Education and Employment Research and Policy Studies: An ... · Student loan schemes are to respond to local conditions and student and external potentially valuable, but evidence

Education and Social Policy DepartmentThe World Bank

June 1994ESP Discussion Paper Series

No. 00

Education and Employment Research and Policy Studies:An Annotated Bibliography

this annotated bibliography provides a synopsis of books, articles, and otherbackground papers on education and employment, produced by the Educationand Employment Division, Population and Human Resources Department(PHREE), during 1991-93. It is included here as a prologue to the DiscussionPaper Series now being produced by the Education and Social PolicyDepartment (ESP). The bibliography was prepared by Carol E. Copple(Consultant).

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Annotated Bibliography, 1992

Adams, Arvil Van, with Gail Stevenson, Terence Kelly, private and public investments in skills development.Andrew Noss, Omporn Regel, and Yang-Ro Yoon. They are particularly interested in how competitiveThe World Bank's Treatment of Employment and Labor factor markets affect the efficient use of public re-Market Issues. World Bank Technical Paper No. 177 sources in education and training. To address these(1992) issues, the authors compared macroeconomic trends

and development strategies in six developing countriesThe performance of labor markets is important for - Egypt, Malaysia, Nigeria, South Korea, Thailand,both the smooth functioning of the economy and and Tunisia. The findings suggest that outward-providing accurate signals about labor supply and focused countries competing in a global economydemand to the education and training sector. This encourage efficiency in human resources development.examination of Bank country economic and sectorreports from 1985 to 1990 finds increasing attention tolabor market issues over time. Wages and unemploy- Adams, Arvil Van, John Middleton, and Adrianment are the issues most frequently and thoroughly Ziderman. Manpower Planning in a Market Economy.treated in economic reports. Issues are treated most WPS 837 (1992).frequently and comprehensively in rapidly growingcountries with high levels of human resource develop- While the movement from centrally planned to marketment (high primary enrollment rates). While the Bank economies will not eliminate the need for manpowerhas given attention to labor market issues in the planning, it will substantially change the roles man-analysis of country economic and education sector power planners play and the techniques they use.reports, these issues have not been accorded priority They must become analysts of the labor market andin the policy dialogues with govermnent. The best now will be asked for information to (1) guide privatepredictor of attention to labor market issues in the decisions about training, (2) improve the managementpolicy dialogue is thorough analysis. The authors of training systems, (3) identify impediments toargue that more attention to labor markets early in the competitive labor markets, and (4) help rationalizeBank-country dialogue will help build support for public investments in education and training. Thepolitically sensitive labor market reforms and lead to authors introduce techniques for manpower planningbetter integration of labor market issues into the that acknowledge the dynamic nature of marketpolicy dialogue. economies. They reject the idea of forecasting man-

power requirements, proposing instead to use labormarket signals picked up by monitoring movements in

Adams, Arvil Van, Robert Goldfarb, and Terence wages and employment and evaluating training pro-Kelly. How the Macroeconomic Environment Affects grams.Human Resource Development. PPR Working PaperNo. 828 (1992).

Albrecht, Douglas and Adrian Ziderman. FinancingWhile considerable attention has been given to the Universities in Developing Countries. PHREE/92/61connection between trade and employment, much less (1992).attention has been given to the effect of this relation-ship on human resource development. This paper The rapid expansion of higher education in developinglooks at how a country's choice of development countries, coupled with economic problems, hasstrategies shapes incentives for the efficient use of created a crisis in financing. The impact has beenresources in education and training. The authors most severe on institutions solely dependent onexamine the importance of export-led development to government funding. This book addresses the rolecompetition in factor markets and incentives for that reform may play in easing these financial pres-

2Education and Employment

sures. The authors argue that increases in countries will first require granting universities morenon-government funding will be important but insuffi- autonomy in decision making. Then, a funding mecha-aent to resolve the crisis. Three general measures are nism should be developed that transfers resources toevaluated as potential solutions. Cost recovery institutions in line with actual costs of operation,through increased student fees will be critical to provides incentives for efficiency, and encouragesfnancial reform but could have some adverse effects institutional differentiation so that universities are ableon equity and access. Student loan schemes are to respond to local conditions and student and externalpotentially valuable, but evidence suggests that only a demands.small percentage of students have benefitted and thata system of high tuition fees coupled with widespreadloans would not be a feasible option in many coun- Arriagada, Ana-Maria and Adrian Ziderman. Voca-tries. The third measure is generating internal profits donal Seconday Schooling Occupational Choice, andthrough such means as providing ad hoc specialized Earnings in Brazil. WPS 1037 (1992).courses, the sale of services to industry, and thecommercial management of research and university This paper analyzes the efficacy of vocational trainingassets. The authors suggest that government funding in Brazil. The authors reexamine the trend of negativeto universities should be structured to provide incen- results for vocational training noted since thetives for efficiency and that national service schemes mid-1950s and reach a different conclusion in thisbe refocused and expanded as a form of cost recovery. study. The paper examines vocational training trendsTo be successful, they argue, financial reform must world-wide and in Brazil; analyzes the extent to whichentail increased non-government funding, and universi- vocational school leavers are employed in occupationsties must be given both freedom and accountability in related to their field of study in secondary school; andtheir management. then uses the Mincerian earnings function to analyze

earnings differences between leavers employed insubjects related to their field of study and those that

