Ecology of South Florida - Spring 2013 - Exam 1

1

GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF FLORIDAFLORIDA

CONTINENTAL DRIFTCONTINENTAL DRIFT• Earth’s land masses have been constantly

splitting, drifting, and colliding with each other since their formation over 1,600 MYA.

• Florida’s bedrock emerged and was once part of what is now West Africa around 500-600 MYA

• It joined North America as part of Laurasia in 220 MYA

RODINIA AND IAPETUS SEAPALEOPROTOZOIC: 1600 MYA

2

RODINIA BREAKS UPNEOPROTOZOIC: 900 MYA

CONTINENTS ADRIFTCAMBRIAN: 545 MYA

Gondwanaland

with Florida

SiberiaBaltica

CONVERGING CONTINENTSCARBONIFEROUS: 345 MYA

Gondwanaland

Euramerica Angra

3

PANGAEA AND PANTHALASSA PERMIAN: 299 MYA

Florida

PANGAEA SPLITSTRIASSIC: 225 MYA

Laurasiawith Florida

Gondwanaland

GONDWANA SPLITSTRIASSIC: 220 MYA

4

LAURASIA SPLITSJURASSIC: 180 MYA

THE MODERN WORLDHOLOCENE: 2002 AD

Week 1: Ecological Concepts and Principles: Part I

BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

I. Ecology defined:

A. Heakel 1869: oikos-logy (GR.) “study of home”

B. Krebs 1972: An Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions that determine the

distribution and abundance of organisms.”

II. Types of environments

A. Natural: natural sites (or undisturbed by human influence)

B. Anthropogenic: human modified

1. Domesticated/managed: cultivated

2. Fabricated: developed sites

a. Urban-industrial areas act as a “parasite” on natural and domesticated are

III. Levels of analysis

A. Organism: an interbreeding species (plural: population)

Focus of study: how species abundance and distribution is affected by and affects

surrounding environment

B. Community: all of the different populations living in a designated area

C. Ecosystem: the whole of a community and its surrounding non-living environment interacting

together as a system

D. landscape (S. Florida): groups of ecosystems, including fabricated environments

E. Biomes: large regional units

F. Biosphere: Parts of earth’s air, water and soil where lives exist

Biogeography is the study of the geographic patterns associated with organisms, i.e. the dispersal or distribution and the factors which influence this.

Such factors may include, historical events such as continental drift, volcanic eruptions, glaciations, sea level changes and paleontology.

There are three major types of biogeographic distributions to consider

Cosmopolitan

Endemic: limited to particular regions1. Alfred Russell Wallace (and other early biogeographers) realized that many endemic taxa had approximately congruent distributions (e.g., in particular regions of Indonesia), forming "Biogeographic Realms"2. Although a particular type of habitat might occur in several widely scattered places throughout the world, species in one habitat are more closely related to nearby species in other habitats than to species in the same habitat elsewhere (in other realms)

Disjunct: separated

II. Historical causes of disjunct biogeographic distributions

A. Dispersal1. A priori assumption can be tested for the hypothesis that many species can disperse great distances through environments that could not support survival or reproduction

2. Results of recent dispersals can be observed (e.g., 1883 Krakatoa eruption killed all life, but within 50 years, the island was covered with forest inhabitants that clearly came from Java and Sumatra)

3. Several types of dispersal mechanisms (e.g., corridors, filter bridges)

4. Ability to disperse varies greatly from group to group (e.g., bats are the only mammals native to New Zealand and Hawaii)

B. Vicariance (splitting of a taxon's range)1. Disjunct patterns result from changes imposed on an originally continuous distribution For example, the breakup of Gondwanaland in the Mesozoic can explain the distribution of some ancient groups like ratites and marsupials

Geologist and geographers supported the theory of Alfred Wagner that historically the world as we know it was onelandmass surrounded by water.

This land mass was called Pangea, over millions of years due to the shifting of the earths crust the mass was broken into pieces with the largest potion being called Gondwanaland.

With the freezing and melting of the polar ice caps sea level changes have dictated the distribution of some species throughout the world.

Others have been affected by the desertification of some areas or the migration of rivers in others.

Biogeography of distribution is also influenced by topography and parent material or underlying rock – plant distribution

Soil groups in Florida which range from very poorly drained spodosols to well drained sandy upland soils.

Four general soil types are found in Florida they are categorized based on drainage condition and subsequent P-retention.

1 - Very Poorly to Poorly Drained Soils (Bays and Savannas)

These soils are found in coastal flat lands in mostly level depressions and stream terraces. Most of these soils are flooded from 5 to 30 days, at least once during the growing season. The water table ranges from 6 to 20 inches below the surface during much of the remaining time. These soils were formed under impeded drainage. Therefore, they contain 10% or more organic matter in the surface horizon and most are very acidic and low in nutrient reserves. Vegetation native to these sites include wiregrass (Aristida stricta), pitcher plants (Sarracenia minor), some hardwoods, and a poor to fair growth of pine.

In most cases, pine growth is slowed by excessive moisture and lack of available soil phosphorus

2 - Poorly to Somewhat Poorly Drained Soils (Flatwoods)

The flatwoods comprise one of the most extensive groups of forest soils in the Coastal Plain. These acid to loamy sands are low in fertility. Flatwoods soils occupy level to gently sloping flat areas where the water table rises to within 5 to 20 inches of the soil surface for 1 to 4 days, at least once during the growing season. Flatwoods soils support native vegetation such as saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), wiregrass (Aristida stricta), and slash, loblolly, and longleaf pines (Pinus elliottii, Pinus taeda, and Pinus palustris). Flatwoods soils can be grouped into soils with and without organic pans.

3 - Moderately Well to Well Drained Soils (Sands to loamy sand-clay hills)

Typically, sands occupy nearly level to rolling regions of the lower Coastal Plain. They have gray to brown surface layers overlaying 30 inches or more grayish- to yellowish-brown sands. These sands have a low capacity to retain water, but they have a reasonably good moisture level because of their topographic position.

4 - Excessively Drained Sands (Sand hills)

Extensive areas of these deep sands are in pines in north Florida, Georgia, and the Carolina sand hills.

Sandy soil

Dry

Hot

Little water (percolation)

Nutrient poor

Cyclic fires

Many plants trap and retain water when it is available. Most have shallow root systems with fine roots near the surface to get what nutrients are present and deeper, sinker roots to bring in water.

The leaves on scrub plants are generally small and have a tough texture and tiny bristles or hairs on them to help retain moisture

Species distribution is also dictated by resources present for their survival particularly food and water.

Most organisms distribution occur along the food chain.

Plants are distributed according to the physical constraints of their biome (soil type, nutrient, water availability, temp. alt. Etc.)

Herbivores rely on plant distributions and other animals rely on herbivores for food.

The ability of an area to provide shelter is relevant (holes, caves, rocks, trees etc)

In S Florida our species distribution patterns are dictated by elevation and hydrology. The underlying parent rock is virtually the same throughout and so too is the temperature therefore weathering process are similar.

As such we have several ecosystem types serving as homes to a variety of animal and plant communities.

-Scrub

- Hammocks

- Freshwater marshes, lakes, rivers and canals

- Coastal ecosystems

South Florida's pre-terrestrial geological history (4,500 - 36 MYA).

AGE BIOTICERA PERIOD EPOCH (MYA) ABIOTIC FACTORS EVOLUTION

CENOZOIC Tertiary Oligocene 36 cooling begins; ice in south pole only grassesEocene 38

AGE 54 warm and humidOF Paleocene 55

MAMMALS 63 flowering plants, primates65 meteor hits earth major extinctions

MESOZOIC Cretaceous 66 no ice in poles100 continued limestone and aquiclude formation125 Atlantic Ocean begins to form

Sunniland Formation depositedAGE 134 mild ice ageOF Jurassic 135

150 Limestone deposition beginsREPTILES 180 N.A. splits from Pangaea birds

189 primitive mammals190

Triassic 220 Fla bedrock attaches to Laurasia (Georgia) 225 volcanic activity; Pangaea splits greatest extinctions244 sea level change, salinity change climate change dinosaurs

PALEOZOIC Permian 245 conifers299 landmasses collide; Pangaea is formed

Carboniferous 300 reptiles, modern insects345 landmasses converge towards each other major extinctions360

AGE Devonian 395 amphibiansOF 405 forests

PRIMITIVE Silurian 410 land plants LIFE FORMS 440 major extinctions

Ordovivian 445500 fishes505 coldest ice age ever major extinctions

Cambrian 506544 Fla bedrock part of Gondwanaland (Africa) marine invertebrates

PROTEROZOIC Neoprotozoic 545570 change in sea level major extinctions900 Rodinia breaks up

Mesoprotozoic 1,0001,500

Paleoprotozoic 1,600 Rodinia is formed2,500

ARCHAEAN 2,600 algae, protozoa, sponges3,600

HADEAN 3,800 bacteria4,500 origin of earth

South Florida's terrestrial geological history (25 MYA - 2002 A.D.).

