Economic Anthropology: Goods and Services Provision

Economic Economic AnthropologyAnthropology

The Cross-Cultural Provision The Cross-Cultural Provision of Goods and Servicesof Goods and Services

Defining Economic Defining Economic AnthropologyAnthropology

• Basic definition:Basic definition:• The cross-cultural study of theThe cross-cultural study of the• Production, distribution, and consumption ofProduction, distribution, and consumption of• goods and servicesgoods and services• Economy is not to be confused with Economy is not to be confused with

technologytechnology• Technology involves techniques, Technology involves techniques, • Examples: hunting, cultivation, house Examples: hunting, cultivation, house

construction and others.construction and others.

ProductionProduction

• How people organize their How people organize their workwork

• Preindustrial society divide Preindustrial society divide labor by:labor by:

• GenderGender• AgeAge• Part-time specialization Part-time specialization

(full time in agricultural (full time in agricultural states)states)

• In industrial societies, In industrial societies, detail labor (labor split into detail labor (labor split into subparts)subparts)

DistributionDistribution• Emphasis is on exchangeEmphasis is on exchange• Three types predominate: Three types predominate: • ReciprocityReciprocity• RedistributionRedistribution• Market exchangeMarket exchange• Exchange often is embedded in Exchange often is embedded in

societysociety• Yanomamo: trade is part of political Yanomamo: trade is part of political

alliancealliance• Ongka’s Big Moka Ongka’s Big Moka illustrates how illustrates how

power is derived from an elaborate power is derived from an elaborate system of exchangesystem of exchange

ConsumptionConsumption

• Access to goods and servicesAccess to goods and services• Related to property, where Related to property, where

such rules existsuch rules exist• An example of consumption: An example of consumption:

leveling mechanisms in leveling mechanisms in fiesta systems (left) of fiesta systems (left) of

• Mesoamerican cargo systemMesoamerican cargo system• Involves some wealth Involves some wealth

levelingleveling• Also community control over Also community control over

surplus wealthsurplus wealth

OverviewOverview

• Scarcity postulateScarcity postulate• Infinity of human wantsInfinity of human wants• Limits of means to satisfy themLimits of means to satisfy them• Source of substantivist-formalist debateSource of substantivist-formalist debate• Relations of production, including propertyRelations of production, including property• Systems of exchange: 3 kinds of reciprocity, Systems of exchange: 3 kinds of reciprocity,

plus redistribution and market exchangeplus redistribution and market exchange• The embedding of economy in society orThe embedding of economy in society or• Polanyi: economy as instituted processPolanyi: economy as instituted process

Scarcity PostulateScarcity Postulate

• In Western societyIn Western society• Human wants are considered Human wants are considered

infiniteinfinite• Means of satisfying them are Means of satisfying them are

finitefinite• Example: cars from clunker to Example: cars from clunker to

LexusLexus• Robbins’ definition of economicsRobbins’ definition of economics• ““The science which studies The science which studies

human behaviorhuman behavior• as a relationship between endsas a relationship between ends• and scarce means that have and scarce means that have

alternative uses”alternative uses”

Are the Best Things in Are the Best Things in Life Free?Life Free?

• Free goodsFree goods• Goods that exist in plentiful supply Goods that exist in plentiful supply • Few examples: air if you don’t mind the Few examples: air if you don’t mind the

pollutantspollutants• Economic goodsEconomic goods• Those that are scarceThose that are scarce• Second sense of economics:Second sense of economics:

economizingeconomizing• How do you best use what is scarce?How do you best use what is scarce?

Substantivism and Substantivism and FormalismFormalism

• OverviewOverview• Substantivists emphasize cultural relativism of Substantivists emphasize cultural relativism of

economicseconomics• Scarcity is not universalScarcity is not universal• How goods and servicesHow goods and services• are produced and distributedare produced and distributed• depend on the society studieddepend on the society studied• Formalists emphasize scarcity is everywhereFormalists emphasize scarcity is everywhere• May be intangible thing, such as prestigeMay be intangible thing, such as prestige• Time is finite, even if other things are notTime is finite, even if other things are not

SubstantivismSubstantivism

• Polanyi: defined substantivism Polanyi: defined substantivism and formalismand formalism

• Substantivism: provision of goods Substantivism: provision of goods and servicesand services

• Defined three major modes of Defined three major modes of exchange: reciprocity, exchange: reciprocity, redistribution, and market redistribution, and market transactionstransactions

• Argued that scarcity postulate Argued that scarcity postulate does not apply everywheredoes not apply everywhere

• Economy is an instituted process.Economy is an instituted process.

