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Economic Development LECTURE 3: 5 MARCH 2017
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Economic development lecture 3

Apr 12, 2017

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Page 1: Economic development lecture 3

Economic DevelopmentLECTURE 3: 5 MARCH 2017

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Comparative Economic Development

Chapter 2

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Common characteristics of developing countries

• These features in common are on average and with great diversity, in comparison with developed countries:

– Lower levels of living and productivity – Lower levels of human capital – Higher levels of inequality and absolute poverty – Higher population growth rates – Greater social fractionalization – Larger rural population - rapid migration to cities – Lower levels of industrialization and manufactured exports – Adverse geography – Underdeveloped financial and other markets – Colonial Legacies - poor institutions etc.

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2.1 Defining the Developing World• World Bank Scheme- ranks countries on GNP/capita• In the World Bank’s classification system, 210 economies with a

population of at least 30,000 are ranked by their levels of gross national income (GNI) per capita.

• These economies are then classified as low-income countries (LICs), lower- middle-income countries (LMCs), upper-middle-income countries (UMCs), high- income OECD countries, and other high-income countries. (Often, LMCs and UMCs are informally grouped as the middle-income countries.)

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• Low-income countries are defined as having a per capita gross national income in 2008 of $975 or less;

• Lower-middle-income countries have incomes between $976 and $3,855;

• Upper-middle-income countries have incomes between $3,856 and $11,906;

• High-income countries have incomes of $11,907 or more.

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Table 2.1 Classification of Economies by Region and Income, 2010

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Table 2.1 Classification of Economies by Region and Income, 2010 (continued)

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Table 2.1 Classification of Economies by Region and Income, 2010 (continued)

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High-income countries that have one or two highly developed export sectors but in which significant parts of the population remain relatively uneducated or in poor health for the country’s income level may be viewed as still developing(oil exporters such as Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates). Upper-income economies also include some tourism-dependent islands with lingering development problems. Even a few of the high-income OECD member countries, notably Portugal and Greece, have been viewed as developing countries at least until recently.

Other high-income economies

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Figure 2.1 Nations of the World, Classified by GNI Per Capita

Source: Data from Atlas of Global Development, 2nd ed., pp. 10–11. © Collins Bartholomew Ltd., 2010.

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2.2 Basic Indicators of Development: Real Income, Health, and Education

• Gross National Income (GNI): gross national income (GNI) per capita, the most common measure of the overall level of economic activity, is often used as a summary index of the relative economic well-being of people in different nations. It is calculated as the total domestic and foreign value added claimed by a country’s residents without making deductions for depreciation (or wearing out) of the domestic capital stock.

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2.2 Basic Indicators of Development: Real Income, Health, and Education

• Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Gross domestic product (GDP) measures the total value for final use of output produced by an economy, by both residents and nonresidents. Thus GNI comprises GDP plus the difference between the income residents receive from abroad for factor services (labor and capital) less payments made to nonresidents who contribute to the domestic economy. Where there is a large nonresident population playing a major role in the domestic economy (such as foreign corporations), these differences can be significant.

• In 2008, the total national income of all the nations of the world was valued at more than U.S. $58 trillion, of which over $42 trillion originated in the economically developed highincome regions and less than $16 trillion was generated in the less developed nations, despite their representing about five-sixths of the world’s population. In 2008 Norway had 312 times the per capita income of Ethiopia and 84 times that of India.

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Figure 2.2 Income Per Capita in Selected Countries (2008)

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The use of official foreign-exchange rates to convert national currency figures into U.S. dollars does not measure the relative domestic purchasing power of different currencies. Researchers have tried to compare relative GNIs and GDPs by using purchasing power parity (PPP) instead of exchange rates as conversion factors.PPP is calculated using a common set of international prices for all goods and services. In a simple version, purchasing power parity is defined as the number of units of a foreign country’s currency required to purchase the identical quantity of goods and services in the local developing country market as $1 would buy in the United States.

What Is a Purchasing Power Parity?

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بناء • الدول اقتصاديات حجم قياس طريقة أن فكرة على الشرائية القوة تعادل نظرية تعتمدالحقيقية القوة عن حقيقية صورة يعطي ال دولة لكل اإلسمي المحلي الناتج مقارنة على

 . بلد كل داخل المعيشة وكلفة الشرائية القوة االعتبار بعين األخذ يتم ال ألنه اقتصاد لكلاالعتبار • بعين باألخذ الدول اقتصادية لمقارنة وسيلة الشرائية القوة تعادل نظرية وفرت

بين الصرف لسعر االعتبار بعين األخذ عدم وبالتالي بلد، أي داخل للعملة الشرائية القدرة . والخدمات المنتجات من سلة طريق عن حسابها يتم التي المعيشة كلفة وإنما العمالت