AGE CLIMATE AND SIGNIFICANT FLORIDA CULTUREERA PERIOD EPOCH (YA) SEA LEVEL EVENTS BIOGEOGRAPHY/BIOTA PERIODS

CENOZOIC Quarternary Holocene present ?7th major extinction106 urbanization165 Indian imigration

AGE 225 pioneer settlementOF 490 Spanish contact

MAMMALS 2,500 Formative2,700 modern distribution of flora and fauna5,000 warm moist climate Everglades begins to form modern flora appears8,500 Archaic 11,000 drying climate12,000 semi-arid climate14,000 rapid sea level rise begins

Pleistocene 17,000 end of last major glaciation extinction of mega fauna small fauna with diverse habitats dominant(sea level -450 ft) oak, hickory, juniper replace pine Paleo-Indian

100,000 Sangamon Interglacial Anastasia Formation deposited180,000 (sea level +25 ft) Miami and Key Largo Limestone form

1,000,000 loss of east/west biota interchange bison 1,600,0001,800,000 longleaf pine savannas

Tertiary Pliocene 2,000,000 arid climate east/west US interchange of biota widespread scrub2,500,000 American interchange of biota ungulates replaced by S. American fauna

Tamiami Formation deposited5,000,000 grazing animals diversify

Miocene 5,200,000 cooling,drying climate N. and S. America connectinvasion by temperate flora

15,000,000 very warm climate Hawthorn Formation deposited subtropical savannas dominantgrazing and browsing ungulates more abundant

24,000,000 warming trend begins subtropical savannas formOligocene 25,000,000 ice in north and south poles first land vertebrates in Florida mesic forest; arboreal and browsing fauna

Florida aquifer limestone deposited37,000,000 peninsula emerges

PREHISTORIC BIOTA OF FLORIDA

25 MYA TO 5,000 YA

Climate:

– several changes, most frequent in Pleistocene; affect floral

distribution and faunal migrations

• Flora:

– savannas and mesic forests dominant throughout most of

prehistoric period

– scrub and pinelands also significant

• Fauna:

– grazers most dominant fauna, mostly in savannas

– diverse fauna in forest, marine, and river environments

– migrations from S. America and western US during Pliocene

HERBIVORE MAMMALS:

LEAF EATERS

FRUIT EATERS

SEED- EATERS

ROOT EATERS

BROWSERS

– GRASS AND TWIG EATERS

GRAZERS

– GRASS EATERS

POCKET MOUSE: SEED EATERS

LATE OLIGOCENE - PLEISTOCENE

BATS:

FRUIT EATERS (CARNIVORES TOO)

LATE OLIGOCENE – PLEISTOCENE

RABBITS: LEAF AND SEED EATERS

LATE OLIGOCENE-PLEISTOCENE

CAPYBARA:

LEAF AND FRUIT EATERS

HORSES: BROWSERS

LATE OLIGOCENE – LATE-PLIOCENE

PREHISTORIC BIOTA OFFLORIDA

25 MYA to 5,000 YA

• Climate:several changes, most frequent in Pleistocene; affect floraldistribution and faunal migrations

• Flora:savannas and mesic forests dominant throughout most of

prehistoric periodscrub and pinelands also significant

• Fauna:Grazers most dominant fauna, mostly in savannas

Diverse fauna in forest, marine, and river environmentsmigrations from S. America and western US during Pliocene

HERBIVORE MAMMALS:

• LEAF EATERS• FRUIT EATERS• SEED‐ EATERS• ROOT EATERS• BROWSERS• GRASS AND TWIG EATERS• GRAZERS• GRASS EATERS

POCKET MOUSE:SEED EATERS

Late Oligocene ‐ Pleistocene

BATS:FRUIT EATERS (CARNIVORES TOO)

Late Oligocene – Pleistocene

RABBITS:LEAF AND SEED EATERS

Late Oligocene‐Pleistocene

CAPYBARA:LEAF AND FRUIT EATERS

HORSES: BROWSERSLate Oligocene – Late‐Pliocene

PREHISTORIC BIOTA OFFLORIDA

25 MYA to 5,000 YAClimate:

Several changes, most frequent in Pleistocene; affect floraldistribution and faunal migrations

Flora:

Savannas and mesic forests dominant throughout most ofprehistoric period scrub and pinelands also significant

• Fauna:

Grazers most dominant fauna, mostly in savannasDiverse fauna in forest, marine, and river environmentsMigrations from S. America and western US during Pliocene

CARNIVORE AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES

• Insect eaters• Small vertebrate eaters• Large Vertebrate eaters

FROG: INSECT EATERLate Oligocene – Mid Miocene

INSECT EATERSLate Oligocene – Early Pleistocene

SNAKES:SMALL – LARGE VERTEBRATE EATERSLate Oligocene – Early Pleistocene

GEKKO:INSECT EATER

Early Miocene ‐ ?

GILA MONSTER:INSECT AND SMALL VERTEBRATE EATER

Early Miocene – Early Pleistocene

SALTWATER CROCODILE:LARGE VERTEBRATE EATER

Mid Miocene

FROG FOSSIL

SKINKS:INSECT EATERS

Early Miocene – Mid Miocene

HERBIVORE REPTILE

TORTOISES: LEAF EATERSLate Oligocene

SONGBIRDS:FRUIT, SEED, AND INSECT EATERSLate Oligocene ‐ Pleistocene

SCRUB JAY:Late Pliocene ‐ Pleistocene

CONDOR: CARRION EATERLate Miocene 

TITANIS:CARNIVOROUS PREDATOR

Late Pliocene

CARNIVORE MARINE ANIMALS

SHARK TEETHLate Oligocene ‐ Pleistocene

STING RAY:MOLLUSC EATER

Late Oligocene ‐ Pleistocene

HERBIVORE MARINE MAMMAL

PRIMITIVE MANATEE:LEAF EATERMid Miocene

PREHISTORIC FLORIDA BIOTA KEY TERMS Mesic forest:

Forestthat developed in a medium-wet environment. Plants may have been similar to those found in tropical hardwood hammocks today.

Arboreal animals: Tree dwelling animals

Temperate (flora and and/or fauna): Term used to refer to species that live in areas that live in a climate that experiences seasonal freezing temperatures.

Subtropical Savanna: Open dry grasslands with trees being very sparse.

Grazers: Grass eaters

Browsers: Grass AND twig eaters

Ungulates: Animals with hoofs

Scrub: a term used to describe the vegetation community that forms in extremely harsh soil and water conditions

longleaf pine savanna: a dry grassland with interspersed islands of long leaf pine

east-west biota interchange (2-1 MYA): An extended hot and dry period led to the migration of desert-dwelling animals from the American southwest into South Florida. Desert plant species also expanded their range into S. Fl during this period. Most of these plants and animals disappeared after the climate cooled and got wetter, but some have remained.

ANIMAL SPECIES LIST: List of prehistoric animals whose remains have been found in South Florida I. MAMMALS A. HERBIVORES:

POCKET MOUSE: SEED EATERS Late Oligocene - Pleistocene BATS: FRUIT EATERS Late Oligocene – Pleistocene RABBITS: LEAF AND SEED EATERS Late Oligocene-Pleistocene CAPYBARA: LEAF AND FRUIT EATERS Early Pliocene – Early Pleistocene HORSES: BROWSERS Late Oligocene – Late-Pliocene CAMELIDS: GRAZERS Early Miocene – Late Pliocene PROSYNTHETOCERAS: GRAZERS Early Miocene PRONGHORN ANTELOPE: GRAZERS Late Miocene WHITE TAIL DEER: GRAZERS Early Pliocene - Pleistocene RHINOCEROS: BROWSWER Early Miocene – Late Miocene BISON: GRAZER Early Pleistocene GOMPHOTHERIUM: BROWSER Mid Miocene – Late Miocene GIANT GROUND SLOTH: BROWSER Late Pliocene OREODONT: LEAF EATER Early Miocene - Mid Miocene

B. OMNIVORES

OPPOSSUM: Late Oligocene - Pleistocene PRIMITIVE PECCARY: Late Oligocene – Early Pliocene TAPIR: Early Pleistocene BEAR-LIKE MAMMAL: Early Miocene – Early Pleistocene

C. CARNIVORES HEDGEHOG: INSECT EATER Early Miocene – Late Miocene GIANT ARMADILLO: INSECT EATER Late Pliocene WEASEL-LIKE MAMMAL: EATS SMALL VERTEBRATES Early Miocene CANIDS: EATS LARGE VERTEBRATES Early Miocene SABERCAT: EATS LARGE VETEBRATES Late Oligocene – Early Pleistocene JAGUAR: EATS LARGE VERTEBRATES Early Pleistocene

