dirty
face. Which one washes his face?”
The young man stares at the Rabbi:
“Is that a test in Logic?“
The Rabbi nods.
“The one with the dirty face washes his face”, he answers wearily.
“Wrong. The one with the clean face washes his face. Examine the simple logic. The one with the
dirty face looks at the one with the clean face and thinks his face is clean. The one with the clean
face looks at the one with the dirty face and thinks his face is dirty. So, the one with the clean face
washes his face.”
“Very clever!” says the visitor. “Give me another test!”
The Rabbi again holds up two fingers.
“Two men come down a chimney. One comes out with a clean face and the other comes out with a
dirty face. Which one washes his face?”
“We have already established that. The one with the clean face washes his face.”
“Wrong. Each one washes his face. Examine the simple logic. The one with the dirty face looks at
the one with the clean face and thinks his face is clean. The one with the clean face looks at the one
with the dirty face and thinks his face is dirty. So, the one with the clean face washes his face.
When the one with the dirty face sees the one with the clean face washing his face, he also washes
his face. So, each one washes his face.”
“I didn’t think of that!” says the visitor. “It’s shocking to me that I could make an error in logic.
Test me again!”
The Rabbi holds up two fingers.
“Two men come down a chimney. One comes out with a clean face and the other comes out with a
dirty face. Which one washes his face?”
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“Each one washes his face.”
“Wrong. Neither one washes his face. Examine the simple logic. The one with the dirty face looks
at the one with the clean face and thinks his face is clean. The one with the clean face looks at the
one with the dirty face and thinks his face is dirty. But when the one with clean face sees that the
one with the dirty face doesn't wash his face, he also doesn't wash his face. So, neither one washes
his face.”
The visitor is desperate.
“I am qualified to study Talmud. Please give me one more test.”
He groans when the Rabbi lifts his two fingers.
“Two men come down a chimney. One comes out with a clean face and the other comes out with
a dirty face. Which one washes his face?”
“Neither one washes his face.”
“Wrong. Do you now see, Sean, why Socrates logic is an insufficient basis for studying the
Talmud? Tell me, how is it possible for two men to come down the same chimney, and for one to
come out with a clean face and the other with a dirty face? Don’t you see? The whole question is
meaningless – foolishness – and if you spend your life trying to answers foolish questions, all your
answers will be foolish.”
The Story about Best Quality Nephritis
Once upon a time one man decided to become rich as fast as possible. One of his buddies suggested
that the best way is to invest his money in nephritis, but the nephritis must be of the best quality, or
he will meet with big losses. The man liked the idea; however, there was a little “but” – how to
distinguish quality nephritis from second-rate one… Therefore, he decided to find the most
qualified jewellery expert. All whom he asked addressed for advice one and the same expert. So,
the man decided to visit him.
“Yes, I can teach you to evaluate the quality of nephritis”, said the expert during their first meeting.
“And how long will this teaching last?” inquired the man.
“I can teach you for five days; however, it will cost you ten thousand”.
Training cost appeared indeed not insignificant for the man, but after all, this expert was known as
the greatest jewellery expert, so it is quite possible that during five days he can teach a lot of things.
On second thought the man agreed to start learning.
Then, the expert said that training will start tomorrow and will last from the ninth to the tenth in the
morning. The man was a bit surprised that for such price only one hour of training a day was
allocated. However, he was silent, and the next day arrived to teacher on time. He was taken to the
room with a wooden table in the middle. A large green stone was on the table. On both sides of the
table there was a chair – on one of those chairs sat the teacher, and the other was offered to sit for
student.
“Look at nephritis”, directed the expert.
The man stared at the stone waiting for coming soon explanations from the teacher to what attention
should be paid. However, the teacher was silent. An hour later he said:
“Today’s lesson is finished. See you tomorrow morning at nine o’clock”.
The man felt bitten by a fly, but convinced himself that tomorrow the teacher will explain what and
how.
So the next day at the same time the man was sitting at the table again. In front of him, the same as
on the first day, there was a stone, but this time another one.
“Look at nephritis”, directed the expert.
