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Hodge, Kozub, Dixson, Moore, & KambonEducational
Foundations, Winter-Spring 2008
Sanuel R. Hodge is an associate professor of physical education
in the School of Physical Activity and Educational Services at The
Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Francis M. Kozub is an
associate professor in the Department of Physical Education and
Sport, State University of New York at Brockport, Brockport, New
York. Adrienne D. Dixson is an assistant professor in the College
of Education and Human Ecology at The Ohio State University.
Columbus, Ohio. James L. Moore III is an associate professor in the
College of Education and Human Ecology, coordinator of the
Counseling Program, and the inaugural director of the Todd Anthony
Bell National Research Center on the African American Male at The
Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Kwesi Kambon is the director
of Multicultural Education and Equity with the Columbus Public
School District, Columbus, Ohio.
Sincethenineteenthcenturyandstilltoday,per-sistentstereotypicbeliefsaboutBlacks1haveportrayedthemasathleticallysuperiorwhileintellectuallyinfe-rior
toWhites2 (Harrison, 2001; Harrison,
Harrison,&Moore,2002;Harrison&Lawrence,2004;Miller,1998;Wiggins,1989).Incontrast,Whiteshavebeenportrayed
as athletically inferior but
intellectuallysuperiortoBlacks.Thesetypesofrace-basedstereo-typicbeliefshavepresentdayimplicationsforyouth,suchasimposingsocialandpsychologicalburdensonperformanceandthuspotentiallyreducingastudent’sabilitytoperformtoherorhispotential(Stone,Lynch,Sjomeling,&Darley,1999).Forinstance,Stoneetal.(1999)asserted
thatathleticperformanceis
impededoutofconcernaboutconfirminganegativestereotype
A Comparisonof High School Students’
Stereotypic Beliefsabout Intelligence
and Athleticism
By Samuel R. Hodge, Francis M. Kozub,Adrienne D. Dixson, James
L. Moore III,
& Kwesi Kambon
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High School Students’ Stereotypic Beliefs
which“increasesanxietyandinpartbecauseitcreatesself-doubtabouttheabilitytoperform”(p.1224).ResearchsupportstheplausibilitythatforBlackstudent-athletes’
negative stereotypic beliefs about their intelligence can lead them
tolowertheirexpectationsinacademiccontexts(Steele&Aronson,1995;Stoneetal.,1999).Itisimportantthatteachers,coaches,andotherschoolpersonnel(e.g.,counselors)understandhowrace-sportstereotypescanimpacttheaspirationsofyouthtowardorawayfromvariedathleticpursuesoftenattheexpenseoftheiracademicsuccess(Harrison,Azzarito,&Burden,2004).
What’smorerevealingaboutthisissueisthatitisheldthatinternalizedaccep-tanceofrace-basedstereotypicbeliefsaboutintelligenceandathleticismconfoundedbyalackofaccess,opportunity,andeconomicalvariablesplusotherfactors(e.g.,socio-cultural)leadsomeBlackandHispanic3youthtowardmoreeconomicallyaccessiblesports(e.g.,baseball,basketball,football)andawayfromexposuretolesseconomicallyaccessiblesportssuchasgolfandtennis(Burden,Hodge,&Har-rison,2004;Edwards,1998;Harrisonetal.,2004;Harrisonetal.,2002;Harrison&Lawrence,2004).Onthisissue,Burdenetal.(2004)examinedBlackandWhitestudents’beliefsabouttheirs(in-group)andeachothers(out-group)ethnicgroups’intentionstoparticipateinvarioussportactivities.Theyreportedthatrespondentsfrom
both groups were influenced by socio-cultural variables (e.g.,
absence
orpresenceofsportrolemodelsasportrayedbythemedia).Specifically,bothBlackandWhitestudentsbelievedthatsocio-culturalvariablesinfluencedBlackstomorelikelyparticipateinbasketballandfootballthanWhites,andthatWhitesweremorelikelytoparticipateintennis,golf,andswimming.Burdenetal.alsofoundthatrespondentsfrombothgroupsheldbeliefsthatBlacks’intenttoparticipateinvar-iedsportactivitiesarehinderedbysocioeconomicinequalities.MostrespondentsbelievedthatsportactivitiessuchasbasketballandfootballwereaccessibletomostBlacks,whereasgolf,swimming,andtennisweremuchlessaccessibletoBlacks;butaccessibleformostWhitesintheircommunities.Plus,thelargepresenceofBlacksinbasketballandfootballatthecollegiateandprofessionallevelsaffectssomeBlack(self-stereotyping)andWhite(stereotyping)students’beliefsaboutBlacks’intenttoparticipateinthesesports.Incontrast,thedominatepresenceofWhitesintennisandgolfatthecollegiateandprofessionallevelsinfluencessomeBlack(stereotyping)andWhite(self-stereotyping)students’beliefsaboutWhites’intentionstoparticipateinthesesports(Burdenetal.,2004).
Researchthatexaminesdifferentethnic4groups’beliefsabouttheirsandothersintellectualandathleticabilitiesisimportanttounderstandinghowbesttocounterharmfulstereotypes(Steele,1997;Steele&Aronson,1995).Hence,moreresearchisneededtobetterunderstandvariousethnicgroups’race-basedstereotypicbe-liefsabouttheirsandtheintellectualandathleticabilitiesofothers(Burdenetal.,2004;Harrisonetal.,2004;Harrison&Belcher,2006;Steele,1992,1997;Steele&Aronson,1995).ThepurposeofthisstudywastocomparethebeliefsofBlack,Hispanic,White,andbiracialstudentsontheirown(in-group)andtheintellectualandathleticabilitiesofother(out-group)ethnicgroups.Thecentralresearchquestion
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Hodge, Kozub, Dixson, Moore, & Kambon
waswhatarethebeliefsofBlack,Hispanic,White,andbiracialstudentsontheirownandtheintellectualandathleticabilitiesofotherethnicgroups.Thisresearchwaspartofalargerstudydesignedtoexaminehighschoolstudents’attitudesandmotivationstowardurbaneducationandsports.
Theoretical Framework
Stilltoday,thedominantcultureintheUnitedStates(U.S.)ofAmericaisre-flectedintheteaching-learningprocessinmostpublicschools(Azzarito&Solmon,2006).Thiscultureusuallyreferstothehegemony5ofWhitemaledominationwithinaEuro-Americanparadigm(Gordon,1995;Ladson-Billings,2000).Toooften,themeaningsstudentsattachtotheireducationalexperiences(Azzarito&Solmon,2006)andteachers’understandings,perspectives,andpedagogiesaresituatedinthisepis-temology(DeSensi,1995),and“[t]hehegemonyofthedominantparadigmmakesitmorethanjustanotherwaytoviewtheworld—itclaimstobetheonlylegitimatewaytoviewtheworld”(Ladson-Billings,2000,p.258).Tochallengethedominantorthodoxy,6increasinglylegalandeducationalscholarshavepromotedcriticalracetheory(CRT;Dixson&Rousseau,2005;Ladson-Billings,1995,1998a,2000).
