EDITORIAL BOARD MIGRATION Editorial Advisers: Joint ... · Vol. I umber 1 ebruaryMarch 2014 4 MIIO POLI PIE Government views and policy priorities for international migration Vinod

MIGRATIONPOLICY PRACTICEISSN 2223-5248

Joint Managing Editors:• SolonArdittis(Eurasylum)• FrankLaczko(International

OrganizationforMigration–IOM)Editorial Advisers:

• JoannevanSelm(Eurasylum)• KarolinePopp(International

OrganizationforMigration–IOM)Editorial Coordinator:

• ValerieHagger(InternationalOrganizationforMigration–IOM)

Editorial Assistants:• MyleneBuensuceso(International

OrganizationforMigration–IOM)• AnnaLynConstantino(International

OrganizationforMigration–IOM)Editorial Committee:

• AderantiAdepoju(HumanResourcesDevelopmentCentre,Lagos,Nigeria)

• RichardAresBaumgartner(EuropeanAgencyfortheManagementofOperationalCooperationattheExternalBordersoftheEuropeanUnion–FRONTEX,Warsaw)

• PeterBosch(EuropeanCommission,Brussels)

• JuanCarlosCalleros(StaffOfficeofthePresidentofMexico)

• HowardDuncan(Metropolis,Ottawa,Canada)

• NeliEsipova(GallupWorldPoll,NewYork)

• AraceliAzuaraFerreiro(OrganizationofAmericanStates–OAS,Washington,D.C.)

• PhilippeFargues(MigrationPolicyCentre–MPC,Florence)

• LukasGehrke(InternationalCentreforMigrationPolicyDevelopment–ICMPD,Vienna)

• ShahidulHaque(MinistryofForeignAffairs,GovernmentofthePeople’sRepublicofBangladesh)

• SandraHarder(CitizenshipandImmigrationCanada–CIC,Ottawa)

• ChrisHedges(UnitedKingdomBorderAgency–UKBA,London)

• MichelleLeighton(InternationalLabourOffice–ILO,Geneva)

• WilliamMcClure(AustralianDepartmentofImmigrationandBorderProtection)

• JenniferMcDonald(Passport,ImmigrationandCitizenshipAgency,MinistryofNationalSecurity,Jamaica)

• SankarRamasamy(DepartmentofLabour,NewZealand)

• DilipRatha(WorldBank,Washington,D.C.)

• CécileRiallant(EC-UNJointMigrationandDevelopmentInitiative,Brussels)

• NandKishoreSingh(MemberoftheIndianParliament,NewDelhi)

• SimonTonelli(CouncilofEurope,Strasbourg)

• AdrianavanDooijeweert(DutchAdvisoryCommitteeonMigrationAffairs–ACVZ,TheHague)

Published jointly by the International Organization for Migration (IOM) and Eurasylum Ltd.

Introduction Solon Ardittis and Frank Laczko

Government views and policy priorities for international migration Vinod Mishra and Julia Ferre

The Swiss vote against mass immigration and international law: A preliminary assessment Vincent Chetail

Tuberculosis and migration: A post-2015 call for action Poonam Dhavan and Davide Mosca

China and Europe: Increasingly linked by migration Frank Laczko and Tara Brian

Protecting the rights of migrants in Europe: The role of the Committee on Migration, Refugees and Displaced Persons of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe The Secretariat of the Committee on Migration, Refugees and Displaced Persons

A Bimonthly Journal for and by Policymakers Worldwide

CONTENTS

Vol.IV,Number1,February–March2014

Chadian evacuees board a plane to Chad. IOM helped 314 Chadians leave the Central AfricanRepublic(CAR)andflewthembacktoChad.Thiswasthe19thevacuationflightconductedbyIOMforthird-countrynationalsexitingCAR.©IOM2014(Photo:SandraBlack).

EDITORIAL BOARD

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Vol. IV, Number 1, February–March 2014MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE2IntroductionSolon Ardittis and Frank Laczko1

WelcometothenewissueofMigration Policy Practice. This issue includes articles on abroadrangeof themes,coveringnational,

regionalandglobalpolicyissues.

The first article, by Vinod Mishra from the UnitedNations Department of Economic and Social AffairsPopulation Division, reports on the findings of anewglobalsurveythatasksgovernmentstoindicatetheir migration policy priorities. The survey, whichwasconductedin2011,isdistinctivebecauseitasksgovernments to provide information on both theirimmigration and emigration policies. Contrary tothe often negative reports about migration in themedia,thesurveyfindsthatmanymoregovernmentsaroundtheworldhaveshown“openness to regular immigration in the last two decades”, especiallythose in developed regions such as Europe. Twothirds of governments hadpolicies in place in 2011to promote the integration of migrants, which is asignificant increase compared with the situation in1996,when less thanhalf of governments reportedimplementingsuchpolicies.Thesurveyalsofindsthataroundhalfofthecountriesintheworldnowpermitdual citizenship. Conversely, a quarter of countriesaround the world have policies to discourage emigration.Allofthecountriesadoptingthistypeofpolicy are located in developing regions.Moreover,many countries, especially in developing regions,are trying to encourage the return of their citizensandencourageinvestmentintheircountriesbytheirdiasporas – more than 100 countries have specialunits in government tasked with implementingsuch policies. Finally, the survey indicates that themajority (three quarters) of governments aroundthe world consider “irregular migration as a majorconcern”,althoughthesurveydoesnotindicatewhataspectsofirregularmigrationareofmostconcerntogovernments.

1 Solon Ardittis is Managing Director of Eurasylum Ltd. andFrank Laczko is Head of the Migration Research Divisionat IOMHeadquarters inGeneva. They are the co-editors ofMigration Policy Practice.

Thesecondarticleinthisissuefocusesonnewpolicydevelopments in a small country – Switzerland –which has a high percentage ofmigrants among itspopulation. In February 2014, the Swiss populationadopted an initiative aimed at stopping massimmigration. Vincent Chetail, Director of Geneva’snew Global Migration Centre, discusses thebackground to the vote and the implications of theresults for Switzerland and the EuropeanUnion.Heargues that despite the vote, Switzerland will notfinditeasytochangeitsimmigrationpolicygiventhebroadrangeoftreatiesthatthecountryhasalreadysignedwhich limit its ability to impose immigrationrestrictions. These treaties mainly concern threeareas: headquarters agreements with internationalorganizations based in Switzerland, conventionsregardingrefugeeprotection,andtreatiesonthefreemovementofpersonsconcludedwith theEuropeanUnionandtheEuropeanFreeTradeAssociation.

The third article by Poonam Dhavan and DavideMosca, from the International Organization forMigration(IOM),focusesonmigrationandhealthandthePost-2015DevelopmentAgenda.Inparticular,thearticlefocusesonthelinksbetweentuberculosis(TB)andmigration.Manyofthekeycountriesoforiginofmigrantsarealsocountriesthathaveahighincidenceof TB, for instance, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, China,India, Indonesia, Pakistan, the Philippines and theRussian Federation. The article argues that it willbe difficult to make further progress towards theMillennium Development Goal TB targets withoutexpandinghealthcoverageforTBservicestomigrantswho remain a “key affected” and marginalizedpopulationinseveralcountries.

ThefourtharticleprovidesanoutlineofrecenttrendsinmigrationbetweenChinaandEurope.Thearticle,by Frank Laczko and Tara Brian, from IOM, showshow Europe and China have become increasinglyconnected by migration. Although the Europeanmedia often focus on irregular migration betweenChina and Europe, the article shows that Chinesemigration is much more diversified. The challengesfor policymakers in Europe and China are howbestto maximize the benefits of this increasedmobilitybetweenChina andEuropewhile reducing the risksassociatedwithirregularmigrationandtrafficking.

3Vol. IV, Number 1, February–March 2014MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE

The final article outlines the role of the Council ofEurope’s Parliamentary Assembly Committee onMigration, Refugees and Displaced Persons. TheworkoftheCommitteehasnotalwaysachievedtheattention it deserves. The Committee comprises 84membersandfocusesonsupportingpoliciestoprotecttherightsofmigrants,refugees,asylum-seekersanddisplaced persons. The Committee also promotesdialogue between the members of the Council ofEurope toencourage the integrationofmigrants. In

addition, the Committee is especially concerned tofindwaystoaddresstheneedsofinternallydisplacedpersons, especially those who have been displacedforalongperiodoftime.

WethankallthecontributorstothisissueofMigration Policy Practiceandwouldliketoencouragereaderstosubmitnewarticles. Thedeadline for submissionofarticlesforthenextissueofthisjournalis10 June.n

This issue includes articles on a broad range of themes,

covering national, regional and global policy issues.

Vol. IV, Number 1, February–March 2014MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE4Government views and policy priorities for international migrationVinod Mishra and Julia Ferre1

This article summarizes results presented in a recent United Nations report International MigrationPolicies: Government Views and Priorities.2 The report describes government views and policy priorities related to immigration and emigration, and how these have evolved along with changing international migration patterns since around the time of the International Conference on Population and Development in 1994. Using the information gathered in the World Population Policies Database,3 it provides information on regular and irregular migration, policies to promote immigration of highly skilled workers, policies to foster the integration of migrants into the host society, including naturalization policies, and other policies designed by governments in countries of origin, such as policies on emigration, acceptance of dual citizenship, policies to encourage the return of citizens and measures to promote involvement of diaspora in countries of origin.

International migration is a global phenomenonthat has been growing in complexity, scope andimpact.Today,mostcountriesaresimultaneously

countries of origin, transit and destination ofmigrants.Countriesinbothdevelopedanddevelopingregions face various developmental challenges andopportunitiesassociatedwithmigration.

Therehasbeenagrowingconsensus thatmigrationis an integral feature of global development, and itis generally recognized that, if properly managed,migration can contribute to poverty reduction andimprovements inhumanwell-being inboth sendingand receiving countries. Already, two decades ago,the International Conference on Population andDevelopment in 1994 recognized migration as anintrinsicpartofglobaldevelopmentandencouraged“cooperationanddialoguebetweencountriesoforiginand countries of destination in order to maximize

1 VinodMishraisChiefofthePolicySectioninthePopulationDivisionoftheUnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocial Affairs (UNDESA). Julia Ferre is Associate PopulationAffairsOfficerinthePopulationDivisionofUNDESA.

2 http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/policy/international-migration-policies-report-2013.shtml.

3 http://esa.un.org/poppolicy/about_database.aspx.

the benefits of migration for the development ofbothsendingand receivingcountries”.Recently, thesecondHigh-levelDialogueonInternationalMigrationand Development in 2013 has re-emphasizedthe importance of international migration fordevelopment and reaffirmed the commitment topromoteandprotectthehumanrightsofallmigrants.

Migration policies in both origin and destinationcountries, as well as patterns and degrees ofinternational cooperation, play an important role indeterminingtheflows,conditionsandconsequencesof international migration. The contribution ofinternationalmigrants todevelopment inboth theircountries of origin and destination depends ongovernmentpoliciestoensurethatmigrationoccursin safe and legal conditions, with full respect andsafeguardsfortheirhumanrights.

Changing international migration patterns

According to recent United Nations estimates, thenumber of international migrants worldwide hasincreasedfrom154million in1990to232million in2013.Currently,theglobalpopulationofinternationalmigrants is growing at about 1.6 per cent per year.Between1990and2013,themigrantstockincreasedmore than twice as fast in the global North (by 53million)asintheglobalSouth(by24million).

The origin of international migrants has become increasingly diversified over the past two decades.By2013,South–SouthmigrationwasascommonasSouth–Northmigration.Between1990and2013,themigrant stockborn in theglobal Southand residingin the global North doubled – from 40 million to82million,whilethatfromSouthtoSouthincreasedfrom59millionto82million.In2013,23percentofallinternationalmigrantsintheworld(54million)werebornintheNorthandresidedintheNorth,whereasonly6percentofallmigrants(14million)whowerebornintheNorthresidedintheSouth.

