ED 352 419 AUTHOR Kleinsasser, Audrey M.; Horsch, Elizabeth … · 2014. 4. 9. · Elizabeth A. Horsch. U.S. DEPARTMENT Of EDUCATION Office of Educational Research and Impovement.

Page 1

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 352 419 TM 019 355

AUTHOR Kleinsasser, Audrey M.; Horsch, Elizabeth A.TITLE Teaching, Assessment, and Learning: Invitation to a

Discussion.INSTITUTION Wyoming Univ., Laramie. Wyoming Center for

Educational Research.SPONS AGENCY Wyoming State Dept. of Education, Cheyenne.PUB DATE Aug 92NOTE 167p.PUB TYPE Reports Evaluative/Feasibility (142)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC07 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Educational Assessment; Educational Research;

Elementary Secondary Education; Evaluation Methods;*Evaluation Utilization; *Learning; Outcomes ofEducation; Policy Formation; *Student Evaluation;Teacher Role; *Teaching Methods; Test Use

IDENTIFIERS Alternative Assessment; *Outcome Based Education;Performance Based Evaluation; *Wyoming

ABSTRACT

Forms of assessment that are consistent with outcomesbased education are discussed. Assessment in service to learning mustinform students about their learning, provide data for teachers whoplan instruction, inform parents about student progress, and providedata for policymakers. Chapter 1 of this document is "TheImplications of Prevailing Testing Practices." Chapter 2, "ConnectingLearning and Assessment," summarizes research data about learning.Chapter 3, "Grades, Tests, and Ordeals: The American TestingCulture"; and Chapter 4, "Roles, Rules, and Rituals in a Culture ofAssessment: Blurring the Distinctions," show that practices thatexist in a culture of testing will probably need to be recast in a

culture of assessment. chapter 5, "Making the Transition: TheAssessment of Educational Standards and Outcomes," provides standardsfor outcomes-based education and examples of performance basedassessment from teachers in Wyoming. A resource section contains 13examples of strategies that teachers in Wyoming use to meetinstructional outcomes through assessment, including videoassessment; product testing; first grade multidisciplinaryassessment; alternative assessment; monographs; a Renaissance fair;self-evaluated gymnastics; integration of computers; literacyassessment in third grace; reading and writing in first grade;assessing the integration of reading, writing, social studies, andscience. Three summary streets and 56 sources are included. (SLD)

************************************************************************

Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.

***********************************************************************

Page 2

Tea

chin

g, A

sses

smen

t,an

d L

earn

ing.

Invi

tatio

n to

a D

iscu

ssio

nby

Aud

rey

M. K

lein

sass

eran

dE

lizab

eth

A. H

orsc

h

U.S

. DE

PA

RT

ME

NT

Of E

DU

CA

TIO

NO

ffice

of E

duca

tiona

l Res

earc

h an

d Im

pove

men

t

ED

UC

AT

ION

AL

RE

SO

UR

CE

S IN

FO

RM

AT

ION

CE

NT

ER

(E

RIC

)

P/in

isdo

cum

ent h

as b

een

repr

oduc

ed a

sre

ceiv

ed fr

ont t

he p

erso

n or

org

aniz

atio

nor

igin

atin

g it

0 M

inor

cha

nges

hav

e be

en m

ade

to im

prov

ere

prod

uctio

n qu

ality

Poi

nts

of v

iew

or

opin

ions

sta

ted

in th

is d

ocu-

men

t do

not n

eces

saril

y re

pres

ent o

ffici

alO

ER

I pos

ition

or

polic

y

"PE

RM

ISS

ION

TO

RE

PR

OD

UC

E T

HIS

MA

TE

RIA

L H

AS

BE

EN

GR

AN

TE

D B

Y

vl L

X/ Z

.gE

,tey

TO

TH

E E

DU

CA

TIO

NA

L R

ES

OU

RC

ES

INF

OR

MA

TIO

N C

EN

TE

R (

ER

IC).

"

Uni

vers

ityof

-W

yom

ing

Wyo

min

gC

ente

r fo

ir E

duca

tiona

l, R

esea

rch

BE

ST

CO

PY

AV

AIL

AB

LE

Page 3

I

Tea

chin

g, A

sses

smen

t, an

d L

earn

ing:

Invi

tatio

n to

a D

iscu

ssio

nby

Aud

rey

M. K

lein

sass

eran

dE

lizab

eth

A. H

orsc

h

Publ

ishe

d by

Wyo

min

g C

ente

r fo

r E

duca

tiona

l Res

earc

h

Box

337

4

Col

lege

of

Edu

catio

n

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lar

amie

, Wyo

min

g 82

071-

3374

Aug

ust,

1992

Page 4

Port

ions

of

this

doc

umen

t wer

ede

velo

ped

as a

res

ult o

fac

tiviti

es c

ondu

cted

und

er a

FY 1

989

Cha

pter

2E

SEA

cont

ract

bet

wee

n th

eU

nive

rsity

of

Wyo

min

g C

olle

geof

Edu

catio

n an

d th

e W

yom

ing

Dep

artm

ent o

f E

duca

tion.

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

and

the

Wyo

min

g D

epar

tmen

t of

Edu

catio

n do

not

disc

rim

inat

e on

the

basi

s of

rac

e, c

olor

,nat

iona

l ori

gin,

sex

, age

or

hand

icap

in a

dmis

sion

or

acce

ss to

, or

trea

tmen

t or

empl

oym

ent i

n, it

s ed

ucat

iona

lpr

ogra

ms

or a

ctiv

ities

.In

quir

ies

conc

erni

ng T

itle

VI,

Titl

e IX

, and

Sect

ion

504

may

he

refe

rred

to W

yom

ing

Dep

artm

ent o

f E

duca

tion,

Off

ice

of C

ivil

Rig

hts

Coo

rdin

ator

, Hat

haw

ay B

uild

ing,

2nd

Flo

or,

2300

Cap

itol A

venu

e, C

heye

nne,

Wyo

min

g 82

002-

0050

or

307/

777-

6218

or

toth

e U

.S. D

epar

tmen

t of

Edu

catio

n,O

ffic

e of

Civ

il R

ight

s, R

egio

n V

III,

124

4Sp

eer

Bou

leva

rd, S

uite

300

, Den

ver,

Col

orad

o 80

204.

C)

1

P,

Page 5

Tab

le o

f C

onte

nts

Intr

oduc

tion

5

Cha

pter

19

Prev

ailin

g T

estin

g Pr

actic

es:

Impl

icat

ions

for

Lea

rnin

gC

hapt

er 2

13C

onne

ctin

g L

earn

ing

and

Ass

essm

ent:

Res

earc

h ab

out L

earn

ing

Cha

pter

321

Gra

des,

Tes

ts, a

nd O

rdea

ls:

The

Am

eric

an T

estin

g C

ultu

reC

hapt

er 4

3 7

Rol

es, R

ules

, and

Ritu

als

in a

n C

ultu

re o

f A

sses

smen

t:B

lurr

ing

the

Dis

tinct

ions

Cha

pter

54

9M

akin

g th

e T

rans

ition

:T

he A

sses

smen

t of

Edu

catio

nal S

tand

ards

and

Out

com

esR

esou

rces

5 9

Wyo

min

g T

each

ers'

Exa

mpl

es o

f W

orth

whi

le A

sses

smen

t6

0Se

lect

ed R

efer

ence

s fo

r Fu

rthe

r R

eadi

ng:

Tes

ting

and

the

Tes

ting

Cul

ture

79A

sses

smen

t and

an

Ass

essm

ent C

ultu

re8

2T

he A

nthr

opol

ogy

and

Soci

olog

y of

Sch

oolin

g8

3R

eadi

ngs

on T

each

ing

and

Lea

rnin

g8

4C

ontr

astin

g a

Cul

ture

of

Tes

ting

to a

Cul

ture

of

Ass

essm

ent

8 5

Che

cklis

t of

Mea

ning

ful A

sses

smen

t8

6A

ssum

ptio

ns a

bout

Lea

rnin

g8

7

3

Page 6

5

Tes

ting,

Ass

essm

ent,

and

Lea

rnin

g:In

vita

tion

to a

Dis

cuss

ion

INT

RO

DU

CT

ION

The

pur

pose

of

this

boo

k is

to in

trod

uce

and

info

rm r

eade

rs a

bout

for

ms

of

asse

ssm

ent w

hich

are

con

sist

ent w

ith o

utco

mes

base

d ed

ucat

ion.