II. BIRDS A. SONGBIRDS: OMNIVORES (FRUIT, SEED, AND INSECT EATERS) MISCELLANEOUS SONGBIRDS ?Late Oligocene – Pleistocene

SCRUB JAY: Late Pliocene - Pleistocene B. RAPTORS (SHARP CURVED BEAK AND GRASPING TALON): CARNIVORES CONDOR: CARRION EATER ?Late Miocene - ? TITANIS: FLIGHTLESS CARNIVOROUS PREDATOR Late Pliocene III. REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS A. CARNIVORES SNAKES: SMALL – LARGE VERTEBRATE EATERS Late Oligocene – Early Pleistocene LIZARDS: INSECT EATERS Late Oligocene – Early Pleistocene GEKKO: INSECT EATER Early Miocene - ? GILA MONSTER: INSECT AND SMALL VERTEBRATE EATER Early Miocene – Early Pleistocene SALTWATER CROCODILE: LARGE VERTEBRATE EATER Mid Miocene FROG: INSECT EATER Late Oligocene – Mid Miocene SKINKS: INSECT EATERS Early Miocene – Mid Miocene B. HERBIVORE TORTOISES: LEAF EATERS Late Oligocene IV. MARINE ANIMALS A. CARNIVORES SHARK Late Oligocene - Pleistocene STING RAY: MOLLUSC EATER Late Oligocene - Pleistocene B. HERBIVORES PRIMITIVE MANATEE: LEAF EATER Mid Miocene

SOUTH FLORIDA, ITS GEOLOGICAL HISTORY, AND ITS PREHISTORIC

BIOTA

I. INTRODUCTION

South Florida defined: no universally accepted definitions or criteria for defining the boundaries exist

A. Robertson (1962): “south of the South”

B. Botanical definition: Shelford (1978): northern limit of S. Fla. Bounded by southernmost

extent of magnolia forest (from West Palm on the east to Lemon Bay on the west)

C. Ecological definition: Extent of “tropical” climate.

1. Simpson (1920) northern limit of S. Fla. Bounded by Fort Lauderdale in the east

to Cape Romano on the west

2. Long and Lakela (1976): Collier, Dade, and Monroe counties

D. Definition used in EVR 3013 (see map in physiographic regions.ppt): northern limit of S.

Fla. Bounded by somewhere around Stuart on the east, crossing above Lake Okeechobee to

include watershed and continuing to around Fort Myers to the west.

II. GEOLOGICAL HISTORY: A CHRONOLOGY

See Florida Geological Charts.pdf. and Geo-World.ppt,

III. PRE-TERRESTRIAL GEOLOGICAL HISTORY: BUILDING ON FLORIDA PLATFORM

A. The First Sediment Layer

Beginning in the Jurassic about 150 million years ago, limestone and related rocks together (dolomite)

with shell material comprised the first type of sediment to form on the bedrock of the Florida

Platform. The limestone derives from dissolved calcium carbonate, which is naturally present in sea

water and which is precipitated by physical-chemical and biological processes to form sediments that

solidify into various types of limestone. Deposition only occurs during warm interglacial periods

when land is submerged under sea water for extended period of time.

B. The First Aquifer

Partial dissolving of the limestone created water-conducting channels and pockets. During periods of

glaciation, sea level dropped enough to expose the sediments to air; the limestone could fill with

freshwater from rainfall. By the Cretaceous Period (about 100-70 million years ago), the water-filled

limestone layer became thousands of feet thick. However, deposition during the Cretaceous included

increasing amounts of impermeable rocks and sediment that accumulated on top of the limestone,

creating an aquiclude (impermeable layer) and making the water below it inaccessible.

C. The Floridan Aquifer

During the period from about 70 to 25 million years ago the deposition of limestone resumed, and

thanks to various fluctuations in sea level during that time, the Floridan Aquifer was formed. Water

enters the Floridan aquifer from rainfall percolating through soils and permeable rock in northern and

central Florida and flows southward through the rock. The northern portions of the Upper Floridan

aquifer are used as drinking water, but the southern sections of the aquifer are too salty for drinking.

IV. EARLY TERRESTRIAL GEOLOGICAL HISTORY

A. Deposition of Hawthorn Formation At the beginning of the Miocene Epoch, ever increasing amounts of sand, silt, and clay were

transported into Florida by the numerous river systems from the neighboring Appalachian Mountains

to the north. These sediments are called clastics. By the late Miocene, these clastics were the dominant

type of deposit. The sedimentary layer that resulted is called the Hawthorn Formation. It formed the

first permanent land on the Florida Platform. B. The Hawthorn Formation and the Floridan Aquifer The lower part of the Hawthorn Formation is composed of permeable sediments and the upper part is

composed of impermeable sediments. The impermeable clay, marl, and the less porous impure

limestone of Miocene age that make up the upper portion of the Hawthorn Formation serves as an

aquiclude. This aquiclude forms the boundary of the upper Floridan Aquifer and confines the water in

the Floridan Aquifer.

V. MORE RECENT GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS THAT SHAPED THE EVERGLADES

A. Deposits of the Sangamon Interglacial Several major climatic changes during the Pliocene and Pleistocene allowed the development of more

recent sediment formations. In most of Florida, the predominant deposits included sand, shells, and

limestone. The most recent of deposits were formed during the interglacial period called the

Sangamon Interglacial during the period from about 180,000 to 100,000 years ago when sea level

was 25 feet higher than today.

B. Recent Geological Formations (in order of first to last to form)

1. Tamiami Formation: sand and carbonate sediments. Forms the upper bedrock in the Big Cypress

Swamp.

2. Caloosahatche Formation: sand and seashells

3. Fort Thompson Formation: sand, carbonate, and shells

4. Anastasia Formation: sand and seashells

5. Miami Limestone: granular, non-coralline (oolitic) limestone

6. Key Largo Limestone: fossilized coral reefs

C. Biscayne Aquifer

In the Miami to Fort Lauderdale area, the Miami limestone and underlying Ford Thompson Formation

together form the Biscayne Aquifer. Part of the Biscayne aquifer is located on the surface and rainfall

and water from the central Everglades enter it directly.

VI. PREHISTORIC BIOTA

See Florida Geological Charts.pdf , Prehistoric Biogeography.ppt, and Prehistoric

Biota Species list.doc

SOUTH FLORIDA’S PHYSIOGRAPHICREGIONS PART 1

• Characteristic features and how they support an Ecosystem

EXTENT OF SOUTH FLORIDA

PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS

PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS USED IN ECOLOGY

OF SOUTH FLORIDAFlatlandsEastern and Western FlatlandsEvergladesAtlantic Coastal RidgeBig Cypress SwampMangrove and Coastal RegionFlorida KeysAtlantic OceanGulf of MexicoAquifers

CHARACTERISTICS OF FLATLANDPHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS

• Eastern flatlands• Low, sandy, poorly drained area• Mostly pineland, but incorporates prairies, cypress forests and

sloughs• Western flatlands• All the area north of the Big Cypress and west of the

Everglades• Low-lying, sandy soil from very poorly drained in the south to

well drained in the north• Highly diverse: Pine and cypress forest, mixed swamp forest,• freshwater marshes and prairies, grasslands, salt water marshes

and mangrove swamps

ECOSYSTEMS FOUND IN FLATLANDS

PINE FLATWOODSCYPRESS FORESTFRESHWATER MARSHSLOUGHWET PRAIRIESSALT MARSHMANGROVE SWAMP

WELL-DRAINED PINE FLATWOOD

POORLY DRAINED PINE FLATWOOD

VERY POORLY DRAINED PINE FLATWOOD

BALD CYPRESS IN CYPRESS FOREST

FRESHWATER MARSH AND SLOUGH

WET PRAIRIE

SALT MARSH

MANGROVE SWAMP

CHARACTERISTICS OF EVERGLADES

PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGION• Central feature of Florida (also Lake Okeechobee)• Used to be 100 miles long and 40 miles wide slopingfrom an elevation of 17 ft in the north to sea level inthe south• Dense vegetation and nearly flat topography causeslow water flow - “sheet flow”• Dominant plant species is sedge-sawgrass, butmicroscopic algal assemblage called “peryphyton”isalso very important

RELATIVE ELEVATION OF EVERGLADES

ECOSYSTEMS FOUND IN THEEVERGLADES REGION

• MARSHES• WET PRAIRIES• TREE ISLANDS• SLOUGHS, PONDS, AND• CREEKS

MARSH AND TREE ISLANDS

WET PRAIRIE IN DRY SEASON

SLOUGH OR POND

ALLIGATOR IN POND

SOUTH FLORIDA’S PHYSIOGRAPHICREGIONS PART 2

Their Characteristic features and an ecosystems they support

EXTENT OF SOUTH FLORIDA

PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS #3

ATLANTIC COASTAL RIDGE

• Limestone ridge around 20 ft in elevation at highest points running east coast of South Florida

• Ridge served as a dam to keep Everglades waters up to 8-10 ft above sea level

• Previously covered by rock pinelands• South of Miami, main location of rockland• hammocks – (tropical hardwood hammocks)