There is wide regional diversity.Majorregionsoftheworldaccountfordifferentsharesoftheglobalstockofimmigrantsandemigrants.In2013,Europehosted31 per cent of the global migrant stock, whereas

http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/policy/international-migration-policies-report-2013.shtml



http://esa.un.org/poppolicy/about_database.aspx


itwas theorigin of 25per centof all emigrants (ofwhom65%werelivingwithinEurope).Incomparison,Asia andNorthernAmerica hosted 31 per cent and23percentoftheglobalmigrantstock,respectively,while they were the origin of 40 per cent and2percentofallemigrants.

Although natural increase remains the maincomponentof population change in themajority ofcountriesworldwide,net migration has become an increasingly important component of population change for countries in developed regions. Forinstance,inEurope,wherethenumberofdeathshasexceededthenumberofbirthssincethelate1990s,positive net migration has so far offset populationdecline.

Policies on immigration

Immigrationpoliciesareimplementedbygovernmentsthrough laws, regulationsandprogrammemeasureswith the objective to manage the volume, origin,direction and composition of migration flows. Inmany countries,mostly inmore developed regions,migration legislations have been characterizedby regularization of flows and measures to betterintegrateimmigrantsinthehostsocieties.

In2011,amongthe195countrieswithavailabledata,a large majority of governments (73%) either hadpoliciestomaintainthecurrent levelof immigrationorwerenotinterveningtochangeit,while16percenthadpoliciestoloweritand11percenthadpoliciestoraiseit.

Figure 1: Government policies to influence the level of immigration, 2011

Source: United Nations, World Population Policies Database. Available from http://esa.un.org/poppolicy/about_database.aspx/.Note: The boundaries on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

A growing number of governments have shown openness to regular immigration in the last two decades. At the global level, the percentage ofgovernments with policies to lower immigrationdeclined from 40 per cent in 1996 to 16 per centin 2011, while those seeking to raise immigrationincreasedfromjust4percentin1996to11percentin2011.

Among the 25 countries with the largest migrantstocks, governments of five countries had policiesto raise the level of immigration, 10hadpolicies tolower it, and the remaining 10 desired tomaintainimmigrationatcurrentlevelsordidnotintervenetochange it. The Russian Federation, with the secondlargeststockofmigrants,desiredtoraisethelevelofimmigration.

http://esa.un.org/poppolicy/about_database.aspx/

6 Vol. IV, Number 1, February–March 2014MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE

The trend towards openness to immigration was especially pronounced in developed regions. Thepercentage of governments in developed regionsthathadimplementedpoliciesto lowerimmigrationfell dramatically from 60 per cent in 1996 to just10percentin2011.From1996to2011,thepercentageofgovernmentsseekingtoraiseimmigrationincreasedsharply in developed regions, but not in developingregions. In developed regions, the percentage ofgovernments that had policies to raise the level ofimmigrationincreasedfromjust2percentin1996to22percentin2011.Whileindevelopingregions,thepercentageofgovernmentswithpoliciestolowerthelevelofimmigrationdeclinedfrom34percentin1996to18percentin2011.

All 11 countries in developed regions with policies to raise immigration in 2011 were in Europe,includingsix in EasternEurope (Belarus,Bulgaria, Poland, theRussian Federation, Slovakia and Ukraine), three inNorthern andWestern Europe (Austria, Finland andSweden), and two in Southern Europe (SanMarinoandSlovenia).

Policies to attract highly skilled immigrants

Many receiving countries have shown greater selectivity towards highly skilled workers, favouringthe admission of international migrants with skillsconsidered to be in short supply. Highly skilledmigrants are usually granted preferential treatmentandaresubjecttofewerrestrictionsthanlow-skilledmigrantsregardingadmission,lengthofstay,changeofemploymentandadmissionoffamilymembers.

Figure 2: Governments with policies to influence the level of immigration, 1996, 2005 and 2011

Source: United Nations, World Population Policies Database. Available from http://esa.un.org/poppolicy/about_database.aspx/.



Figure 3: Governments with policies to encourage the immigration of highly skilled workers, by level of development, 2005 and 2011


In recent years, a growing number of governmentshave adopted policies to raise the immigration ofhighlyskilledworkers.Thepercentageofgovernmentswith policies to raise the immigration of highlyskilledworkers increased from 22 per cent in 2005to39percentin2011.In2011,policies to raise the immigration of highly skilled workers were about twice as common among countries in developed regions (60%) as in developing regions (32%).

In 2011, few governments had policies to raiseimmigration for permanent settlement (6%) or forfamily reunification (9%). On the contrary, morethan threequarters of all governments hadpoliciesto maintain their current levels of immigration forpermanent settlement and family reunification, ortheywerenotinterveningtoinfluencethem.

Policies on emigration

Emigration generates both opportunities andchallenges for sending countries, especially indevelopingregions.Policiesaddressingemigrationofcitizenscanrespondtoawiderangeofneeds,bothfrom the perspective of individuals who have lefttheircountriesoforiginandfromtheperspectiveofgovernmentsinsendingcountries.

One in four governments worldwide has policies to discourage emigration. In 2011, 24 per centof governments had policies to lower the level ofemigration, 67 per cent desired to maintain thecurrent level of emigration or did not intervene toinfluence emigration, and the remaining 9 per centhadpoliciestoencourageemigration.Sincethemid-1990s,theproportionofgovernmentswithpoliciestoloweremigrationhasremainedvirtuallyunchanged,whiletheproportionwithpoliciestoraiseemigrationhasincreasedsteadily.



Figure 4: Governments with policies to influence the level of emigration, 1996, 2005 and 2011


In 2011, a higher proportion of governments indevelopedregions(84%)hadpoliciestomaintainthelevelofemigrationordidnot interveneto influenceitthan indevelopingregions(62%).All 18 countries where governments had policies to raise the level of emigration in 2011 were in developing regions.

Among the 25 countries with the largest emigrantstocks, governments of 18 countries either hadpoliciestomaintaintheircurrentlevelsofemigrationor were not intervening to influence emigrationlevels. Among the top five emigration countries –India, Mexico, the Russian Federation, China andBangladesh–MexicohadapolicytolowerthelevelofemigrationandBangladeshhadapolicytoraiseit,whiletheremainingthreehadapolicytomaintainornottointervene.

Policies to encourage the return of citizens

Althoughmuchofreturnmigrationflowstendtobespontaneous, promoting the return of citizens hasbeenpartofeffortsbymanygovernmentstoreversethenegativeconsequencesofemigration.A growing number of governments, especially in developing regions facing ever-growing emigration of skilled workers, have instituted policies to encourage the return of their citizens.

The proportion of countries that have policies toencourage the returnof their citizenshas increasedconsistently since themid-1990s, from 43 per centin 1996 to 51 per cent in 2005, and 63 per cent in2011.Governmentsindevelopingregionsweremorelikelytohavepoliciestoencouragethereturnoftheircitizens(66%)thanthoseindevelopedregions(54%).Thisgaphasnarrowedinrecentyears.

Diaspora engagement

Encouraging diaspora members to become moreinvolvedinthedevelopmentoftheircountriesoforiginhasgainedincreasingattentioninrecentyears,bothamonggovernmentsincountriesoforiginandamongtheir diaspora communities. Many governments have set up diaspora units and implemented policy measures to encourage investment by diaspora.Mobilizing the financial resources of diasporas hasbeenanimportantstrategytoenhancetheirpotentialcontributiontodevelopmentinthesendingcountries.

In 2011, out of the 144 countries with availabledata on diaspora units, 114 had established specialgovernmentunitstodealwiththemattersofinteresttoemigrantsandtheirfamilieslivingabroad.

Amongthe101countrieswithavailabledatain2011on measures to attract investment by diaspora,only 46 countries had instituted at least oneof the



six keymeasures.Measures to promote investmentby diaspora included: (1) tax exceptions or breaks;(2)reductionoftariffsongoodsorimportdutiesfordiaspora companies; (3) preferential treatment inprovidingcredit;(4)preferentialtreatmentinallotmentof licences; (5) streamlinedbureaucraticproceduresforinvestment;and(6)diasporabondormutualfund.Among these, streamlined bureaucratic proceduresfor investment and provision of tax exceptions orbreakswere themost frequentlyadoptedmeasures(23% and 19% of the countries, respectively).Governments in developing regions were more likely to have adopted diaspora investment measures than those in developed regions.

Policies on integration, naturalization and dual citizenship

Integration

Successful integration of immigrants into the hostsociety is essential to maximize the opportunities

offeredbymigration.Manycountrieshaveundertakeninitiativestomakeiteasierforimmigrantstointegrateinto the host society. Policies to integrate non-nationalsmay include provisions for social services,involvement in civil and community activities,languagetrainingandlegalprovisionstoensurenon-discrimination.

Policies to encourage integration of immigrants have become more common.Globally,62percentofgovernmentshadpoliciesinplacein2011topromotethe integration of non-nationals, an increase from44percentin1996.

Policies to encourage integration of immigrants were more common among countries in developed regions than in developing regions. In 2011, 91per cent of governments in developed regions hadpolicies to promote integration of non-nationals,comparedwithlessthanonehalfofgovernmentsindeveloping regions (47%)and less thanone third inleastdevelopedcountries(29%).

Figure 5: Governments with policies to integrate non-nationals, by level of development, 1996, 2005 and 2011


Naturalization

Mostcountrieshavealsoinstitutedprovisionsforthenaturalization ofmigrants to allow equal rights and

participation in thehost society. In some countries, however, conditions for naturalization are overly restrictive and disadvantage certain categories of immigrants.



Figure 6: Governments with less restrictive* naturalization policies for immigrants, by level of development, 2011

Source: United Nations, World Population Policies Database. Available from http://esa.un.org/poppolicy/about_database.aspx/.Note: *Naturalization policies are considered “less restrictive” when naturalization entitlement is not restricted to certain categories

of immigrants and when residency requirement is less than 10 years.

In 2011, one in three governments in the world(32%) had more restrictive naturalization policies,and in another five countries – Kuwait, Lebanon,Myanmar, Nauru and the United Arab Emirates– the governments did not allow naturalizationunder any conditions. Naturalization policies wereconsidered“morerestrictive”wheretheentitlementtonaturalizationwaslimitedtoacertaincategoryofimmigrantsorwheretheresidencyrequirementwas10yearsorlonger.

Naturalization policies were more restrictive in countries in developing regions than in developed regions. Seventy-eight per cent of governmentsin developed regions allowed “less restrictive”acquisition of naturalized citizenship in 2011,compared with 61 per cent of governments indeveloping regionsand47percentofgovernmentsofleastdevelopedcountries.

Dual citizenship

Theacquisitionofcitizenshipinthedestinationcountryhas implications for one’s rights and entitlements,socioeconomic integration and prospects for familymembers. It also affects the links of migrants withtheircountriesoforigin.

About one half of governments worldwide do not permit dual citizenship. In 2011, 53 per cent of allgovernmentshadpolicies thatallowedtheircitizensabroad to retain their citizenship of origin withoutrestriction when acquiring a second country’scitizenship, another 19 per cent allowed dualcitizenshipundercertainconditions,andtheremaining28percentdidnothaveanyprovisionstoallowdualcitizenship.Restrictionsondualcitizenshiprelatedtoeither:(1)thecountriesinvolved(acceptanceofdualcitizenshipwhensomespecificcountriesareinvolvedbutnotothers);or(2)therightsinvolved(acceptanceof dual citizenship with some restrictions to fullcitizenshiprights).

Dual citizenship policies were less common among countries in developing regions than in developed regions.Amuchsmallerproportionofgovernmentsindeveloped regionshada totalprohibitionofdualcitizenship (12%) than that in developing regions(34%)orleastdevelopedcountries(37%).



Figure 7: Governments with policies to allow dual citizenship, by level of development, 2011


Irregular migration

Irregular migration poses multiple challenges tocountries of origin, transit and destination, as wellas tomigrants themselves.Migrants in an irregularsituationareparticularlyvulnerabletodiscrimination,exploitationandabuse.Theactualnumberofmigrantsinirregularsituationisdifficulttodetermine,butitisbelievedtobesignificant.

A growingnumberof governments have respondedto address irregular migration by reformingtheir immigration laws, promoting the return ofirregular migrants and implementing regularizationprogrammes. In 2011, of the 146 countries withdata,threeoutoffourgovernmentsviewedirregularmigration in their countries as a major concern.Governments of 22 of the 25 countries with the largest migrant stocks regarded irregular migration as a major concern.