We

hope

this

boo

k

prov

okes

thou

ghtf

ul d

iscu

ssio

n ab

out i

ssue

sim

port

ant t

o le

arne

rs, t

each

ers,

and

polic

y m

aker

s.W

e ho

pe it

will

foc

us im

port

ant q

uest

ions

abou

t tea

chin

g an

d

lear

ning

. How

doe

s a

book

abo

ut te

stin

g an

d as

sess

men

tre

late

to a

Wyo

min

g m

anda

te

for

outc

omes

bas

ed e

duca

tion?

We

view

thes

e fo

rms

as a

sses

smen

t in

serv

ice

to

lear

ning

.In

our

vie

w, a

sses

smen

t in

serv

ice

tole

arni

ng h

as f

our

mai

n pu

rpos

es: a

) it

incl

udes

and

info

rms

the

stud

ent a

bout

his

or h

er le

arni

ng; b

)it

prov

ides

info

rmat

ion

for

the

teac

her

who

pla

ns in

stru

ctio

n;c)

it in

form

s pa

rent

s ab

out

stud

ent p

rogr

ess;

and

d)

it pr

ovid

es w

orth

whi

lein

form

atio

n fo

r po

licy

mak

ers.

Our

posi

tion

is u

nequ

ivoc

al. T

he s

tude

nt c

omes

firs

t, th

e te

ache

r an

d pa

rent

s se

cond

, and

all o

ther

s th

ird.

Thi

s bo

ok is

div

ided

into

fiv

e ch

apte

rs.

The

fir

st c

hapt

er is

entit

led

"Pre

vaili

ng T

estin

g Pr

actic

es: T

he I

mpl

icat

ions

for

Lea

rnin

g."

The

sec

ond

chap

ter,

"Con

nect

ing

Lea

rnin

g an

d A

sses

smen

t:R

esea

rch

abou

t Lea

rnin

g,"

is a

sum

mar

y of

som

e of

the

late

st a

nd m

ost

pert

inen

t res

earc

h da

ta a

bout

lear

ning

.

Cha

pter

s 3

and

4 w

iden

the

lens

to in

clud

e te

stin

gan

d as

sess

men

t in

a cu

ltura

l

pers

pect

ive.

In th

ese

chap

ters

, we

show

that

pra

ctic

esw

hich

exi

st in

a c

ultu

re o

f

test

ing

will

pro

babl

y ne

ed to

be

reca

st in

acu

lture

of

asse

ssm

ent.

KL

EIN

SASS

ER

& U

OR

SCII

Page 7

6In

trod

uctio

n

We

get d

own

to th

e nu

ts a

nd b

olts

in C

hapt

er5:

sta

ndar

ds f

or o

utco

mes

bas

eded

ucat

ion

and

exam

ples

of

perf

orm

ance

bas

edas

sess

men

t tha

t com

plem

ent a

nou

tcom

es b

ased

lear

ning

app

roac

h.T

he e

xam

ples

are

fro

m e

lem

enta

ry a

ndse

cond

ary

teac

hers

thro

ugho

ut W

yom

ing.

We

have

ic.'.

entif

ied

each

bec

ause

we

wan

tto

cel

ebra

te th

eir

idea

s. W

e al

so w

ant r

eade

rs w

ho h

ave

ques

tions

to b

e ab

le to

cont

act t

hese

teac

hers

dir

ectly

, to

cont

inue

the

disc

ussi

onst

arte

d he

re.

Fina

lly, i

n a

refe

renc

e se

ctio

n,w

e ha

ve in

clud

ed th

irte

en e

xam

ples

of

wor

thw

hile

ass

essm

ent f

rom

Wyo

min

g te

ache

rs, a

ndfo

ur r

esou

rce

lists

for

fur

ther

read

ing.

The

boo

k cl

oses

with

thre

esu

mm

ary

shee

ts w

hich

can

be

easi

ly d

uplic

ated

.O

ne s

umm

ary

shee

t con

tras

ts th

e cu

lture

of

test

ing

to th

e cu

lture

of

asse

ssm

ent.

Ase

cond

hig

hlig

hts

the

char

acte

rist

ics

ofm

eani

ngfu

l ass

essm

ent.

The

thir

dsu

mm

ary

shee

t des

crib

es th

e as

sum

ptio

ns a

bout

lear

ning

that

und

ergi

rd th

is b

ook.

In p

art,

this

boo

k is

the

prod

uct o

fa

teac

hing

exp

erie

nce.

As

teac

hers

, we

thin

k th

at is

fitt

ing.

Dur

ing

the

spri

ng s

emes

ter

of 1

992,

we

taug

ht f

our

para

llel

sect

ions

of

a re

quir

ed c

ours

e fo

r un

derg

radu

ates

in th

e te

ache

r ed

ucat

ion

prog

ram

atth

e U

nive

rsity

of

Wyo

min

g. T

heco

urse

was

Edu

catio

nal T

ests

and

Mea

sure

men

ts.

Alo

ng w

ith c

olle

ague

Ala

n M

oore

,w

e ta

ught

test

s an

d m

easu

rem

ents

fro

ma

clas

sroo

m a

sses

smen

t per

spec

tive.

As

a re

sult

of o

ur e

ffor

ts, t

his

rede

sign

edco

urse

will

als

o ha

ve a

new

nam

e: C

lass

room

Ass

essm

ent.

Thr

ough

out t

he b

ook,

we

will

refe

r of

ten

to th

e 16

0 st

uden

tsw

e ta

ught

who

wan

t to

beco

me

elem

enta

ry a

ndse

cond

ary

teac

hers

.A

for

mal

nee

ds a

sses

smen

t plu

s on

goin

gco

nver

satio

ns w

ithth

em a

bout

thei

r le

arni

ng a

nd te

stin

gex

peri

ence

s he

lped

sha

pe m

any

of th

e id

eas

we

pres

ent h

ere.

Our

stu

dent

s he

lped

us

rem

embe

r th

atm

any

of o

ur te

achi

ng b

elie

fsan

d re

sulti

ng p

ract

ices

are

root

ed in

the

clas

sroo

m e

xper

ienc

es w

e ha

das

stu

dent

s.

TE

STIN

G, A

SSE

SSM

EN

T A

ND

LE

AR

NIN

G: 1

Nvr

rivr

ioN

TO

A D

ISC

USS

ION

Page 8

Intr

oduc

tion

We

owe

a th

ank

you

to m

any

cont

ribu

tors

.Fi

rst,

we

than

k th

e W

yom

ing

teac

hers

who

se a

sses

smen

ts a

re s

potli

ghte

d in

this

boo

k. W

e al

so th

ank

stud

ents

inou

r U

nive

rsity

of

Wyo

min

g co

urse

s.C

ritic

al f

rien

ds, J

udy

Ells

wor

th, J

ane

Nel

son,

and

Lin

da G

oldm

an g

ave

inva

luab

le c

omm

ents

to e

arly

dra

fts.

We

than

k C

hris

tine

Shea

rer,

who

se d

eskt

op p

ublis

hing

tale

nts

put t

he d

ocum

ent t

oget

her

in w

hat w

eho

pe is

an

inte

rest

ing

and

usef

ul f

orm

at.

Wri

ting

a bo

ok li

ke th

is o

ne is

a p

erfo

rman

ce a

sses

smen

t of

the

firs

t ord

er!

Thr

ough

out t

he p

lann

ing,

wri

ting,

and

edi

ting,

one

que

stio

n fo

cuse

d ou

r w

ork:

How

can

we

invi

te W

yom

ing

educ

ator

s to

ent

er a

dis

cuss

ion

linki

ng te

stin

g, a

sses

smen

tan

d le

arni

ng?