FormalismFormalism

• Robbins: scarcity is everywhere Robbins: scarcity is everywhere presentpresent

• A question of economizing:A question of economizing:• Optimizing ends with limited meansOptimizing ends with limited means• Economizing occurs inEconomizing occurs in• Noneconomic contexts:Noneconomic contexts:• Politics: “safe” districts, uncertain Politics: “safe” districts, uncertain

onesones• Study time: major course, electiveStudy time: major course, elective• Cross-culturallyCross-culturally• Prestige is scarcePrestige is scarce• Onka’s Big MokaOnka’s Big Moka is illustrative is illustrative

Summarizing Formalism: The Summarizing Formalism: The Academic MarketAcademic Market

Relations of ProductionRelations of Production

• Arrangements governing production Arrangements governing production of goods and servicesof goods and services

• Involve several variablesInvolve several variables• Property: Property: • Is there such a thing as ownership?Is there such a thing as ownership?• If so, who exercises ownership?If so, who exercises ownership?• What rights are included?What rights are included?• Labor relations: Who does what?Labor relations: Who does what?

Property: Communalism Property: Communalism and Jointand Joint

• Communalism: ownership by Communalism: ownership by communitycommunity

• Property is freely accessible to allProperty is freely accessible to all• Or it involves a sharing Or it involves a sharing

arrangement--meat among !Kung or arrangement--meat among !Kung or InuitInuit

• Mesoamerica: communal ownership, Mesoamerica: communal ownership, private use rights (usufruct)private use rights (usufruct)

Joint propertyJoint property

• All share in rights and obligations All share in rights and obligations • Property held by members of a Property held by members of a

corporate lineage or clancorporate lineage or clan• Example: cattle ownership among Example: cattle ownership among

some East Africanssome East Africans• Analysis: Corporate Lineages and Analysis: Corporate Lineages and

ClansClans

Descent Groups Descent Groups (Corporate Groups)(Corporate Groups)

• Are organized with the following Are organized with the following characteristicscharacteristics

• Own estate: land, cattle, Own estate: land, cattle, fishing/hunting groundfishing/hunting ground

• May be owned by group orMay be owned by group or• owned by their constituent familiesowned by their constituent families

Descent Groups: Rights Descent Groups: Rights and Obligationsand Obligations

• Estate entails rights and obligationsEstate entails rights and obligations• Examples:Examples:• Rights to cattle for bridewealthRights to cattle for bridewealth• Obligation to provide cattle for bridewealthObligation to provide cattle for bridewealth• Obligation to defend herds (or add to them)Obligation to defend herds (or add to them)• Fulani:Fulani:• If one loses herd due to diseaseIf one loses herd due to disease• Others contribute to replenishment of here Others contribute to replenishment of here

Descent Groups: Descent Groups: PerpetuityPerpetuity

• The lineage or clan is The lineage or clan is sociocentricsociocentric• It outlasts the life span of individualsIt outlasts the life span of individuals• Not unlike corporations and downsizing Not unlike corporations and downsizing • Contrasts with kindreds-Contrasts with kindreds-egocentricegocentric• Kindred comprises full brothers and Kindred comprises full brothers and

sisterssisters• Overlaps with other kindreds Overlaps with other kindreds • When full siblings die, kindred diesWhen full siblings die, kindred dies

Legal PersonsLegal Persons

• Corporations are defined as legal personsCorporations are defined as legal persons• Similar to descent groupsSimilar to descent groups• Kwakiutl: murder of noble of one clan by Kwakiutl: murder of noble of one clan by

commoner of anothercommoner of another• Requires death of noble of commoner’s Requires death of noble of commoner’s

clanclan• Responsibility is thereby collectiveResponsibility is thereby collective• New Guinea: murder requires revenge--New Guinea: murder requires revenge--

regardless of individual viewregardless of individual view

Property: PrivateProperty: Private

• Private propertyPrivate property• Can be used to one’s own endCan be used to one’s own end• Community or public Community or public

restrictions applyrestrictions apply• One needs a permit to make One needs a permit to make

renovations renovations • Then there’s that ole debbil—Then there’s that ole debbil—