Ineducation,CRTsituatesresearchonsocial justiceandracialequality
inschoolsandschooling(Jay,2003).Itemergedasacounter
legalscholarship
topositivistandliberallegaldiscourseofcivilrights(Ladson-Billings,1998a,2000).ImportanttoCRTisthepositionthat“individualsandsocialgroupsconstructtheirownrealityregardlessoftheoppressiveelite-dominatedsocialhierarchyinwhichtheyexist,andtherebyhavethecapacitytoresistandreconstruetheirrelationshiptoit”(Knapp&Woolverton,1995,p.551).DixsonandRousseau(2005)co-editedaspecialissueforthejournalRace,
Ethnicity and
EducationwhichprovidesaseriesofexcellentarticlessituatedinCRTthatthereaderisencouragedtoexamine.
PsychologicalCRT(Jones,1998)isanextensionofCRT(Ladson-Billings,1998a)andservesasanappositeframeworkforunderstandingtheroleofsocialpsychologicalprocessessuchasrace-basedstereotypingwhichislinkedtopersistentracialdisparities.PsychologicalCRTassertsthatraceisbothsociallyandpsychologicallyconstructedfromaccessiblesocialinformation.Race,asasocialconstruct,hasdefiningpropertiesthatamplifygroupdifferencesandcontributestoperceptualandbehavioralbiases.Suchbiases,inturn,createinconsistentexperiencesforpersonsacrossdifferentracialgroups.Similarly,inconsistenciesinexperiencesleadtodivergentunderstandingsofwhatsocialjusticeis,and,asaresultfurtheramplifiesthedifferencesinsocialperceptionacrossthevariedracialgroups(Jones,1998).PsychologicalCRTpositsfivemajortenetsas:(a)spontaneousandpersistentinfluencesofrace,(b)fairnessderivedfromdivergentracialexperiences,(c)asymmetricalconsequencesofracialpolitics,(d)paradoxesofracialdiversity,and(e)salienceofracialidentity.Although,thesetenetsarebrieflysummarizedbelow,Jones(1998)providesafulldiscussionofpsychologicalCRTanditsmajortenets.
Thefirsttenet,spontaneous and persistent influences of race,
postulatesthat
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High School Students’ Stereotypic Beliefs
thereare threefactorspertinent to
thesocialandpsychologicalconstructionofrace,whichisspontaneouslyactivatedincognition.
First,peoplenaturallytendtocategorizethings,includingthemselvesandotherpeople,whichsustainsracialcategories.
Second, knowledge of race-based stereotypes is pervasive and
wellembeddedincognition.Third,knowledgeofstereotypescanandoftenhasauto-maticinfluencesonbeliefs,socialjudgments,andbehaviors.Perpetuatingrace-sportstereotypicbeliefs,forexample,theUniversityofNorteDame’slegendaryfootballplayerandalumnusPaulHornung’scommentthat,“theschoolneedstoloweracademicstandardsto‘gettheblackathlete’(i.e.,footballplayers)…ifwe’regoingtocompete”wasconsideredbysomeasracist(Whiteside,2004).ThistypeofstereotypicbeliefthatBlacksareathleticallysuperiorbutintellectuallyinferiortoWhites
and vice verse, plus other historical and contemporary factors
(rac-ism,socio-cultural,economic),continuetoinfluenceyouthtoparticipateornotparticipateinselectedsportactivities(Burdenetal.,2004;Harrisonetal.,2004).Unknowingly,stereotypicbeliefsaccentuateperceivedsimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenracialgroups(Jones,1998).
Thesecondtenet,fairness and divergent racial experiences,
impliesthatourdivergentsocialhistoriesandtheconstructionofracethereinmeansthatdiversegroupsinevitablyviewfairnessdifferently.ThebeliefsoffairnessarenotconsistentacrossraciallinesandthepsychologicalexperienceoffairnesshasnotkeptpacewiththemeasurableindicesofprogressintheU.S.(Jones,1998).ForBlackstudent-athletes,divergentracialexperiencesatpredominantlyWhiteinstitutionsofhighereducation(PW-IHE)campusesarecauseforconcern(Benson,2000;Brooks&Althouse,2000;Donnor,2005;Lawrence,2005;Singer,2005).Forexample,Blackstudent-athleteshavevoicedconcernsthatracismismanifestedinBlacksbeing:(a)deniedaccesstoleadershippositionsonandofftheplayingfieldinsports,and(b)beingtreateddifferentlycomparedtoWhitestudent-athletes(Singer,2005).
Inthethirdtenet,asymmetrical consequences of racial policies,
racialgroupsdivergeasaresultoftheir“calculationsofcostsandbenefitsofracialpolicies”and“color-blindstrategiesviolatethisasymmetryprinciple”(Jones,1998,p.653).Fortargetsofracialdiscrimination,psychologicalCRTpositsthat“actingasifracedoesn’tmatter,wheninfactitdoes”placesonesusceptibletomissedopportuni-tiesandacceptanceofanotion“whoseveryenunciationputsoneina‘one-down’position”(Jones,1998,p.653).Insports,duringthelate1980s,aMajorLeagueBaseball(MLB)official,AlCampanis,statedthat“[B]lacksperformedwellonthefieldbutlacked‘thenecessities’tooccupymanagerialpositionsorplacesofresponsibilityandauthorityinthefrontofficesofsportsorganizations”(Miller,1998,p.137).SuchcommentsservetoperpetuatelingeringstereotypicbeliefsaboutBlacks,whicharguablycontributestotheunder-representationofBlacksinsportleadershippositions(Bell,2005a,2005b;Walker,2005).Forexample,alegacyofrace-basedstereotypicbeliefsand“goodoldboy”practicesismanifestedatthecollegiatelevel,astodaytherearefewBlackcoachesinDivisionI-Abasketballandevenlessrepresentedinfootball(Walker,2005).Walker(2005)explainedthatof
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the117DivisionI-AfootballprogramsintheUSalmost50%oftheplayerswereBlack,whileonlyabout6%oftheheadcoacheswereBlack.