Aud

rey

M. K

lein

sass

erU

nive

rsity

of

Wyo

min

gL

aram

ie, W

yom

ing

8207

1

307/

766-

6358

14

Aug

ust,

1992

KL

EIN

SASS

ER

& 1

1OR

SCII

Eliz

abet

h A

.Hor

sch

Kel

ly W

alsh

Hig

h Sc

hool

Cas

per,

Wyo

min

g 82

609

307/

577-

4640

15

Page 9

9

Cha

pter

I

The

Im

plic

atio

ns o

fPr

evai

ling

Tes

ting

Prac

tices

Con

side

r th

is S

cena

rio.

..It

is th

e da

y th

e te

ache

r ha

s de

sign

ated

for

the

test

.T

he m

ood

and

the

atn'

osph

ere

of th

e cl

assr

oom

is d

iffe

rent

fro

m p

revi

ous

days

. The

stud

ents

and

the

teac

her

are

seri

ous

and

busi

ness

like.

Man

y ar

e te

nse

and

anxi

ous.

The

des

ks a

re p

ushe

d as

far

apa

rt a

s po

ssib

le .

The

teac

her

asks

the

stud

ents

to p

utaw

ay a

ll m

ater

ials

, inc

lud;

ng b

ooks

, not

eboo

ks, e

xam

ples

, mod

els.

An

empt

yde

sk to

p

and

a pe

ncil

or p

en r

emai

n.T

he te

ache

r di

stri

bute

s th

e te

st a

nd is

sues

the

inst

ruct

ions

: "W

ork

care

fully

and

qui

etly

.If

you

hav

e qu

estio

ns, r

aise

you

r ha

ndan

d I

will

com

e to

you

. Kee

p yo

ur e

yes

on y

our

own

wor

k."

At t

he e

nd o

f th

e tim

epe

riod

whi

ch th

e te

ache

r ha

s de

sign

ated

, stu

dent

s gi

ve th

eir

test

sto

the

teac

her.

The

teac

her

iden

tifie

s th

e w

rong

ans

wer

s, c

ompu

tes

the

tota

l and

rec

ords

a n

umbe

ror

lette

r w

hich

rep

rese

nts

the

grad

e in

the

grad

eboo

k.So

met

imes

, the

test

will

be

retu

rned

to th

e st

uden

t.If

the

test

is a

maj

or o

r st

anda

rdiz

ed te

st h

owev

er, t

hest

uden

t may

not

be

allo

wed

to s

ee th

e co

rrec

ted

test

.

The

test

ing

mod

el w

e ha

ve d

escc

ibed

abo

ve r

emai

ns o

ne o

f th

e m

ost e

ndur

ing,

perv

asiv

e an

d co

mpe

lling

fea

ture

s of

the

ente

rpri

se w

e ca

ll sc

hool

. No

othe

r si

ngle

activ

ity h

as s

uch

a m

ajor

impa

ct o

n te

ache

rs, s

tude

nts,

cur

ricu

lum

and

inst

ruct

ion.

Whe

n pr

eser

vice

teac

hers

fro

m o

ur te

sts

and

mea

sure

men

ts c

lass

es a

t the

Uni

vers

ityof

Wyo

min

g in

terv

iew

ed e

ight

y W

yom

ing

teac

hers

abo

ut te

stin

g pr

actic

es a

t the

irsc

hool

s, th

ese

in-s

ervi

ce te

ache

rs e

xpre

ssed

maj

or c

once

rn a

bout

the

info

rmat

ion

KL

EIN

SASS

ER

& H

OR

SCII

--.

NO

TE

S &

QU

OT

ES

Page 10

16

10Pr

evai

ling

Tes

ting

Prac

tices

:

that

for

mal

test

ing

prod

uced

and

the

impa

ct o

f te

stin

gpr

ogra

ms

on c

urri

culu

m a

ndki

ds.

The

ir c

once

rns

are

wel

l fou

nded

. For

cou

ntle

ss s

tude

nts,

test

s ha

ve b

ecom

e th

ega

teke

eper

of

thei

r ac

adem

ic jo

urne

y.C

omm

erci

al la

rge

scal

e te

sts,

suc

h as

the

Col

lege

Boa

rd's

SA

T o

r th

e A

CT

aff

ect c

olle

ge a

dmis

sion

s, th

eaw

ardi

ng o

f sc

hola

rshi

psan

d fi

nanc

ial a

id, a

nd th

e st

uden

ts' p

erce

ptio

ns o

f th

eir

own

acad

emic

abi

litie

s.In

man

y st

ates

, tes

ting

is th

e so

rtin

g, a

ssig

ning

, and

cla

ssif

ying

sys

tem

whi

ch b

egin

sin

kind

erga

rten

or

befo

re.

The

con

stru

ctio

n, a

dmin

istr

atio

n, a

nd ta

king

of

test

sco

nsum

e in

ordi

nate

am

ount

s of

teac

her

and

stud

ent t

ime.

Alth

ough

ther

e is

littl

eag

reem

ent a

bout

wha

t tes

ts r

eally

tell

us, t

he r

esul

ts o

f fo

rmal

test

s ar

e us

ed to

sor

tan

d cl

assi

fy s

tude

nts

on th

e ba

sis

of a

cade

mic

pot

entia

l and

read

ines

s th

roug

hout

thei

r sc

hool

car

eers

.C

urri

culu

m d

ecis

ions

, jud

gmen

ts a

bout

teac

her

com

pete

nce,

and

com

pari

sons

bet

wee

n sc

hool

sar

e of

ten

mad

e us

ing

info

rmat

ion

from

a s

ingl

e,hi

gh s

take

s te

st.

Wid

e sc

ale

use

of te

st r

esul

ts r

aise

s im

port

ant q

uest

ions

abou

t tes

ting.

In th

isbo

ok, w

e w

ill e

xam

ine

som

e of

thes

e is

sues

abo

ut te

stin

g, le

arni

ng,

and

asse

ssm

ent.

Wha

t are

the

impa

cts

of c

urre

nt te

stin

g pr

actic

eson

teac

hers

and

stu

dent

s? W

hat

info

rmat

ion

does

the

trad

ition

al k

ind

of te

stin

g yi

eld?

Wha

t bel

iefs

do te

ache

rs a

ndst

uden

ts h

ave

abou

t tes

ting

and

lear

ning

?H

ow c

ompa

tible

are

cur

rent

test

ing

prac

tices

with

cur

rent

res

earc

h ab

out t

hew

ay s

tude

nts

lear

n? W

hat a

re th

e ro

les,

rule

s, a

nd r

itual

s w

hich

lim

it th

e op

port

uniti

es f

or c

hang

e?A

nd f

inal

ly, h

ow a

rere

al te

ache

rs in

rea

l sch

ools

cha

ngin

g th

eir

asse

ssm

ent p

ract

ices

?O

ur p

urpo

se in

wri

ting

this

boo

k is

to in

itiat

ea

dial

ogue

abo

ut a

sses

smen

tam

ong

teac

hers

, stu

dent

s, a

nd th

e co

mm

unity

whi

ch c

an g

ive

dire

ctio

nto

edu

cato

rsan

d po

licy

mak

ers

as w

e tr

y to

ref

orm

edu

catio

n in

this

stat

e.W

e in

vite

you

tobe

com

e a

part

of

this

dis

cuss

ion

and

to s

hare

your

insi

ghts

and

you

r ex

pert

ise.

TE

ST

ING

, AS

SE

SS

ME

NT

AN

D L

EA

RN

ING

: IN

VIT

AT

ION

'1'0

A D

ISC

US

SIO

N

Page 11

Impl

icat

ions

for

Lea

rnin

g11

A P

RA

CT

ICE

IN

SE

AR

CH

OF

A D

EFI

NIT

ION

The

sce

nari

o w

e ha

ve d

epic

ted

mat

ches

Web

ster

's S

even

th N

ew C

olle

giat

eD

ictio

nary

def

initi

on o

f te

stin

g.It

is "

an o

dea

l or

oath

req

uire

d as

pro

of o

fco

nfor

mity

with

a s

et o

f be

liefs

." T

he k

ey w

ords

are

"or

deal

" an

d "p

roof

." A

s w

e w

illdo

cum

ent i

n th

e fo

llow

ing

sect

ion,

stu

dent

s ar

e m

ore

likel

y to

vie

w te

sts

as a

n or

deal

than

as

proo

f of

lear

ning

. We

aske

d th

e 16

0 pr

eser

vice

teac

hers

in o

ur f

our

sect

ions

of E

duca

tiona

l Tes

ts a

nd M

easu

rem

ents

at t

he U

nive

rsity

of

Wyo

min

g to

tell

us a

bout

thei

r ex

peri

ence

s w

ith te

stin

g.T

heir

res

pons

es te

stif

y to

the

prof

ound

and

last

ing

infl

uenc

e of

test

ing.