ECOSYSTEMS FOUND IN THEATLANTIC COASTAL RIDGE

• Rockland's Pinelands• Rockland Hammocks

ROCK PINELAND

FLORIDA PANTHER IN ROCK PINELAND

DESTROYED ROCK PINELANDS

ROCKLAND HAMMOCK

BIG CYPRESS SWAMP

• Flat, swampy land with higher elevationsthan Everglades, but with scattered depressions and sloughs

• Seasonally inundated• Cypress is dominant plant species, but

also includes pines and oaks in hydrichammocks

ECOSYSTEMS FOUND IN THE BIGCYPRESS SWAMP

• CYPRESS PONDS• MIXED CYPRESS FORESTS• CYPRESS STRANDS• HYDRIC HAMMOCKS

CYPRESS POND

MIXED CYPRESS FOREST

CYPRESS STRAND

HYDRIC (WET) HAMMOCK

Mangrove and Coastal Area

• Used to be among the largest and bestdeveloped mangrove swamps in the world• Dominated by mangroves, but include saltmarshes, hammock, and beach dune vegetation in some areas

Ecosystems Found in the Mangrove and coastal region

• Mangrove• Salt Marsh• Hammock• Beach Dune• Estuary

RED MANGROVE IN ESTUARY

MANGROVE FOREST

SALT MARSH

COASTAL HAMMOCK

BEACH DUNE

Generally wet subtropical, but not all of South Florida has same climate

Tropical savanna (Aw): tropical rainy climate with a pronounced dry season or drought period west of coastal ridge, south of L. Okeechobee

Transitional tropical (Am): tropical rainy climate with a very short dry season along coastal ridge from Ft. Pierce to Homestead

Humid mesothermal (Caf): definite seasons with long summer and mild winter north of Lake Okeechobee

RainfallAverage annual rainfall: 50-60 inchesHighest rainfall along east coast over the EvergladesLowest rainfall in Key West

May and October are pivotal months with inconsistent 60% of average annual rainfall November to April – dry season -25% rainfallTemperature

Annual average temperature = 72o FMean daily maximum summer temperature = 91o FMean daily maximum winter temperature = 75o F

SeasonsDry season: November to AprilWet season: May to October

• OtherSecond highest frequency of thunderstorms

in the worldHighest annual frequency of lightning strikes in the US

Droughts and increased average temperaturesHurricanesFreezes

Most common in spring at end of dry season

Can increase fire frequency

Can reduce water table for Biscayne aquiferincreases probability of salt water intrusion

Increases probability of hyper-salinity of brackish waters

Average of 4-6 hurricanes per year in CaribbeanStrike coastal Florida once every 6-8 yearsHighest frequency between September and OctoberDestruction caused by wind, waves, storm surge, and rainHelp shape plant communitiesUproot trees and break their limbs opening up areas to sunlightDamage trees increasing susceptibility to insect diseaseMarl and seawater may be carried inland smothering plants and making soil salinecoastal salinity of estuaries is decreased by rainfallwinds distribute seeds and seedlings to new areas

Very infrequent• Several species of floraare freeze sensitive

Manchineel, guava,coco plum, buttonwood,mangroves

Manatee and fish amongmost sensitive fauna

ECOSYSTEMS, HABITATS, AND RELATED COMMUNITIES COVERED IN ECOLOGY OF SOUTH FLORIDA

EVR 3013/5061 I. UPLAND ECOSYSTEMS

A. Tropical Hardwood Hammock B. Pine Rockland C. Pine Flatwood

II. FRESHWATER WETLAND ECOSYSTEMS

A. Freshwater Marshes 1. Sawgrass marsh 2. Flag marsh 3. Water lily marsh

B. Wet Prairies a. Marl prairie b. Peat prairie

C. Aquatic Ecosystems 1. Slough 2. Creeks 3. Ponds, (alligator holes, solution holes)

D. Wetland Tree Islands (wet part of tree islands) 1. Bay heads 2. Willow heads 3. Cypress heads

E. Freshwater Swamps 1. Cypress domes/ponds 2. Mixed swamp forest 3. Cypress strand 4. Dwarf cypress forest

III. COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

A. Intertidal (Inshore) Ecosystem 1. Mangrove Swamps and Islands 2. Salt Marshes 3. Tidal Creeks 4. Estuaries/Bays

a Shallow soft bottom • Seagrass • Mud banks b. Deep soft bottom (unvegetated) “lakes” • Plankton (above sediment) • Benthos communities (in and on sediment) c. Hard bottom • Oyster bars

*B. Marine (Offshore) Ecosystem 1. Seagrass 2. Live bottom 3. Reefs

a. Coral reefs • Bank reefs • Patch reefs

b. Worm reefs c. Vermetid (gastropod) reefs

*C. Beach (Shore) Ecosystem

1. fore dune 2. dune front 3. back dune

IV. LAKE OKEECHOBEE

1. Littoral (shallow near-shore) a. Willow community b. Beakrush community c. Sawgrass community d. Waterlily community e. Bulrush community f. Submerged community 2. Pelagic (open water)

* Not discussed in the Everglades Handbook

ECOSYSTEMS: COMPONENTS, FUNCTIONS, AND PROPERTIES

I. Components of ecosystems

A. Biotic (Biological/Living) 1. Biotic components

a. Autotrophic (producers): green plants, algae b. Heterotrophic (consumers)

herbivores: eat plants and plant materials (seeds, fruits, twigs) carnivores: eat other animals, including insects

omnivores: herbivores and carnivores saprovores: decompose organic material (mostly bacteria and fungi)

2. Description of biotic characteristics

Floral (plants) a. Number of total species b. Relative abundance of species c. Spatial characteristics: Vertical composition: description of the vertical layers of a forest

Canopy: top layer of a forested area – usually the tallest growing trees Sub canopy: the top layer of the next tallest growing region, usually shrubs or trees

Ground layer: the ground cover, usually grasses and herbs Over story: isolated trees whose tops extend above the canopy – usually tall palms and

pine trees Vines and epiphytes: not really layers, but plant types found in all layers of the forest

Zonation: Pattern of distribution of communities found within an ecosystem. For example,

fore dune vs back dune, nearshore vs offshore, littoral vs pelagic zones. d. Origins of species Endemic: plants found only in the given ecosystem Exotic: plants introduced by humans into the given ecosystem

Faunal (animals) a. Number of total species b. Relative abundance of species c. Origins of species d. Endemic: animals found only in the given ecosystem e. Exotic: animals introduced by humans into the given ecosystem

B. Abiotic (Physical/Non-Living) 1. Abiotic factors

a. Energy: Solar, wind, water currents, energy in food, fuel b. Matter: inorganic and organic c. Fire

Major environmental factor especially important in forest and grassland regions

Helps to maintain certain fire-adapted forms of vegetation and associated animals (birds etc . . .) acts as a decomposer in dry or hot regions by releasing nutrients in dry litter

Periodic fires prevent severe fires by reducing the combustible litter 2. Descritpion of abiotic characteristics

a. Topography: physical surface features b. Hydroperiod: Average annual duration of flooding c. Hydropattern: Depiction of water levels above and below the ground d. Fire frequency and intensity

e. Other abiotic characteristics: salinity, temperature, humidity, pH, levels of toxic chemicals or heavy metals

II. Functions of ecosystems

A. Energy flows

1. Energy flow through biosphere Dissipation of solar energy as it passes into the atmosphere, oceans, and the greenbelts warms the biosphere to life-sustaining levels, drives the hydrological cycle, and powers weather systems. 2. Energy flow through biotic communities in the form of food chains Food chains: predation series linking animals to ultimate plant food 3. Productivity: food availability

a. primary production: amount of organic matter converted from solar energy by autotrophs in a given area over a given period of time

b. net primary production: surplus amount of matter stored in a plant potentially available to heterotrophs c. secondary production: energy storage at consumer levels (i.e. in cows)

B. Material cycling

1. The circular paths of material elements passing back and forth between organisms and the environment 2. Major types of cycles

Hydrological, nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon cycles III. Properties of ecosystems

A. Transcending functions

Functions that serve to link ecological units at different levels of organization “What happens at one level affects what happens at another level.”

Example: freshwater marshes are at a lower level of organization than the freshwater wetland ecosystem. Yet, the degradation of the freshwater marshes can disrupt the entire freshwater

wetland ecosystem. B. Emergent property principle

As components or subsets are combined to produce larger functional wholes, new properties emerge that were not present at the level below.

Example 1: The combination of freshwater and salt water in Florida Bay creates conditions to support plant and animal life not found in either surrounding freshwater or salt water environments. Example 2: The emergent property of size. Ten lots of wetlands 1 acre in size each will support a

much lower abundance and diversity of life than can be found in a single contiguous 10 acre lot. Therefore, it is important to keep large areas of natural environment intact rather than trying to maintain many smaller areas intact.

IV. Other key concepts relevant to ecosystems

A. Habitat: place where a species can be found

B. Niche: the ecological role of an organism in its community C. Biodiversity: the variety of life forms and the genetic diversity they contain measured by:

1. Richness: variety of species 2. Relative abundance of species: the quantity of any given species

D. Community species structure: the species composition of the community 1. Ecological dominants: the most common species. Example: pine trees in pinelands 2. Keystone species: species that exert a controlling influence. May be used to indicate ecological status of a community.