The man stared at the stone waiting with impatience for teacher’s explanations. But throughout the
hour the teacher did not breathe a word. And then said that the lesson is over and that he waits the
student the next day.
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On the third day the story repeated. The man was furious, but he was calming himself by the idea
that the famous expert at first gave him the opportunity to carefully explore three different pieces of
jewellery, and during the remaining two days he will discourse a prosperous lecture on the features
of colour and texture of the stone and other hidden nuances. However, nothing has changed on the
fourth day – just one more piece of jade and one hour of silent observation.
On the fifth day the man came with an expectation of something extraordinary. He knew that he
must be concentrated, because during one hour he will need to acquire a lesson which value is ten
thousands. However, a disappointment was waiting for him – the same room, the same table, the
next stone and everyday teacher’s invitation:
“Look at nephritis”.
The man stared at the nephritis eagerly waiting for those special words that give knowledge to be
finally said. Half an hour has passed. Finally, discontent boiled over. The man turned to the teacher
and exploded:
“Devil takes you! I paid you eight thousands for passed days and two more for today, and you
instead of training, said me to stare at that pieces. Moreover, this time you had an impudence to
push me second-rate piece!
The Power of Decision
One great lord has a monkey he loved a lot. She was extremely agile and fast. Once for the sake of
entertainment the lord ordered his servants to hit it. Everyone failed. Then the lord asked a
swordmaster to do the same. He failed as well.
”It’s fast as lightning, it is only my master who could overtake it”, said the swordmaster.
The lord sent someone to invite the famous Master.
“Try to hit the monkey”, the lord asked the famous Master.
The Master looked at the monkey quietly lying on lord’s hands and raised his stick to make the hit.
As soon as he took a swing the creature screamed and stretched in front of the Master as if
appealing for mercy.
The lord and his retinue were deeply surprised and began to praise the soldier. The Master replied:
“There is nothing special. Just everyone who tried to hit the monkey at the same time was bewaring
of hitting the lord, so that their actions were full of doubts and lacked the decision. I was just full of
decision, if the will be a need to hit the lord. Monkey felt this decision and scared.
My teaching is easy. If you have made a strike – hit. Your mind must be free from anything else
that time.
The Golden Key
Once upon a time there lived a wooden puppet Buratino. Buratino was curious and all unknown and
mysterious was attracting him with juggernaut.
One day, when Daddy Carlo was busy, Buratino standing in front of the mirror noticed an eyelet in
the very centre of his stomach, where common people usually have a navel. Buratino fell into a
muse – what is the eyelet in the centre of the stomach and where to find a key to insert in the eyelet.
Ran Buratino to Daddy Carlo and started fishing out about the eyelet and where to find a key for it.
Unwillingly was answering Daddy Carlo.
“Kid, do you really need to know everything? Why don’t you read anything simple? Why don’t you
go to play with kids in the garden? Look, what a beautiful weather outside”.
Buratino was walking around not calming down. Finally, Daddy Carlo gave up:
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“I see, kid, that it’s impossible to talk you out. Then sit down and listen to me attentively. There is a
key that will fit the eyelet in your stomach. Ant it is a Golden Key. It is hidden in an egg. That egg
is in an eagle. That eagle is in a wooden iron-bound chest. That chest is chained to the top of an old
oak. That oak is on an island, and that island is beyond the three seas. Ant only the most courageous
could travel there. Think thoroughly if you need to go there”.
Several days Buratino felt antsy pacing about. However, he could not imagine his life without the
Golden Key anymore.
Finally, the next day morning he packed his scanty belongings and went to find the Gold Key.
Difficult and tiring the journey was. He travelled under the sun and rain. Storm many times
threatened to wreck ships by which he sailed through the lagoon and the sea. Finally, after many
days he was able to find that special island. He had to run away from dragons; the island was
overrun with dragons. At last, Buratino succeed in finding the oak with chained chests on the top of
it. It took pains for Buratino until he reached the top of the tree and opened the chest. By the skin of
teeth the eagle did not snake out from Buratino’s hands. Reached Buratino the egg, and soon the
same Golden Key.