Albrecht, Douglas and Adrian Ziderman. Funding are not and between vocationally educated workersMechanisms for Higher Education. World Bank and graduates of academic schools. The authorsDiscussion Paper No. 153 (1992). conclude that students who complete vocational school

and work in related fields have significant earningsThis paper examines the mechanisms through which advantages over students who do not work in fieldsgovernments, typically the dominant source of universi- related to what they studied, and over students whoty fnance, allocate resources to higher education. complete academic schools.Governments restrict university behavior in threemajor ways: controling student enrollments; forbid-ding revenue diversification; and limiting institutional Clarke, Prema, Brunhilda Foriemu, and Pablo Stans-discretion in allocating funding. In most developing bery. Secondary Education in Developing Countries:countries, such government restrictions have placed Annotated Bibliography. PHREE/92/63 (1992).institutions in a difficult position. Governments facethe challenge of granting universities more autonomy This annotated bibliography features recent books,over decision making, while ensuring accountability to articles, and unpublished papers that were consulted infunding sources. Potential solutions include using connection with the preparation of a general back-buffer funding bodies; changing the criteria for allocat- ground paper entitled wSecondary Education in Devel-ing resources; and transferring funds via students, oping Countries: Issues Review," by Bruce Fuller ofthrough loans or grants, rather than directly to institu- Harvard University and Donald B. Holsinger of thetions. Reform of higher education finance in many World Banlk The majority of the items were pub-

3Annotated Bibliography, 1992

lished in the years 1980-1991, and eight other relevant cost of producing a single graduate. The simulationsitems have been included from the years 1974-1979. also compare the potential efficiency gains resulting

from reduction in repetition and dropout to theamount of resources required to provide adequate

Cuadra, Ernesto. Data Collection Strategies and educational materials. The Reconstructed CohortMethodsforMonitoringStudentFlows. PHREE/91/43 Method is used to simulate the impact of reduction in(1991). repetition and dropout on cost per graduate and on

total expenditures. The paper concludes by comparingThis paper examines five methods to collect or esti- the cost of reducing repetition and dropout withmate information needed to monitor the flow of a efficiency gains generated from the operation of acohort of students through an educational cycle. Two more efficient system.of the five are not used in developing countries be-cause of their expense and difficulty. A third isapplicable only in countries where repetition is negligi- Eisemon, Thomas Owen. Language Issues in Scientificble. The remaiing two methods are viable for Training and Research in Developing Countries.estimating flow rates in countries where repetition is PHREE/92/47 (1992).common. The Grade Transition Model is simple, haslow data requirements, and provides accurate descrip- Language policies affecting scientific education andtions of how students move through a cycle of educa- research have important implications for educationaltion where reliable data are available on enrollment efficiency and effectiveness. This paper analyzes theand repetition by grade. The Age-Grade Model is role of European and other languages in scienceused in cases where repetition data are lacking but education and in advancing scientific training andwhere data on enrollment by grade and age are research in developing countries. The author drawsavailable. Because of its requirement for a more three conclusions. First, policies favoring indigenouscomprehensive data set, this method is more difficult languages for scientific training do not necessarilyto use and requires the use of a computer. If neither create a "language barrier" to international scientificrepetition-rate data nor age-grade data are available, communication and they do not ininbit the productiontransition rates may be estimated using linear pro- of mainstream, mainly English-language scientificgramming models. research, or use of English scientific information.

Second, in countries where a foreign language hasbeen adopted for all science instructions, poor foreign-

Cuadra, Ernesto and Birger Fredriksen. Scope for -language proficiency is an important cause of highEfficiency Gains Resultingfrom Reduction in Repetition wastage and repetition rates, and low achievement inand Dropout. PHREE/92/55 (1992). scientific and technological courses. Fmally, use of

indigenous languages at least at the primary level mayThis paper was prepared as background material for promote learning of science and related subjects. Ana seminar on repetition and dropout sponsored by the indigenous language will not develop as a language ofEducation and Employment Division of the World ordinary scientific discourse unless it is employed forBank. It attempts to evaluate the extent to which costs instruction and material welfare.associated with investment in learning quality can berecouped through efficiency gains derived from reduc-tions in repetition and dropout. It contains a set of Eisemon, Thomas Owen. Private Initiatives andsimulations that address how reduction in repetition Traditions of State Control in Higher Education inand dropout affects the total cost of providing for a Sub-Saharan Africa. PHREE/92/48 (1992).cohort of students and how these reductions affect the

4Education and Employment

This paper examines Kenya as a case study of the Eisemon, Thomas Owen, John Sheehan, Georgepolitical, economic, and educational circumstances that Eyoku, Franklin Van Buer, Delane Welsch, Louisahave prompted the establishment of private education- Masutti, Nat Colletta, and Lee Roberts. Sfrengtheningal institutions, the functions of these institutions, and Uganda's Policy Environmentfor Investing in Universitytheir relationship to the state. Private higher educa- Development. WPS 1065 (1993).tion in Africa has been constrained by poverty and bya belief that private involvement would exacerbate This paper examines the policy environment forinequalities in educational provision. Accordingly, it investment in university development in Uganda, withdoes not account for a significant proportion of special attention to the needs of Makerere University.university enrollments. Kenya has the largest number It first examines the higher education sector in Ugan-of private institutions. They provide professional da; government support for higher and universitytraining in fields of employment opportunity but also education; and the governance, management, unitoffer an education that emphasizes character-building costs, internal efficiency, and quality of programs offunctions of higher studies. Efforts to foster private Makerere University. It then discusses how the lackhigher education should focus on creating an appropri- of resources to support public universities, poorate policy framework for national accreditation and employment opportunities of graduates, equity con-supervision of institutions as well as flnancial support cerns, university-government relations, and otherfor construction of student residential facilities, loans factors affect higher education policy reform. Theto poor students, and funding for staff training. authors present a strategy for revitalizing universitySupport for private higher education should strengthen education where reforms are proposed to promotethe regulatory functions of government in ways that coordinated development of public and private higherpreserve the independence of private institutions. educational institutions and to generate new resources

to support them. They also suggest immediate andmedium-term measures necessary for sustainable

Eisemon, Thomas Owen. Lending for Higher Educa- national and donordon:An Analysis of World Bank Investment 1963-1991. investment in university rehabilitation.PHREE/92/66R (1992).