Moreover,policesofraceneutrality(e.g.,socalled“colorblind”admissionpolices)haveaversiveconsequencesfortargetsofracialdiscrimination,particularlyBlacksandHispanics
in theU.S.ForBlackandHispanic
student-athleteswhohopetoonedayattendaPW-IHE,policesofraceneutralitycanhavefarreachingconsequences.Today,discrepanciesexistatcollegesanduniversitiesasadmissionofficersstrugglewiththequestionofwhetherornottoconsiderraceintheirad-missiondecisions.Forexample,theUniversityofTexashasadoptedrace-neutraladmissionspolicies,whileontheotherhand,theUniversityofGeorgiareportstoconsiderraceasanadmissionsfactor(Lum,2005).Bothrace-neutralandrace-consciousadmissionpoliciescanbeincompliancewiththeU.S.SupremeCourtrulingsinlightoftherecentUniversityofMichigancases7allowingracetobeusedasanadmissionsfactor.Thusfar,universitieslackconsensusonthisissue(Hodge,Harrison,Burden,&Dixson,2008).
Thefourthtenet,paradoxes of racial
diversity,positsthatraceis“bothlessandmorethanitseems”(Jones,1998,p.653).Insports,racebecomesbothmoreandlessthanwhatitseems.ItseemsmorethanwithitiswiththestereotypicbeliefsthatBlackandHispanicathletesdominatesports,partlyduetotheirpresenceandsuccessesintheNationalBasketballAssociation(NBA)andMLB,respectively.Itbecomeslesssalientwiththedominantgroup,specifically,Whiteathleteswhoactu-allydominatemostsportsintheU.S.Steeleandhiscolleagueshavefoundthatthesalienceofracialstereotypescanadverselyimpactindividual’sacademicandathleticperformances
(Steele, 1997;Steele&Aronson, 1995;Stone et al., 1999).
Jones(1998)explainedthatout-group“homogeneitysupportsthesocialsignificanceofrace,yetpsychologicalandbehavioralfactsattesttosignificantheterogeneitywithinracialgroups”(pp.653-654).Butaspeopletrytosuppressracialinfluencesintheirjudgments,itispossiblethattheymakeraceevenmoresalientcognitively,result-ingina‘rebound’effect,whichheightensracialsalienceonthoseoccasionswheresuppressionbecomesnolongercompulsory.Giventhat“weallbelongtomultiplegroups,wecancreategroupswhosemembershavemultiplethingsincommonandasaresult,racialdimensionsrecedeinimportance”(Jones,1998,p.654).
Inthelasttenet,salience of racial
identity,Jonesexplainedthatracialidentityisoftenasourceofin-groupprideandout-grouphostility.Oftenasourceofin-grouppride,OgdenandHilt(2003)
claimedthatBlacksconsumebasketballanduseitasapartoftheircultureandcollectiveidentity.Theystatedthataconsumptionofbasketballisinfluencedbysocialandculturalvariablestoinclude:(a)societal[ste-reotypic]expectationsofBlackstopursuebasketballparticipation,(b)prevalenceofBlackrolemodelsinbasketballatthecollegiateandprofessionallevels,and(c)perceptionsofsomeBlacksthatbasketballisaviablemeansforsocialmobility.
Again,thesalienceofraceaffectsjudgmentsaboutin-andout-groups.Forinstance,Stoneetal.(1997)foundcollegestudents(asampleofpredominantlyWhite
undergraduate students) held stereotypic beliefs about Black
andWhite
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athletesandthesebeliefsinfluencedtheirjudgmentsaboutathleticperformanceofbasketballplayers.Intheirexperiment,halfoftheparticipantswereledtothinkthatthetargetplayeronaradiobroadcastofacollegebasketballgamewasBlackandtheotherhalfwereledtothinkthatthetargetwasaWhiteathlete.ThesemostlyWhitecollegestudentsjudgedtheBlackmaletargetasmoreathleticandlessintel-ligent;andtheWhitemaletargetaslessathleticbutpossessingmorebasketballintelligenceandhustle.Later,Stoneetal.(1999)foundthatmakingsalientnegativeracialstereotypesaboutBlackandWhiteathleteshadadverseinfluenceonathleticperformanceofbothgroups.
InaccordwithpsychologicalCRT,prevalentrace-sportstereotypescanim-pacttheaspirationsofyouthtowardorawayfromvariedathleticpursuesoftenattheexpenseoftheiracademicsuccess(Harrisonetal.,2004).Scholarsarguethatprevalentrace-sportstereotypicbeliefscanhavedetrimentalconsequences(Hall,2002;Harrisonetal.,2004;Harrisonetal.,2002).Onthispoint,Taylor(2000)assertedthatschoolsintheUSare“saturatedwithimagesofBlackathleteste-reotypes,…NotonlydoesthereinforcementofphysicalabilityoverintellectualcapabilitydiminishthepotentialofyoungBlackmen,butitalsoperpetuatesthemyththattheroadtosuccessispavedwithsportscontracts,notdiplomas”(p.75).Importantly,thecurrentresearchprovidesinsightintostudents’beliefsabouttheirsandpeers’intellectualandathleticabilitiesinurbanschools.PsychologicalCRT(Jones,1998)wasusedtosituateandbetterunderstandanethnicallydiversecrosssectionof9ththrough12thgradestudents’beliefsabouttheirsandpeers’intellectualandathleticabilitiesinalargeurbanschooldistrict.
Method
Research Design
Theresearchmethodwasdescriptivecrosssectionalsurvey(Fraenkel&Wal-len,1990).Thismethodologyallowed
theresearchers
toaccessnumeroushighschoolstudentsfromdiverseethnicandculturalbackgroundsattendingphysicaleducationclassesatmultipleschoolswithinalargeurbanschooldistrict.
Participants and Sampling
Participants(n=819)wereacrosssectionof9ththrough12thgradestudentsofvariousethnicgroups.TheywererandomlysampledfromsixhighschoolswithinalargeurbanschooldistrictintheMidwesternpartoftheUS.Duetosmalldispro-portionatereturnsfromAsian/PacificAmericanandNativeAmericanrespondents,adecisionwasmadetoomitthesecases.Further,adecisionwasmadetoomitcaseswhereresponsesincludedmissingdatapointsfrom40%orgreaterofthevariablesofinterest.Thisresultedin688usabledatasets.Table1showsgenderproportions(n=324,47%femalesandn=364,52.9%males)forBlack,Hispanic,White,andbiracialrespondents.Thesamplerangedinagefrom12to18yearswithameanvalueof16years(SD=1.03).Genderandethnicgroupdifferencesinagewerenot
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foundinthesample(p>.05).ThesamplewasmostlycomprisedofBlackstudents(n=437,63.5%)butnogenderproportiondifferenceswerefound(p>.05).Studentsinphysicaleducationclassesvoluntarilyparticipatedinthisstudyafterinformedconsentwassecuredfromtheirparents.