Governments in both developed and developingregionswereaboutequally likely(77%indevelopedregions and 73% in developing regions) to considerirregularmigrationasamajorconcernin2011.

Among countries with available data, irregularmigration was a major concern for 84 per centof governments in Africa and 79 per cent in Asia,comparedwith77percentinEuropeand60percentinLatinAmericanandtheCaribbean.n

Migrants in an irregular situation are particularly

vulnerable to discrimination, exploitation and abuse.


Vol. IV, Number 1, February–March 2014MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE12

Vincent Chetail1

On 9 February 2014, the Swiss populationadoptedapopularinitiativeaimedatstoppingmass immigration. Though the text was

adoptedbyaveryslimmajorityof50.34percent,theconsequences of the new constitutional provisionsarestraightforward.Theyrequirethatimmigrationberestrictedbymeansofquantitativelimitsandquotas.

The wording of the new Article 121a of the SwissConstitution is both vague and wide-ranging.Immigration quotas will apply to “any permissionto remain delivered in accordance with the law onforeignnationals,includingasylum”aswellas“cross-border commuters”.2 The quotasmust be based on“the overall economic interests of Switzerland withdue respect for the national preference” for Swisscitizens.3 Article 121a of the Constitution furtherrequiresthat“nointernationaltreatycontrarytothisarticlewillbeconcluded”,whileexistingtreaties“shallberenegotiatedandadaptedwithinthetime-limitofthreeyears”.

Forthetimebeing,thenewconstitutionalprovisionsarenotdirectlyapplicable.4Theyentailtheadoptionofanewlegislationforthepurposeofimplementingthem.Althoughthedevilisinthedetail,measuresofimplementationwillbecrucialforspecifyingtheexactscopeandlimitsofimmigrationquotas.

The purpose of this article is to identify whichtreaties are in contradiction with the new Article121a of the Swiss Constitution. Though this surveyis not exhaustive, no fewer than 58 treaties appearto be incompatible with immigration quotas.Whilecovering various fields of international law and

1 Vincent Chetail is Professor of International Law at theGraduateInstituteofInternationalandDevelopmentStudies(Geneva)andDirectoroftheGlobalMigrationCentre.

2 This isa free translationof theauthorbasedon theFrenchversionofthenewconstitutionaltext.

3 Article 121a adds that the criteria for granting permissionsto remain notably include a request from an employer,the integration capacity of foreigners, and a sufficient andindependentsourceofincome.

4 The only exception concerns the prohibition of concludingnew treaties which are in contradiction with Article 121a.Fewdaysafterthevote,SwitzerlandhasrefusedtosigntheProtocolonFreeMovementwithCroatia.

The Swiss vote against mass immigration and international law: A preliminary assessment

relations, these treaties mainly concern three keyareas: headquarter agreements concluded withinternational organizations; conventions governingrefugeeprotection;andtreatiesonthefreemovementofpersons concludedwith theEuropeanUnionandtheEuropeanFreeTradeAssociation(EFTA).

Of course, it is premature to conclude thatSwitzerland has violated these treaties since thenew constitutional provisions require renegotiatingandadaptingthem.Itmustbenoted,however,thatSwitzerland’smargin formanoeuvring is particularlythinandsuchnegotiationsareboundtobeextremelydifficult.Inanyevent,accordingtothelawoftreaties,Switzerlandcannotunilaterallyreviseorterminateatreatyexceptwherethisisprovidedforbythetreatyin question and, in the absence of such possibility,anyamendmentmustbeapprovedbyallStatespartytothetreaty.5ThefollowingsectionsexaminewhichtreatiesarecontrarytoimmigrationquotasandassessthedifferentoptionsfortheSwissauthorities.

Introducing immigration quotas is contrary to all agreements concluded between Switzerland and international organizations

TheAgreementonPrivilegesand Immunitiesof theUnitedNationsconcludedbetweentheSwissFederalCouncil and the UN Secretary-General on 19 April1946, explicitly excludes any kind of immigrationrestrictions.AccordingtoArticleVSection15(d)oftheAgreement,“OfficialsoftheUnitedNationsshall[…]beimmune,togetherwiththeirspousesandrelativesdependentonthem,fromimmigrationrestrictionand

5 Article54of theViennaConventionon theLawofTreaties.This does not prejudice the obligations of States underinternationalcustomarylaw.Foranoverview,see:V.Chetail,“The transnational movement of persons under generalinternational law: Mapping the customary law foundationsof international migration law”, in: Research Handbook on International Law and Migration (V. Chetail and C. Bauloz(eds.)) (Cheltenham, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2014), pp.1–74.


alien registration.”6 This clause was restated in theConventionon thePrivileges and Immunitiesof theSpecializedAgenciesadoptedon21November1947.7

Furthermore,mostUNagencieshostedbySwitzerlandhaveconcludedheadquarteragreementsforthesamepurpose. This notably concerns the InternationalLabourOrganization(ILO),theWorldMeteorologicalOrganization(WMO),theWorldHealthOrganization(WHO), the International Bureau of Education (aUNESCOinstitute)andtheWorldIntellectualPropertyOrganization (WIPO). These agreements recallthat “the Swiss Authorities will adopt all measuresnecessarytofacilitatetheentryontoSwissterritory,the sojournon this territoryand theexit therefromof all persons called upon in an official capacity.”Theyfurtherspecifythat“allmeasures[…]aimedatrestrictingtheentryintoSwitzerlandofforeigners,orofcontrollingtheconditionsoftheirstay,willnotbeapplicable.”8

This clear-cut exemption from immigration quotasis not limited to UN agencies. The same provisionscanbefound inmanyagreementsconcludedwithabroadvarietyofkeyactors,includingtheWorldTradeOrganization,theInternationalCommitteeoftheRedCross,theInternationalOlympicCommittee,theBankforInternationalSettlements,theInter-ParliamentaryUnion, the European Organization for NuclearResearch(CERN)andtheGenevaInternationalCentrefor Humanitarian Demining.9 Besides internationalinstitutionshostedbySwitzerland,asimilarexemptionfrom immigration restriction applies to officials of

6 SR 0.192.120.1. This agreement applies by analogy to theUniversalPostalUnionandtotheInternationalOrganizationfor Migration. The same clause has been inserted inother agreements concluded with the InternationalTelecommunication Union, the IntergovernmentalOrganization for International Carriage by Rail, and theInternational Federation of Red Cross and Red CrescentSocieties.

7 ArticleV,Section13(d),andArticleVI,Section19(e),33UNTS261.

8 AgreementbetweentheSwissFederalCouncilandtheWorldMeteorologicalOrganizationtogovernthelegalstatusofthisOrganization in Switzerland, Article 14. See also the similaragreementsconcludedwithILO(SR0.192.120.282),UNESCO(SR 0.192.120.241), WHO (SR 0.192.120.281), WMO (SR0.192.120.242)andWIPO(SR0.192.122.23).

9 Asimilarprovisioncanbefoundinotheragreementsconcludedwiththefollowinginstitutions:AdvisoryCentreonWTOLaw;theOSCECourt of ConciliationandArbitration;Centre Sud;Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization Advisory;InternationalCivilDefenceOrganization;InternationalUnionfortheProtectionofNewVarietiesofPlants.

many other organizations, such as the Council ofEurope, the European Patent Organization and theAsianDevelopmentBank.10

Overall, Switzerland has concluded 53 agreementswith international organizations and other relatedbodiesforthepurposeofexemptingtheirstafffromquotas and immigration restrictions. Against suchsubstantialnumberof treaties,Switzerlandhasonlytwoalternatives:

₋ Option 1: The less probable option would be to renegotiate all these agreements.

Suchacourseofactionisstilllegallypossibleandevenforeseeninmostoftheseagreements.For instance,the1946AgreementonPrivilegesandImmunitiesoftheUnitedNationsprovides that it canbemodifiedonly by agreement between the Secretary-GeneralandtheSwissFederalCouncil.Ifagreementcannotbereached, theSecretary-Generalor theSwiss FederalCouncilmaydenounce thewholeof, or any sectionin,thistreaty.

However, such eventuality would be particularlytime-consuming and cost-intensive. Perhaps moreimportantly, it would drastically undermine theattractivenessandcredibilityofSwitzerlandasahostcountryofinternationalorganizations. ₋ Option 2: The more probable option would be

to interpret the new constitutional provisions as excluding these agreements from immigration quotas.

Indeed, according to the text of the new Article121a, immigrationquotaswill be applicable to “anypermission to remain delivered in accordance withthe law on foreign nationals.” However, residencepermissionforofficialsofinternationalorganizationsisnotgrantedbyvirtueofthelawonforeignnationals.Instead, theyhavebeenexcluded fromany rulesor

10 This also concerns the African Development Bank, theOrganizationfortheExploitationofMeteorologicalSatellites,theEuropeanOrganizationforAstronomicalResearch intheSouthern Hemisphere, the European Centre for Medium-RangeWeatherForecasts,theOrganizationfortheProhibitionof Chemical Weapons, the European Committee for thePreventionofTortureand InhumanorDegradingTreatmentor Punishment, the International Criminal Court, INTELSAT,the European Telecommunications Satellite Organization,theInternationalMobileSatelliteOrganization,theCommonFundforCommodities,theInter-AmericanDevelopmentBankandtheInternationalAtomicEnergyAgency.


measuresbasedontheSwisslegislationonforeigners.Theyarethusnotcoveredbythenewconstitutionalprovisions. This literal interpretation of Article 121ashouldbeconfirmedbytheSwissauthoritiesinordertoavoidanyambiguityaboutthescopeandthelimitsofimmigrationquotas.

Introducing immigration quotas is contrary to the Geneva Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, the United Nations Convention against Torture and the European Convention on Human Rights

While Article 121a of the Swiss Constitution saysnothingaboutofficialsofinternationalorganizations,it explicitly includes asylum within the scope ofimmigrationquotas.Thenewconstitutionalprovisionthus mixes up economic migrants with refugeesin blatant contradiction with the United NationsConventionrelatingtotheStatusofRefugees.

Granting asylum depends on the need forprotectionandcannotbesubordinatedtoeconomicconsiderations.Theself-declaredobjectivetoexcludeso-called economic refugees is all but convincing.11Infact,thiswouldgeneratetheexactoppositeresultsince introducing quotas based on the economicinterests of Switzerland would attract “economicrefugees”atthedetrimentof“realrefugees”inneedofprotection.

Inanyevent,thenewconstitutionalprovisionscannotrelieve Switzerland of its obligations arising fromthe principle of non-refoulement, which prohibitsremoving an individual to a country of persecution,torture, or inhuman or degrading treatment. Thiscardinal principle of refugee protection is based onArticle33oftheGenevaConvention,andreinforcedbyArticle3oftheUnitedNationsConventionagainstTorture and the European Convention on HumanRightsasinterpretedbytheEuropeanCourt.

Theprincipleofnon-refoulementisfurtherendorsedby Article 25 of the Swiss Constitution, and thisbasicguarantee remainsplainlyapplicablesince thenew constitutional provisions have not supersededit. Furthermore, the principle of non-refoulementhasbeenacknowledgedby theFederalCouncilasa

11 Argumentaire : initiative populaire »contre l’immigration de masse » (Comité InterpartisContreL’immigrationdeMasse,17December2013),p.40.

peremptorynormofgeneralinternationallaw12and,according to the Swiss Constitution, peremptorynorms cannot be violated by a popular initiativeaimedatrevisingtheConstitution.13

Against this legal framework, immigration quotasintroducedbyArticle121aoftheSwissConstitutionareinapplicabletoforeignerswhosufferpersecution,torture, or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatmentin their own countries. As a result, the newconstitutionalprovisionscanonlybeapplied inveryspecificcircumstances,that is,whenthere isnoriskofpersecutionorotherrelatedmistreatmentbuttheremoval is still impossible for other reasons (suchasmaterial obstacle or health considerations). Evenin such cases, it is difficult to see how immigrationquotascanbeimplementedandinparticulartowhatextent the economic interest of Switzerland can beaccommodatedwiththeexistinglegislationgoverningtemporaryadmission.