Eminent DomainEminent Domain• Recent news: houses are Recent news: houses are

being taken over by (private) being taken over by (private) corporationscorporations

Property: Command Property: Command EconomiesEconomies

• State in command economiesState in command economies• Communist countries owned Communist countries owned

most productive assetsmost productive assets• Upper Left: Chinese communeUpper Left: Chinese commune• Only remaining countries: Only remaining countries:

Cuba, N. KoreaCuba, N. Korea• Inca: a administrative economyInca: a administrative economy• Land mostly belonged to Land mostly belonged to

empireempire• Labor tax was motor of the Labor tax was motor of the

Inca economy (lower left)Inca economy (lower left)

Division of Labor: Gender Division of Labor: Gender and Ageand Age

• Definition: Assignment of tasks based on societal Definition: Assignment of tasks based on societal rule or normrule or norm

• Among foragers, horticulturalists, and Among foragers, horticulturalists, and pastoralists, division is assignedpastoralists, division is assigned

• By genderBy gender: women do some tasks; men, others: women do some tasks; men, others• By age:By age: youths do more strenuous tasks than the youths do more strenuous tasks than the

aged aged • The aged bring experience to each taskThe aged bring experience to each task• By part-time specialty:By part-time specialty: weaving, shamanism weaving, shamanism• But all handle jobs in primary sector: foraging or But all handle jobs in primary sector: foraging or

cultivatingcultivating

Division of Labor: Craft Division of Labor: Craft Specialization, Detail Specialization, Detail

LaborLabor• With intensive cultivationWith intensive cultivation• More devote full time to specialized craftsMore devote full time to specialized crafts• Knowledge extends to all aspects of a given Knowledge extends to all aspects of a given

craftcraft• Some may specialize by region: W. GuatemalaSome may specialize by region: W. Guatemala• Industrialization: Detail laborIndustrialization: Detail labor• Which is more efficient in pin production?Which is more efficient in pin production?• One man cutting wire, pointing pin, putting One man cutting wire, pointing pin, putting

head on it, whiting it, and papering ithead on it, whiting it, and papering it• Or five men, one to each task?Or five men, one to each task?

Division of Labor: Division of Labor: Industrial Production Industrial Production

SystemSystem

• Detail labor involves breaking each task downDetail labor involves breaking each task down• To its subtasks in productionTo its subtasks in production• Assigning each subtask to each individual andAssigning each subtask to each individual and• Ordering each individual how to do each subtaskOrdering each individual how to do each subtask

Effects: Globalized Division Effects: Globalized Division of Labor of Labor

• Has enabled globalization of Has enabled globalization of productionproduction

• Labor intensive tasks sent to Labor intensive tasks sent to Third WorldThird World

• Such as this leatherworking Such as this leatherworking operation in Ecuadoroperation in Ecuador

• Result: downsizing and plant Result: downsizing and plant closuresclosures

• Mexican maquiladoras close Mexican maquiladoras close • As low wages in China or As low wages in China or

Bangladesh draw factories Bangladesh draw factories therethere

ConclusionConclusion

• Economic anthropology covers provision and Economic anthropology covers provision and distribution of goods and servicesdistribution of goods and services

• We have looked at the scarcity postulateWe have looked at the scarcity postulate• Also covered: substantivism vs. formalism on the Also covered: substantivism vs. formalism on the

scarcity questionscarcity question• We looked at systems of propertyWe looked at systems of property• We also examined the division of labor in We also examined the division of labor in

nonindustrialized and industrialized societies.nonindustrialized and industrialized societies.• We also showed how division of labor has We also showed how division of labor has

become intrnational in scope. become intrnational in scope. • Next, we look at the distribution of goods and Next, we look at the distribution of goods and

services in terms of systems of exchange. services in terms of systems of exchange.