Instruments
Descriptivedata(e.g.,students’ethnicity,gender,gradelevel,andage)werecollected
from a demographic questionnaire,Tannehill and Zakrajsek’s
(1993)Modified Student Descriptive Questionnaire8(MSDQ).
Dataonrespondents’stereotypicbeliefswerecollectedusingtheBeliefs
about Intelligence and Athleticism
Scale(BIAS).Itwasdevelopedforthisstudyandiscomprisedofsixitemspostulatedtoassessadiversecohortofhighschoolstudents’beliefsabouttheirown(in-group)andother(out-group)ethnicgroups’intellectandathleticabilities.ContentvalidityoftheBIASwasestablishedthroughapaneloftwosportsociologistsandaphysicaleducationteachereducator.Panelistswereselected,basedontheirestablishedreputationasaleaderinresearchonissuesofstereotypingand/orissuespertinenttorace/ethnicityinphysicaleducation.Acoverletter,copyoftheinstrument,andaratingsheetweresentthroughelectronicmail(withthedocu-mentattached)toeachpanelist.TheinstructionsweretocritiquetheBIASon:(a)parsimonyandcompleteness,(b)accuracy,(c)suitability,and(d)utility(Antonak&Livneh,1988).Panelists’feedbackconfirmsthattheBIAShascontentvalidity.
Followingcontentvalidationprocedures,weadministeredtheBIASinstru-menttothecurrentsampleofhighschoolstudents.Reliabilityestimateswhereencouraginganddemonstratedinternalconsistencyinresponsestothesixitems(x=.88,n=688).Explorationoftheunderlyingdimensionsfollowedusingprincipalcomponentanalysis
toexaminestructural relationshipsamongvariables
(BIASitems).Evidenceofaloneunderlyingdimensionwasconsistentwithahypoth-esizedconstructandprovidedevidenceofvalidity
(Hair,Anderson,Tatham,&Black,1995).Thelonecomponentextractedincludedallsixitemsexplaining63%ofthevarianceandsupportingtheexistenceofasingleparadoxicalconstructofstereotypic
beliefs about intellect and
athleticismforthesample.Thesepreliminar-ilypsychometricmeasuresofferevidenceofvalidityandreliabilityoftheBIAS(Antonak&Livneh,1988;Hairetal.,1995).
UsingtheBIASinstrumentstudents’beliefswereassessedona5-pointLikertscale.Thepanelistswereaskedtoindicatetheirlevelofdisagreementoruncertaintytoagreementtothefollowingstereotypicstatements.
1.Ethnicminorities9(AfricanAmericans/Hispanics)arenaturallybetterathletescomparedtoWhite/EuropeanAmericanathletes.
2.White/EuropeanAmericansarenaturally
betterathletescomparedtoethnicminorities(AfricanAmerican/Hispanic).
3.Ethnicminorities(AfricanAmericans/Hispanics)dominatemostsports.
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4.White/EuropeanAmericansdominatemostsports.
5.Ethnicminorities(AfricanAmericans/Hispanics)arenaturallymoreintelligentcomparedtoWhite/EuropeanAmericans.
6.White/EuropeanAmericansarenaturallymoreintelligentcomparedtoethnicminorities(AfricanAmericans/Hispanics).
Responseswerecodedas:1=stronglydisagree,2=disagree,3=unsure,4=agree,and5=stronglyagree.Scoreswerecalculatedbyaveragingparticipants’responses(1-5)foreachitemontheBIASscale.
Data Analysis
BIASdatawereanalyzedusingmultivariateanalysisofvariance(MANOVA)onuntransformeddatawithaconservativealphalevelatp
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toWhite/EuropeanAmericanathletes”thantheresponsesofuncertaintytodis-agreementbytheirHispanic,White,andBiracialpeers.Thoughnotstatisticallydifferent,Blackmaleswereconsistentinlevelsofagreementandtendedtofavortheuncertainresponseonthisposition.Further,HispanicandWhitefemales,andbiracialmaleswereindisagreementtothisstatement,whileHispanicandWhitemalesand,biracialfemalesscoredintheunsurerangeonaverage.
BIAS Item
2.Thesediverseethnicgroups(i.e.,Black,Hispanic,White,andbiracialstudents)didnotdiffersignificantlyintheirtendenciestodisagreewithorindicateanunsureorneutralresponsetothestatementthat“White/EuropeanAmericansarenaturallybetterathletescomparedtoethnicminorities(AfricanAmerican/Hispanic).”However,significantgenderdifferenceswerefoundbetweenmaleandfemalestudentsintheirresponsestothisitem.Onaverage,malesfromeachethnicgroupdisagreedwithorwereambivalent
intheirresponseswhilefemalestudentsweremostlyindisagreementtostrongdisagreementwiththestereotypicbeliefthatWhite/EuropeanAmericansarebetterathletescomparedto“ethnicminorities.”
BIAS Item
3.Blackstudentsalsoscored,onaverage,significantlyhigherintheir
levelsofagreementwith thestereotypicstatement
that“Ethnicminorities
Table1BeliefsaboutIntelligenceandAthleticismbyEthnicGroupandGender(n=688)
Black Hispanic White Biracial
Variable Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female n=242
n=195 n=6 n=9 n=86 n=81 n=30 n=39
BIASItem1M 3.41 2.84 3.00 1.67 2.78 2.18 2.10 3.08SD 1.24 1.35
2.19 1.00 1.48 1.42 1.32 2.71
BIASItem2M 2.68 2.64 2.50 1.67 2.84 1.81 2.90 2.15SD 1.20 1.34
1.64 1.00 1.43 1.06 1.24 1.37
BIASItem3M 3.62 3.10 1.50 2.00 3.05 2.15 2.50 2.08SD 1.18 1.34
.55 1.50 1.34 1.28 1.04 1.16
BIASItem4M 2.77 2.45 3.00 1.67 2.84 2.07 2.60 2.08SD 1.31 1.22
2.19 1.00 1.22 1.28 1.22 1.28
BIASItem5M 3.14 2.74 2.00 1.67 2.80 1.70 2.70 2.15SD 1.27 1.28
1.20 1.00 1.34 .98 1.20 1.42
BIASItem6M 3.06 2.51 1.00 1.67 3.00 2.07 2.90 2.31SD 1.20 1.25
.00 1.00 1.31 1.34 1.32 1.66
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(AfricanAmericans/Hispanics)dominatemostsports.”Blackmaleswereinclinedtoagreewiththisstatement.Incontrast,Hispanic,Whitefemale,andbiracialpeersrespondedinawaythatindicatelevelsofdisagreement,especiallybyHispanicmalestothisbeliefstatement,alongwithlevelsofuncertaintybyBlackfemales,Whitemales,andbiracialfemalestothisposition.