That’s the moment Buratino has been waiting for so long, for which was so much sacrificed.
Inserted Buratino the Golden Key into the eyelet in the centre of his stomach and turned it
clockwise and at the same moment his backside fell off.
Morals of the story: this story is to some extent similar to the Bible story of Adam, Ieva and Tree of
Knowledge. If Adam in due time contained himself from the curiosity to taste the fruit from the
Tree of Knowledge, maybe nowadays we would run on the grass of the Garden of Eden. On the
other hand, many innovations planned in the company, at a glance, seem to be very attractive. Yet
there is always need to assess whether the changes by turning the key clockwise will, and does not
bounce something that would cause even more difficulties for the company than before the reforms.
By the way, there is an ecology concept in the neurolinguistic programming theory that needs to be
specially considered providing any changes (both individual and organizational).
What Do You Need to Dance?
Sudha Chadran – a classical dancer from India, was cut off in the prime of her career, when her
right leg had to be amputated after a car accident. The dancer decided to go back to dancing after
she had been fitted with an artificial leg.
Moreover, she again became one of the famous classical dancers in India.
When someone asked Sudha how she had managed to dance again, she said quite simply:
“You don’t need feet to dance!”
The Story about Repetitions
In the evening, two friends were sitting in the bar, sipping beer and staring at the TV screen. At that
time, TV broadcasted news. In the news they showed a woman who was standing on the edge of the
roof and threatening to jump down. One buddy then says to another:
“Here’s what I’ll tell you. Bet you! If she will jump off the roof – you will give me twenty dollars.
If she will change her mind – I will give you twenty. Do you agree?”
“Agree”, said the second buddy not hesitating for a long time.
After a few minutes the woman jumped off the roof and got killed. Loser sighed, pulled out a wallet
and gave the first buddy twenty dollar banknote.
After some time has passed the first one says:
“Listen. I cannot take away from you the money. I have to confess to you. I watched this newscast
during the day. It was a repetition.”
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“No, no”, said the second one, “leave the money. It is fair winning following the rules. You see, I
watched this newscast during the day too.
“Did you?” the first surprised. “But why then you bet that women will not jump off the roof?”
“You know, I did not believe she will be so stupid to try to do it again”.
Morals of the story: The prevailing opinion is that a tribe of people ids distinguished from the rest
animal kingdom by the ability to think, analyze, draw conclusions, and ... do not repeat once made
mistakes. However, watching the fatal stubbornness with which the people step on the same rake
again and again, thinking that they are doing it just intentionally or as a result of boredom.
The Story about the Old Man and the Hoarse
How are you doing? We hear every day.
And every day we hear comments: Look, he is lucky – he bought the only lottery ticket and won!
Heh, he is unlucky, just bought a car and at once made an accident…
Once there was an old man who lived in a tiny village. Was he neither poor nor rich – he owned a
horse, was working on his farm with his son, so he live ...
One morning he found that the horse was not in his stable. The entire village came to see him.
“What a misfortune, how bad it is for you – you had the only hoarse and he ran away, how will you
manage on your farm”. We warned you that you would be robbed. You are so poor. Now the horse
is gone and you’ve been cursed with misfortune.”
The old man responded: “Maybe misfortune, and maybe fortune… Go away; I do not need your
solace.”
After some days, the horse returned. Not only had he returned, he had brought a dozen wild horses
with him. Once again, the village people gathered around the woodcutter and spoke. “Heh, what a
fortune! You are lucky…” The old man listened to and said: “Maybe fortune, and maybe misfortune
… There is no reason to exult. Go away.“
The old man had a son, an only son. The young man began to break the wild horses. After a few
days, he fell from one of the horses and broke his leg. Once again the villagers gathered around the
old man and cast their judgments.
“Oh, oh, what a misfortune, your only son has broken his leg, and now in your old age you have no
one to help you…” The old man responded: “Maybe misfortune, and maybe fortune… We’ll see.”
It so happened that a few weeks later the country engaged in war against a neighbouring country.