Example: Gopher tortoises dig holes that protect many ground dwelling animals during forest fires. Their disappearance indicates a trend toward higher risk for those ground dwelling animals.

3. Density: number of species per given area – usually a much better indicator of fitness in that environment than abundance alone.

E. Ecotones: points of change between ecosystems wherein interaction between ecosystems exists. Example: the transitional region between rock pinelands and rockland hammocks

CONDITIONS INFLUENCING ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANISMS:

EVOLUTION, NATURAL SELECTION, AND SPECIES INTERACTIONS I. Conditions influencing abundance and distribution of organisms The abundance and distribution of all species alive today is the result of biotic and abiotic factors interacting throughout evolutionary history into the present.

A. Abiotic factors and conditions (see above)

B. Biotic Factors

1. Organism biology (physiology + anatomy) a. rates of birth, death b. biological adaptations: resistance to fire, flooding

2. Behavior a. Migration b. Interspecies interactions (see below)

II. Evolution

A. Evolution defined

1. “ . . . evolution is merely change . . . Biological evolution . . . is change in the properties of populations of organisms that transcend the lifetime of a single individual (Futuyma 1986).” 2. Evolution is a process that results in heritable changes in a population spread over many generations.

III. Natural selection: mechanism of evolution A. Basic principles to the theory of natural selection

1. Every species is composed of a great variety of individuals, some of which are better-adapted to their environment than others.

a. natural selection operates on genetic and behavioral variation within a population 2. Offspring inherit traits from their parents at least to some degree and in some way 3. Since better-adapted individuals generally produce more offspring over the generations than the poorer-adapted, the frequency of adaptive traits increases in subsequent generations.

IV. Interspecies interactions

A. Competition: When populations of different species compete for scarce resources in a given area. Both populations inhibit or have some negative effect on each other. May lead to either the elimination of one species or the coexistence of species.

Example 1: In an enclosed hardwood tropical hammock, seedlings may compete for sunlight. The different species may be able to coexist, but the population size of the seedlings will be less than it would be if there were no competitions. Species that are not able to adequately compete may be eliminated from the ecosystem. Example 2: In the Everglades, many water bird species feed in the few remaining ponds during dry season, increasing the competition for fish. However, the birds manage to coexist thanks to different their feeding strategies. Nonetheless, as competition intensifies, population size decreases.

B. Predation: When populations of one species (predator) depend on eating of other species (prey) for survival. Positive for the predator, negative for the prey, but may be positive for the population (culling the weak).

Example: Sharks are top predators in marine environments. They prefer to select prey that demonstrates weakness or injury since they are easier to catch.

C. Parasitism: When an organism lives in or on a host, which serves as an energy source and habitat. Negative for the host, positive for the parasite. Parasites tend to have high rates of reproduction.

Example: The ecologist, Eugene Odum referred to urban development as an example of

parasitism by humans of the natural environment. As the urban development grows and spreads, it depletes the natural environment of the energy stored in plants and animals, having to increasingly import energy sources from other areas for survival.

D. Commensalism: When one species, the commensal, benefits from its relationsip with another, which is not affected.

Example: Long strands of Spanish moss are sometimes found hanging down from the branches of oak trees. The oak trees are not affected, but the Spanish moss needs them for their

survival. E. Mutualism: When two or more species interact in a relationship where both species benefit from the interaction. The interaction may be optional (cooperation) or essential for the survival of both partners (mutualism).

Example: The algae, zooxanthellae, lives inside the cells of coral polyps. This relationship provides a permanent base upon which the algae can gorw and receive sunlight. Photosynthesis by the algae provides essential nutrient supplements necessary for the survival of the coral polyps.

DEVELOPMENT AND EVOLUTION OF COMMUNITIES

I. Succession: The process of going through a youth-to-maturity development process over a period of 1000 years or less. Also called ecosystem development

A. Involves changes in organisms and the physical environment B. Continual process in the landscape C. Follows a definite pattern

1. seral stages: series of temporary or pioneer communities 2. climax stage: more permanent communities – lasting hundreds or thousands of years

II. Types of succession

A. Primary succession: begins on site where conditions for life are not favorable: tends to be slow B. Secondary succession: tends to be fast

1. development on sites previously occupied by well-developed communities 2. development on sites where nutrients and other conditions for life are favorable (abandoned gardens)

Hammocks:

NAME(S): Tropical Hardwood Hammock, Rockland Hammock I. INTRODUCTION

“Hammock” - a fertile area in the southern U.S. and especially Florida that is usually higher than its surroundings and that is characterized by hardwood vegetation and humus-rich soil (Webster) Working definition: Hammocks are broad-leaved, evergreen forests with a closed canopy There are only about 40 acres of tropical hardwood hammocks left in the Reserve, with the largest single community located on Cannon Island. Rookery Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve (RBNERR) has hammocks on sand and shelly ridges, limestone outcroppings, and some shell mounds.

Plants favoring alkaline conditions thrive on these ridges; some are natural and some have been

enhanced by the Calusa Indians Along both coasts of southern Florida, scattered throughout the Everglades, and especially in the Florida Keys, there exist dense, a thick dense vine-entangled forests called tropical hardwood hammocks

II. DISTRIBUTION: Atlantic Coastal Ridge, Fl Keys, Big Cypress Swamp Hammocks are often found on higher ground (more resistant) than surrounding area. Craighead estimated that there were once more than 500 hammocks (0.1-40 ha) on Miami Rockland scattered among pine rockland. Hammocks can be successional phases of pine flatwoods, scrub, pine rocklands and beach strand vegetation.

III. DESCRIPTION A. ABIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS

1. Physical Attributes

a. Usually flat, but do occur on ridges b. Topography often irregular due to solution features c. Large sinks may be present

2. Geology and Soils

a. Underlain by Pleistocene marine limestones --Miami, Key Largo and Tamiami, Anastasia, and Ft. Thompson Formations b. Soils: Shallow with high organic content but often with a well-developed humus layer. Plants

often establish in organic matter trapped between solution features. 3. Hydrology

a. Well-drained when over limestone solution features b. Moderately to poorly drained in sandier soils c. Poorly drained when derived from swamp soils

4. Fire

Hammocks are relatively fire proof as long as the water table remains within a few feet of the ground surface during the dry season

B. BIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS 1. GENERAL FLORAL DESCRIPTION

Approximately 306 species of plants have been accounted for in tropical hammocks. Most of these plants are common to the Bahamas and Greater Antilles. South Florida hammocks consist of broad-leaved evergreen and deciduous trees, many vines, air plants, and ferns. Tree height is kept to 55 feet or less due to cold snaps, lightning, and storms. Due to the great diversity of plant species in hammocks, no single species dominates. Some of the most common tree

species of the hammocks include several varieties of the fig tree, white stopper (Eugenia axillaris), gumbo limbo (Bursera simaruba), live oak (Quercus virginiana), pigeon plum (Cocoloba diversifolia), wild tamarind (Lysiloma latisliqua), false (wild) mastic (Mastichodendron foetidissimum), and paradise tree (Simaroubaglauca). Less frequent is the Florida royal palm (Roystoneaelata))

a. CANOPY LAYER Variable composition, to 20m high Dominants: sometimes single species

Bursera simarouba (gumbo limbo), Coccoloba diversifolia (pigeon plum), Lysiloma

latisliquum (wild tamarind), Metopium toxiferum (poison wood), Quercus virginiana (live oak)

Density: High density to 7500 stems per hectare See Chapter 5, Table 5.1 Selected Native trees and shrubs of Everglades Tropical

Hardwood Hammocks

b. OTHER LAYERS Subcanopy and shrub layer: Variable - may or may not be obvious

Ground herb layer: May be sparse Vines: Vines are often very abundant, especially in disturbed sites Epiphytes (non-parasitic plants that grow on other plants and receive their nutrients from the air): Epiphytes are often abundant, including many ferns, bromeliads, and orchids.

c. ENDEMICS No endemic species

d. EXOTICS Ardisia solanacea: shoebutton ardisia Carica papaya: papaya Dioscorea bulbifera: air potato Jasminum spp.:jasmine Schinus terebinthifolius: Brazilian pepper

e. DIVERSITY Diversity is among the highest at the community level. More than 150 tree species occur in

Dade, Collier and Monroe county hammocks 2. GENERAL FAUNAL DESCRIPTION

The historic range of the Florida black bear, Florida panther, bobcat (Lynx rufus), and white tail deer used to include hammocks, but most of the animals of the hammocks were smaller. Today, the reduced population of the larger mammals and the conversion of the rock ridge to urban lands have further increased the dominance of small mammals in the hammocks. Two of the most common hammock mammals, the opossum (Didelphis virginiana) and raccoon (Procyonlotor), are common also to all other natural areas of Dade County. The hammock

birds are mostly songbirds that feed on fruits, insects, or small lizards. Some of the most familiar and abundant species include the blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata), mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos), and cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis). Some of the more common amphibians and reptiles include the southern toad (Bufo terrestris), green treefrog (Hyla cinerea), black racer (Coluber constrictor), and green anole (Anolis caroliniensis).