This analysis focuses on the World Bank's strategies el Hage, Diane, Rosemary Rinaldi, Sylvia Ware, andfor the support of higher education, the patterns of Erik Thulstrup. World Bank Lending for Secondaryinvolvement in the higher education sub-sector, and School Science - A General Operational Review.what the sub-sector and borrowing countries have PHREE/92/58R (1992).sought to accomplish. The number, kinds, and region-al distribution of project investments during the last This paper examines the Bank's support for Secondarythree decades are described. Projects since 1980 are School Science. It tabulates supported projects andexamined in relation to sub-sectoral, inter-sectoral, and their components for the period FY1963-90 by regionsectoral investment strategies. The Bank's experience and fiscal period, summarizes project expenditures,with lending for higher education policy reform is also analyzes teacher training and its components, identifiesdiscussed. The author emphasizes the importance of problems found in the provision of equipment andformulating project interventions in the context of consumables, and evaluates the outcome of secondarydevelopment of the higher education sub-sector as a science investments. Support for secondary schoolwhole, of sustaining comprehensive assistance for science education has recognized that laboratories areinstitution-building and quality improvement, and of important, but has placed limited emphasis on themethods for reducing the political costs of implement- mechanisms that make science laboratories education-ing policy reforms. ally productive. The projects analyzed tend to empha-

5Annotated Bibliography, 1992

size buildings and equipment at the expense of train- have more educated children. In addition, educatinging. Expenditures classified as 'teacher training women slows population growth by creating newsupport" are often for physical facilities. The extensive economic opportunities that competewith childbearingprovision of equipment without related teacher train- and child care. Yet, many countries invest less ining is unsuccessfuL The low level of support for such educating women than men. To create a stronger casetraining in the African region, along with insufficient for parents' sending their daughters to school, policymaintenance and unsatisfactory construction, may makers should recognize the costs and benefits fromexplain failures there. Too much emphasis is placed the parents' perspective. To help policy makers, theon insignificant goals, particularly adherence to sched- paper analyzes the benefits from female educationules and budgets, and not enough on the goals of (who gains and in what ways) and the constraintsimproving scientific knowledge and attracting students (direct and opportunity costs, reflecting economics andto science-related careers. Suggestions on how to tradition). It then outlines promising approaches forcorrect some of these problems are included. increasing female education, focusing on education

policies to lower costs, improve quality, and increaseaccess to allow more girls to attend school. The

Hamermesh, Daniel S. Unemployment Insurance for authors cite evidence of effectiveness and give exam-Developing Countries. WPS 897 (1992). ples, particularly from projects involving the World

Bank. Especially in poor countries, projects succeedAnalyzing the various goals adduced for unemploy- best when they include a 'package approach" toment insurance, the author considers which make address the multiple and powerful constraints tosense. He lists the parameters of typical unemploy- female education. The paper calls for increasedment insurance programs and their ranges in industrial monitoring and testing the cost-effectiveness of thecountries. Evidence on the economic impact of these kind of innovative packages now being tried in devel-parameters provides planners with a basis for con- oping countries.structing unemployment insurance programs else-where. While experience and evidence from devel-oped economies may carry over into developing Hoffmann, Roald. Some Reflections on Science in theeconomies, the author suggests that the special charac- Low-Income Economies. PHREE/92/71 (1992).teristics of many developing economies, such duallabor markets, imply the need for caution in introduc- The author discusses the role of science in history anding unemployment insurance programs in these in different parts of the world, especially the develop-economies. He suggests several lines of research to ing world. Based on his own experience, he proposesanswer questions about the validity of the consump- a number of initiatives which may help developingtion-insurance goal in developing countries and about countries benefit from the immense developmentappropriate structures of taxes and benefits. opportunities, that in our times are offered by science.

Based on this survey, he deplores the minimal atten-tion given to science by some international organiza-

Herz, Barbara, K. Subbarao, Masoom Habib, and tions, including the World Bank.Laura Raney. Letting Girls Leamn: Promising Ap-proaches in Primary and Secondawy Education. WorldBank Discussion Paper No. 133 (1991). Ilon, Lynn. A Framework for Costing Tests in Third

World Settings. PHREE/92/65 (1992).Among the substantial economic and social returns ofeducating women is the fact that educated mothers This paper presents a framework for costing tests. It

outlines the processes and procedures involved in

6Education and Employment

constructing, administering, scoring, and reporting alized and developing countries and examines thehigh-quality tests. It identifies testing stages, activities, factors that influence the use of these indicators. Theand necessary resources. Since the framework is built paper also assesses the usefulness of performancearound the actual process of test development and indicators to policy making in terms of measuringadministration, it provides a tool for costing tests that quality and efficiency and guiding resource allocationis compatible with the methods used by testing special- and reform direction. The author places particularists. At the same time, the framework provides a emphasis on the limits to using indicators in inter-sys-guide for the less experienced on the processes that tem and inter-country comparisons. Recommenda-should be used to construct high-quality tests. tions are stated pertaining to general policy, govern-

ments, institutions, and developing countries.