Man

y ex

pres

sed

pow

erfu

l fee

lings

abo

ut te

sts.

One

stu

dent

cons

ider

ed te

sts

"an

inev

itabl

e, h

orri

ble

expe

rien

ce w

hich

com

es a

t the

end

of

ever

ych

apte

r or

uni

t."Fo

r ot

her

stud

ents

, yea

rs la

ter

the

effe

cts

of a

par

ticul

ar te

stin

gex

peri

ence

wer

e st

ill g

raph

ic a

nd tr

aum

atic

."I

n th

e fo

urth

gra

de w

e w

ere

fini

shin

ga

test

and

whe

n th

e en

tire

clas

s fi

nish

ed, w

e co

uld

go o

ut f

or r

eces

s ea

rly.

I w

as n

ot

fini

shed

and

my

frie

nd y

elle

d:'If

thes

e du

mm

ies

are

not f

inis

hed

yet,

then

they

shou

ldn'

t get

a r

eces

s.'

I w

ill n

ever

for

get t

hat."

Oth

er s

tude

nts

rega

rded

test

ing

as a

n or

deal

impo

sed

upon

them

. One

sai

d,"T

his

is th

e w

ay th

ey m

ake

you

lear

n th

e m

ater

ial,"

whi

le a

noth

er d

escr

ibed

a te

st a

s,"P

anic

. Not

a f

air

judg

men

t of

one'

s ac

tual

kno

wle

dge.

"E

ven

thos

e st

uden

ts w

ho d

id n

ot c

onsi

der

test

ing

hurt

ful,

expr

esse

d co

ncer

nth

at th

e te

sts

did

not o

ffer

rel

iabl

e pr

oof

of w

hat t

hey

had

lear

ned.

Des

crib

ing

his

expe

rien

ce w

ith th

e A

CT

, one

stu

dent

sai

d, "

In ta

king

the

AC

T, I

just

cho

se a

bla

nk to

fill

in if

I d

idn'

t kno

w th

e an

swer

....M

y ov

eral

l tes

t sco

re w

as 2

3 an

d I

did

equa

lly w

ell

in M

ath

and

Eng

lish,

alth

ough

I h

adn'

t tak

en A

lgeb

ra I

I or

Cal

culu

s/T

rig

and

havi

ng

KL

EIN

SASS

ER

& B

OR

SCH

tJ

Page 12

We

mus

t ove

rcom

e th

ela

zy h

abit

of g

radi

ng o

nth

e cu

rve

as a

che

apw

ay o

f set

ting

and

upho

ldin

g st

anda

rds.

(Wig

gins

, 198

9)

12Pr

evai

ling

Tes

ting

Prac

tices

:

take

n an

d go

tten

high

gra

des

in a

ll th

e ad

vanc

ed E

nglis

h co

urse

s. T

his

dem

onst

rate

dth

e in

cred

ible

inad

equa

cy o

f th

e te

st!"

The

se c

omm

ents

und

ersc

ore

the

impa

ct o

f te

stin

g on

mor

e th

an g

rade

poi

ntav

erag

e. O

ur s

tude

nts

rais

ed tw

o im

port

ant i

ssue

s ab

out t

he n

atur

e of

test

ing.

Do

form

aliz

ed te

sts

focu

s on

a d

efic

it m

odel

of

lear

ning

?D

o te

sts

tell

stud

ents

and

teac

hers

mor

e ab

out w

hat a

stu

dent

doe

s no

t kno

w th

an w

hat s

he o

r he

has

lear

ned?

As

one

pres

ervi

ce te

ache

r ob

serv

ed, "

Is it

me,

the

test

, or

the

teac

her?

"T

he e

ndur

ing

natu

re o

f th

e tr

aditi

onal

test

ing

mod

el s

ugge

sts

we

have

hig

hex

pect

atio

ns th

at te

stin

g sh

ould

yie

ld la

rge

amou

nts

of u

sefu

l inf

orm

atio

n fo

rst

uden

ts, t

eacn

ers,

adm

inis

trat

ors

and

polic

y m

aker

s. C

alls

for

edu

catio

nal r

efor

m a

tbo

th s

tate

nd n

atio

nal l

evel

s in

clud

e a

dem

and

for

a na

tiona

l or

stat

e te

st to

pro

veth

at s

tude

nts

are

lear

ning

.Y

et it

see

ms

clea

r th

at a

ll th

e te

stin

g w

e ha

ve d

one

has

not g

iven

us

irre

futa

ble

evid

ence

of

wha

t our

stu

dent

s kn

ow o

r ca

n do

as

a re

sult

ofth

eir

scho

olin

g. T

o pa

raph

rase

an

earl

ier

resp

onse

, is

it th

e st

uden

t, th

e te

st, o

r th

ete

achi

ng?

In th

e ch

apte

r th

at f

ollo

ws,

we

exam

ine

wha

t the

late

st r

esea

rch

says

abo

utle

arni

ng. H

ow c

an a

sses

smen

t be

conn

ecte

d to

hum

an le

arni

ng?

TE

STIN

G, A

SSE

SSM

EN

T A

ND

LE

AR

NIN

G: I

NuI

TA

TIO

N T

O A

DIS

CU

SSIO

N

Page 13

13

Cha

pter

II

Con

nect

ing

Lea

rnin

gan

d A

sses

smen

t

The

test

ing

scen

ario

we

desc

ribe

d in

Cha

pter

I im

plie

s a

set o

f be

liefs

abo

ut th

ew

ay s

tude

nts

lear

n. A

lthou

gh te

stin

g ha

s si

gnif

ican

t and

last

ing

effe

cts

on le

arni

ng,

teac

hers

and

stu

dent

s se

ldom

dis

cuss

or

iden

tify

the

belie

fs w

hich

dir

ect t

he p

roce

ss.

Nei

ther

teac

hers

nor

stu

dent

s ar

e lik

ely

to q

uest

ion

the

purp

ose

of a

test

. Whe

n a

stud

ent i

nitia

tes

a di

scus

sion

abo

ut a

test

, the

dis

cuss

ion

cent

ers

on w

hat m

ater

ial w

illbe

on

the

test

. Occ

asio

nally

, the

test

sco

re o

r th

e fa

irne

ss o

f th

e te

st w

ill b

equ

estio

ned.

Tes

ting

is s

o in

grai

ned

in th

e ro

utin

e of

sch

oolin

g th

at q

uest

ioni

ngei

ther

the

purp

ose

or th

e m

etho

dolo

gy is

unt

hink

able

.A

lthou

gh te

ache

rs a

ndst

uden

ts a

like

expr

ess

diss

atis

fact

ion

with

test

ing

and

the

info

rmat

ion

't pr

ovid

es, a

seri

ous

exam

inat

ion

of th

e re

latio

nshi

p be

twee

n te

stin

g an

d le

arni

ng d

oes

not o

ccur

.W

hat b

elie

fs a

bout

lear

ning

are

con

sist

ent w

ith th

e te

stin

g sc

enar

io w

ede

scri

bed

in C

hapt

er I

?W

e ar

gue

that

trad

ition

al te

stin

g im

plie

s a

belie

f th

at le

arni

ngis

an

indi

vidu

alis

tic a

ctiv

ity a

nd m

ust b

e de

mon

stra

ted

by th

e st

uden

t wor

king

alo

ne o

n an

indi

vidu

al te

st.

Tea

cher

s ar

rang

e ch

airs

to e

mph

asiz

e th

is b

elie

f.St

uden

ts s

itfo

rmal

ly in

str

aigh

t row

s, a

s fa

r fr

om th

eir

peer

s as

pos

sibl

e.T

he a

tmos

pher

e is

inte

nded

to d

isco

urag

e di

scus

sion

and

col

labo

ratio

n.W

hen

stud

ents

sha

rein

form

atio

n or

com

pare

mea

ning

dur

ing

a te

st, t

his

activ

ity is

labe

led

chea

ting.