All the young men of the village were required to join the army. Only the son of the old man was
excluded, because he was injured. Once again the people gathered around the old man, crying and
screaming because their sons had been taken.
“Your son’s accident was a fortune. His legs may be broken, but at least he is with you. Our sons
are gone forever.”
The old man spoke again: “Maybe fortune, and maybe misfortune...”
The story may be continued. It is an endless story. Try.
The Story about the City, Barbarians and Motivation Systems
A long time ago the city was governed by a young and wise ruler. He truly cared for his people. His
main objective was – that the residents would live without feeling any deprivations. People loved
their city and well understood that all they have is achieved by virtue of continuous work.
Rumour about this beautiful city had spread far and wide. After some time it reached the land of
barbarians.
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And the last fixed the right moment and attacked the city. They were destroying its beautiful
palaces, devastating gardens and temples, hijacking magnificent craftsmanship and the goods
brought by merchants. And thus, within a few days almost everything created by people was
levelled with the ground. The young lord became very sad. For several days he did not know what
to do.
How to inspire people to create a new life? What to tell them that they would believe in the
possibility to restore everything and live better than before the attack of barbarians. The lord felt
that there are special words, but he did know what these words are.
Finally, the young lord invited a Wiseman to ask for an advice. The Wiseman listened to the lord,
thought for a while and said:
“I think that the best way out is to do without speechmaking and creation of illusions, and tell the
people the truth as it is. Nothing motivates people the way the truth does.
The young lord took the advice – called all citizens and said:
“The barbarians have destroyed everything you had been creating over a number of years. I know
how you are feeling. But we are not allowed to give up. Our children would not forgive us for our
failure to act. If we forget about deprivations and mortification and settle down to work, we will
live even better than lived before the attack of the barbarians as time goes by.
The citizens believed the lord and settled down to work. Four years have passed, and the city was
recovered. It became even more beautiful than it was before.
Soon the rumour about the prosperous city again spread far and wide. After some time it reached
the land of barbarians. And those, fixed the right moment and attacked the city. Within a short time
everything was levelled with the ground. The young lord became very sad: what to tell the people
this time? They believed him for the first time. However, now it is different – will they find the
power to rise from the ashes?
The lord did not find any better solution and called the Wiseman again. The Wiseman listened to
the lord, thought for a while and said:
“I do not know any better way out than telling the people the truth as it is.
The young lord took the advice – called all citizens and said:
“The barbarians have destroyed everything you had been creating over a number of years. I know
how you are feeling. I know that it is hard for you to forgive the barbarians. But they do not know
what they are doing. They are enabled to create. They do not know what the joy of creation is. I
believe that by joining our efforts we can reconstruct the city and make it even more beautiful.
The citizens believed the lord and settled down to work. Some years have passed, and the city was
recovered. It became even more beautiful than it was before.
And again the rumour about the prosperous city again spread far and wide. After some time it
reached the land of barbarians. And the last fixed the right moment and attacked the city. Within a
short time everything was levelled with the ground. The young lord did not know what to do. What
to tell the people this time?! He managed to inspire people twice, but for the third time – any words
are senseless.
The Wiseman being in waiting for a long time noticed that the lord is distressed and said:
“Maybe you should not tell people anything. Just direct them to dig out a wide and deep trench and
fill it with water”.
The Story about Two Wolves
A long time ago an old Cherokee chief was teaching his grandson about life.
“A fight is going on inside me,” he told the young boy, “a terrible fight between two wolves. One
is evil, full of anger, sorrow, regret, greed, self-pity and false pride. The other is good, full of joy,
peace, love, humility, kindness and faith.”
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“This same fight is going on inside of you, grandson…and inside of every other person on this
earth.”
The grandson ponders this for a moment and then asks, “Grandfather, which wolf will win?”
The old man smiled and simply said,
“the one you feed.”
The Story about 1001 Day
One boy decided to become a Sufism pupil.
When he arrived to a school he was told:
“You will have to answer a given question. If your answer is correct you will be accepted for three
years studies.”