Katz, Harry C, Sarosh Kuruvilla, and Lowell Turner.Trade Unions and Collective Bargaining. WPS 1099 King, Elizabeth M., Paul Glewwe, and Wim Alberts.(1993). Human Resource Development and Economic Growth:

Ghana in the Next Two Decades. PHREE/92/57This paper asserts that changing world markets and (1992).new technologies are driving industrial restructuring.The ability of developing countries and new transition- This paper reviews Ghana's past commitments toal economies to compete in the global marketplace education and health and evaluates the country'swill depend on their ability to transform industrial economic growth potential in light of lessons learnedrelations polices involving trade unions and collective from the experiences of newly industrializing countriesbargaining so that policies promote flexibility in the (NICs) of East Africa on the relationship betweenworkplace and encourage the formation and effective investments in human capital and accelerated anduse of human resources. The authors argue that there sustainable economic growth. When compared withare key moments of transition in industrial relations the NICs at the time those countries started on thesystems after which modifications are difficult and that path of rapid growth, Ghana lags behind most of themrecent pressures for structural change in the develop- in investment in education and health. Ghana can noting world present opportunities for major transitions expect to achieve the rapid growth seen elsewherein industrial relations. Drawing on experiences in without more investment in human capital and willJapan and Germany as well as in developing countries, have to give the highest priority to further investmentsthe authors conclude that worker participation in in basic education and primary health care. Withoutdecision making is critical for bringing about popular the solid foundation of universal literacy and numeracyacceptance of the changes resulting from industrial and an efficient primary health care system, morerestructuring. They also stress the importance of costly investments in higher education and tertiary carecoordinating and integrating industrial relations policy would likely be both wasteful and inequitable. Thewith other social, legal, economic, and education paper concludes with a statement that broader policiespolicies. related to population growth and to the efficiency of

the labor market are also important for successfulhuman resource investments.

Kells, H. R. Performance Indicators for Higher Educa-tion: A Critical Review with Policy Recommendations.PHREE/92/56 (1992). Kornhauser, Aleksandra. University-Industry Coopera-

don Under Constraints: Experience of the IntemationalThis paper reviews the current use of performance Center for Chemical Studies, Ljubljana, Slovenia.indicators in higher educational institutions in industri- PHREE/92/67 (1992).

7Annotated Bibliography, 1992

This paper discusses university-industry cooperation as Reports, with specific budget figures attached, area world- wide need, especially in developing countries, more likely to succeed than those without such level ofand uses the International Center for Chemical Studies detaiL(ICCS) in Ljubljana, Slovenia to illustrate the potentialbenefits of such collaboration. The ICCS has a smallteam engaged in university-industry programs and Leigh, Duane E. Retraining Displaced Workers: WThatinternational cooperation in chemistry, biochemistry, Can Developing Countuies Lean from OECD Nations?and waste management. The industries involved WPS 946 (1992).mainly need information services in fields peripheral totheir principal interests. As a result, computerized This paper analyzes programs in OECD countriesinformation acquisition and processing, such as search- intended to retrain displaced workers, where retraininges of international data bases or patent documents, has is defined as both enhancing job skills and remediatingbeen a focus for much ICCS activity. While benefit- deficiencies in basic education. Having briefly charac-ting industry, this collaboration has helped raise the terized displaced workers in industrialized nations, thequality of university research and education. This paper discusses the major differences in labor marketpaper presents the history of the ICCS and describes policies and emphasis on adult training, the questionits current structure and the basic tools and strategies of who needs retraining and how retraining should beemployed. Successful university-industry collaboration done, and the cost-effectiveness of retraining. Lessonsis illustrated with four detailed case studies. learned from the OECD nations include: (1) training

programs should be independent of the educationsystem; (2) links to employers must be developed; (3)

Larach, iAnda P. and Marlaine E. Lockheed. World the foregone earnings of trainees should be minimized;Bank Lending for Educational Testing. A General (4) external providers of education should be madeOperational Review. PHREE/92/62R (1992). accountable; (5) a permanent, institutionalized training

system is preferable to short-term intervention; and (6)This paper evaluates World Bank lending for educa- not all displaced workers require relatively expensivetional testing. Of the 450 projects reviewed, most training. An agenda for future research is included.supported educational testing only through a subcom-ponent of the project. Based on tabulations andanalysis of the testing subcomponents, the authors Lockheed, Marlaine E. Multi-DimensionalEvaluation:draw five conclusions: (1) projects that focus on Measuresfor Both Right and Left Sides of the Equation.improving institutional quality before addressing either PHREE/91/46 (1991).technical or dissemination issues are more likely tosucceed than projects that first try to improve technical Monitoring educational progress requires data on bothor dissemination quality, (2) projects that focus on student learning and determinants of achievement. Itimproving technical quality are more successful when also requires measures of learning achievement thatboth planning and implementation issues are can provide information on trends over time. Thisaddressed; (3) in order to give test scores meaning, paper reviews basic concepts related to measuringBank testing subcomponents should pay more atten- learning, educational inputs, and processes; comparestion to standard setting, (4) more support for dissemi- assessments to monitor trends with measures ofnation of test results is essential; and (5) test subcom- achievement for other purposes; and estimates costsponents that are designated as identifiable project for different purposes of testing.components or subcomponents in Staff Appraisal

8Education and Employment

Levin, Henry M. and Marlaine Lockheed. Effective and suggestions on how donors can help strengthenSchools in Developing Countries. London: Falmer Press educational policy research capacity are provided.(1993).