One possible way of implementing the newconstitutional provisions would be to introducequotasforrefugeeswhoarenotinSwitzerland.Suchresettlement schemes are implemented by severalhostcountriesintheEuropeanUnion.Quiteironically,the possibility of requesting asylum abroad at adiplomaticmissionhasbeensuppressedbyapopularvote in June 2013.14 But here again, even if such apossibility is reintroduced in the Swiss legislation,thisbegsthequestionhoweconomicconsiderationscanbebalancedwiththeneedforprotectionforthepurposeofimplementingquotas.

12 FederalCouncil,Messageconcernantlesinitiativespopulaires« pour une politique d’asile raisonnable » et « contrel’immigrationclandestine»,22 June1994,FF1994 III1471,p.1486;Messagerelatifàunenouvelleconstitutionfédérale,20Novembre 1996, FF 1997 I 369, pp. 441–454 ;Messagerelatif à l’initiative populaire « contre l’immigration demasse»,7December2012,FF2013279,p.287.

13 Article194(2)oftheSwissConstitution.SeealsoArticle139(3)andArticle193(4).

14 FederalActof28September2012(EmergencyAmendmentstotheAsylumAct),witheffectfrom29September2012to28September2015(AS20125359;BBl20104455,20117325).


Introducing immigration quotas is contrary to the Agreements on the Free Movement of Persons concluded with the European Community and the European Free Trade Association

The impact of the new constitutional provisions onthesetwoagreementsisthemostcomplexissue.EUandEFTAcitizensrepresentindeedaround66percentofthetotalpopulationofforeignersinSwitzerland.15

Both agreements lay down transitional measuresduring which immigration can be restricted in twodifferentmanners.Duringthefirsttransitionperiod,limitationsforaccesstothelabourmarket(includingpriority to nationals and quotas for non-nationals)were possible up to 30 April 2011. Then, duringa further three-year period, the safeguard clausecould be invoked for the purpose of reintroducingquotas. According to this clause, Switzerland couldunilaterallylimitthenumberofnewresidencepermitsfor employed and self-employed EU citizens to theaverageofthethreeprecedingyearsplus5percent.16Thispossibilitywasusedtwice in2012and2013bytheFederalCouncil,17withthistransitionalperiodsettoendby31May2014.18

It isnotdifficulttoseethattheverypurposeofthepopular vote is to block the full realization of freemovementoncethetransitionalperiodisover.Swissauthoritieshavethushardlyanyalternatives:

₋ Option 1: The new constitutional provisions could still be construed as excluding the free movement agreements from their scope.

Though this option has not been discussed so far,nothinginthetextofArticle121aexplicitly includesEUcitizenswithinthescopeofimmigrationquota.Itistrue,however,thatthenewconstitutionalprovisionsare broad and inclusive as quotas concern “anypermissiontoremain”andtheyinclude“cross-bordercommuters”.

15 StatistiquedesétrangersàfinDécembre2013(FederalOfficeforMigration,2013).

16 According to Article 10(4) of the bilateral agreement, thesafeguardclausecanbeusedonlyifthenumberofresidencepermits in a given year exceeds the average for the threeprecedingyearsbymorethan10percent.

17 RO20122391;RO20131247;RO20131443.

18 ForBulgariaandRomania,whichjoinedtheEuropeanUnionin 2007, the first transitional period can run up to 31May2016,andthesafeguardclausecanbeinvokeduntil31May2019.

One could however argue that, as a matter ofprinciple,theSwissConstitutionmustbeinterpretedin conformity with international law. Furthermore,the Swiss Federal Act on Foreign Nationals statesthat it applies to non-nationals “provided no otherprovisionsofthefederallaworinternationaltreatiesconcludedbySwitzerlandapply”(Article2(1)).Article2 further confirms that it appliesonly to theextentthat the agreements on free movement concludedwiththeEuropeanCommunityandtheEFTAdonotcontainanydifferentprovisions.

Following this stance, immigrationquotaswould belimitedtopersonswhoarenotcitizensfromMemberStates of the European Union and of the EFTA. Ofcourse, such interpretation will be criticized asneutralizingthepopularvotefortheverypurposeofmaintainingthecurrentapplicablelegislation.Ontheother hand, one could reply that thiswas thepriceto pay for having submitted to a vote a particularlyambiguous text thathasbeenfinally approvedbyaveryslimmajority.

₋ Option 2: The second alternative would be to renegotiate the free movement agreements in order to maintain the safeguard clause, whether for an additional period of transition or as a permanent mechanism.

The possibility of requesting a revision is explicitlyprovided by Article 18 of the bilateral agreement.However, negotiation will not be easy. It largelydepends on the goodwill of the European Unionsince it is not obliged to accept an amendment incontradiction with existing treaties. The bargainingpower of Switzerland is further undermined by itseconomicdependencevis-à-vistheEuropeanUnion:around60percentofSwissexportsaredonewithEUMemberStates.19

19 Foreign trade – indicators: Balance of trade, (SwissConfederation, 2012). Economists are used to acknowledgethat trade has been key to the prosperity in Switzerland.Exportsaccountfor50percentofitsGDP(see:http://www.tradingeconomics.com/switzerland/exports).

http://www.tradingeconomics.com/switzerland/exports

http://www.tradingeconomics.com/switzerland/exports


₋ Option 3: If negotiation fails, the European Community or Switzerland may terminate the agreement on free movement by notifying its decision to the other Party.20 This can be done even in the absence of negotiations.

Theconsequencesofsuchunilateraldenunciationwillbeparticularlydrastic for Switzerland. Itwill impactmanyotherareasofcooperationlargelybeyondtheissueoffreemovement.

According to the “guillotine clause” contained inArticle 25(4), terminationof the agreement on freemovement will automatically trigger, within sixmonths of its notification, the termination of thesix other agreements concludedwith the EuropeanUnion. These agreements concern a broad rangeof different fields, such as agricultural products, airtransport, road and rail carriage of passengers andgoods, government procurement, and scientific andtechnological cooperation. Moreover, Swiss citizenswouldnolongerbenefitfromfreemovementwithintheEuropeanUnion.

Oneshouldfurtherstressthateventheradicaloptionof terminating the free movement agreement willnot be totally in line with the new constitutionalprovisions.Indeed,terminationofatreatyisonlyvalidfor the future. Article 23 of the agreement furtherrestatesthatitsterminationshallnotaffecttherightsacquired by private individuals during the previousapplication of the free movement agreement. Thismeans in substance thatbothEUandSwiss citizensalreadysettledintheterritoryoftheotherContractingPartyarestillprotecteddespitetheterminationoftheagreement.21

20 Article 25(3) of the Agreements on the FreeMovement ofPersons.

21 Article 23 further provides that the European Union andSwitzerland shall then settle by mutual agreement whatactionistobetakeninrespectofacquiredrights.

Conclusion

The popular initiative aimed at introducingimmigration quotas has put Switzerland in a verydifficultposition.ItwillnotonlyimpactabroadrangeoftreatiesthatSwitzerlandhasratifiedbutalsothecountry’s political and economic stance generally.Theambiguityofthetextsubmittedtopopularvotewas probably themain reason behind its approvalby a slim majority. Thus, the adoption of a newlegislation to implement Article 121a of the SwissConstitution will be critical for clarifying the exactscope and limits of immigration quotas. However,the alternatives available to Switzerland are few.Needless to say, any choice between the differentoptionsopentoSwitzerlandwillbe,aboveall,highlypolitical.Againstsuchacomplexbackground,anewvote on amore precise text could even become arealisticalternative.n

The consequences of such unilateral denunciation will

be particularly drastic for Switzerland. It will impact many

other areas of cooperation largely beyond the issue of free

movement.


Tuberculosis and migration: A post-2015 call for actionPoonam Dhavan and Davide Mosca1

Introduction

Tuberculosis(TB)isaninfectiousdiseaseofglobalpublic health significance, with an estimated8.6 million infections and 1.3 million deaths

in 2012 alone. While several countries around theworldwillachieve theTBprevalence, incidenceandmortality targets set out in the 2015 MillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs),alotremainstobedone.RegionssuchasAfricaandEuropearenotontracktoachievesomeoftheMDGTBtargets,andmultidrug-resistantTB(MDR-TB)infectionsremainanalarmingcauseforconcern.

TB is not merely an infectious disease, but alsoa social condition – it disproportionately affectsthe poorest populations globally. TB risk has beenshowntofollowasocioeconomicgradient,withpoornutrition status,poor livingandworking conditions,low education and awareness, and low health-careaccessactingaskeysocialdeterminantsofTB-relatedmorbidityandmortality.Thus, it isunfortunate thatinspiteoftheavailabilityofeffectivediagnosticandtreatment regimens, 3million out of the estimated9millionpersonswhohaveTBeachyearstillremainundetected. In countries where TB incidence isnot decreasing, this is often due to late diagnosis,treatment relapse and increased risk of infection invulnerablepopulationsubgroups.

Migration is a growing and dynamic phenomenonaround the world, with 232 million internationalmigrants and an estimated 740 internal migrantsworldwide.Thepopulationof internationalmigrantsis growing at 1.6 per cent annually, with increasingdiversificationincountriesoforigin.Needlesstosay,populationmovementofsuchscaleanddiversityhasamajorimpactonpopulationhealthworldwide.

People move across or within borders betweenareas with different health profiles, whichaffects disease burden, health-care access and

1 Dr Poonam Dhavan is Senior Public Health and ResearchSpecialistoftheMigrationHealthDivisionattheInternationalOrganization for Migration (IOM) in Manila. Davide Moscais Director of the Migration Health Department at IOMHeadquartersinGeneva.

health-seeking behaviours. For example, it isinteresting to note that the top countries of originof international migrants also include several ofthe 22 high TB-burden countries (e.g. Afghanistan,Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Pakistan, thePhilippinesandtheRussianFederation).Therefore,theinternationalmigrantstock,includinggroupssuchasrefugees, labourmigrants, undocumentedmigrants,asylum-seekersandthoseindetentioncentres,meritspecialattentioninglobalTBcontrol.Similarly,givenextensive health-care barriers that exist for internalmigrants, especially in low- and middle-incomecountries, theyarealsoa“keyaffectedpopulation”.Indeed, the absence of targeted TB prevention andcontrol strategies for migrants can pose challengesto reachingormaintainingTBelimination targets inseveralcountriesoforigin,transitanddestinationformigrants.Further,progresstowardstheMDGtargetsand future post-2015 TB targets will be impossiblewithout expanding health systems coverage for TBservicestomigrantswhoremaina“keyaffected”andmarginalizedpopulationinseveralcountries.

Migration: Tuberculosis determinants and outcomes

Internationalmigration influences the epidemiologyofTBandTBpolicyoutcomesbyservingasabridgeacross countries or regions with varied diseaseprevalenceandothersocioeconomicfactors.Modernmigrationprocessesmaybeconsideredacontinuumwith several phases, including origin, transit, anddestination,andinsomecases,return.

At origin: The individual’s health status, availabilityof and access to quality health systems, overallsocioeconomic conditions, and occurrences ofany disease epidemics and emergencies, includingfaminesandpoliticalconflicts,makeupthemigrant’shealth andTB risks at origin.Differences inmigrantscreeningcriteriainthepre-departurephase,suchasdetection and treatment protocols, links with post-arrival health care and management of latent TBinfectionsalsoinfluenceTB-relatedmorbidityduringtransit and at destination. Discriminatory practicessuch as denial ofwork permits due to TB history isalso a concern in case ofmandatory pre-departuremedical examinations and a factor potentially


undermining proper compliance with TB treatmentamongmigrants.

During transit:ThemigratoryjourneyaffectsTBriskof migrants, especially when travel occurs underprecariousconditions.Undocumentedmigrantsmayfaceviolenceandbeheld indetentioncentreswithpoornutritionandventilation,oftenincloseproximitywithotherswithpre-existinginfections.Migrantsandasylum-seekerswhosufferphysicalandphysiologicalabusemaybecomeaversetoseekinghealthcarefrompublicservicesorprivatehealth-careprovidersduetomistrust. Modern migration patterns characterizedby frequent, repeated travels between a migrant’scountry of origin and country of destination alsoincreasethelikelihoodofinfection,transmissionandinterruptedtreatment.