The question followed after. A pupil thought thoroughly and gave an answer. A teacher’s
representative left. Some minutes later he returned and informed that boy’s answer is correct.
“Now you may go and wait for the 1001st day. Then you will be able to come and study.
A boy was glad. He thanked teacher’s representative and right before going away asked:
“What would happen if I couldn’t answer?”
“Then you would be accepted at once”.
The Story about the Talking Bird
One day an old man caught a bird. He was glad. “There will be a delicious supper”, he thought
while going home with the bird.
When there was not much till a house the bird told with a human voice:
“Let me go, an old man, and I will give you three valuable advices.
An old man surprised, thought and let the bird go.
The bird landed on a branch, fluffed out all its feathers and says:
“Thank you, an old man, for your kind heart. Here are the promised advices. The first one –
nonsense, even from an authority lips, anyway remains nonsense”.
What a clever idea, thought an old man. I should take notice.
“The second advice. Know the limits of your possibilities and don’t try to overcome them. Clever
one knows it and doesn’t try to change what is impossible to change. A fool doesn’t understand his
limits of possibilities and often in vain tries to do what is impossible to do”.
A clever idea, thought an old man. I should take notice.
“The third advice. Never regret about what you have done. It has already happened – good or bad –
but this is already the past”.
A clever idea, thought an old man. I should take notice. When I get back home I will follow this
wisdom the rest of my life.
When an old man was already ready to go home, suddenly a bird started laughing irrepressibly.
“What’s wrong?” surprised the old man.
“Fool, you’re fool. If you didn’t listen to my rubbish and brought me home, you would have not
only a delicious supper, but you would find a huge diamond in my stomach. If you sold it, you
would become the richest person around.
The old man became furious after he has heard this. He made a dart to catch the bird. The bird took
a wing on another branch. The old man started to climb on a tree following her. The bird flew
higher on a branch. The old man followed her. The bird flew onto the top of the tree. Continuing to
climb following the bird the old man slipped off and plopped down. He barely stayed alive.
The bird landed on lower branch and said:
“Old man, old man, do you still remember what advices I gave you recently”.
An old man suddenly forgot his pain and understood everything.
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“You said me not to believe in nonsense, but I believed that there is a precious stone in your
stomach”.
“You told me that I should know the limits of my possibilities, but I decided to climb to the top of
the tree despite my age”.
“You told me not to regret about what I have done, but I became angry that I let you go and decided
to catch again”.
Morals of the story: A wise man is the man who is able to give a clever advice, but twice wiser is
the man who is able to accept and take advantage of that advice. Not applied thoughts or ideas are
priceless. Whether you are at a seminar or reading a book, habituate yourself to ask the same
questions – what will I get from this? What will I do tomorrow differently? If there are answers and
shortly appropriate actions or changes, then the money spent for the seminar or the book may be
easily considered to be not expenses, but investment.
The Story about Similarities and Differences between Dogs and Cats
Eglė Masalskienė
Have you any pets at home, for example, a dog or a cat? Those, who watched these animals
attentively, will soon feel how they differ from one another.
There you go – it’s pouring outside and a dog is lying near a fireplace comfortably crumpled in its
soft “nest”. It lifts a head up looking around and thinking: “How good it is here. Warm. Dry. Perfect
food and plenty of it. The owner takes much care of me, loves me a lot… probably HE is a divine
creature!”.
Right here, not far away, a cat is sitting on a window sill. It looks at the rain, purring quietly and
thinking: “How good it is here. Warm. Dry. Perfect food and plenty of it. The owner takes much
care of me, loves me a lot… probably I am a divine creature”.
In everyday life, as well as at work, we also sometimes think and behave “catlike” or “doglike”.
Once during a seminar sales managers were asked a question “whom would you be at your working
place, if you were … an animal?”. There were and “cats”, and “dogs”, and others. And when the
question is repeated vice versa – “what shop assistant would I come to, if “dogs”, “cats” and other
animals were walking in the saloon?”, one and all have rapidly answered: “I would inquire a dog”.
Who knows – why?