This book is the first to characterize effective schools Lockheed, Marlaine E. and Qinghua Zhao. Thefor poor children, internationally. Eight case studies Empty Oppolunity: Local Control of Secondaryare provided of initiatives to improve schools for rural Schools and Student Achievement in the Philippines.and disadvantaged children: the New School Program WPS 825 (1992).in Colombia; the Democratic School Model in Brazil;a plantation school in Sri Lanka; the local school This paper examines differences in achievement andimprovement efforts in Thailand; the education attitudes among national government, private, andprogram for rural development in Nepal; the school local schools in the Philippines; the differences amongreform in Ghana; strategies for providing quality these types of schools in social composition, availableeducation in Burundi and the Accelerated Schools in resources, classroom orderliness, academic emphasis,the USA. The studies found that the effective schools and school decision-making, and possible reasons forshare several common features with respect to provi- differences in achievement. A multi-level modellingsion of necessary inputs, existence of facilitating package was used to analyze the data. The resultsconditions, and the will to change. The book is unique show that students in local schools scored lower inin its focus on developing countries and good schools achievement and had less positive attitudes thanfor impoverished children, and drawing on the re- students in government schools, and that students insearch of an international group of scholars from all private schools outperformed students in governmentregions of the world. schools, largely due to the effects of student selection.

The authors also found that (1) centrally planneddecentralization does not necessarily produce local

Lockheed, Marlaine E. World Bank Suppout for level control; (2) local schools actually have little localCapacity Building - The Challenge of Educational control over teaching or school management; (3) localAssessment. PHREE/92/54 (1992). schools were given an empty opportunity since there

was nothing for "local control" to control; and (4) localThis paper examines the challenge of developing schools had fewer resources than private schools. Ineducational assessments. It defines and describes contrast, private schools had more managementeducational assessments and attempts to provide control and resources, better educated teachers, andinsight into building assessment and educational more motivated students.research capacity by exploring institutional and socialconditions under which applied research in the scienc-es can flourish in developing countries. The study Mangum, Stephen L, Garth L Mangum, and Janinefound that the successful conduct of research in other Bowen. Strategies for Creating Transitional Jobs duringapplied sciences has required institutions which are Structural Adjustment. WPS 947 (1992).stable, have a highly-qualified staff, replicate them-selves through training programs, enable their profes- This paper reviews world-wide experience with creat-sional staff to communicate with peers internationally, ing transitional jobs through public work relief, publicand are situated in social environments characterized service employment, and subsidized private employ-by freedom of thought, adequate resources, and ment. The authors argue that work relief is a criticalcommitment to research quality. In light of these component of any structural adjustment program, sosupportive institutional and social environments, World long as the work relief projects are consistent with theBank support for educational assessments is reviewed capabilities of the targeted workforce. They found

9Annotated Bibliography, 1992

that the effectiveness of public works depends on In recent years, there has been an increased recogni-timeliness, financing, good management, choosing tion of the importance of the connection betweenhigh-priority projects, and matching the skill needs of scientific research and technological development.the project with the skills of the targeted workers. Developed countries have experimented with differentPublic works and work relief tend to provide transi- ways of using scientific research and technologicaltional jobs mainly for male manual workers; hence, development to promote economic growth, such aswomen and displaced white-collar workers may be establishingindustry-universityresearchcollaborations,better served by public service employment or subsi- and the number and variety of linkage mechanisms indized private employmenL While public service developed countries has grown rapidly. Developingemployment is relatively easy to administer and quick countries are also increasingly involved in fosteringto implement and disband, it is difficult to focus collaborations. This paper examines a variety ofgeographically, rarely leaves anything permanent mechanisms currently in use in both developed andbehind, and expands the public payroll, at least tempo- developing countries, as well as factors that influencerarily. Subsidized private employment is easily target- success, lessons learned from both groups of countries,ed and is compatible with efforts at privatization, but and ways to gauge a country's readiness for collabora-its success rate depends on the private sector's willing- tion. The author concludes that industry-universityness to increase hiring. collaboration cannot be successful in the absence of

other important elements. The concept of industry--university collaboration assumes adoption of at least

Muskin, Joshua A. World Bank Lending for Science some of the values and norms associated with Westernand Technology: General Operation Review. PHREE/- universities. The existence of such collaboration is92/51R (1992). valuable, the author notes, as a symbol of the impor-

tance of doing work that relates to economic needs.The number of World Bank loans to the scientific andtechnology sector has increased markedly in recentyears. Loans have been made in the areas of higher Patrinos, Harry Anthony and George Psacharopoulos.education, industry and technology, and energy and Socioeconomic and Ethnic Determinants of Gradeinfrastructure, to both public and private sector Repetition in Bolivia and Guatemala. WPS 1028 (1992).recipients. This paper reviews the World Bank'slending in these areas, paying particular attention to After reviewing the literature on repetition (studentsregional differences, prominent goals and objectives, repeating grades in school) in developing countries,common project components, and criteria for sector Patrinos and Psacharopoulos examined factors relatedand project evaluation. The study conclusions address to repetition in Bolivia and Guatemala. They devel-the need to increase the links between teaching, oped a model to estimate the incidence and determi-research and industry, the crucial role of access to nants of repetition. They used multivariate logisticinformation, the urgent necessity to raise incentives to regression analysis to estimate the determinants ofboth institutions and individuals involved in science repetition, using the results in simulations to deter-and technology, and the importance of initiating a mine probabilities of who are more likely to repeat.formal dialogue within the World Bank concerning Their empirical analysis shows that certain populationsscience and technology matters and priorities. are more likely to repeat a grade: children from less

wealthy households and children of indigenous origins.This suggests that any targeting activities could be

Parker, Linda E. Industry-University Collaboration in directed to the poor and could have an indigenousDeveloped and Developing Counties. PHREE/92/64 component, such as bilingual education.(1992).