At destination: Migrants’ integration into thehost country’s health system (access, availability,affordability and acceptability), their living andworking conditions, and socioeconomic status allinfluence the risks of contracting and effectivelytreatingTB.Difficultiesaccessinghousing,jobs,healthcareandothersocialservicesexposemigrantstoTBriskfactors.Migrants’wages,especiallyforunskilledlabour migrants or those working in the informalsectors, can often be lower than what nationalcounterparts receive, which makes health-carespendinganunusuallyhighburdenatthehouseholdlevel. Migrants’ own health-seeking behaviour andcultural practicesmay affect their expectations anduse of TB services. Discriminatory practices such asdeportation after positive TB diagnosis is anotherconcernformigrantswhileinthecountryofdestination.Migrants face higher exposure to TB infection dueto overcrowded living and working conditions andincreased vulnerability to human immunodeficiencyvirus (HIV),malnutritionand substanceuse inducedbymarginalizationandsocialexclusion.Delays inTBdiagnosisamongmigrantsarecommonlyassociatedwithdifficultyaccessinghealthcare,lackofeducationandpoorhealth-seekingbehaviors.MigrantsoftendonothaveaccesstocorrectTB-relatedinformationonprevention,transmissionandlatentinfectionsduetolanguagebarriersaswell as culturalbeliefs. Stigma-relatedfear,lackofawarenessofentitlementtohealthservicesandlowhealth-relatedspendingcapacityasproportionofhouseholdincome,aswellasmigrant-unfriendly health services, all lead to reluctance inseekingcareoradheringtotreatment.

Upon return: Migrants who lived in poor housing,receivedlowwagesandhadlimitedaccesstohealthcarearelikelytoreturnhomelesshealthythanwhenthey left. When migrants return to their places oforigin with untreated TB,MDR-TB or complicationsthereof, the availability of standardized treatmentand access to reliable health-care services becomesanimportantfactorintheirhealthoutcomesandhasprofoundpublichealthimplicationsfortheirfamiliesandcommunities.Thiscanplacefinancialburdenonhouseholdsiftheydonothaveadequatehealthandsocial protection upon return or strain health-caresystemsincountriesoforigin.

Migrants of specific legal and social status, such asworkers, undocumented migrants, trafficked anddetainedpersons,faceparticularhealthdeterminants.Among migrant workers with a legal status, theiraccess to TB diagnosis and care is subject to theirability to access health-care services and healthinsurance coverage provided either by the Stateor the employer. Irregular migrants face particularchallenges, such as fear of deportation, that delayor limit their access to diagnostic and treatmentservices. Deportation while on treatment or poorcompliancewithtreatmentmayleadtodrug-resistantinfection and increased chances of spreading TB incountriesoforigin,transitanddestination.Migrantsindetentioncentresortraffickedpersonsintransitorhostcountriesoftenliveinunsanitaryandunhealthyconditions for extended periods of time, creatingpocketsofvulnerabilitytoTBinfection.

Migrant health policies for tuberculosis

Public health principles

Apopulationhealthapproachtopolicydevelopmentis critical to align multisectoral strategies andinterventions for migration health. Several publichealth principles are critical to any discourse onTB prevention and control for migrants. The firstprinciple is to avoid disparities in health status andaccess toTB-related servicesbetweenmigrants andthe host population. The second closely associatedprinciple is to ensure migrants’ health rights. Thisentails limiting discrimination or stigmatization,and removing impediments to migrants’ access topreventiveandcurativeinterventionsinlinewithbasichealthentitlementsofthehostpopulation.Thethirdprincipleistoreduceexcessmortalityandmorbidityfrom TB among migrant populations, especiallyamongthosewhoareforcefullydisplacedoraffected


by conflicts. The fourth and final principle is tominimizethenegativeimpactofvariousphasesofthemigrationprocessonmigrants’TB-relatedoutcomes.AsTBisaninfectiousdisease,attentionhastobepaidtobalancethehumanrightsofpersonsaffectedbyTBwiththeneedstosafeguardpopulationhealthinhostcommunities. Inadditiontopublichealthprinciples,countries are required to uphold obligations tohuman rights instruments such as Article 12 of theInternational Covenant on Economic, Social andCulturalRights,andGeneralcomment14thatspeaksof the rightofmigrantpopulations toaccesshealthservicesinanon-discriminatorymanner.Finally,withgrowing attention to active systematic TB screeningfor at-risk groups such as migrants and refugees,soundscreeningprinciplesshouldbefollowed.Theseprinciplesincludeensuringthatanymigrantscreeningprogramme is accompanied with appropriatetreatmentandcarefacilities, followsmedicalethicalprinciples,andensuressynergiesbetweenhealthandsocialservicesdelivery.

Developments in global tuberculosis strategy

Astheworldcountsdowntothe2015MDGtargets,national governments, World Health Organization(WHO),theStopTBPartnership,theGlobalFundandotherstakeholdersinthefightagainstTBaredesigningnewstrategiesandtargetstoreinforceeffortsforTBeliminationglobally.Thereiswidespreadrecognitionthat further progress will be subject to identifyingrisk groups (including migrants) and prioritizinginterventions. The draft World Health AssemblyresolutionthatwillbeconsideredbyMemberStatesinMay2014explicitlyrecallsthe2008WorldHealthAssembly (WHA) Resolution 61.17 on theHealth ofMigrants,andcallsforgreatercollaborationbetweenlow-andhigh-TB-incidencecountriestostrengthenTBcontrolandmonitoring,includingforlabourmigrants.The 2014World TBDay campaign –with its call tofind,treatandcurethe3millionpeople“missed”byTB programmes – notes how those missed includemigrantgroups.As theGlobal Fund issuesguidanceand implements its new funding model for thecoming years, it again explicitly notes the need forcountriestoprioritizeinterventionsandaddress“keyaffected populations”, including migrants, refugeesand displaced populations (as well as miners andindigenouscommunitiesthatarelargelycomprisedofmigrantsinmanycountries).

These global health policy developments have notoccurred in isolation,butarearesponsetogrowingevidenceandunderstandingthatsocialandeconomicinequalities sustainmigrants’ vulnerability to TB, asdodiscriminatorypoliciesinnon-healthsectorssuchasimmigration,labourandsocialprotection.Migrantsare particularly vulnerable to health inequities,inadequate social protection,discrimination,humanrights violations and stigmatization. A high burdenof TB-related (and other disease-related) morbidityand mortality among migrants can have negativeeconomiceffectsatthehouseholdlevelformigrantsandtheirfamilies,atthesocietallevelduetolossofproductivity and revenue in the industries that hirethem,andatthenationalgovernmentlevelthroughfinancial burden on health systems in both sourceand destination countries, and loss of remittancesforcountriesoforigin.Thus,policyactionisneededtoensurethattheneedsofmigrantsareadequatelyaddressedinglobaleffortsforthe“missing3million”people who are left out of TB-related health carearoundtheworld.

Four building blocks for action

In the Post-2015 Development Agenda, health isproposed to be addressed with the overarchinggoals of maximizing healthy life expectancy anduniversal health coverage; however, this should beaccompanied with explicit focus on the underlyingdeterminantsofhealthandmeasurehealthcoverageformarginalizedpopulations likemigrants. Likewise,national and international TB policies (and otherrelated health and non-health policies) shouldexplicitly recognize migrants as a marginalized anddisadvantaged group in the post-2015 developmentera.ThisincludesaddressingmigrantsinadoptionandimplementationoftheproposedWHO resolution on the global strategy and target for TB prevention, care and control after 2015. Design and implementationof multisectoral comprehensive TB policies shouldsupporttheimplementationofthefourkeypillarsofthe global migration health operational framework(2010),asproposedhere.

Measurement and analysis of tuberculosis burden among migrants

Effective TB control policies and programmes needan epidemiologic evidence base. Whereas manycountrieshavewell-definedestimatesfortheirgeneralpopulations, national TB programmes, public healthagenciesanddonorsinhigh-andlow-burdencountries


arefacedwitha lackofevidenceonTBburdenandinterventioneffectivenessonmigrants.TBprevalencesurveys and other surveillance mechanisms shouldinclude migrant populations, and also migration-related variables (such as country of birth or lastresidence,lengthofstayandtravelhistory)inroutinehealth data monitoring and analysis. Appropriatedataprotectionandconfidentialityprinciplesshouldberespectedincaseofundocumentedmigrantsandtrafficked or detained persons. Health-care systemsthat cater to migrants either before arrival or atdestination, and even in settings such as refugeecampsanddetentioncentres,shouldreportfindingstonationalTBnotificationsystems.Healthauthoritiesshouldmake better use of administrative data suchas census, labour surveys, immigration records andeducationdatatoidentifymigrantgroupsandensuredisaggregation of health information accordingly.There is a need for better documenting cost-effectivenessandrelativemeritsofvarioustoolsandpolicies in place formigrant screening programmestodrawlessonsfromindividualcountriesandinformcoherent strategies in TB screening policies andpractices. Evidence is needed also on the economicimpact of not addressing TB among migrants, andreview of TB funding practices for hard-to-reachmigrantstoinformfuturemigrationhealthpolicies.

Robust migrant-sensitive health systems for an effective tuberculosis response

National health policies should support a rights-based health systems approach, sensitizingmedicaland administrative personnel to health profiles ofmigrantsandbuildingculturalcompetencyreflectiveof migrants’ needs. TB diagnostics, treatment andcareformigrantsshouldbeintegratedwithinnationalTB programmeswith dedicated resources, includingMDR-TB and TB-HIV management and migrants’access to innovative TB technologies and services.Binationalorregionalpoliciesareneededtoestablishcross-borderreferralsystemswithcontacttracingandinformation sharing to ensure continuity of care formigrants and enhance harmonization of treatmentprotocols across borders. Close monitoring andcommunication is needed between health systemsacross countries, and investments should be madeforcapacity-buildingofTBclinicsinboththereceivingand sending countries. Other factors that influenceTB outcomes, for example, overcrowded living andworkingconditionsforminers,shouldbeaddressed.Thehealthsectorshouldworkcloselywithnon-healthsectorslikeemployersandborderauthoritieswhose

policies and systems impact TB-related outcomesamong migrants. Migrant communities should beempowered through social mobilization and healthcommunicationpolicies foraparticipatoryapproachtoTBpreventionandcontrol.

Intersectoral policy and legal frameworks: Health-in-all-policies approach

ToachievetheglobalTBgoals,itiscriticaltoensurepolicycoherenceandsharedsolutionsbetweenhealthand non-health sectors, such as immigration andlabour,andtoimplementtheWHA61.17ResolutionontheHealthofMigrants.NationalTBpoliciesneedto clearly address migrants’ issues, with politicalstewardship and accountability through monitoringandevaluation.Anypolicyorlegalframeworksshouldbe supported by timely and sufficient funding. TBpoliciesshouldaddresshealthpromotionformigrants– avoiding stigma,discriminationand restrictions totravelforpeoplewithnoinfectiousTBanddeportationforthoseaffectedbyTB.Nationallegislationshouldbeadoptedto improvemigrants’access toTBservices,regardless of legalmigration status, and implementsocialprotectionmeasuresaspartofamultisectoralapproach to TB control. National authorities shouldbe equipped to regulate andmonitor TB treatmentofferedby informalorprivatehealth-careproviders,where vulnerable and poor populations includingmigrantsoftenseekTBcare.Low-incidencecountriesthat implement overseas TB screening programmesshouldconsiderharmonizationofscreeningprotocols,alongwithmeasuressuchascontacttracing,detailedfollow-up evaluation of migrants with latent TBinfection, reducingmigrantbarriers toaccesshealthservices and a cross-borderor international registrytoensuretracingandcontinuityofcareforindividualTB patients. Health insurance schemes designedto covermigrants such as immigrants, workers andstudents, as well as their families, should considerportabilityofcoverage forTB treatmentand follow-up.Incrises,especiallyprolongedconflictanddisastersettings,pre-existingnationalTBprogrammesshouldbe strengthened, and TB detection and treatmentfordisplacedpersonsbe included in theemergencyhealthresponse.Non-healthsectorpoliciesthatcaninfluenceTBoutcomesshouldbereviewedtoensurecoherence with national TB policies for migrants.Finally, upstream-level interventions like poverty-reduction strategies, social protection and publiccampaignsagainstdiscriminationareneededaspartof a multisectoral approach to reduce TB burdenamongmigrants.