The Story about Rice Seeds
Unknown author
Once a father called a son to watch how rice grows on their field. While walking the son noticed
that some rice stems are straight and others nodded towards the ground.
“Father”, he asked, “probably these rice stems are straight because they are strong and those nodded
– because they are weak?”
The father plucked different rice stems and explained, showing them to his son:
“Look, son, this one that looks like a week stem is ripe in fact, grains are bending it, and only such
rice is suitable for food. But this straight stem – just not ripe and weak.
The same is in life – immature, unwise people are trying to raise and show themselves. And wise
people like these ripe rice stems – live quietly, with merit and do not show off their achievements,
though exactly it brings benefit to people. And for their modesty people love them and respect
them.
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The Cups of Tea
A group of successful students from a famous university, who made a wonderful career, visited
their old favourite professor. Up-to-date problems were discussed during the visit. Former students
complained about an abundance of life difficulties and troubles at work. The professor has offered a
cup of tea to his quests. He came back from a kitchen bringing a teapot and a tray with lots of
different cups. Some of them were made from porcelain, others from glass, plastic or crystal, some
simple, others expensive. When guests took the cups the professor said:
“Pay your attention that all expensive and beautiful cups were taken at once, but simple and cheap
ones were left. Although it is obvious to desire all the best, but at the same time this is a source of
your worries and problems too. I think, you understand that the cup itself doesn’t make the tea
better. Mostly it is just more expensive and sometimes it even hides what we drink. But, in fact,
everything what you wanted – is just to drink some tea, but not the cup itself. Nevertheless you
consciously chose the best cups later looking out who got which one. And now think: life is the tea,
and job, money, position, society are the cups. All that is just tools used to inspire life. A cup is not
important for life; its quality does not change. Sometimes, concentrating all the attention only on a
cup, we forget to taste the wonderful taste of the tea.
The happiest people are not those who have everything the best, but those who receive the best from
what they have.
The Story about Who You Really Are
A lot of facts are accumulated in your memory; maybe even more than in any world encyclopaedia.
And if you really wanted you could retrieve all those facts from the depth of your memory,
remember. However, the most important thing in your memory is absolutely something different.
The most important is to recall – who you really are.
There is one old story.
A pregnant lioness without paying an attention to her delicate state gambolled in hills and gave birth
to her child during one abrupt jump. The new-born fell into a sheep flock.
Sheep accepted him and brought up. It’s clear that a young lion associated himself with sheep. It
was a little bit strange that he is so big and looks different from other sheep. Well, maybe he was
just a degenerate. He was brought up as a vegetarian.
One time an old lion was looking for a prey and got close to the sheep flock. He couldn’t believe in
what he has seen. The young lion walked between sheep in all its magnificence, and sheep were not
afraid of him at all. The old lion was interested and he followed the flock. The young lion started
running together with sheep. Finally, the old predator caught the young lion. He cried and started
begging:
“Don’t kill me and let me back to my tribe”.
The old lion saying nothing brought the young one to the nearest lake with smooth surface like a
glass and forced him to look at the reflection in water. It was like a bolt from the blue for the young
lion. At that moment when the young lion saw and suddenly understood who he really is, he loudly
roared. This sound has echoed through the whole valley. He has never cried earlier, because he has
always considered himself a sheep and he has never doubted in that.
The old lion said:
“My mission is finished. Now everything depends on you”.
The young lion answered him:
“Forgive me. I have absolutely forgotten who I really am. I am very grateful that you helped me to
remember.
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Old wise men from the East said:
“The real goal of the master is to help to remind who you really are. You just forget what inborn
strength is hiding inside you, because you got used to look outside rather than inside”.
The Donkey and the Hare
A hare sits on a stump and cries. A fox goes by and asks: “Why are you weeping?“. The
hare answers: “The king of beasts lion obliged me to write a positive references for a donkey.
What should I do? The donkey is stubborn, fool, he goes his way nobody asking?“ The fox answers:
“Well, write that the donkey is hardly achieving his goal, loyal to his principles, always does his
work to the end and never loses his pound for a penny.
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