Eve

n in

cla

ssro

oms

whe

re th

e da

ily r

outin

e in

clud

es li

vely

dis

cuss

ion

and

the

exch

ange

of

idea

s, th

e te

st d

ay is

sile

nt a

nd s

olita

ry.

KLE

INS

AS

SE

R &

HO

RS

CI1

r

NO

TE

S &

QU

OT

ES

Page 14

14C

onne

ctin

g L

earn

ing

and

Ass

essm

ent:

Tra

ditio

nal t

estin

g m

odel

s al

so s

ugge

st th

at th

e te

ache

r ex

pect

s th

e st

uden

tto

dem

onst

rate

or

to r

ecog

nize

onl

y th

ose

mea

ning

s w

hich

hav

e be

en le

arne

dpr

evio

usly

.It

is a

ppar

ent a

lso

that

the

teac

her

or th

e te

xtbo

ok w

rite

rs id

entif

y th

em

eani

ng. S

ince

talk

ing

is ta

boo

and

the

time

fram

e is

teac

her

pres

crib

ed a

nd b

rief

,st

uden

ts c

anno

t con

tem

plat

e or

exp

lore

new

mea

ning

. The

rol

e of

the

stud

ent i

sto

reco

gniz

e th

e ri

ght r

espo

nse,

eve

n if

itis

cle

verl

y hi

dden

am

ong

care

fully

cons

truc

ted

dist

ract

ors

in m

ultip

le c

hoic

e ite

ms,

a m

atch

ing

sequ

ence

, or

in a

true

/fal

se q

uest

ion.

Stud

ents

in o

ur te

ache

r pr

eser

vice

test

s an

d m

easu

rem

ents

cla

sses

em

phas

ized

this

vie

w o

f te

stin

g w

ith th

ese

com

men

ts.

One

stu

dent

iden

tifie

d th

e te

st a

s an

inst

rum

ent t

o "s

ee h

ow w

ell t

he s

tude

nt h

ad le

arne

d."

For

mos

t stu

dent

s an

d te

ache

rsth

e te

st is

not

eve

n ex

pect

ed to

be

a le

arni

ng e

xper

ienc

e.It

is a

dem

onst

ratio

n cf

apr

evio

us h

appe

ning

sep

arat

e fr

om a

n on

goin

g, s

omet

imes

cir

cula

r le

arni

ngpr

oces

s.T

radi

tiona

l tes

ting

also

cle

arly

est

ablis

hes

who

is in

con

trol

of

lear

ning

and

Iho

cont

rols

how

mas

tery

will

be

exhi

bite

d. T

each

ers

give

test

s; s

tude

nts

take

test

s.T

he s

tude

nt is

the

pass

ive

ques

tion

answ

erer

, not

the

activ

e qu

estio

nge

nera

tor.

As

stud

ents

pro

gres

s th

roug

h th

eir

year

s of

sch

oolin

g, th

eyse

em to

bec

ome

mor

ew

illin

g to

ass

ume

a pa

ssiv

e ro

le.

The

y be

com

e so

con

ditio

ned

to g

ivin

g u

pre

spon

sibi

lity

that

they

res

ist a

ccep

ting

a m

ore

activ

e ro

le.

Som

e ed

ucat

ors

have

obse

rved

that

by

the

fift

h or

six

th g

rade

, stu

dent

sex

pres

s a

pref

eren

ce f

or a

ctiv

ities

whi

ch d

eman

d on

ly r

ote

lear

ning

and

rec

all.

A c

olle

ague

sha

red

a di

stur

bing

sto

ryw

hich

illu

stra

tes

this

kin

d of

stu

dent

det

achm

ent.

On

a pa

rtic

ular

day

in h

er h

igh

scho

ol li

tera

ture

cla

ss, s

he m

ista

kenl

y di

stri

bute

da

test

to h

er s

tude

nts

whi

ch a

sked

them

to a

nsw

er q

uest

ions

abo

ut a

pie

ce o

f lit

erat

ure

they

had

not s

tudi

ed. A

lthou

ghth

e qu

estio

ns c

ompr

ised

a m

ajor

par

t of

the

test

,no

t a s

ingl

e st

uden

t que

stio

ned

the

appl

icab

ility

of

the

test

to th

e m

ater

ials

they

had

stu

died

.U

ntil

she

bega

n gr

adin

g

TE

ST

ING

, AS

SE

SS

ME

NT

AN

D L

EA

RN

ING

: IN

VIT

AT

ION

TO

A D

ISC

US

SIO

N

Page 15

Research about Learning

15

pape

rs, s

he d

id n

ot k

now

that

she

had

dis

trib

uted

the

wro

ng te

st.

Inci

dent

s su

ch a

sth

is il

lust

rate

how

impo

rtan

t the

con

trol

issu

e is

and

how

con

ditio

ned

stud

ents

hav

ebe

com

e to

rel

inqu

ish

it w

ithou

t que

stio

n.

As

we

exam

ine

the

trad

ition

al te

stin

g sc

enar

io, w

e pr

opos

e th

at th

e of

ten

repe

ated

adm

oniti

on to

"pu

t aw

ay a

ll m

ater

ials

" im

plie

s th

e be

lief

that

stu

dent

s ca

nex

hibi

t the

ir k

now

ledg

e an

d sk

ills

in a

tool

fre

e en

viro

nmen

t.A

lthou

gh th

eim

port

ance

of

"han

ds-o

n" le

arni

ng r

ecei

ves

muc

h su

ppor

t am

ong

educ

ator

s, th

etr

aditi

onal

test

ing

envi

ronm

ent i

s de

void

of

prop

s an

d is

del

iber

atel

y to

ol-

free

.. T

hein

stru

ctio

nal s

ettin

g m

ay h

ave

been

ric

h an

d va

ried

but

the

test

ing

situ

atio

n ut

ilize

sm

inim

al to

ols.

Alth

ough

a f

lutis

t wou

ld n

ot b

e as

ked

to d

emon

stra

te m

aste

ry o

f th

efl

ute

by n

amin

g its

par

ts, s

tude

nts

in a

che

mis

try

clas

s of

ten

take

a p

aper

and

pen

cil

lab

test

, and

no

one

ques

tions

the

prac

tice.

Sinc

e a

seri

ous

disc

ussi

on o

f th

e re

latio

nshi

p be

twee

n be

liefs

abo

ut le

arni

ngan

d te

stin

g pr

actic

es d

oes

not o

ccur

, we

cann

ot b

e su

re th

at tr

aditi

onal

test

ing

actu

ally

ref

lect

s th

e co

mm

only

hel

d be

liefs

abo

ut s

tude

nt le

arni

ng. H

owev

er, w

e ca

nex

amin

e a

rela

ted

ques

tion.

How

do

belie

fs a

bout

lear

ning

that

are

exe

mpl

ifie

d by

trad

ition

al te

stin

g m

atch

cur

rent

res

earc

h an

d th

inki

ng a

bout

stu

dent

lear

ning

?W

e ar

gue,

and

we

thin

k th

at m

ost e

duca

tors

wou

ld a

gree

, tha

t stu

dent

s le

arn

best

whe

n th

ey a

re e

xcite

d ab

out w

hat t

hey

are

lear

ning

.St

uden

ts w

ho s

eeth

emse

lves

as

activ

e in

itiat

ors

rath

er th

an p

assi

ve r

espo

nder

s le

arn

mor

e de

eply

and

reta

in k

now

ledg

e m

ore

effe

ctiv

ely.

Whe

n te

ache

rs r

elin

quis

h so

me

cont

rol o

f w

hat

is le

arne

d an

d ho

w to

lear

n it

and

whe

n st

uden

ts a

re a

llow

ed to

mon

itor

thei

r ow

npr

ogre

ss, l

earn

ing

is e

nhan

ced

and

acce

lera

ted.