من • الدولتين عملتي بين المقارنة طريق عن دولتين بين االقتصاد حجم مقارنة عادة يتم ) المعروف ) األجنبية العمالت سوق في موحدة عملة إلى تحويلها أو صرفها سعر خالل

الشرائية القدرة على الشرائية القوة تعادل نظرية تعتمد ذلك من النقيض وعلى بالفوركس، . الدول اقتصاديات بين المقارنة في والخدمات المنتجات من سلة حسب

على • ما بلد داخل المواطنين قدرة يمثل الذي الشرائية القدرة مفهوم على النظرية وترتكزألن عليه، يحصلون الذي الفردي الدخل خالل من والخدمات السلع من حاجياتهم اقتناء

 . ً متساويا يكون قد الفردي الدخل أن من بالرغم البلدان هذه في تختلف قد الشرائية القدرة

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يعادل • الصين في الفردي الدخل متوسط أن افترضنا لو المثال، سبيل أي 6921وعلى دوالر 1000يووان،هو المتحدة الواليات في الفردي الدخل متوسط أن حين في العمالت، سوق في الصرف سع�ر 10.000حسب

هو. المتحدة الواليات في الدخل متوسط أن بسهولة تقول أن يمكن ذكرنها التي األرقام خالل من 10دوالراالقتصاد من مرات بعشر أكبر األمريكي فاالقتصاد وبالتالي الصين، في الفردي الدخل متوسط أضعاف

والقدرة. المعيشة كلفة االعتبار بعين يأخذ ال ألنه االقتصادين قوة عن دقيق بشكل يعبر ال الذي األمر الصينيقيمتها يع�كس ال األسواق في الصينية العملة صرف سعر أن إلى باإلضافة بلد، كل داخل للمواطنين الشرائية

تنافسية لزيادة األخرى العمالت أمام قيمتها لتخفيض دائم بشكل الصيني المركزي البنك لتدخل ً نظرا الحقيقية . الص�ينية الشركات صادرات

للمواطنين • الشرائية القدرة أن أي البلدين، بين متساوية المعيشة كلفة أن لو صحيحة الفرضية هذه ستكون . السلع أسع�ار متوسط أن ً مثال افترضنا ولو المتحدة الواليات في للمواطنين الشرائية القدرة تعادل الصين في

يوازي الصين في أن( 0.5 )1/2والخدمات يع�ني ما المتحدة، الواليات في والخدمات السلع أسعار متوسطاألمريكي المواطن عليها سيحصل التي من والخدمات السلع ضع�ف على الحصول يمكنه الصيني المواطن

. بمبلغ الصيني المواطن يستطيع أخرى، بعبارة أو نفسه سيحصل 100بالمبلغ ما ضعف على الحصول دوالر . والخدمات السلع من األمريكي المواطن عليه

يوازي • ال المتحدة الواليات في الفردي الدخل متوسط فإن الشرائية القوة تعادل نظرية فحسب فإنه 10ومنه . يبلغ المتحدة الواليات في ما سلعة أن افترضنا ولو فقط الضع�فين وإنما الفردي الدخل متوسط أضعاف

السلع�ة 20سعرها نفس ثمن يبلغ الصين وفي الشرائية 10دوالر، القوة تعادل أن يعني فذلك فقط، دوالراتهو المتحدة والواليات الصين ينفق% 50 = 20 /10بين الص�ين في المواطن أن يعني ينفقه% 50ما مما

المتحدة الواليات في المواطن ينفق حين في األمريكي، الصين% 200المواطن في المواطن ينفقه ما . السلعة نفس على للحصول

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Purchasing power parity (PPP) is a price index very similar in content and estimation to the consumer price index, or CPI. Whereas the CPI shows price changes over time, a PPP provides a measure of price level differences across countries.

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Table 2.2 A Comparison of Per Capita GNI, 2008

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Prices of nontraded services are much lower in developingcountries because wages are so much lower. Clearly, if domestic prices are lower, PPP measures of GNI per capita will be higher than estimates using foreign-exchange rates as the conversion factor. For example, China’s 2008 GNI per capita was only 6% of that of the United States using the exchange-rate conversion but rises to 13% when estimated by the PPP method of conversion. Income gaps between rich and poor nations thus tend to be less when PPP is used.

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Indicators of Health and Education

• Life expectancy is the average number of years newborn children would live if subjected to the mortality risks prevailing for their cohort at the time of their birth.

• Undernourishment means consuming too little food to maintain normal levels of activity; it is what is often called the problem of hunger.

• High fertility can be both a cause and a consequence of underdevelopment, so the birth rate is reported as another basic indicator.

• Literacy is the fraction of adult males and females reported or estimated to have basic abilities to read and write; functional literacy is generally lower than the reported numbers.

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Table 2.3 Commonality and Diversity: Some Basic Indicators