IV. FACTORS INFLUENCING SPECIES ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION A. ABIOTIC FACTORS

The vegetative characteristics of hammocks are determined by various local conditions including climate, surrounding vegetation, elevation and limestone composition

V. SUCCESSION

Fire maintains the species composition of pine rocklands. In the absence of fire, hardwood species generally invade. Pines do not regenerate in their own shade. Hammock species (including Metopium toxiferum, Swietenia mahogoni, Bursera simarouba, and Dipholis salicifolia) increase in the absence of fire. As a result, successional changes lead to changes in the soil. Organic matter accumulates,

shading increases, soil moisture increases and resistance to fire increases.

VI. HUMAN USE AND LAND COVER CHANGE

Various plants were used for food by prehistoric and historical Native American Indian populations. Hammocks were also important sources of medicinal plants like leather fern, beauty berry, satin leaf, strangler fig, wax myrtle, live oak, white stopper, and cabbage palm. Mammals and birds in

hammocks were sources of food and pelts. Most hammocks north of Miami have disappeared and remaining hammocks include exotic species introduced since the Spanish period.

SPECIES LIST FOR HAMMOCKS

I. PLANTS

1. Trees Live oak: Quercus virginiana

Laurel oak: Quercus laurifolia Red bay: Persea borbonia Gumbo limbo: Bursera simaruba Pigeon plum: Coccoloba diversifolia Poison wood: Metopium toxiferum Strangler fig: Ficus aurea Sea grape: Coccoloba uvifera Wild tamarind: Lysiloma latiliquum

Jamaica dogwood: Piscidia piscipula West Indian mahagony: Swietenia mahogany Florida Royal palm: Roystonea regia Sugarberry, hackberry Celtis laevigata Red mulberry: Morus rubra Lancewood: Ocotea coriacea West Indian Cherry:Prunus myrtifolia

Satinleaf: Chrysophyllum oliviforme False mastic: Sideroxylon foetidissimum Willow mastic: Sideroxylon salicifolium

2. Shrubs Marlberry: Ardisia escallonoides Myrsine: Myrsine floridana Spanish stopper: Eugenia foetida

White stopper: Eugenia axillaris Tetrazygia: Tetrazygia bicolorT Rough velvetseed: Guettarda scabra Wild coffee: Psychotria nervosa Brazilian pepper: Schinus terebinthifoliusEX Shoebutton ardisia: Ardisia ellipticaEX Cabbage palm: Sabel palmetto Tallow Wood, hog plum: Ximenia americana

Wild lime, lime pricklyash: Zanthoxylum fagara Poisonwood, florida poisontree: Metopium toxiferum Spicewood; Calyptranthes pallens

3. Epiphytes Butterfly orchid: Encyclia tampensisT Resurrection fern: Pleopeltis polypodioides Cardinal air plant: Tillandsia fasciculataC

4. Vines Muscadine grape: Vitis rotundifolia Air potato: Dioscorea bulbiferaEX

II. ANIMALS

1. Birds White-crowned pigeon: Columba leucocephalaT

Northern cardinal: Cardinalis cardinalis Wild turkey: Melagris gallopavo Red-shouldered hawk: Buteo lineatus

Common flicker: Colaptes auratus Black vulture: Coragyps atratus Bluejay: Cyanocitta cristata Palm warbler: Dendroica palmarum

Gray catbird: Dumetella carolinensis Red-bellied woodpecker: Melanerpes carolinus Northern mockingbird: Mimus polyglottos[state bird] Barred owl: Strix varia Mourning dove: Zenaida macroura

2. Reptiles Carolina anole: Anolis carolinensis

Brown anole: Anolis sagreEXi Black racer: Coluber constrictor diamondback rattlesnake: Crotalus adamanteus Red rat snake: Elaphe guttata Southern five-lined skink:Eumeces inexpectatus Green iguana: Iguana iguanaEX Rough green snake: Opheodrys aestivus

Pygmy rattlesnake: Sistrurus miliarius Box turtle: Terrapene carolina 3. Amphibians Southern toad: Bufo terrestris Green tree frog: Hyla cinera

4. Mammals Opossum: Didelphis virginiana

Gray squirrel: Sciurus carolinensis Florida panther: Felis concolor ssp. coryi [state animal] Bobcat: Lynx rufus Raccoon: Procyon lotor Gray fox: Urocyon cinereoargenteus Florida black bear: Ursus americanus ssp. floridanusT White-tailed deer: Odocoileus virginanus Key deer: Odocoileus virginanus claviumT

Wild hog: Sus scrofaEX 5. Invertebrates

a. Spiders Golden orb weaver: Nephila clavipes Star spider: Gasteracantha elipsoides

b. Butterflies Gulf fritillary: Agraulis vanillae

Monarch: Danaus plexippus Atala: Eumaeus atala Long-tailed skipper: Goniurus proteus Zebra longwing: Heliconius charitonius[state butterfly] Giant swallowtail: Heraclites cresphontes

c. Insects Freshwater Mosquito: Psorophora confinnis

Black saltmarsh mosquito: Aedes taeniorhynchus Fire beetle: Pyrophorus spp. Honey bee: Apis mellifera

Palmetto bug: Periplaneta americana Lubber Grasshopper: Romalea microptera

d. Gastropods Tree snail: Liguus fasciatusSSC

e. Crustaceans Land crab: Gecarcinus lateralis

For superscript by species name: C = commercially exploited, SSC = species of special concern, T = threatened. Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission listings. EX = exotic.

NAME(S): Pine Flatwoods DISTRIBUTION

Pine Flatwoods are found scattered throughout Florida. They are especially common in flat, sandy central and northern regions of the state. The Apalachicola, Ocala, and Osceola National Forests are

among the sites to visit in order to explore natural pine Flatwoods. Tosohatchee State Reserve and Oscar Scherer State Recreation Area also have Flatwoods ecosystems.

In general, mostly Western Flatwoods, but also Eastern Flatwoods physiographic regions. Most extensive terrestrial ecosystem in Florida, occur throughout the southeastern coastal plain; occupy 50% of Florida's land area. Most extensive community in south Florida except for freshwater marsh, i.e. the Everglades. Occur in areas of low flat topography, relatively poorly-drained, acidic sandy soils, sometimes underlain by organic matter and occupies old, flat shallow marine deposits.

II. DESCRIPTION A. ABIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS 1. PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES

Low relief, flat, low runoff 2. GEOLOGY/SOILS

Poorly drained, fine-textured sands, low clay 3. HYDROLOGY

Poor permeability results in standing water, pine needle litter decreases evaporation 4. FIRE

S. Fl. Slash pine is among the most fire tolerant pines, exceeded in tolerance only by long-leaf pine, grass-stage very fire resistant. Saw palmetto and wire grass highly flammable, promote fire. Cutthroat grass, broom sedge and wire grass do not flower without fire. Ideal fire frequency is once every 4 to 7 years; range managers recommend 2-year burn cycle. Some Ecological Effects of Fire in Pinelands:

a. Matter cycles and energy flows

Release minerals as ash

Increase decomposition rates

Recycles stems, leaves, bark and wood

Reduce plant cover thus increase intensity of sunlight

Stimulates an increase of net primary production b. Plant community composition

Release seeds

Reduces competition

Stimulates vegetative reproduction

Stimulates flowering and fruiting

Selectively eliminates some species

Influences succession rate and direction c. Wildlife habitat and populations

Increases forage available for herbivores

Regulates insect populations (food for birds)

Eliminates some insects B. BIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS 1. GENERAL FLORAL DESCRIPTION

Characterized by an open overstory of pines, extensive low shrub understory, and a sparse herbaceous (grassy) layer. Dominant trees include mostly Dade County slash pine (P.Elliottii var. densa), but also longleaf pine (Pinus palustris). Understory includes a wide variety of shrubs including saw palmetto and wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera). Herbaceous layer is mostly grasses, dominated by wiregrass (Aristida stricta).

a. CANOPY LAYER Dominated by slash pine (Pinus elliottii var. densa). May reach 30 m but often stunted because of underlying hardpan. Density varies considerably from tens of trees to 5,000+ per hectare.

b. OTHER LAYERS Shrubs vary considerably, shrub canopy ranges from 0.5-2m tall, often discontinuous or multi-layered. Herb layer may be sparse or absent

c. ENDEMICS Nemastylis floridana (ixia) Panicum abscissum Cutthroat grass Polygala rugelii Yellow bachelor's button

Sabal etonia Scrub palmetto d. EXOTICS

Melaleuca quinquenervia Melaleuca Schinus terebinthifolius Brazilian pepper

e. DIVERSITY Dry pineland: 303 Seasonally wet pineland: 361

2. GENERAL FAUNAL DESCRIPTION Birds and small mammals comprise largest diversity followed by amphibians, reptiles, and large mammals, particularly deer. Animal density often low, particularly birds and mammals. Pine Bark beetle (Ips spp.) may be a keystone animal.