We

prop

ose

that

the

sam

e st

anda

rds

mus

t be

appl

ied

to te

stin

g. S

tude

nts

need

topa

rtic

ipat

e in

the

sele

ctio

n of

the

time

and

the

met

hod

of e

valu

atio

n. T

hey

mus

t hav

eow

ners

hip

in b

oth

proc

esse

s. A

n ex

ampl

e of

the

pow

er o

f th

is p

ract

ice

cam

e fr

om

r 4..0

K L

E1N

SASS

ER

& I

1OR

SCII

Page 16

3U

16C

onne

ctin

g L

earn

ing

and

Ass

essm

ent:

one

of o

ur p

rese

rvic

e te

ache

rs.

She

desc

ribe

d he

r ex

peri

ence

in th

is w

ay. "

In m

y

fres

hman

yea

r in

col

lege

,I

took

an

anth

ropo

logy

exa

m w

hich

was

com

plet

ely

mul

tiple

cho

ice

and

I re

ceiv

ed a

D-

grad

e.I

wen

t to

my

inst

ruct

or to

let h

im k

now

that

I h

ad s

tudi

ed a

nd k

new

the

mat

eria

l and

that

I w

assh

ocke

d to

get

a D

. He

agre

ed

to g

ive

me

an e

ssay

test

the

next

mor

ning

and

I g

ot a

95%

. The

rem

aind

erof

the

sem

este

r, I

took

ess

ay e

xam

s an

d fi

nish

edth

e co

urse

with

a h

igh

A!"

Mak

ing

conn

ectio

ns.

Log

ic a

nd e

xper

ienc

e te

ll us

that

lear

ning

mus

tfi

t

into

and

exp

and

the

fram

ewor

k of

wha

t is

alre

ady

know

n. T

he p

revi

ous

expe

rien

ces

of th

e le

arne

r an

d th

e "r

eal w

orld

" ap

plic

atio

nsw

ith w

hich

he

or s

he is

fam

iliar

shou

ld b

e th

e ba

sis

of d

esig

ning

inst

ruct

ion.

A s

tude

nt w

ho c

anno

t ide

ntif

y a

conn

ectio

n or

link

a n

ew id

ea w

ith a

n ex

istin

g co

ncep

tha

s lit

tle c

hanc

e of

mak

ing

sens

e of

the

idea

.M

ary

Bud

d R

owe,

for

mer

Pre

side

nt o

f th

eN

atio

nal S

cien

ce

Tea

cher

s A

ssoc

iatio

n w

ho h

as s

pent

man

y ye

ars

stud

ying

how

stu

dent

s le

arn

scie

nce,

uses

an

elev

ator

ana

logy

toill

ustr

ate

this

poi

nt. O

nce

the

idea

is o

n th

e el

evat

or, i

t

mus

t fir

st g

et o

ff o

n th

e ri

ght f

loor

.W

hen

the

elev

ator

doo

r op

ens,

the

idea

pou

rs

dow

n th

e ha

ll.If

the

door

to a

roo

m w

here

the

idea

bel

ongs

ope

ns,

then

the

idea

find

s a

plac

e to

sta

y.If

not

, it j

ust c

ontin

ues

dow

n th

e ha

ll, d

own

the

stai

rsan

d is

lost

fore

ver. A

stu

dent

mus

t con

stru

ct k

now

ledg

e us

ing

wha

t he

or s

he a

lrea

dy k

now

s.T

radi

tiona

l tes

ts w

hich

mea

sure

bits

and

pie

ces

have

sev

ere

limita

tions

in th

is

resp

ect.

Tes

t que

stio

ns g

ener

ally

are

brie

f. T

he te

ache

r pr

ovid

es li

ttle

or n

o co

ntex

t

info

rmat

ion.

Dis

cuss

ion

is n

ot a

llow

ed.

Thu

s, th

e st

uden

t may

not

iden

tify

the

fram

ewor

k of

the

idea

. Fac

ed w

ith th

is d

ilem

ma,

mos

t stu

dent

sw

ho h

ave

not "

gotte

n

off

on th

e ri

ght f

loor

" m

ay r

esor

t to

blin

d ch

oice

and

gues

sing

.

The

con

text

of

lear

ning

.T

he id

ea o

f co

ntex

t is

clos

ely

rela

ted

to m

akin

g

conn

ectio

ns.

Alth

ough

ther

e ar

e di

ffer

ing

view

s on

the

subj

ect,

som

ere

sear

cher

s

TE

STIN

G, A

SSE

SSM

EN

T A

ND

LE

AR

NIN

G: I

NV

ITA

TIO

N T

O A

DIS

CU

SSIO

N

Page 17

Res

earc

h ab

out L

earn

ing

17

prop

ose

that

the

skill

s an

d w

ays

of th

inki

ng w

hich

mak

e a

disc

iplin

e un

ique

are

acqu

ired

in th

e co

ntex

t of

the

cont

ent a

nd m

etho

dolo

gy o

f th

at d

isci

plin

e.It

app

ears

unlik

ely

that

a s

et o

f ge

nera

lizab

le s

kills

exi

sts

whi

ch c

an b

e tr

ansf

erre

d ea

sily

fro

mon

e di

scip

line

to a

noth

er.

Cla

ssro

om te

ache

rs h

ave

stru

ggle

d w

ith th

em

anif

esta

tions

of

this

con

cept

for

a lo

ng ti

me.

The

y ob

serv

e th

at s

tude

nts

who

exhi

bit p

rofi

cien

cy in

wri

ting

in a

wri

ting

clas

s ha

ve d

iffi

culty

wri

ting

cohe

rent

lab

repo

rts

in s

cien

ce, o

r th

at th

e m

athe

mat

ical

ski

lls w

hich

stu

dent

sdi

spla

y in

a m

ath

clas

s do

not

tran

sfer

whe

n th

ey a

re a

sked

to f

igur

e th

eir

test

per

cent

age

in a

soc

ial

stud

ies

clas

s.T

he d

efic

it m

ay li

e in

the

stud

ent's

fai

lure

to r

ecog

nize

the

cont

ext

rath

er th

an in

the

lack

of

his

or h

er s

kill.

Sim

ilarl

y, s

ome

obse

rver

s po

stul

ate

that

the

dram

atic

incr

ease

whi

ch s

tude

nts

exhi

bit o

n th

e C

olle

ge B

oard

's S

AT

or

the

Am

eric

an C

olle

ge T

estin

g Pr

ogra

m's

AC

T s

core

s af

ter

com

plet

ing

the

prac

tice

cour

sepr

obab

ly is

the

resu

lt of

impr

oved

abi

lity

to r

ecog

nize

the

cont

ext,

rath

er th

an th

ere

sult

of a

ny r

eal g

ains

in le

arni

ng.

We

acce

pt th

e pr

emis

e th

at le

arni

ng is

dif

ficu

lt in

a to

ol-f

ree

atm

osph

ere.

It is

reas

onab

le to

ass

ume

then

that

the

tool

s w

hich

a s

tude

nt u

ses

beco

me

an in

tegr

alpa

rt o

f hi

s or

her

kno

wle

dge

base

. The

boo

ks, c

alcu

lato

rs, m

anip

ulat

ives

,an

d a

host

of o

ther

inst

ruct

iona

l dev

ices

bec

ome

so e

ntw

ined

with

lear

ning

that

stu

dent

s m

ayfi

nd it

dif

ficu

lt to

dem

onst

rate

lear

ning

with

out t

hem

. Thi

s be

lief

requ

ires

a v

ery

diff

eren

t tes

ting

envi

ronm

ent f

rom

the

stan

dard

"pa

per

and

penc

il an

d no

thin

gel

se"

mod

el w

hich

pre

vails

in m

ost t

estin

g si

tuat

ions

.A

lthou

gh te

ache

rs e

xhor

tst

uden

ts to

con

sult

the

dict

iona

ry a

nd r

ewar

d th

em f

or c

iting

mul

tiple

sou

rces

on

are

sear

ch p

aper

, the

se s

ame

stud

ents

may

be

expe

cted

to p

rove

wha

t the

y kn

oww

ithou

t any

tool

s on

the

test

.T

eam

ing.

Incr

easi

ngly

in th

e w

orld

of

wor

k, te

ams

wor

k to

geth

er to

sol

vepr

oble

ms

and

mak

e de

cisi

ons.