Networks and multi-country partnerships with common goals

Meaningful reductions in the risks of TB diseasefor migrants and surrounding communities needeffectivemultisectoralpartnershipsbetweenmultiplepublic and private sector agencies, within andacross countries. Policies should foster partnershipsbetweenvariousgovernmentsectors,privatesectors(health-care providers, pharmaceutical companies,insurance agencies and employers), civil society

(including migrant groups), humanitarian anddevelopment agencies, and the international donorcommunity. Political commitment is needed amongmigrant-receivingcountriesforsustainedinvestmentsintargetedTBprogrammesincountriesoforiginandtransit, especially in high-TB-incidence countries.HealthpoliciesformanagementofinfectiousdiseaseslikeTB shouldbe considered inbilateral or regionalagreements on migration (for example, labourmigrationandbordermanagement),withappropriateaccountabilitymechanisms.n

Emerging concerns in Tuberculosis and Migration

Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) is frequently caused by inadequate treatment or improper use ofmedications, leading to increasedmorbidity andmortality and high costs of treatment.Migrants are particularlyvulnerabletoMDR-TBduetoovercrowdedlivingconditions,delayeddiagnosisfromfinancialconstraints,poorhealthliteracyandhealth-seekingbehaviours,poortreatmentadherenceandhighdefaultrates.WithouttimelyTBdiagnosis,treatment, contact tracingand cross-border continuityof care formigrants,hard-to-reachmobilepopulationsandsurroundingcommunities,MDR-TBcontrolwillremainachallenge.

Forced displacementofpersonsafterconflictoranaturaldisasterisoftenassociatedwithanincreasedriskofTBduetofactorssuchasmalnutrition,overcrowdingincampsorothertemporaryshelters,anddisruptionofhealthservices,resultingintheinterruptionofTBtreatmentthatmayresultindrugresistance.ThereremainsanethicaldilemmainpostponingTBprogrammesuntil thesocialsettingbecomesmoreappropriate for implementation,andananalysiscomparingtherisksandbenefitsofdelayingTBprogrammesincomplexemergenciesisneeded.

Migrant workers in the mining industry areatahigh risk forTBdue topoorlyventilated,overcrowded livingandworkingconditionsandoccupationalhazardslikesilicosis.InSouthernAfrica,whereamajorityofmineworkersaremigrants fromneighbouring countries, nearly one third of the TB infections are estimated to be linked tominingactivities.TheunderlyingsocialandstructuraldeterminantsofthislargelydisproportionateTBburdenintheminingindustry lies outside the traditional health sector, and canonly be addressed through sustained andmultisectoralcollaborationbetweenministriesoflabour,miningandhealth,aswellastheprivateindustry.

References

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2013 Changing landscape of internationalmigration policies. Population Facts,No. 2013/5. Available from http://www.un.org /en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/popfacts/popfacts_2013-5.pdf.

UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP)2009 Human Development Report 2009:

Overcoming Barriers: Human Mobility and Development. UNDP, New York. Availablefrom http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-report-2009.

WorldHealthOrganization(WHO)2013 Global Tuberculosis Report 2013. WHO

Press, Geneva. Available from www.who.int/tb/publications/global_report/en.

2013 Systematic Screening for Active Tuberculosis: Principles and Recommendations. WHOPress, Geneva. Available from www.who.int/tb/publications/Final_TB_Screening_guidelines.pdf.

2014 Globalstrategyandtargetsfortuberculosisprevention, care and control after 2015:ReportbytheSecretariat.ExecutiveBoard134th Session (EB134/12). Available fromhttp://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/EB134/B134_12-en.pdf.

Health policies for management of infectious diseases like

TB should be considered in bilateral or regional agreements

on migration (for example, labour migration and border

management), with appropriate accountability mechanisms.

http://www.stoptb.org/events/world_tb_day/2014/

http://www.stoptb.org/events/world_tb_day/2014/

http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/popfacts/popfacts_2013-5.pdf




http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-report-2009

http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-report-2009

http://www.who.int/tb/publications/global_report/en

http://www.who.int/tb/publications/global_report/en

http://www.who.int/tb/publications/Final_TB_Screening_guidelines.pdf



http://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/EB134/B134_12-en.pdf

http://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/EB134/B134_12-en.pdf


China and Europe: Increasingly linked by migrationFrank Laczko and Tara Brian1

Introduction

China and Europe are becoming increasinglyinterconnectedduetomigration.Since1980,the number of Chinese in Europe has more

thantripled(LathamandWu,2013).Officialfiguresindicatethattodaynearlyamillionpeople living inEuropeareChinese-born(UNDESA,2013).Therealfigures are likely to be much higher as much Chi-nesemigrationremainsundocumented(CCG,2014).ManyofthosewhomovetoEuropearetemporarymigrants, especially students, who later return toChina.ThisshortarticledescribestheriseinChinesemigration to Europe, and discusses the factors be-hindthisincrease.

Top destinations

Four countries in Europe – the United Kingdom,France, Italy and Spain–hostnearly threequartersof all Chinese migrants (Latham and Wu, 2013).Particular growth has been seen in Italy and SpainwheremanyChinesemigrantsareentrepreneursandworkers in thetextileandfashion industries (Zhang,2013).ButmanyotherEuropeancountries,includingRomania,LithuaniaandSweden,havebeenattractingmoreChinesemigrantsinrecentyears.Forexample,18percentofworkauthorizationsinRomaniain2011wereissuedtoChinese;Chinesearethethirdlargestgroupreceivingworkpermits inLithuania;andnon-seasonal workers from China are also prominent inSweden(OECD,2013).

1 FrankLaczkoisHeadoftheMigrationResearchDivisionattheInternationalOrganizationforMigration(IOM)HeadquartersinGeneva.TaraBrian is aResearchOfficer in theMigrationResearchDivisionatIOMHeadquartersinGeneva.

More and more Chinese come to Europe to study

Over half a million Chinese study abroad each year,with many attracted to Europe. The main Europeandestinations for Chinese students are: the UnitedKingdom, hosting roughly 50 per cent of all ChinesestudentsinEuropein2011(65,906);France(25,923);andGermany(17,822)(UISDataCentre)(seeFigure1).ChinaisthetopcountryoforiginofforeignstudentsinGermanyandtheUnitedKingdom,andthesecondmostimportantcountryoforigininFrance(UISDataCentre). The growing wealth of themiddle class inChinameans thatmore andmore families are ableto fund the educationof their children abroad. Thenumber of students self-financing their studies hasincreased dramatically and these students nowrepresentthemajorityofChinesestudyinginEurope,comparedwith the students fundedby theChineseGovernment(CCG,2014).

Chinabenefitsfromthismigration,asmoreChinesestudentsarereturninghome,followingthecompletionof their studies. Worldwide, more than 186,000studentsreturnedfromabroadin2011,accordingtoofficialChinese statistics (OECD,2012:181). In2011,thenumberofreturningstudentswasmorethanhalfthe number of outgoing students for the first time(OECD,2012:181).

China benefits from this migration, as more

Chinese students are returning home, following the

completion of their studies.


Figure 1: Chinese nationals studying in European countries, 2002–2011

Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) Data Centre, accessed January 2014.Note: Country data considered for total Europe figures include EU 28 MS plus Norway, Switzerland and Iceland.


Investment and tourism

ChinesearenotonlycomingtoEuropetostudy,theyarealsocoming toEurope in increasingnumbers toinvest.Forexample,Chinese investment inLondon’srealestatehasincreasedremarkablyandispredictedto continue to grow in the coming years. RecentresearchbyJonesLangLaSalleInc.,aChicago-basedrealestateserviceandinvestmentcompany,showedthat Chinese investment in London’s real estatemarket has risen more than 1,500 per cent since2010, making China the third largest non-domesticpurchaser in the United Kingdom, behind GermanyandtheUnitedStates(Chunyan,2014).

EthnicChinesenetworks,involvingbothcommunitiesabroad and home communities in China, play animportantroleinfacilitatingcross-borderinvestments(Zhang, 2013). For instance, research on migrantentrepreneurs in Eastern Europe indicates migrantsutilize connections in origin communities in Chinaas well as ties with ethnic Chinese communities inEuropetocreatenewbusinessopportunities(Zhang,2013).

However, obstacles for Chinese businesspeoplestill exist. For instance, a 2013 EU Chamber ofCommerceinChinasurveyof74Chinesecompaniesthathad invested in Europe suggested thatChinesecompaniesfacebarriersinEurope,with32percentofrespondentsreportingdifficultieswithresidenceandworkpermits,29percentcitingproblemswithlabourlaws, and 28 per cent finding taxes and accountingproblematic(Silk,2013).

International tourist arrivals in Europe, the mostvisitedregionintheworld,wereupby3percentin2012, after growing by 6 per cent in 2011. Europeaccounts for52per centof all international arrivalsworldwide (UNWTO and ETC, 2013). China becamethenumberonesourcemarketintheworldin2012,spending USD 102 billion on international tourism,upby37percentfrom2011,andupalmosteightfoldover the past 12 years (UNWTO and ETC, 2013). In2011, over 3 million Chinese travelled to Europe,makingitthemostpopularregionofdestinationforChineseafterAsiaandthePacific(UNWTOandETC,2013). The European tourist industry has focusedon attracting group tours from China, a marketthat opened following the granting of ApprovedDestinationStatus(ADS)tomostEuropeancountriesin2004(UNWTOandETC,2013).

Somecountriesfear,however,thattherisingnumberoftouristvisitsmightincreaseirregularmigrationbymakingiteasierforsomeChinesevisitorstooverstay.

Irregular migration and trafficking in human beings from China to Europe The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime(UNODC) estimates that up to 36,000 Chineseirregular migrants use smuggling services to reachtheEUonanannualbasis,whichwouldgenerateuptoUSD600million a year (UNODC, 2013). Irregularmigrationisoftenfacilitatedbyillegaloperationsrunbysnakeheads inprovincesoforigin, suchasFujianandZhejiang(LathamandWu,2013).ItisestimatedthatnewChinesemigrantsfromFujianProvincewerebetween 900,000 and 1million by the early 2000s,ofwhich40percentto50percentwentabroadviairregularchannels(LathamandWu,2013).However,accordingtoresearchconductedunderIOM’sCapacityBuildingforMigrationManagementinChinaproject,irregularmigrationfromChinatoEuropedeclinedinthelate2000s.Thiscanbeattributedtotheincreasingnumberofalternative,saferwaysofreachingEuropethroughregularmeans(LathamandWu,2013).

Both refusals of entry at external borders andnumbers of Chinese nationals found to be illegallypresent in EUMember States and/or the SchengenArea have declined considerably from over 6,000refusals in 2008 to just 1,675 in 2012. The numberofChinesenationalsfoundtobeillegallypresenthasalsodeclinedsignificantlyfromover17,000in2008to10,370in2012(Eurostat,2014)(seeFigure2).

It is estimated that new Chinese migrants from Fujian Province

were between 900,000 and 1 million by the early

2000s, of which 40 per cent to 50 per cent went abroad via

irregular channels(Latham and Wu, 2013)


Figure 2: Trends in refusals of entry and numbers of Chinese nationals found to be illegally present in EU 28 plus non-EU Schengen, 2008–2012

Source: Eurostat Database, accessed January 2014.Notes: (a) Data include Hong Kong; (b) no data available on Croatia.