10Education and Employment

Psacharopoulos, George and Ana Maria Arriagada. Taoklam. On-the-Job Improvements in Teacher Com-7he Educational Composition of the Labor Force. petence: Policy Options and Their Effects on TeachingPHREE/92/49 (1992). and Lewning. WPS 889 (1992).

This publication presents tables and graphs expanding The authors use a multi-level modeling procedure toand updating the data presented in the authors' 1986 examine two policy options for improving the compe-article reporting the educational composition of the tence of teachers already in the system: providinglabor force around the world (The Educational Com- inservice training and encouraging regular classroomposition of the Labor Force: An International Com- supervision. In a nationwide sample of small, ruralparison, Intemational Labor Review, 125 (5): 561-574). primary schools in Thailand, they found that a teach-The update documents the very long time it takes to er's experience in inservice training courses predictsregister a significant improvement upon a country's neither instructional quality nor student achievement.human capital stock, as measured by the mean level of By contrast, intensity of supervision within a schooleducational attainment of the labor force. significantly predicts both instructional quality and

student achievement, after controlling for key school,teacher, and classroom variables. Intensive field work

Psacharopoulos, George, Carlos Rojas, and Eduardo in selected rural schools suggests that supervision byVelez. Achievement Evaluation of Colombia's Escuela effective principals is a critical component in a largerNueva: Is Multigrade the Answer? WPS 896 (April strategy to create an "ethos of improvement" in school1992). teaching and learning.

Escuela Nueva is a rural school in which one or twoteachers offer all five years of primary education in Regel, Omporn. The Academic Credit System inone or two multigrade classrooms. Created in 1976 as Higher Education: Effectiveness and Relevance inan official improvement on the unitary school (an Developing Countries. PHREE/92/59 (1992).earlier multigrade approach), Escuela Nueva by 1989enrolled 800,000 students in 17,948 schools. Special The problems facing the higher education systems inmaterials encourage practical applications to rural life; developing countries include inefficiencies such as highmany activities involve parents in support of their repetition and dropout rates, growing gaps betweenchildren's learming; and teachers and supervisors what is being taught in schools and demanded by thereceive extra training. The authors evaluated a 1987 labor market, and the need to provide education forsample of over 3,000 third and fifth graders from 168 diverse student groups. This paper analyzes theEscuela Nueva and 60 traditional schools (which potential of the academic credit system (the Americanfollowed a national curriculum and did not use special model) as an approach that may improve the qualitymaterials). They found that Escuela Nueva had and cost-effectiveness of instruction in developingsignificantly improved student outcomes and student countries. It evaluates the strengths and weaknessesand community participation, as well as reducing of the credit system, identifies the necessary precondi-dropout rates. Preliminary findings suggest that unit tions for its successful transfer to developing countries,cost was only 5 to 10 percent higher than in traditional presents three case studies, and examines what lessonsschools; extra costs of materials and training are offset can be drawn from the American and internationalby having only one or two teachers for five grades. experiences with the credit system. Discussion of

implementation of the credit system is limited by thescarcity of research materials on the subject in devel-

Raudenbush, Stephen W., Suwanna Wamsukkawat, oping countries.Ikechuku Di-Ibor, Mohamed Kamali, and Wimol

11Annotated Bibliography, 1992

Alan Richards. Higher Education in Egypt. WPS 862 focusing exclusively on the financial aspects is general-(1992). ly not sufficient. Fnancial measures appear most

successful when integrated into system-wide institution-The author argues that education in Egypt must al diversification strategies whereby countries accom-increase Egyptians' ability to respond quickly and modate the growing social demand through low-costefficiently to changing technological and market alternatives (short cycle programs, open university)opportunities. Since the mid-1980s, the Government while strengthening prestige institutions for graduateof Egypt has pursued a fundamentally sound strategy. studies and advanced research.(1) stabilizing the number of university students, whichgrew rapidly in the 1970s and 1980s as a result ofNasser regime policies, including guaranteeing jobs to Stevenson, Gail. Adjustment Lending and the Educa-university graduates; and (2) raising the quality of tion Sector The Bank's Experience. PHREE/91/42Rinstruction, which seriously deteriorated over the same (1991).period. The large classes, allowing little more thanmemorization and repetition, do not foster problemsolving or other thinking skills. The Government is This paper is a general operational review of Bank--seeking to expand the role of two- and four-year supported lending for managed economic restructuringtechnical colleges, increase the use of pedagogical programs and its impact on the education sector.materials in university instruction, and promote These programs are designed to increase output,innovative interdisciplinary programs that stress employment, and living standards by removing rigidi-problem solving and applied work. Though the job ties and improving the economy's response to marketguarantee has been effectively suspended since the signals. However, even successful programs haveearly 1980s, students have responded slowly since employment, output, and distributional effects, anduniversity graduation is prestigious and improves the there has been much discussion of the effects ofchances of marrying well. Bank-supported adjustment programs on provision of

educational and other social services, and of appropri-ate steps that could be taken. The paper examines a