III. FACTORS INFLUENCING SPECIES ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION A. ABIOTIC FACTORS

Fire, and elevation, topography, and soil conditions that affect water flow and drainage.

IV. SUCCESSION

Fire maintains the species composition of pine Flatwoods. In the absence of fire, hardwood species

generally invade. Pines do not regenerate in their own shade. Succession changes lead to changes in the soil, oaks for example can penetrate the hardpan of spodosols, invasion of bay head species can increase soil organic matter content.

V. HUMAN USE AND LAND COVER CHANGE

Early settlers attempted agriculture and introduced livestock. Area has since been largely been cleared for urbanization and fire frequencies have decreased.

NAME(S): Rockland Pinelands, Pine Rocklands, Rocky Pinelands

I. INTRODUCTION

We pursued our way through a pine-barren, the ground being formed of coral rocks jutting out in sharp

points like oyster beds, which caused us great suffering by cutting through our boots and lacerating our feet at every step. We suffered also very much for lack of water, not a drop even of that which was stagnant was to be met with in this parched up region. It was certainly the most dreary and pandemonium region I ever visited; nothing but barren wastes where no grateful verdure quickened, and no generous plant took root - where the only generous herbage to be found was stinted, and the shrubbery was bare, where the hot-steaming atmosphere constantly quivered over the parched and cracked land-without shade-without water-it was intolerable-

excruciating. ... But there was neither brook, nor bird, nor any living thing except snakes to be met with. (Army Surgeon J.R. Motte, describing a trek to Long Pine Key 24 April 1838).

II. DISTRIBUTION: Atlantic Coastal Ridge, Fla. Keys, Big Cypress Swamp A. Upland areas of extreme southern Florida underlain by limestones. Most of the rock lands have been cleared for housing and agriculture. B. Geographic Range: Southern Florida (Dade, Broward, Collier and Monroe Counties).

C. Remnants: Outside Everglades National Park less than 2% of original pine rock lands remain and only three sites exceed 50 ha.

III. DESCRIPTION A. ABIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS 1. PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES

Upland rock outcrops, usually with little relief, may be marked with solution holes 2. GEOLOGY/SOILS

a. Underlain by three Pleistocene marine limestone’s - Miami, Key Largo and Tamiami Formations b. Soils are shallow with high organic content. Plants often establish in organic matter trapped between solution features. c. Shallow depressions in the rock contain fine, reddish-brown sandy loam, which are slightly acidic and have less than 10% organic matter. The name "Redlands" is derived from this soil type. d. In lower areas marls may develop over the limestone.

e. Rockdale - common soil type on rock lands. 3. HYDROLOGY

Well-drained due to limestone solution features, higher pinelands seldom flood, lower pinelands adjacent to wet prairies may remain inundated for several months of the year.

4. FIRE a. Fires usually burn only at the surface and do not enter the sparse canopy. b. Open canopy allows rapid drying of litter

c. Ideal fire frequency is once every 2-3 to 10-15 years d. Hardwood shrubs and palms experience little mortality due to fire e. Pineland herbs grow rapidly and reproduce following fire, several species flower infrequently except in burned areas.

Andropogon cabansii Imperata brasiliensis Ipomoea microdactyla

Liatris tenuifolia Stenandrium dulce Tripsacum floridanum

B. BIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS 1. GENERAL FLORAL DESCRIPTION

Over 300 species of plants have been accounted for in the rockland pinelands many of which are indigenous herbaceous species. The dominant tree species of the rock pinelands is the South

Florida variety of slash pine (Pinus elliottii var. densa), the principal shrub is saw palmetto (Serenoarepens), and cabbage palm (Sabalpalmetto) is also common. Several hardwood trees and shrubs are supported, including live oak (Quercus virginiana). High degree of plant endemicity. 20+ species including milk pea (Galactiapinetorum) and narrow-leaved poinsettia (Poinsettiapinetorum). Although coonti (Zamia pumila) may have been abundant historically in pinelands, no physical evidence of coonti from any archaeological site in South Florida has been found. Did early Seminole settlers introduce it and prehistoric Indians never utilize it?

a. CANOPY LAYER Dominated by slash pine (Pinus elliottii var. densa) with a low density of about 500 trees per hectare.

b. OTHER LAYERS 1. Subcanopy: Rarely developed but may occur where fire has been suppressed. Species include live oak, poison wood, wild tamarind, and silver thatch palm 2. Shrub composition and size varies considerably, open canopy and little soil development makes conditions harsh. More than 90 species have been recorded in shrub layer. Most of

these are tropical. Only 7 flatwood species occur. 3. Herb layer may be sparse or diverse, more than 250 herb species occur in rocklands, with more than half restricted to rocklands.

c. ENDEMICS 42 taxa including Cassia keyensis (Big Pine partridge pea) Galactia pinetorum (narrow-leaf milkpea)

Jacquemontia curtissii Melanthera parvifolia Poinsettia pinetorum Myrcianthes fragrans var. simpsonii (Simpson's stopper)

d. EXOTICS Albizzia lebbeck (Mother-in-law's tongue) Melaleuca quinquenervia (melaleuca) Schinus terebinthifolius (Brazilian pepper)

Neyraudia reynaudiana (silk reed) Pennisetum purpureum (Napier grass)

e. DIVERSITY One of richest communities in southern Florida

Total Number of Plant Species Dry Pineland: 303 Seasonally Wet Pineland: 361

Total Number of Shrub Species Lower Florida Keys and Long Pine Key: 60 Biscayne Pinelands: 40 Big Cypress Pinelands: 30

2. GENERAL FAUNAL DESCRIPTION Animal density often low, particularly birds and mammals. Keystone Species include Pine Bark beetle (Ips spp.) Some of the animals associated with the rock pinelands include the pine

warbler (Dendroica pinus), redshoulder hawk (Buteo lineatus), eastern diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus), and pigmy rattler. Pinelands are also considered to be one of the

habitats most frequented by the white tail deer (Layne 1984), which has been one of the sources of meat for humans in South Florida across time.

IV. FACTORS INFLUENCING SPECIES ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION A. ABIOTIC FACTORS

Fire plays a major role in the maintenance of plants in pinelands. The establishment of pine seedlings after fires is improved, the flowering and growth of herbaceous species are intensified, and growing conditions of the saw palmetto are improved by fire. It is estimated that if fire were excluded from pinelands in this region for a period of twenty to thirty years, the natural succession would be tropical hammocks with a relict overstory of pines. Hammocks provide little ground-level fuel for fire, so fire frequency is reduced.

V. SUCCESSION

Fire maintains the species composition of pine rocklands. In the absence of fire, hardwood species

generally invade. Pines do not regenerate in their own shade. Successional changes lead to changes in the soil. Organic matter accumulates, shading increases, soil moisture increases and resistance to fires increases. Hammock species increase in the absence of fire, including: Metopium toxiferum, Swietenia mahogoni, Bursera simarouba, and Dipholis salicifolia.

VI. HUMAN USE AND LAND COVER CHANGE

Various plants were used as sources of food by prehistoric and Native American Indian populations such as spike sedge, saw palmetto, and coontie. Some plants were used medicinally, such as broom

grass and slash pine. Mammals were exploited for food and pelts. The rockland pinelands were the first area to be settled and developed and are the most extensively modified of all S. Fl communities. Over 98% of original rock pinelands have been depleted.

SPECIES LIST FOR PINE FLATWOODS

I. PLANTS

1. Trees

S. Fla. Slash pine: Pinus elliottii var. densa Cabbage palm: Sabal palmetto [state tree] Live oak: Quercus virginiana Sand live oak: Quercus geminata Melaleucaex: Melaleuca quinquenervia

2. Shrubs Saw palmetto: Serenoa repens Gallberry: Ilex glabra

St. John's Wort: Hypericum fasciculatum Rusty Lyonia: Lyonia ferruginea Wax myrtle: Myrica cerifera Brazilian pepperex: Schinus terebinthifolius

3. Vines Muscadine grape: Vitis rotundifolia

4. Herbs

Broom sedge: Andropogon virginicus Wire grass: Aristida stricta Tickseed: Coreopsis leavenworthii [state wildflower]

5. Aquatic Herbs Saw grass: Cladium mariscus White-topped sedge: Rhynchospora colorata

II. ANIMALS

1. Mammals Florida panther: Felis concolor ssp. coryi White-tailed deer: Odocoileus virginanus Gray fox: Urocyon cinereoargenteus Black bear: Ursus americanus

2. Reptiles and amphibians Oak toad: Bufo quercicus

Black racer: Coluber constrictor Eastern diamondback rattle snake: Crotalus adamanteus Southeastern five-lined skink: Eumeces inexpectatus Eastern hognose snake: Heterodon platyrhinos Box turtle: Terrapene carolina

3. Birds Common flicker: Colaptes auratus

Northern bobwhite: Colinus virginianus Pine warbler: Dendroica pinus Red-bellied woodpecker: Melanerpes carolinus Morning dove: Zenaida macroura

4. Invertebrates Pine bark beetle

For superscript by species name: C = commercially exploited, SSC = species of special concern, T = threatened. Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission listings. EX = exotic.