While figures on removals from Europe show anupwardmovement,removaltrendsforeachMemberStatehavevariedoverthepastfiveyears,withsomeincreasing, others decreasing and others remainingfairlyconstant(Eurostat,2014).Oneoftheproblemsis that it is often impossible to secure return traveldocuments necessary to remove irregular Chinesenationals to a third country as theyneitherpossessa validpassportnor cooperatewith theauthorities,retaining or providing false information on theiridentitytoobstructreturnprocedures.Inothercases,supportandcooperationby theChineseEmbassy ismissingandgivestheimpressionthatreturnmigrationisnotwelcomeifthereisnotransferofskillsorotherresources(Eurasylum,2008).

However,traffickingofChinesewomenforsextradeinEuroperemainsasignificantproblem.A2013Eurostatreport provides statistics on trafficking trends in 22EUcountriesandfindsthat,afterNigeria,Chinawasthesecondlargestsourcecountryofnon-EUvictimsoftrafficking,with248victimsoftraffickingin2010.Furthermore,ofsuspectedtraffickersholdingnon-EUcitizenship,themostcommoncountriesofcitizenship

were Nigeria, China and Turkey, with 92 suspectedtraffickers of Chinese citizenship detected in 2010(Eurostat,2013).

AsmallnumberofChineseseektoobtainresidencein Europe by making claims for asylum which areunfounded.In2012,theEuropeancountriesreceivingthe greatest number of requests for asylum fromChinesenationalswere:France,whichreceivedmorethanhalfofallapplicationsmadebyChineseinEurope(4,443);theUnitedKingdom,receiving1,372requestsin2012,or16percentofallChineserequestsmadeinEuropethatyear(UNHCR,2014).

Conclusion

This brief review of trends in Chinese migration toEurope illustrates howmobility between China andEuropehasincreasedinrecentyears.Mediareportsin Europe tend to focus on cases of smuggling andtraffickingfromChina,butthedatapresentedabovesuggestthatthisisnotanaccuratepictureofChinesemigration to Europe. Too often, the focus is on the


negative consequencesof Chinesemigration, ratherthan how to maximize the benefits of increasedmobility between China and Europe.While there isclearly a need for increased cooperation betweenChinaandEuropetoreduceirregularmigration,bothEuropeandChinahavemuchtogainfrommigration.Forexample,thegrowingChinesediasporainEuropecanhelptoforgestrongerbusinessandtradelinks.AgrowingnumberofskilledpeopleinChinaarebeingtrainedinEurope,andthistoocanhelptostrengtheneconomicties.n

References

CenterforChinaandGlobalization(CCG)2014 Annual Report on Chinese International

Migration 2014.CCG,Beijing.

Chunyan,Z.2014 China pouring billions into London real

estate. China Daily, 14 January. Availablefrom http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/epa-per/2014-01/14/content_17234954.htm.

Eurasylum2008 Recentmeasurestakentoaddressirregular

migration in Europe, with a special focuson irregular migration from the People’sRepublic of China. Study within theframework of the “Capacity Building forMigration Management in China” projectof the International Organization forMigration.

Eurostat2013 Trafficking in Human Beings: 2013 Edition.

Eurostat Methodologies and WorkingPapers.PublicationsOfficeoftheEuropeanUnion,Luxembourg.

2014 Eurostat Database: Enforcement ofImmigration Legislation. Available fromhttp://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/statistics/search_database.

Latham,K.andB.Wu2013 Chinese Immigration into the EU: New

Trends, Dynamics and Implications. Europe China Research and AdviceNetwork, London. Available from http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Asia/0313ecran_lathamwu.pdf.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation andDevelopment(OECD)

2012 International Migration Outlook 2012.OECDPublishing,Paris.

2013 International Migration Outlook 2013. OECDPublishing,Paris.

Silk,R.2013 Chinese firms complain of Europe-related

obstacles. The Wall Street Journal, 31January. Available from http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424127887323701904578275520871685756.

UNESCOInstituteforStatistics(UIS)2014 DataCentre,Table18A:Internationalflows

ofmobilestudentsatthetertiarylevel(ISCED5 and 6) summary. Available from http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document .aspx?Repor t Id=143&IF_Language=eng.

UnitedNationsDepartment of Economic and SocialAffairs(UNDESA)

2013 Trends in International Migrant Stock:Migrants by Destination and Origin.United Nations database, POP/DB/MIG/Stock/Rev.2013. Available from http://esa.un.org/unmigration/TIMSO2013/migrantstocks2013.htm.

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees(UNHCR)

2014 Population Statistics Database. Availablefrom http://popstats.unhcr.org/Default.aspx.

UnitedNationsOfficeonDrugsandCrime(UNODC)2013 Transnational Organized Crime in East

Asia and the Pacific: A Threat Assessment.UNODC,Vienna.

UnitedNationsWorldTourismOrganization(UNWTO)andEuropeanTravelCommission(ETC)

2013 The Chinese Outbound Travel Market: 2012 Update.UNWTOandETC,Madrid.

Zhang,H.2013 The Role of Migration in Shaping China’s

Economic Relations with its Main Partners.MPC Research Report 2013/07.MigrationPolicy Centre–Robert Schuman Centre forAdvancedStudies,Fiesole,Italy.

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http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/statistics/search_database

http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Asia/0313ecran_lathamwu.pdf




http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424127887323701904578275520871685756



http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=eng




http://esa.un.org/unmigration/TIMSO2013/migrantstocks2013.htm



http://popstats.unhcr.org/Default.aspx

http://popstats.unhcr.org/Default.aspx


Protecting the rights of migrants in Europe: The role of the Committee on Migration, Refugees and Displaced Persons of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of EuropeThe Secretariat of the Committee on Migration, Refugees and Displaced Persons1

Migration,inparticulareconomicmigration,isdrivenbypeople’sdesiretosecurebetterlivingconditionsforthemselvesandtheirfamilies.Therearealsorefugeeswho are fleeing persecution or have been forcedto leave their homes. Europe has a long traditionof welcoming newcomers and has various policiesdesigned to foster their integration in the countryof destination. There are also 2.5million persons inEuropewhohavebeeninternallydisplacedasaresultofprotractedconflicts.

Issuesofmigration,asylumanddisplacedpersonscontinuetobeanimportantfocusofattentioninpoliticallifeinEurope.Migrationisaphenomenon

which is constantly growing, affecting more andmoreCouncilofEuropeMemberStates,whetherascountriesoforigin,transitordestination.Thisraisesnewchallengesandopportunitiesintermsofensuringthat Europe attracts themigrants it needs and thatit can integrate them fully. It also raises challengeslinked to controlling borders and regularmigration.Migrationhoweverisnotjustaphenomenon,behinditarepeoplemigratingforarangeofdifferentreasonsandwithrights-basedneedswhichareofconcerntotheCouncilofEuropeanditsParliamentaryAssembly.

TheCommitteeonMigration,RefugeesandDisplacedPersons has a dual purpose: firstly, it developspolicies for the protectionof the rights ofmigrants,refugees,asylum-seekersanddisplacedpersons,andtheimprovementoftheirlivingconditions;secondly,by proposing political solutions in keeping with thehumanitarian values of the Council of Europe, itseekstorespondtoMemberStates’concernsaboutsignificantmovementsofmigrantsandrefugees,theintegrationofmigrantsandpopulationtrends.

1 ThisoverviewwaspreparedforMigration Policy Practice bythe Secretariat of the Committee on Migration, RefugeesandDisplacedPersonsoftheParliamentaryAssemblyoftheCouncilofEurope.

The Committee comprises 84 members and theiralternates and has three subcommittees (onintegration, on detention, and on cooperation withnon-Europeancountriesoforiginandtransit).

In itswork, theCommitteedealswithawide rangeof topics related to the rights ofmigrants, refugeesandasylum-seekers,humanitarianlawanddisplacedpersons. The Committee appoints parliamentaryrapporteurs mandated to prepare reports basedon solid in situ research and hearingswith experts.This work culminates in the adoption first by theCommitteeandthenbytheParliamentaryAssemblyin plenary of resolutions and recommendationsaddressed to Member States and the Council ofEurope’sCommitteeofMinisters.

TheCommittee’smainactivitiescanbegroupedunderthefollowingthemes:

₋ Promoting integration, dialogue, understandingand respect ofmigrant communities in their hostsocieties;₋ Strengtheningtheprotectionofrightsofmigrants,refugees,asylum-seekersanddisplacedpersons;₋ Promotingsolutionsforprotracteddisplacementofpeople;₋ Humanitariansituationofrefugees,asylum-seekersanddisplacedpersons.

The Committee maintains a human rights-basedapproachfocusingonEurope,buttakingintoaccountthe challenges facing countries of origin. In thisrespect, it builds on the Partnership for DemocracyAgreements and in particular the good workingrelationswiththeMoroccanParliament.

With regard to the first pole of activity, namelyintegration, the challenges are extensive andthe Committee highlights how Member Statescan improve their integration policies, ensuringintegrationisatwo-wayprocess,whichinvolvesbothmigrants and host societies. Access to the labour

http://assembly.coe.int/ASP/AssemblyList/Annuaire_03W_Committees.asp?ComID=27

http://assembly.coe.int/ASP/AssemblyList/Annuaire_03W_Committees.asp?ComID=27

Vol. IV, Number 1, February–March 2014MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE 29

marketisanissuewhichiscentraltotheintegrationof migrants and ensures they are able to make astrong contribution to society. Other issues whichtheCommitteedevelopsincludethereintegrationofmigrants in their home countries, issues concerningyoungmigrants,thechallengesoffamilyreunification,andtheimpactofchangingpoliticsonmigrationandintegrationinEurope.

The Committee considers that language learning,raising awareness of citizenship-related issues,democratic participation, access to employment,education and housing, protection of rights, andcontact between communities are essential forintegration and should be included in any strategyimplementedforthispurpose.

It has prepared a report titled “The portrayal ofmigrants and refugees during election campaigns”andverysoonwilladoptthereports“Integrationofmigrants:IsEuropefailing?”and“Integrationtestsformigrants:Astepforwardorback?”

With regard to the second pole, strengthening theprotection of rights of migrants, refugees, asylum-seekers and displaced persons, the Committeecontinues its examination of effective returns(particularly what happens to people after theirreturn),aswellasitsworkonthedetentionofirregularmigrants and asylum-seekers, and the possibility ofalternatives to detention. The Syrian Arab Republicremainsamajorchallengeintermsofflowsofasylum-seekersandrefugees,andtheCommitteefollowsthesituation carefully.Unaccompaniedmigrant childrenare a particularly vulnerable group as are statelesspersonswhonumberover600,000inMemberStatesoftheCouncilofEurope.

As to internally displaced persons, the Committeeworksontheregionsmostaffectedbythis,particularlytheNorthCaucasusandtheareaaffectedbythewarbetweenGeorgiaandtheRussianFederation.

Solutions are possible, butmore work needs to bedoneonfindingalternativestothecollectivecentres,which still exist in many countries, and also ontackling the problems of displaced persons living inprivateaccommodationoftenfallingundertheradarofMemberStates.TheCommitteewouldalsoliketolook into theproblemof thepersonsdisplacedduetoenvironmental issuesorotherfactors(e.g. forcedmigration), where international protection is not adevelopedconcept.

The Committee also works on monitoring thehumanitarian situation of refugees, asylum-seekersand displaced persons, particularly those from theSyrian Arab Republic, and taking into account, as apriority,thesituationofwomenandchildrenwhoareaccommodatedincampsinborderingcountries.

Working methods

The three subcommittees concentrate on thefollowingthemes:

• Detention and alternatives to detention:Followingthepublicationoftheguidetovisitingdetention centres, the Committee organizestraining courses for parliamentarians wishingtomake such visits, focusingmoreonnationalcourses and translating the training materialinto other languages. The subcommittee alsoexamines the question of alternative solutionstodetention.

• Questions relating to integration: TheCommittee explores the possibility of holdingan international conferenceon integration andis currently working on a report addressingintegration practices in Member States, usingthe Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX)dataasabenchmark.

• CooperationwithcountriesoforiginandtransitcountriesoutsideEurope:Theemphasisisplacedon issues of common interest for countrieswith partner-for-democracy status, candidatecountriesandobservercountries.Aconferenceis being organized on human rights challengesto managing migration in the region as wellas a report on the challenges of North–SouthmigrationforMediterraneanrimcountries.