Salmi, Jamil. Perspectives on the Financing of Higher selection of lending instruments and evaluates theirEducation. PHREE/91/45 (1991). treatment of specific macro-sector links and individual

education sector issues and objectives, and brieflyThis paper examines the challenge faced by higher reviews recent work on the relationship betweeneducation systems in developing countries in terms of macroeconomic reform and the education sector.their capacity to meet the economy's needs for scien- Among the fndings that should be included in sectortific training and research. It also explores various adjustment programs is the need for integrated macro-reform and innovation strategies and examines their economic, budgetary, and sector analysis in programfinancial implications. It proposes four generic princi- design. The characteristics of educationally-effectivepals to guide the design of reform strategies that adjustment programs are described. Remainingwould ease the tension between rising enrollments and weaknesses include the slow pace of civil servicestagnating resources without compromising the quality reform, weak labor market linkages, and the limitedof teaching and research: excellence, responsiveness, success of intrasectoral resource reallocation efforts.efficiency, and equality. To achieve these objectives,countries need to design higher education reform Stevenson, Gail. How Public Sector Pay and Employ-strategies appropriate to their specific economic and mentAffectLaborMarkets: Research Issues. WPS944social circumstances. The paper also concludes that (1992).

12Education and Employment

The public sector has a more important structural role and physical inputs, particularly programmed learningto play in developing countries than in industrial ones, materials and textbooks; (3) local and regional supportparticularly in how it affects labor markets. This networks among teachers; and (4) national support forpaper reviews the issues and the empirical literature pilot programs.on the relationship between public sector employment,pay, and performance; and the competitive labormarket. The first section summarizes the issues Thulstrup, Erik W. Improving the Quality of Researchsurrounding government's role as employer and in Developing Country Universities. PHREE/92/52producer, the second discusses the mechanisms by (1992).which a large sector with administered wages andobjectives other than profit could affect labor markets. This paper examines the role of scientific and techno-The third section reviews empirical studies that have logical research in developing countries. It emphasizesattempted to measure the effects of the public sector the importance of research training, both for theon the economies and labor markets of developing efficient adaption and use of modem technology andcountries. The evidence shows that public sector pay, for proper environmental management. A number ofemployment, and performance are hurting the labor common misconceptions about the purpose and naturemarkets' ability to allocate workers among sectors and of university research are discussed and the impor-skill requirements. While policy reforms have led to tance of research output monitoring and the provisionsome movement of employment out of the public of individual incentives for active research are noted.sector, significant rigidities remain. The paper con- The role of scientific publications in the improvementcludes with implications for public sector employment of the quality and international status of scientificpolicies and suggested directions for future research. research in the Third World is recognized. The effects

of different research policy strategies are illustrated bydiscussion of two university research projects in

Thomas, Christopher and Christopher Shaw. Issues Indonesia.in the Development of Multigrade Schools. WorldBank Technical Paper No. 172 (1992).

Verspoor, Adriaan M. Challenges to the Planning ofMultigrade schools, which are supported in a number Education. PHREE/92/60 (1992).of World Bank projects, combine students of differentages and abilities in one classroom, under the direction This volume contains three papers that explore someof one teacher. The purpose of the paper is to of the aspects of an approach to educational planningincrease staff awareness of the complexity of the that is better suited to the demands of educationalmultigrade approach and its potential economic and development in the 1990s. Traditionally, educationalpedagogical benefits when the various components are planning has emphasized the expansion of educationproperly designed. The authors seek to provide a systems through discrete investments managed byclear picture of what multigrade teaching involves and central authorities. Such planning worked well as longgive staff the tools they need to assess under what as infrastructure development was the dominantcircumstances such multigrade teaching should be priority, but has not worked as well for programs withpromoted. Though multigrade teaching is a reality in more qualitative and policy- oriented objectives. Theboth developing and industrialized countries, current common theme of the papers in this volume is thesystems of administration and teacher preparation tend need to transform education planning into a tool ofto ignore it. The authors point out four critical strategic management. The first paper describes theelements to consider in supporting multigrade schools: features of a planning approach that has the flexibility(1) effective teaching practices; (2) adequate material to help education managers to deal with a diversity of

13Annotated Bibliography, 1992

education demands. The second discusses ways aid laboratory instruction, teacher education, and assess-strategies can be designed to support basic education ment. In addition, non-formal science education,development priorities. The third emphasizes the need environmental education, and female participation infor strengthening the information base for non-formal science are briefly explored. The report also examineseducation and for building capacities for research and the World Bank's record of support for scienceevaluation in order to provide policy-makers with an education since 1963 and includes case studies fromincreasingly solid foundation for decisions. each of the Bank's regions. The author discusses goals

and strategies for change.