BIAS Item
4.Thegroups(i.e.,Black,Hispanic,White,andbiracial)didnotdif-fersignificantlyintheirdisagreementoruncertaintywiththestereotypicstatementthat“White/European-Americansdominatemostsports.”But,significantgenderdifferenceswerefoundbetweenfemaleandmalestudents
in theirresponses
tothisstatement.Onaverage,femalestudentsfromeachethnicgroupwereinclinedtodisagreewiththestereotypicbeliefthatWhite/EuropeanAmericansdominatemost
sports.Overall,maleswereunsure.Althoughstatisticallynon-significant,HispanicandWhitemaleshadthehigheraveragescoresonthisitemcomparedtotheirfemalepeers,aswellasBlackandbiracialpeers.
BIAS Item
5.Blackstudents,malesinparticular,responsescoreswerestatisti-callyhigheronaveragethanothergroupsonthestatementthat“Ethnicminorities(AfricanAmericans/Hispanics)arenaturallymoreintelligentcomparedtoWhite/EuropeanAmericans.”However,aswasthecaseforotheritems,valuesindicatinguncertaintytothisstatement(particularlybyBlackfemales)wereindicatedalongwithlevelsofbothagreementanddisagreementorunsureresponsesbyHispanic,White,andbiracialstudents.Morespecifically,boththeHispanicfemalesandmalesandWhitebiracialfemalestudentswerealongthecontinuumofdisagreementtostrongdisagreement;andtheWhiteandbiracialmales,onaverage,wereunsureofthepositionthat“ethnicminorities”werenaturallymoreintelligentthanWhites.BIAS
Item
6.Hispanicstudents,malesinparticular,responsescoreswerelowerandonaverageindicateddisagreementtostrongdisagreementtothestereotypicstatement
that“White/EuropeanAmericansarenaturallymore
intelligentcom-paredtoethnicminorities(AfricanAmericans/Hispanics).”Comparably,BlacksdifferedsignificantlyfromHispanicsintheirresponsesindicatingmoreuncertaintytoagreementonthisstatement.Black,White,andbiracialmalesdidnotdifferintheiruncertaintytothisposition;andWhiteandbiracialfemalesdisagreedwiththepositionthatWhite/EuropeanAmericanshavehigherintelligence.
Discussion The purpose of this study was to compare the beliefs
of Black,
Hispanic,White,andbiracialstudentsontheirownandtheintellectualandathleticabilitiesofotherethnicgroups.Thecentralresearchquestionwas“WhatarethebeliefsofBlack,Hispanic,White,andbiracialstudentsontheirownandtheintellectualandathleticabilitiesofotherethnicgroups?”Onthatquestion,similartootherstudies(Burdenetal.,2004;Harrisonetal.,2004;Harrison&Lawrence,2004;Harrison,Lee,&Belcher,1999),
thisstudy’sfindingsindicatethatstudentsfromraciallydiversebackgroundsdifferasafunctionofgenderandethnicityintheirbeliefsaboutin-groupandout-groupintellectualandathleticabilities.Itwasfoundthat
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theBlackmaleswereofamindtoagreewithtwoofthesixstatementscomprisingtheBIAS.TheirtendencywastoagreewiththeBIASstatementsthat:(a)“Ethnicminorities(AfricanAmericans/Hispanics)arenaturallybetterathletescomparedtoWhite/EuropeanAmericanathletes,”and(b)“Ethnicminorities(AfricanAmericans/Hispanics)dominatemostsports.”Allothergroupsweredisposedtoexpressun-certaintyordisagreementtostrongdisagreementwiththeBIASstatements.Acrossethnicgroups,girlswerelessinclinedthanboystoagreewithanyofthestereotypicstatementsonathleticism,sportdominance,andintelligence.Typically,BlackfemaleandHispanicmales’responsesrangedfromuncertaintytostrongdisagreement.Onaverage,Whitemalesmostlyexpresseduncertaintytodisagreementwitheachofthestatements.But,Hispanic,White,andbiracialfemalestypicallydisagreedorstronglydisagreedwiththeBIASstatements.
Onintelligence,Blackmales,particularly,heldsignificantlyhigherscoresindi-catinguncertaintytoagreementtothestereotypicstatementthat“Ethnicminorities(AfricanAmericans/Hispanics)arenaturallymoreintelligentcomparedtoWhite/EuropeanAmericans.”Similarly,BlackmalesweremorelikelythanHispanicstoagreewiththestereotypicstatementthat“White/EuropeanAmericansarenaturallymoreintelligentcomparedtoethnicminorities(AfricanAmericans/Hispanics).”Incontrast,Hispanicstudentswereindisagreementtostrongdisagreementwiththisstereotypicposition.Thesefindingspartiallysupportthepostulationinpsychologi-calCRTthatpeoplehaverace-basedstereotypeswellembeddedintheirminds.ThiswasmostevidentamongtheBlackmales.
InpsychologicalCRT,thetenetspontaneous and persistent influences of
racepositthatindividualsnaturallytendtocategorizethings,includingthemselves(e.g.,Blackmales)andotherpeople,whichmaintainracialcategories(Jones,1998).Further,knowledgeofrace-basedstereotypesispervasiveandwellembeddedincognition,andknowledgeofstereotypescanandoftenhasautomaticinfluencesonbeliefs,socialjudgments,andbehaviors(Jones,1998).SomescholarsarguethatBlackyouth,areinfluencedbyrace-basedstereotypesandassuch“placeatremendousemphasisonandidentitywithathleticachievement”(Harrisonetal.,2002,p.129),toooften,attheexpenseofacademicpursues(Harrisonetal.,2004;Harrisonetal.,2002).Harrisonetal.(1999)foundthatBlackadolescents’sportactivitypreferencesdifferedfromtheirWhitepeers.Blackadolescentsidentifiedmuchmorewithparticipationinbasketball,football,andtrackthanWhites(Har-risonetal.,1999).SomearguethatsportsmainlybasketballisameansofracialorcollectiveidentityforBlacksandisviewedasavehicleforsocialandeconomicalprogress(Harrisonetal.,2002;Ogden&Hilt,2003).