WithintheCouncilofEurope,theCommitteemaintainsclose contact with intergovernmental committeesandinstitutionswhichareactivewithintheCouncil’sareaofcompetence,includingtheCommissionerforHuman Rights, the European Commission againstRacismandIntolerance,theEuropeanCommitteeforthePreventionofTortureandInhumanorDegradingTreatmentorPunishment,theSteeringCommitteeforHumanRights, theAdhocCommitteeofExpertsonRomaIssues,andtheEuropeanCommitteeofSocialRights. Italsopresentsopinions totheAssemblyontheactivitiesof theCouncilofEuropeDevelopmentBank.


The Committee works in close cooperation withgovernment and non-governmental internationalhumanitarian organizations, such as the Office oftheUnitedNationsHighCommissioner forRefugees(UNHCR), the International Committee of the RedCross (ICRC), the International Organization forMigration(IOM),AmnestyInternational,andvariousrefugeeandmigrationorganizations.Representativesoftheseorganizationsattendcommitteemeetingsasobservers,offeringthebenefitoftheirexperience.Atregular intervals, the Committee submits reports totheAssemblyontheactivitiesoftheUNHCR,theICRCandIOM.

Cooperation between the Committee and IOM isveryfruitfulandmultifaceted,includingparticipationin conferences, exchange of expertise and high-level visits. The Committee closely follows themain initiatives of IOM, which inspire membersof the Committee to prepare new reports. To give

Cooperation between the Committee and IOM is very

fruitful and multifaceted, including participation in

conferences, exchange of expertise and high-level visits. The Committee closely follows

the main initiatives of IOM, which inspire members of the

Committee to prepare new reports.

an example, after participating in IOM’s high-levelDiaspora Ministerial Conference, organized in June2013, the member of the Committee from Italy,MrAndreaRigoni,startedpreparationofareportondemocratic participation of migrant diaspora. Thisreportwillbringtheparliamentarydimensiontothediaspora dialogue. Committee members often useIOMexpertise in fieldmissionswhile going on fact-finding or monitoring visits to Member States. Theworkdoneby IOMatthe internationalandnationallevelsislargelycoveredinthereportspreparedbytheCommittee.n

For further information, please see:http://assembly.coe.int/defaultE.asp

The list of reports and adopted texts can be accessed on:http://assembly.coe.int/CommitteeDocs/2011/aminf10rev_2011.pdf

http://assembly.coe.int/defaultE.asp

http://assembly.coe.int/CommitteeDocs/2011/aminf10rev_2011.pdf

http://assembly.coe.int/CommitteeDocs/2011/aminf10rev_2011.pdf


Publications

In2013,asecondHigh-levelDialogueonInternationalMigration and Development (HLD) will be held,presenting the international community with acriticalopportunity to focus its attentiononhow tomakemigrationwork for development and povertyreduction.TheHLDtakesplaceatanimportanttime,astheinternationalcommunityisseekingtoformulateanewagendaforglobaldevelopmentasweapproachthetargetyearoftheMillenniumDevelopmentGoalsin2015.

TheWorld Migration Report 2013contributestotheglobaldebateonmigrationanddevelopmentinthreeways:First,thefocusofthereportisonthemigrant,andonhowmigrationaffectsaperson’swell-being.Manyreportsonmigrationanddevelopmentfocusonthe impactofremittances:themoneythatmigrantssend back home. This report takes a differentapproach,exploringhowmigrationaffectsaperson’squalityoflifeandtheirhumandevelopmentacrossabroadrangeofdimensions.Second,thereportdrawsupon the findings of a unique source of data – theGallupWorld Poll surveys, conducted inmore than150 countries, to assess the well-being of migrantsworldwideforthefirsttime.Third,thereportshedsnew lightonhowmigrants rate their lives,whetherthey live in a high-income country in the North,or a low- or middle-income country in the South.

World Migration Report 2013 – Migrant Well-being and Development2013/220pagesISBN978-92-9068-668-2ISSN1561-5502EnglishUSD40.00

Etat de la migration dans le monde 2013 : Le bien-être des migrants et le développement2013/220pagesISBN978-92-9068-669-9ISSN1561-5502Français40dollarsE.-U.

Informe sobre las Migraciones en el Mundo 2013 – El Bienestar de los Migrantes y el Desarrollo2013/220pagesISBN978-92-9068-670-5ISSN1561-5502Español40dólaresEE.UU.

Traditionally, the focushasbeenon thosemigratingfrom lower-incomecountries tomoreaffluentones;thisreportconsidersmovementsinallfourmigrationpathwaysandtheirimplicationsfordevelopmenti.e.migrationfromtheSouthtoNorth,betweencountriesof the Southorbetween countriesof theNorth, aswellasmovementsfromtheNorthtotheSouth.

ThefirstthreechaptersoftheWorld Migration Report 2013 provide an introduction to the chosen theme“Migrant Well-being and Development”, presentthe current global migration situation across fourmigrationpathwaysand reviewexisting researchontheemergingfieldofhappinessandsubjectivewell-being.

Chapter four presents original findings on migrantwell-being from the Gallup World Poll, looking atoutcomesonsixcoredimensionsofwell-beingacrossthefourmigrationpathways.

The final part draws conclusions and makesrecommendations for future initiatives to monitormigrant well-being and the impact of migrationon development, with reference to the inclusionof migration in the post-2015 global developmentframework.

http://publications.iom.int/bookstore/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath=37&products_id=1017

http://publications.iom.int/bookstore/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath=37&products_id=1018

http://publications.iom.int/bookstore/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath=37&products_id=1019&zenid=a7q47u56gr5dctu4pm051si394


International Migration and Development Training Modules2013/418pages/EnglishForadditionalinformation,obtainingthispublicationor scheduling training sessions, please contact:[email protected].

The International Migration and Development Training Modules provide policymakers and practitioners with an easy-to-followbut thorough introduction to current discourses, policies andpractices linking migration and development. This discussionis enriched through references drawn, for instance, fromacademicworks and from the experience and expertise of theInternational Organization for Migration (IOM) in programmeand project implementation, in developing partnershipswith multiple stakeholders or in supporting Member States’capacity-building efforts. Themodules are designed to providetrainers,policymakersandpractitionerswithstructuredtrainingsessions, covering theoretical and practical elements intendedto strengthen their professional capabilities for the formulationor implementation of migration and development policies andinitiatives. This three-course training programme is designedto facilitate the delivery of face-to-face training workshops,promotingcooperative,experientialandproblem-basedlearning.Themodularapproachbuiltinthesematerialsallowsfacilitatorstoeasilyadapttheprogrammetothespecificneeds,timeframeandconditionsofeachtrainingcourse:CourseIsetsthestageforthetrainingandcanbecombinedwithdifferentmodulesfromCourseIIandCourseIII.Thethreecoursesintendto:(a)introduceuserstothedifferentwavesofthinkingthathaveinfluencedthewayinwhichthemigration–developmentnexusisperceived;(b)exploretheexistingframeworksforcooperationinthefieldofmigrationanddevelopment;and(c)familiarizeuserswithpracticesaimedat linkinginternationalmigrationanddevelopment. Intendedtohelpuserstoreflectondifferentdiscourses,issuesandinitiativesinthefieldofmigrationanddevelopmentandtoapplythemtotheirparticularcontext,themanualalsoguidesthemtoidentifythe potential opportunities and challenges that they present.Each course is divided into modules, which are sub-dividedinto training sessions. Each session starts with an introductionto the aims, objectives and learning outcomes, and includes acontentoutlinewiththesuggesteddurationforthesession.Thesessions are structured around group activities and discussionsorpresentationsthatmutuallyreinforcethelearningobjectives.Sample activities (presentations, role plays, case studies) aredesignedtostimulateparticipatory learningandteamwork.Thesessions include background information, examples and casestudies, key points,wrap-up summaries, lists of references andhandouts forparticipants.Themodulesareaccompaniedbyanelectroniccopyofthemanual,samplepresentations,selectvideosandreadingmaterialsforfacilitators,uploadedinaUSBkey.

International Migration, Vol. 52(2) 2014 The globally mobile skilled labour force: Policy challenges and economic opportunities2014/217pages/EnglishElectronicversionavailablefromWiley-Science.Toorderprintcopy,clickhere.

InternationalMigrationisarefereedbimonthlyreviewoftheInternational Organization for Migration (IOM) on currentmigration issues as analysed by demographers, economists,and sociologists all over theworld. The journal is edited atGeorgetownUniversity’sInstitutefortheStudyofInternationalMigration(ISIM)andpublishedanddistributedbyWiley.Theeditorsat ISIMareresponsibleforthedirectionandcontentofthejournal.

Contents:

₋ IntroductionbyFeiGuo,GraemeHugoandMassimilianoTani

₋ IndianStudentsandtheEvolutionoftheStudy-MigrationPathwayinAustraliabyLesleyanneHawthorne

₋ AttractingandRetainingGloballyMobileSkilledMigrants:PolicyChallengesbasedonAustralianResearchbySiew-EanKhoo

₋ TheEconomicContributionofHumanitarianSettlersinAustraliabyGraemeHugo

₋ ImmigrationPolicyandEntrepreneurshipbyStéphaneMahuteau,MatloobPiracha,MassimilanoTaniandMatiasVairaLucero

₋ Japanese-BraziliansandtheFutureofBrazilianMigrationtoJapanbyDavidMcKenzieandAlejandrinaSalcedo

₋ SegmentedAssimilation,Transnationalism,andEducationalAttainmentofBrazilianMigrantChildreninJapanbyHirohisaTakenoshita,YoshimiChitose,ShigehiroIkegamiandEuniceAkemiIshikawa

₋ MulticulturalChallengesinKorea:theCurrentStageandaProspectbyNam-KookKim

₋ FromWorkerstoEntrepreneurs:DevelopmentofBangladeshiMigrantBusinessesinTheRepublicofKoreabyLianKwenFeeandMdMizanurRahman

₋ EthnicLaborMarketContextsandtheEarningsofAsianImmigrantsbyHyoung-jinShinandZaiLiang

₋ ContextualizingVocabulariesofMotiveinInternationalMigration:TheCaseofTaiwaneseintheUnitedStatesbyChien-JuhGu

₋ EthnicReturnMigrationandPublicDebate:TheCaseofKazakhstanbyIşıkKuşçu

₋ MakingtheMostofTechnology:IndianWomenMigrantsinAustraliabySelenaCosta-Pinto

Introduction by Fei Guo, Graeme Hugo and Massimiliano Tani Indian Students and the Evolution of the Study-Migration Pathway in Australia by Lesleyanne Hawthorne Attracting and Retaining Globally Mobile Skilled Migrants: Policy Challenges based on Australian Research by Siew-Ean Khoo The Economic Contribution of Humanitarian Settlers in Australia by Graeme Hugo Immigration Policy and Entrepreneurship by St�phane Mahuteau, Matloob Piracha, Massimilano Tani and Matias Vaira Lucero Japanese-Brazilians and the Future of Brazilian Migration to Japan by David McKenzie and Alejandrina Salcedo Segmented Assimilation, Transnationalism, and Educational Attainment of Brazilian Migrant Children in Japan by Hirohisa Takenoshita, Yoshimi Chitose, Shigehiro Ikegami and Eunice Akemi Ishikawa Multicultural Challenges in Korea: the Current Stage and a Prospect by Nam-Kook Kim From Workers to Entrepreneurs: Development of Bangladeshi Migrant Businesses in The Republic of Korea by Lian Kwen Fee and Md Mizanur Rahman Ethnic Labor Market Contexts and the Earnings of Asian Immigrants by Hyoung-jin Shin and Zai Liang Contextualizing Vocabularies of Motive in International Migration: The Case of Taiwanese in the United States by Chien-Juh Gu Ethnic Return Migration and Public Debate: The Case of Kazakhstan by I<015F><0131>k Ku<015F>�u Making the Most of Technology: Indian Women Migrants in Australia by Selena Costa-Pinto

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EDITORIAL BOARD MIGRATION Editorial Advisers: Joint ... · Vol. I umber 1 ebruaryMarch 2014 4 MIIO POLI PIE Government views and policy priorities for international migration Vinod

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