Verspoor, Adriaan M. "Plamning of Education:Where Do We Go?" Intemational Joumal of Educa- Ware, Sylvia A. The Education of Secondawy Sciencetional Development 12 (3): 233-244 (1992). Teachers in Developing Countries. PHREE/92/68

(1992).This article argues that educational planning, dominat-ed by economists' positivist paradigms, has rarely been This report reviews the status of preservice andan effective instrument of education management. inservice secondary science teacher preparation inThe failure to take into account the diversity of local developing countries. It examines the actual balanceconditions, the complexity of the technical systems, and of course content for both lower and upper secondarythe neglect of implementation issues are cited as the school teachers, as well as the type of program thatprincipal reasons for the persistent planning mishaps would be most useful to future science teachers. Fourof the past. The recommitment of the international case studies of preservice and three of inservicecommunity to education, in the wake of the recent education are presented. The author offers recom-World Conference on Education for All, makes it mendations for upgrading the educational backgroundimperative to ensure that the new resources that can of the teacher trainers, revising the syllabus for teacherbe expected to become available for educational training, and introducing teaching "sandwich" courses.development are well used. This means planning forchange at the school level in the context of moreorganic management systems. The author argues that Weale, Martin. Education, Externalities, Fertility, andin this environment the premises of deterministic Economic Growth. WPS 1039 (1992).planning no longer hold. Operationally usable "inter-active" models will be essential. The dimensions of This paper analyses the economic benefits of educa-such models are begining to be clear: (1) systematic tion. Using calculated rates of return, the paperlearning; (2) indirect intervention strategies; (3) presents estimates of both private benefits and socialinstitutional analysis; and (4) staff development. returns to education and discusses the shortcomings of

this approach. The author then presents macroeco-nomic data that indicate an external effect of educa-

Ware, Sylvia A. Secondary School Science in Develop- tion on growth and a connection between educationing Countries: Status and Issues. PHREE/92/53 and both reduced fertility rates and improved health.(1992). A simulation model linking fertility decisions with

consumption/saving decisions is derived. In thisThis report reviews the status of secondary school modeL parents derive utility from their children'sscience in the developing world and explores issues welfare; as a consequence, children are a form ofrelated to the improvement of science teaching and savings. The model is extended to reflect education aslearning in both developing and developed countries. an endogenous decision and looks at the impact of anAmong the topics discussed are curriculum content, external effect of education on economic growth. The

14Education and Employment

author concludes that education leads to both a dissemination and skills training. The changing naturefertility externality and to a growth externality. While of the Bank's lending program calls for continuingmore research is needed to determine the structure of efforts to improve sector work, assess the impact ofthe growth externality and the presence of any increas- the falling share of IDA lending for education, anding returns to education, the presence of both externa- build a knowledge base of "best practices' in emerginglities is suffidiently well documented for these to be fields of quality improvement, poverty alleviation, andtaken into account in cost-benefit analyses. environmental education.

World Bank. Annual Operational Review: Fiscal 1991 Wu, Kin Bing. Higher Education in Hong Kong.Education and Training. PHREE/91/44R (1991). Investment in Science and Technology During the Time

of Political and Economic Change. PHREE/92/70This Annual Sector Review describes the Bank's FY (1992).1991 education lending and sector work program. Itspurpose is to take stock of salient features in the This paper examines the development of higherdevelopment of the education sector during FY 1991, education in Hong Kong within the context of itsto compare these developments with past trends, and impending transfer to Chinese control. It examinesto identify issues that may need to be addressed by Hong Kong's economic development trends since thesector staff and management. The dominant features 1950s, the role of the Hong Kong government, theof Bank lending for education include (a) a strong higher education sector, science and engineeringfocus on quality improvement, with learning outcomes education at the tertiary level, and the relationshipand skill acquisition as measures of progress; (b) between research and industry. The author's fndingsincreasingly close linkages between educational invest- include the following: (1) while Hong Kong's laissez--ments and broader social and economic policy, and (c) faire economic policies have fostered economic growthincreased importance of new areas of lending, such as in the past, they mask a lack of government leadershipemployment and science and technology. in charting long-term development; (2) past restric-

tions on higher education expansion have led to asevere shortage of highly-trained locals; and (3) this

World Bank. Annual Operational Review: Fiscal 1992 shortage and an attendant weakness in technologicalEducation and Training. PHREE/92/69R (1992). capability are likely to be major constraints to future

growth. The paper argues that the development ofThis report tabulates and analyzes World Bank lending higher education is intimately linked to economic andfor education and training in 1992. It discusses the political structures and that the role of government isincreasing diversity in the nature and scope of educa- critical to setting the direction of both economic andtion lending, tabulates lending by project type, level, educational development. It is not clear whether aand geographic distribution; analyzes the quality of rapid expansion of the higher education sector canBank education sector work and its supervision; compensate for past neglect.tabulates policy research, dissemination, and staffdevelopment; and describes projects that have ad-dressed educational quality, education and poverty, and Ziderman, Adrian and Robin Horn. Many Paths toenvironmental education. Major conclusions are that Skilled Employment: A Reverse Tracer Study of Eight(1) the lending portfolio has become much more Occupations in Colombia. WPS 1075 (1993).diverse in scope and purpose; (2) it strongly emphasiz-es quality improvement; (3) the diversity of the portfo- This study employed a reverse tracer technique tolio places increased demands on policy research and identify alternative training paths for selected occupa-

L5Annotated Bibliography, 1992

tions in Colombia. The results confirm earlier U.S. ments forecasting approach' to the planning of voca-findings that workers pursue many different training tional education and training, which is currentlypaths to acquire the skills needed in a given occupa- popular in developing countries, will lead to reductionstion. The authors argue that strong public intervention in training alternatives. The more training options arethat narrows the effective range of available training available to workers, the better they can arrange theirwill lead to less flexible and efficient training systems own training packages.and should be discouraged. The "manpower require-