ResearchshowsthatcollegestudentstendtoharborstereotypicbeliefsonBlacks,particularlymales,underachievementinacademicpursuesdueinparttosupposedinferiorintellect(Burdenetal.,2004;Harrisonetal.,2002;Sailes,1993).SteeleandAronson(1995)reportedthatBlackcollegestudents’performanceondifficultacademictasksdeterioratedwhenracialstereotypesaboutintellectualinferiority(i.e.,stereotypethreat)weremadesalient.Moreover,teachersmayharborviewsthat
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manifeststereotypicbeliefsaboutstudentsofcolor(Ford&Moore,2004;Harrison&Belcher,2006;King,1994;Schultz,Neyhart,&Reck,1996).SometeachersmayevenhavestereotypicbeliefsaboutBlackandHispanicstudentsasintellectuallylesscapableandmorelikelytocreatedisciplinaryproblems(King,1994).Alignedwiththisnotion,Su(1997)assertsthatnoviceteachers,attimes,havelittleawarenessofracismordiscriminationandtheeffectsonschooling.Becausemostteacherswillteachstudentswho’sculturalandethnicbackgroundsaredifferentthantheirown(Fox&Gay,1995;Griffin-Famble,2006),thisisasignificantassertion.
InAmericansociety,misguidedstereotypicbeliefsaboutBlacks’athleticsupe-riorityandintellectualinferiorityinfluencethemindsofthousandsperhapsmillionsofpeople(Harrison&Lawrence,2004).Inthisstudy,itwasevidentthatsocietyprofoundlyinfluenceshighschoolstudents’beliefsandimpressions.Forexample,theBlackmalestudentsheldstrongbeliefsonperceivedathleticsuperiorityandsportsdominance,buttheywereunsureonquestionsofintelligence.ThesefindingsindicatethatBlackmales,perhapsmoresothanotherethnicgroupsandfemales,areinfluencedbystereotypicbeliefsregardingtheirperceivedathleticsuperiorityandsportdominance.Suchfindingsareconsistentwithpreviousstudiesinotherdomainsotherthanathletics(Moore,Madison-Colmore,&Smith,2003;Steele&Aronson,1995).PsychologicalCRTpositsthreefactorsunderlyingthesocialandpsychologicalconstructionofrace.
First,individualsnaturallytendtocategorizethings,includingpeople,thissustainsracialcategories.Second,knowledgeofrace-basedstereotypesispervasiveandoftenwellingrainedincognition.Third,knowledgeofstereotypesunknowinglyinfluencesbeliefs,judgments,andbehaviors(Jones,1998).
LikingtothebeliefsheldbyBlackmalestudentsinthisstudy,previousresearchhasshownthatcollegestudentsharborself-stereotypic(in-group)andstereotypic(out-group)beliefsaboutBlackathletes’superiorityanddominanceinafewsports,suchasbasketball,football,andtrack(Burdenetal.,2004;Harrisonetal.,2004;Harrison&Lawrence,2004;Sailes,1993).But,onthenotionofsportdominance,HarrisonandLawrence(2004)pointedoutthat90%of“allsportshavelessthan1%ofAfricanAmericanparticipationandpresenceintheirsports”(p.42).Yet,themythofBlackathletesdominatingsportsstillexists,duetolingeringvestigesofracismthatmagnifytheiroverrepresentationinafewselectedsports(i.e.,mostlybasketball,football,andtrack).Thisoccurs,despitethefactthatWhiteathleteshaveadominatepresenceinmostsports(e.g.,hockey,baseball,soccer,golf,tennis,volleyball,wrestling,skiing,bowling,autoracing,andsoon).
DisproportionatetoWhites,moreBlackyouthaspiretoprofessionalcareersinsuchsportsasbasketballandfootball(Lee,1983),whileHispanicyouthaspiremoretocareersinbaseballasameanstosocialmobilityfrompoverty(Rudman,1986).Today,Blacksrepresentsome76%oftheplayersintheNBA.ThisisthelowestpercentageofBlackNBAplayerssince1991-1992(Branom,2005).Onanascendingtrend,some30%ofcurrentMLBplayershaveHispanicorLatinoancestries(Draper,2006;Lapchick,2006).
Inthesesports,BlackandHispanicathleteshaveexperiencedsuccesses(Lap-
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Hodge, Kozub, Dixson, Moore, & Kambon
chick,2006).But
theirsuccessesandfailuresareoftenmagnifiedowingto
thesocialconstructionofraceastheseathletes“representtheirrace.”Paradoxically,BlackandHispanic
athletes’ absenceorunder representation inmost all
othersportsismarginalizedasaconsequenceoftheconstructionof“theirrace”withsuchstereotypicnotionsas“BlacksandHispanicsdon’tswim,ski,orracecars.”InpsychologicalCRT,raceispositedas“bothlessandmorethanitseems”(Jones,1998,p.653).Jonesexplainedthat,aspeopletrytosuppressracialinfluencesintheirjudgments,itispossiblethattheymakeraceevenmoresalientcognitively,resultingina“rebound”effect,whichheightensracialsalienceonthoseoccasionswheresuppressionbecomesnolongercompulsory.
Instereotyping,racebecomesbothmoreandlessthanwhatitseems.ItbecomesmorethanwithitiswiththestereotypicbeliefsthatBlackandHispanicathletesdominatesports,partlyduetotheirpresenceandsuccessesintheNBAandMLB,respectively.Itbecomeslesssalientcognitivelyforthedominantgroup,specifically,WhiteathleteswhoactuallydominatemostsportsintheUS.Ofconcern,Steeleandhiscolleagueshavefoundthatthesalienceofracialstereotypescanadverselyimpactindividual’sacademicandathleticperformances(Steele,1997;Steele&Aronson,1995;Stoneetal.,1999).
Steele (1992,1997)posited thatwhenapersonencountersasituation
thatrepresentsadomainwithwhichshe/heisidentified,astereotype
threatexistsofperformingpoorlyandpossiblyharmingher/hisself-esteem.Scholarsassertthatnegativestereotypeshinderperformancebycausingpersonswithinastereotypedgrouptobecomeapprehensivethattheirperformancemayservetoconfirmthenega-tivestereotypeothershaveoftheirgroup(Cheryan&Bodenhausen,2000;Steele&Aronson,1995).Thisleadstothecyclicaleffectsofself-stereotyping(Harrison&Worthy,2001).Onthecontrary,Mooreetal.(2003)andMavis(1997)havefoundthatnegativestereotypingcanalsopositivelyinfluenceacademicperformance.Theyassertedthatnegativestereotypingcansometimesmotivatestudentsto“prove”thenegativestereotypewrong.Inthecaseofacademics,ifthenegativestereotypeisthatBlackstudentsdonotperformwellinschool,thensomestudentsmightworkextrahardtoperformwell.Asitrelatestoathletics,itisquitelikelythatthiscouldbethecasewithsomeofthestudentsinthisstudy.