Edu

cato

rs a

lso

are

begi

nnin

g to

ack

now

ledg

e th

at

KL

EIN

SASS

ER

& I

IOR

SCII

Page 18

18C

onne

ctin

g L

earn

ing

and

Ass

essm

ent:

expa

nded

lear

ning

is m

ore

likel

y to

occ

ur w

hen

stud

ents

hav

e th

e op

port

unity

todi

scus

s, p

robe

and

exp

lore

mea

ning

in g

roup

s. W

hen

a st

uden

t tes

ts id

eas

agai

nst t

heju

dgem

ent o

f ot

hers

, he

or s

he is

mor

e lik

ely

to d

evel

op h

ighe

r or

der

thin

king

ski

lls.

Rot

e m

emor

y an

d re

call

may

flo

uris

h in

an

solit

ary

setti

ng b

ut e

xplo

ratio

n, s

ynth

esis

and

anal

ysis

are

enh

ance

d by

col

labo

ratio

n.A

s te

ache

rs, w

e ac

know

ledg

e th

e di

ffic

ulty

of

wri

ting

test

s w

hich

pro

be h

igh

leve

l thi

nkin

g sk

ills.

Per

haps

the

prob

lem

lies

mor

e in

the

met

hodo

logy

of

test

ing

than

in th

e te

stin

g in

stru

men

t.It

may

be

that

a s

olo

perf

orm

ance

sev

erel

y lim

its th

eop

port

uniti

es f

or e

xhib

iting

thin

king

.R

ecal

ling

a co

oper

ativ

e fi

nal,

one

of o

urpr

eser

vice

teac

hers

sai

d, "

I to

ok a

fin

al in

an

educ

atio

n co

urse

with

a g

roup

of

six

peop

le. W

e op

enly

dis

cuss

ed th

e qu

estio

ns.

I le

arne

d m

ore

than

I e

ver

had

just

taki

ng a

test

alo

ne."

Ano

ther

res

earc

h fi

ndin

g w

hich

has

maj

or im

plic

atio

ns f

or te

achi

ng, t

estin

g,an

d le

arni

ng d

eals

with

the

conc

ept o

f le

arni

ng a

s a

hier

arch

y of

low

er a

nd h

ighe

rle

vel t

hink

ing

skill

s pr

esum

ed to

occ

ur in

som

e so

rt o

f pr

edet

erm

ined

pro

gres

sion

.O

ur o

bser

vatio

ns c

onvi

nce

us th

at c

hild

ren

can

orga

nize

and

syn

thes

ize

inre

mar

kabl

e w

ays.

As

very

you

ng c

hild

ren

deve

lop

lang

uage

ski

lls, t

hey

dem

onst

rate

this

cap

abili

ty.

Yet

sch

ools

spe

nd v

ast a

mou

nts

of ti

me

teac

hing

bas

ic s

killS

and

havi

ng s

tude

nts

prac

tice

them

bef

ore

stud

ents

are

cha

lleng

ed to

app

ly th

ese

skill

s in

mea

ning

ful w

ays.

Such

an

educ

atio

nal p

roce

ss m

ay b

e un

nece

ssar

y an

d ev

ende

trim

enta

l to

the

deve

lopm

ent o

f hi

gh o

rder

thin

king

. Tim

Rus

h w

ho te

ache

s at

the

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

cite

s w

ork

done

with

lear

ning

dis

able

d ch

ildre

n. H

e ob

serv

esth

at it

is n

ot n

eces

sary

for

a c

hild

to b

ecom

e ab

solu

tely

com

pete

nt in

the

skill

of

soun

ding

the

lette

r "p

", a

nd to

be

requ

ired

to e

xhib

it th

is f

acili

ty r

epea

tedl

y, b

efor

ehe

or

she

can

lear

n to

say

"Pe

ter

Pipe

r pi

cked

a p

eck

of p

ickl

ed p

eppe

rs."

61T

ES

TIN

G, A

SS

ES

SM

EN

T A

ND

LE

AR

NIN

G: I

NV

ITA

TIO

N T

O A

DIS

CU

SS

ION

Page 19

Res

earc

h ab

out L

earn

ing

19

Bra

in r

esea

rch.

Res

earc

h on

bra

in d

evel

opm

ent m

ay o

ffer

sup

port

for

equa

l and

coi

ncid

ing

emph

asis

on

high

er o

rder

ski

lls a

nd b

asic

ski

lls. T

he a

reas

of

the

brai

n w

hich

sup

port

mem

ory

and

the

site

s fo

r co

mpl

ex th

inki

ng a

re d

iffe

rent

.L

earn

ing

theo

rist

s po

stul

ate

that

thes

e ar

eas

deve

lop

inde

pend

ently

and

that

incr

ease

d em

phas

is o

n on

e ki

nd o

f le

arni

ng a

t the

exp

ense

of

the

othe

r m

a y

adve

rsel

y af

fect

the

rate

of

deve

lopm

ent o

f th

e le

ss u

sed

area

. Alth

ough

the

rese

arch

is te

ntat

ive,

the

impl

icat

ions

are

not

triv

ial.

Sum

mar

y. S

ome

of th

e be

liefs

abo

ut le

arni

ng a

n be

sum

mar

ized

as

follo

ws:

Lea

rnin

g...

depe

nds

on th

e ac

tive

invo

lvem

ent o

f th

e le

arne

r in

inte

rpre

ting

as w

ell

as r

ecor

ding

info

rmat

ion

and

in m

onito

ring

his

or

her

own

know

ledg

eco

nstr

uctio

n st

rate

gies

depe

nds

in p

art o

n th

e le

arne

r's a

bilit

y to

pla

ce a

n id

ea o

r sk

ill w

ithin

the

fram

ewor

k of

wha

t is

alre

ady

know

noc

curs

in c

onte

xt.

In r

eal l

ife

lear

ning

, too

ls, p

rops

, and

oth

er a

ids

are

ofte

n a

part

of

the

cont

ext i

n w

hich

one

lear

ns.

is n

ot a

utom

atic

ally

tran

sfer

red

from

one

con

text

to a

noth

er. T

here

are

prob

ably

sev

ere

limita

tions

on

gene

raliz

ed le

arni

ng a

bilit

ies.

occu

rs m

ost s

ucce

ssfu

lly in

a s

ocia

l con

text

.K

now

ledg

e th

at is

pos

ed,

expo

sed

and

test

ed w

ith o

ther

s is

mor

e lik

ely

to h

ave

real

and

last

ing

mea

ning

for

the

lear

ner.

proc

eeds

fro

m th

e ge

nera

l to

the

part

icul

ar.

Mas

tery

of

deta

il sh

ould

not b

e ex

pect

ed b

efor

e th

e bi

g pi

ctur

e is

exp

lore

d.T

hese

em

ergi

ng b

elie

fs a

bout

lear

ning

des

erve

ser

ious

con

side

ratio

n.A

sses

smen

t and

inst

ruct

ion

shou

ld b

e in

tegr

ated

.T

estin

g ca

n no

long

er b

eco

nsid

ered

as

an is

olat

ed e

vent

whi

ch a

lway

s oc

curs

as

an in

terr

uptio

n or

KL

E1N

SASS

ER

& H

OR

SCI1

Page 20

20C

onne

ctin

g L

earn

ing

and

Ass

essm

ent:

culm

inat

ion

of th

e in

stru

ctio

nal p

roce

ss.

Whe

n te

stin

g do

es o

ccur

at a

des

igna

ted

time,

it w

ill r

efle

ct m

etho

ds o

f in

stru

ctio

n an

d it

may

eve

n oc

cur

whe

n th

e st

uden

tde

cide

s he

or

she

is r

eady

to d

emon

stra

te p

rofi

cien

cy.

Ass

essm

ent s

trat

egie

s w

ill c

all

for

the

use

of to

ols,

sel

f m

onito

ring

, mul

tiple

ans

wer

s an

d ev

olvi

ng id

eas.