Limitations
Threelimitationsofthisstudyshouldbeacknowledged.First,thegroupsamplesweredisproportional
in sizewitha largegroupofBlackstudentscompared
tosmallergroupsofHispanic,White,andbiracialstudents.Hispanicfemale(n=9)andmale(n=6)studentgroupswereverysmall.However,thesestudentgroupswerereflectiveoftheschools’populationethniccompositions.Second,thegroupswerenotdistributedevenlybetweenmaleandfemalestudents.Third,theBIASinstrumentshouldberevisedtorepresentBlackandHispanicgroupsseparatelyratherthanasethnic
minorities,whichmayhaveconfoundedtheresults.Theintentinusingthedescriptionethnic
minorities,wastoassessstereotypicbeliefscom-
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montobothBlackandHispanicathletesasathleticallysuperiorbutintellectuallyinferiortoWhiteathletes.But,surelythesegroupshavedifferentsportparticipationpatterns,aswellasuniquenessintheircultures,languages,music,foods,andsoon,whichshouldberecognizedandassessedaccordingly(Marin&Marin,1991).Despitetheselimitations,thereisstillusefulinformationtobegleanedfromthestudy’sfindingsforteachereducationprogramsandschooldistrictsresponsibleforensuringthatteachersareculturallycompetenttoaddress,suchissuesasrace-basedstereotyping(Burden,Hodge,O’Bryant,&Harrison,2004).
Implications and Recommendations
Race-basedstereotypinghasitsrootsinthepsychologicalunderpinningsofrac-ism,bothofwhichareepidemictoAmericansocietyandbyextensionitseducationalinstitutions,whichinfluencethebeliefsofteachersandstudentsaswellascoachesandstudent-athletes(Harrison&Lawrence,2004;Singer,2005).Educationalscholarsassertthatwheneverteachers,coaches,andotherschoolprofessionalsacceptandarticulate,knowinglyorunknowingly,prevailingtheoriesofathleticsuperiorityandintellectualinferiorityofBlackandHispanicyouth,theydopsychologicalharmtotheseimpressionableyouth(Burdenetal.,2004;Harrison,1995,2001).
Thestudy’sfindingsprovideinsightsonBlack,Hispanic,White,andbiracialstudents’
beliefs about in- and out-groups’ intellectual and athletic
abilities inurban schools.The information can be used by teacher
education programs
tobetterprepareteachercandidatesandschooldistrictstoprovideeffectiveprofes-sionaldevelopmentinitiativestohelpteachersmoreeffectivelypromoteacademicachievementofallstudents.Todoso,meansthateducatorsmustbecomeculturallycompetentandresponsivepractitioners(Sparks,1994;Martens,2004;Villegas&Lucas,2002).Likewise,Martens(2004)statedthatcoachesshouldseektobecomeculturallyresponsive.
Toaddresstheseissues,teacherpreparationinstitutionsandschooldistrictsmustensurethatcoachesandeducatorsarepreparedtoandwillingtocreatecul-turally
relevantsportandacademic learningcontexts that reduce the
impactofpsychologicallyharmfulstereotypes(Griffin,2002;Martens,2004).Thismeans,forexample,ensuring
thatcoaches insportsettingsand teachers
inclassesareculturallycompetent,whichwouldenablethemtoimplementculturallyrespon-sivepractices(Foster,1995;Ladson-Billings,1990,1994,1995;Martens,2004;Villegas&Lucas,2002)andchallengeathletesandstudents’stereotypicviewsthroughinformeddialogue(Burdenetal.,2004;Harrisonetal.,2004;Harrison&Lawrence,2004;Sparks,1994).
Culturallyrelevant(Ladson-Billings,1994)orresponsive(Gay,2000)teach-ing
has proven to help students, particularly Black and Hispanic
children
andyouth,valueacademicachievementandthusidentifymorewiththeeducationalprocess(Cazden&Leggett,1981;Ladson-Billings,1994,1995,1998b).Cultur-allyresponsivepedagogybringsthelanguage,values,andcultureofadiversityofstudentsintotheeducationalprocessincludingthosefromethnically,culturally,and
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Hodge, Kozub, Dixson, Moore, & Kambon
linguisticallydiverseancestries(Nieto,1999;Quintanar-Sarellana,1997;Sparks,1994;Villegas&Lucas,2002).Tobuild“culturalbridges”intoday’srichlydiverseschoolsandcommunities(Cothran&Ennis,2000;Nieto,1999),researchersandpractitionersadvocateacurriculumframeworkthatemphasizesculturalcompetenceandawareness,usesculturallyresponsivepedagogies(Ford,Moore,&Harmon,2005;Quintanar-Sarellana,1997)andencouragesdialogueandreflectivepractice(Cazden,2001;Hodge,Tannehill,&Kluge,2003).
Todemonstrateculturalcompetenceandin-turneffectivelyimplementculturallyresponsivepedagogies,teachersmustfirstprogressfromethnocentric10perspectivesowingtothedominanthegemonicculturetoaplaceofculturalawareness(DeSensi,1995).Quintanar-Sarellana(2002)identifiedthreestagesofculturalawareness,whichtypifyteachersaseither:(a)culturallyunaware,(b)inatransitionalstage,or(c)cul-turallyaware.InfluencedbyAmerica’sdominantculture,teacherswhoareculturallyunaware“activelyrejectstudents’languageandculture,eitherovertlyorcovertly”(Quintanar-Sarellana,2002,p.44).Thoseeducators,inthetransitionalstage,begintogaininsightintotheculturesandlanguagesoftheirstudents,andtheyaremoreapttocommunicatewithparentsandengageinprofessionaldevelopmentinitiativesonsuchtopicsasstudentdiversity.Teacherswhoareculturallyawareareresponsivetothedistinctionsbetweentheculturalcapital11ofthestudentsandtheschool.
Furthermore,culturallyawareteachersareableto:(a)integratethestudents’languagesandculturesintheteaching-learningprocess,(b)useavarietyofteachingstrategiesappositefortheirdiverseclasses,(c)communicateeffectivelywithstudentsandparents,and(d)useeffectiveinterpersonalskillsandstrategiestobetterrelatetostudents(Cazden,2001;Cazden&Leggett,1981;Foster,1995;Ladson-Billings,1994,
1995, 1998b;Quintanar-Sarellana, 2002).Ladson-Billings (1994)
assertedthatteacherswithculturallyrelevantpedagogieshavehighself-esteemandahighregardforandconnectwellwithothers(e.g.,students,parents,andmembersofthecommunity).Tohelpteachersmovetowardculturalawareness,scholarsadvocatetheinfusionofcontentonsuchissuesasdiversityandmulticulturalismwithinteachereducationcurricular(Burden,Hodge,O’Bryant,etal.,2004;DeSensi,1995;Flowers,Milner,&Moore,2003;Milner,Flowers,Moore,Moore,&Flowers,2003;Villegas&Lucas,2002).Culturallyawareteacherswhoareresponsivetostudents’languagesandcultureshaveproveneffective(Foster,1995;Cazden,2001;Grant,1994;Ladson-Billings,1990,1995;Lucas,Henze,&Donato,1990).
EvidenceofthisisgiveninareviewoftheextantliteraturebyFoster(1995),whoreportedthateffectiveculturallyresponsiveteachers:(a)expresscaringbe-haviorsthroughtheirpersonalizedinteractionsandcloserelationshipswiththeirstudents;(b)communicatehighexpectationsforeffortandachievementofstudents;(c)linkclassroomcontenttostudentexperiences;(d)focusonthedevelopmentofthewholechild,notmerelyherorhiscognitivematuration;(e)organizelearningasasocialevent,ratherthanasacompetitiveorindividualexperience;and(f)in-corporateaspectsofstudents’homeandculturalcommunicationpatternsintheirteaching.Intheirculturallyresponsivecurriculummodel,VillegasandLucas(2002)
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envisionteacherswho(a)aresocioculturallyconsciousinrecognizingthat“therearemultiplewaysofperceivingrealityandthatthesewaysareinfluencedbyone’slocationinthesocialorder”(p.21),(b)haveaffirmingviewsofstudents’diversities,(c)viewthemselvesaschangeagentsformakingschoolsmoreresponsivetoallstudents,(d)understandhowstudentsconstructknowledgeandpromotesstudents’knowledgeconstruction,(e)knowaboutthelivesoftheirstudents,and(f)useswhattheyknowaboutstudents’livestodesignandimplement“instructionthatbuildsonwhatstudentsalreadyknowwhilestretchingthembeyondthefamiliar”(Villegas&Lucas,2002,p.21).
Teacher preparation institutions and school districts need to
better
ensurethatcoachesandteachersarepreparedandwillingtocreateculturallyresponsivesportandacademiclearningcontextsthatreducetheadverseimpactofrace-basedstereotypes.Thiscanbeachievedthroughthesystemicinfusionofcontentandexposuretoissuesofdiversityandmulticulturalisminteachereducationcurricularandinprofessionaldevelopmentopportunitiesforcoachesandpracticingteachersattheschooldistrictlevel(Burden,Hodge,O’Bryantetal.,2004).Inaculturallyresponsiveframework,teachersarebestabletoconnectwithadiversityofstudentsandcontributemeaningfullytotheirschoolingexperience(Flowersetal,2003;Fordetal.,2005;Ladson-Billings,1995;Quintanar-Sarellana,1997;Villegas&Lucas,2002).Furthertocounterstereotypicbeliefs,coachesandteachersshouldespouseethnorelativistic12
views in their interactions with student-athletes and
activelyengagestudentsininformeddialogueonsuchissuesasracismandstereotypingofvariedethnicgroupsregardingintellectualandathleticabilities(Burden,Hodge,O’Bryantetal.,2004;DeSensi,1995;Harrison&Lawrence,2004).
Notes
1ThetermBlackisusedtoidentifyparticipantsinthisstudywhoself-identifiedtheirraceorethnicityasBlack,African,AfricanAmerican,orAfro-Caribbean(Westat,2005).TheseparticipantsweremostlyAfricanAmericansnativetotheUSandotherindividualsofAfricanancestry.
2ThetermWhiteisusedtoidentifyparticipantsinthisstudywhoself-identifiedtheirethnicityasEuropeanAmerican,White,orWhiteAmericanasanapproachtorecognizeAnglo(White)descendants
fromEuropeanandnon-Europeancountries
(Westat,2005).TheseparticipantsweremostlyWhitesnativetoUSA.
3ThetermHispanicisusedtoidentifyparticipantsinthisstudywhoself-identifiedtheirraceorethnicityasHispanic,Chicano/a,Cuban,Latino/a,LatinAmerican,orMexicanAmerican.TheseparticipantsweremostlyHispanicorLatinoandotherindividualsofLatinAmericanorotherSpanishancestry(Westat,2005).
4 Ethnic grouporethnicity
referstoculturaltraditionsandlanguages,familyancestry,andhistoricalbackgroundandpractices(e.g.,AfricanAmerican,AsianAmerican,ItalianAmerican,andMexicanAmericanpeople)(Coakley,2004).
5Hegemonyreferstodomination,control,powerstructures,andauthority.
6Orthodoxyreferstotheholdingofcorrectorgenerallyacceptedviewsorbeliefs.
7TheU.S.SupremeCourtonJune23,2003ruledintwocases(i.e.,Gratzv.Bolling
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Hodge, Kozub, Dixson, Moore, & Kambon
andGrutterv.Bollinger)onadmissionpolicesattheUniversityofMichigan.TheCourtruledthatraceandethnicityamongotherfactorscanbetakenintoaccountintheadmissionprocess,butracialquotasareprohibited(AmericanCouncilonEducation,2003).
8Demographicdataonthesamplewascollectedinconjunctionwithalargerstudyofhighschoolstudents’motivationsandbeliefsabouteducationandopportunity.
9Inthisstudy,weusedthetermethnicminoritiestomoreauthenticallyreflectcommonreferencetoAfricanAmericans,Hispanics,andotherpeopleofcolor.But,wegenerallyavoidusingthisterminidentifyingindividualsorethnicgroupstatuswithrespecttopeopleofcolorbecausethetermlacksglobalvalidityandoftenimpartsanegativeconnotationonsuchindividuals(Coakley,2004).Wemoreoftenusethetermpeople
of
colorinreferringtoBlacks/AfricanAmericans,Asian/PacificAmericans,Hispanics,andNativeAmericans,forexample.
10 Ethnocentric perspectives reflect an individual’s “denial of,
defense against,
andminimizationofdifference”(DeSensi,1994,p.36)withrespecttoothercultures.
11Culturalcapitalrefersto“thebehaviorpatterns,setofvalues,andlinguisticexpres-sionsthatmembersofacertainsocioeconomicorethnicgrouptransmittoothermembersofsociety”(Quintanar-Sarellana,1997,pp.40-41).
12Ethnorelativeviewsreflectanindividual’s“acceptanceof,adaptationto,andintegra-tionofdifference”(DeSensi,1994,p.36)withrespecttoothercultures.
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