Stu

dent

sw

ill e

xerc

ise

som

e co

ntro

l ove

r th

e fo

rm o

f as

sess

men

t. T

hey

will

fin

d an

d de

sign

man

y w

ays

to e

xhib

it th

eir

achi

evem

ents

.T

each

ers

will

not

lim

it th

e ev

iden

ce f

orle

arni

ng to

a s

ingl

e bi

t of

info

rmat

ion

gath

ered

at a

par

ticul

ar ti

me

by a

par

ticul

arin

stru

men

t.Pa

rent

s an

d th

e co

mm

unity

will

acc

ept m

ultip

le a

nd le

ss s

truc

ture

din

dica

tors

as

"pro

of"

that

chi

ldre

n ar

e le

arni

ng.

Tea

cher

s, s

tude

nts

and

the

com

mun

ity w

ill s

hare

res

pons

ibili

ty f

or a

sses

smen

tan

d in

stru

ctio

n.T

he c

urre

nt a

tmos

pher

e of

str

uctu

red,

pre

scri

bed

test

s of

know

ledg

e w

ill g

ive

way

to m

essy

and

var

ied

indi

cato

rs o

f ac

hiev

emen

t whi

chm

irro

r th

e w

ay r

eal p

eopl

e le

arn

abou

t rea

l pro

blem

s.

TE

ST

ING

, AS

SE

SS

ME

NT

AN

D L

EA

RN

ING

: IN

VIT

AT

ION

TO

A D

ISC

US

SIO

Nr

d

Page 21

21

Cha

pter

III

Gra

des,

Tes

ts, a

nd O

rdea

ls:

The

Am

eric

an T

estin

g C

ultu

re

In th

is c

hapt

er, w

e lo

ok a

t tes

ting

thro

ugh

the

lens

of

cultu

re. W

e ar

gue

that

man

y A

mer

ican

test

ing

prac

tices

thri

ve w

ithin

a c

ultu

ral f

ram

ewor

k w

hich

incl

udes

role

s, r

ules

, and

ritu

als

for

teac

her-

, .1n

d st

uden

ts.

If e

duca

tors

are

to im

plem

ent

alte

rnat

ives

to tr

aditi

onal

pap

er a

nd p

enci

l tes

ts, i

t is

impo

rtan

t to

unde

rsta

nd th

ecu

lture

that

sup

port

s th

is tr

aditi

on. W

e w

ill e

xplo

re th

e id

ea th

at a

test

ing

cultu

re is

unlik

ely

to b

e ho

spita

ble

to w

orth

whi

le a

sses

smen

ts s

uch

as p

ortf

olio

san

d ot

her

form

s of

per

form

ance

bas

ed a

sses

smen

t.

EX

AM

ININ

G S

CH

OO

LIN

G F

RO

M S

OC

IOL

OG

ICA

LA

ND

AN

TH

RO

POL

OG

ICA

L P

ER

SPE

CT

IVE

S.

In th

e la

st 1

5-20

yea

rs, i

t has

bec

ome

com

mon

plac

e fo

r so

me

educ

ator

s to

exam

ine

scho

olin

g us

ing

a so

ciol

ogic

al o

r an

thro

polo

gica

l per

spec

tive.

A b

rief

desc

ript

ion

of th

e im

pact

soc

iolo

gy a

nd a

nthr

opol

ogy

have

had

on

the

way

edu

cato

rsvi

ew s

choo

ling

follo

ws.

Con

trib

utio

ns o

f so

ciol

ogy.

A s

ocio

logi

cal p

ersp

ectiv

e m

aint

ains

that

scho

olin

g is

larg

er th

an th

e in

divi

dual

stu

dent

or

teac

her.

To

bette

r un

ders

tand

a

grou

p, s

ocio

logi

sts

ofte

n ex

amin

eth

e re

latio

nshi

p of

soc

io-e

cono

mic

sta

tus,

age

, rac

e,

gend

er, r

elig

ion,

and

fam

ily s

truc

ture

.So

ciol

ogis

ts h

ave

also

stu

died

the

role

of

teac

hers

, the

sch

ool a

s a

wor

k pl

ace,

and

teac

hing

as

a pr

ofes

sion

. One

exa

mpl

e of

KL

EJN

SASS

ER

& I

IOR

SCII

NO

TE

S &

QU

OT

ES

Page 22

42

22G

rade

s, T

ests

, and

Ord

eals

:

soci

olog

y's

expl

anat

ory

pow

er r

elat

es to

und

erst

andi

ngch

ange

or

the

lack

of

chan

ge.

Soci

olog

ical

stu

dies

off

er in

sigh

ts a

bout

the

reas

ons

why

the

inst

itutio

nof

scho

ol s

eem

s to

res

ist c

hang

e. T

each

ers

and

adm

inis

trat

ors

atal

l edu

catio

nal l

evel

s

are

bom

bard

ed b

y ca

lls f

or r

estr

uctu

ring

,re

new

al, a

nd r

efor

m.

In th

e vi

ew o

f th

e

cyni

cs a

mon

g us

, cal

ls f

or v

ario

us f

orm

s of

res

truc

turi

ng, n

ot to

men

tion

plan

s fo

r

coop

erat

ive

lear

ning

, site

-bas

ed m

anag

emen

t, an

d ou

tcom

esba

sed

lear

ning

sim

ply

repr

esen

t thi

s ye

ar's

new

thin

g w

hich

rep

lace

sla

st y

ear's

new

thin

g.

A s

econ

d ex

ampl

e of

the

way

soc

iolo

gy in

form

sed

ucat

iona

l res

earc

h an

dpr

actic

e re

late

s to

a c

omm

unity

's e

xpec

tatio

ns f

or it

s st

uden

tsan

d sc

hool

s.A

com

mun

ity c

omm

unic

ates

exp

ecta

tions

for

aca

dem

ic a

chie

vem

ent i

nva

riou

s w

ays.

Som

e of

the

expe

ctat

ions

are

sub

tle a

nd c

over

t, ot

hers

are

ove

rt. F

orex

ampl

e, it

use

d

to b

e co

mm

onpl

ace

for

nine

wee

ks a

nd s

emes

ter

hono

r ro

lls to

be

prin

ted

in s

choo

lan

d co

mm

unity

new

spap

ers.

The

199

0s v

ersi

on o

f su

ppor

t for

acad

emic

ach

ieve

men

t

take

s a

com

plet

ely

diff

eren

t for

mat

in s

ome

com

mun

ities

. The

mes

sage

that

for

mer

ly

appe

ared

in n

ewsp

aper

s no

w f

lash

es f

rom

the

rear

bum

pers

of

cars

and

truc

ks:

I'M

PRO

UD

TO

BE

A P

AR

EN

T O

F A

N H

ON

OR

ST

UD

FNT

.

A th

ird

exam

ple

of s

ocio

logy

's p

ower

to h

elp

us u

nder

stan

dsc

hool

invo

lves

the

valu

es h

onor

ed b

y a

com

mun

ity. O

ne e

xam

ple

is th

e w

ay a

com

mun

ity m

ay o

r m

ay

not s

uppo

rt s

port

s.In

a c

omm

unity

that

doe

s no

t val

ue s

occe

r, it

will

not

mat

ter

how

skill

ed th

e so

ccer

coa

ch is

or

how

muc

h m

oney

the

scho

ol b

oard

allo

cate

s to

the

prog

ram

. Soc

cer

is n

ot li

kely

to th

rive

in th

at c

ultu

re.

Con

trib

utio

nsof

anth

ropo

logy

.R

esea

rch

abou

t sch

oolin

g ha

s al

sobe

nefi

ted

from

the

pers

pect

ive

anth

ropo

logy

off

ers.

The

ant

hrop

olog

ical

pers

pect

ive

is h

olis

tic.

it in

clud

es h

uman

bel

iefs

, pra

ctic

es, a

nd o

rgan

izat

iona

lpa

ttern

s.U

ntil

rece

ntly

, mos

t ant

hrop

olog

ists

wer

e ex

pect

ed to

trav

el to

rem

ote

loca

tions

to s

tudy

gro

ups

of p

eopl

e w

ith d

iffe

rent

lang

uage

s fr

om th

eir

own,

TE

ST

ING

, AS

SE

SS

ME

NT

AN

D L

EA

RN

ING

: IN

VIT

AT

ION

TO

A D

ISC

US

SIO

N