SPECIES LIST FOR ROCKLANDS

I. PLANTS

1. Trees S. Fla. Slash pine: Pinus elliottii var. densa

Cabbage palm: Sabal palmetto [state tree] Live oak: Quercus virginiana Silver thatch: Coccothrinax argentataC Mother-in-law's tongue: Albizia lebbeckEX Gumbo limbo: Bursera simaruba Wild tamarind: Lysiloma latiliquum Poison wood: Metopium toxiferum West Indian mahagony: Swietenia mahoganiT

2. Shrubs Saw palmetto: Serenoa repens Marlberry: Ardisia escallonoides Wax myrtle: Myrica cerifera Myrsine: Myrsine floridana Brazilian pepper: Schinus terebinthifoliusEX Florida trema: Trema micranthum

Coontie: Zamia pumilaC Rough velvetseed: Guettarda scabra Tetrazygia: Tetrazygia bicolorT

3. Herbs: [many endemic and listed herbs] Wire grass: Aristida stricta Silk reed: eyraudia reynaudianaEX

4. Vines

Muscadine grape: Vitis rotundifolia

II. ANIMALS

1. Birds Boat-tailed grackle: Quiscalus major Northern cardinal: Cardinalis cardinalis Northern bobwhite: Colinus virginianus Bluejay: Cyanocitta cristata

Northern mocking bird: Mimus polyglottos [state bird] Eurasian collared dove: Streptopelia decaoctoEX Morning dove: Zenaida macroura Palm warbler: Dendroica palmarum Common flicker: Colaptes auratus Red-bellied woodpecker: Melanerpes carolinus

2. Reptiles

Black racer: Coluber constrictor Eastern diamondback rattlesnake: Crotalus adamanteus Pygmy rattlesnake: Sistrurus miliariusEX Red rat snake: Elaphe guttata Brown anole: Anolis sagreiEX Carolina anole: Anolis carolinensis Gopher tortoise: Gopherus polyphemusSSC

3. Amphibians Southern toad: Bufo terrestris

4. Mammals Opossum: Didelphis virginiana Florida panther: Felis concolor ssp. coryiT [state animal] Bobcat: Lynx rufus

Raccoon: Procyon lotor Gray fox: Urocyon cinereoargenteus White-tailed deer: Odocoileus virginanus Key deer: Odocoileus virginanus claviumT

5. Invertebrates a. Spiders

Golden orb weaver: Nephila clavipes Star Spiders: Gasteracantha elipsoides

b. Butterflies Zebra longwing: Heliconius charitonius [state butterfly] Giant swallowtail: Heraclites cresphontes Atala: Eumaeus atala Monarch: Danaus plexippus Gulf fritillary: Agraulis vanillae Long-tailed skipper: Goniurus proteus

c. Insects Freshwater Mosquito: Psorophora confinnis Honey bee: Apis mellifera Lubber Grasshopper: Romalea microptera Fire ant: Solenopsis geminata Black saltmarsh mosquito: Aedes taeniorhynchus

For superscript by species name: C = commercially exploited, SSC = species of special concern, T = threatened. Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission listings. EX = exotic. Also Read chapter 6; Table 6.1 Representative Native Pine Rockland Plants

Hammocks Ecosystem

This presentation will introduce you to the distribution of this ecosystem in S Florida. Characteristics, Dominant species. How it compares to hammocks in northern Florida and temperate areas. Growth or decline, controlling factors. Different types.

Hammocks are fertile areas in the southern U.S., in South Florida they are found on slight elevations characterized by hardwood vegetation and humus-rich soil.Hammocks are broad-leaved, evergreen forests with a closed canopy There are only about 40 acres of tropical hardwood hammocks left in the Reserve, with the largest single community located on Cannon Island. Rookery Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve (RBNERR) has hammocks on sand and shelly ridges, limestone outcroppings, and some shell mounds. Plants favoring alkaline conditions thrive on these ridges; some are natural and some have been enhanced by the Calusa Indians

INTRODUCTION:

Along both coasts of southern Florida, scattered throughout the Everglades, and especially in the Florida Keys, there exist dense, a thick dense vine-entangled forests called tropical hardwood hammocks. Geologists believes that their origin dates back some 110-20 thousand years ago, when coral reefs were exposed by receding ancient seas. Deprived of its life-giving seawater, the living coral soon died, leaving slowly fossilizing limestone behind to support some of Florida's - even North America's - rarest plant and animal communities.Struggling for existence on the same rocky substrate as the tropical hardwood hammocks is another rare plant community known as pine rocklands. Dominated by hardy south Florida slash pines, the pine rock land community inhabits fossilized coral limestone's where frequent ground fires are the norm.The different burning frequencies of hammocks and pinelands plays a major role in maintaining the natural balance between these linked but distinctly different habitats. Without fire, the hammock understory would eventually take over the pineland and change it into a hardwood hammock.

The tropical hardwood hammock is a self-maintaining community that usually remains untouched by fire or flood. These tiny "islands" support over 20 species of broad-leafed trees, shrubs, and vines, most of which are native to the West Indies. Subject to thin soils and relatively low rainfall in a tropical climate, tropical hardwood hammocks form a low canopy beneath which is a dense, sometimes impenetrable tangle of shrubs and vines. Hidden in the hammocks are some of Florida's rarest and most beautiful animal life.

Historically, tropical hammocks were found as far north as Cape Canaveral on the Atlantic coast and to the mouth of the Manatee River on the Gulf coast. These more northerly hammocks had unique characteristics of their own. Today, most of the northern hammocks have been destroyed, leaving only remnant stands in south Florida, mostly in the Florida Keys.

These hammocks have fewer invasive species than other communities, but Brazilian pepper is often found at the perimeter.

DISTRIBUTION:

Atlantic coastal Ridge Florida keysBig Cypress Swamps/ Big Cypress National Preserve Hammocks are general found on higher grounds than surrounding areas.Craighead estimated that there were once more than 500 hammocks on Miami Rockland scattered among pine rock land.Hammocks can be successional phases of pine Flatwoods, scrub, pine Rockland's and beach strand vegetation.

Where in South Florida are Hammocks usually found?

Map Of South Florida Hammocks

Tropical Hardwood HammockThese upland hardwood forests occur only in south Florida and are characterized by tree and shrub species on the northern edge of a range that extends southward into the Caribbean. These communities are lightly distributed along coastal uplands south of a line from about Vero Beach on the Atlantic coast to Sarasota on the Gulf coast. They occur on many tree islands in the Everglades and on uplands throughout the Florida Keys. This cold-intolerant tropical community has very high plant species diversity, sometimes containing over 35 species of trees and about 65 species of shrubs. Characteristic tropical plants include strangler fig, gumbo-limbo, mastic, bustic, lancewood, ironwoods, poisonwood, pigeon plum, Jamaica dogwood, and Bahama lysiloma. Live oak and cabbage palm are also sometimes found within this community Hammocks in the Florida Keys may also contain several plants, including lignum vitae, mahogany, thatch palms, and Manchineel, which are extremely rare within the United States.

Different Types of Hammock Communities

Maritime hammocks are characterized by a canopy of Virginia live oak (Quercus virginiana) and occur north along the Atlantic coast to Virginia, and west along the Gulf coast to Texas. The maritime hammock community is found just inland from the coastal strand. This community becomes established on older dunes that are stable enough to support the growth of trees. Plant species include live oak, cabbage palms, wild coffee, coral bean and several species of ferns. This maritime hammock provides habitat for many species of animals including tree frogs, squirrels, scrub jays, blue-tailed skinks and both resident and migratory song birds. Unfortunately, these areas are well-suited for development because of the stable, well-drained soil, leading to the rapid decline of maritime hammock communities. Besides their ecological importance, many maritime hammocks contain shell mounds, or middens (A mound or deposit containing shells, animal bones), left by Florida’s original human inhabitants and provide an important archeological link to Florida’s history.

Coastal Beach Hammocks

On the east coast, tropical species appear in the understory of these oak-dominated forests in Florida around the latitude of Daytona Beach, Volusia County, and on the west coast at Tarpon Springs, Pasco County.

On calcareous substrates, such as shell mounds, tropical species may form the canopy of coastal forests as far north as Levy and Volusia counties on the west and east coasts of Florida.

In South Florida, maritime hammocks extend south on the sandy barrier islands to Cape Florida, Miami-Dade County on the Atlantic side, and Cape Romano, Collier County, on the Gulf side. They may also occasionally be found along the mainland shores of the lagoons and bays separating the barriers from the mainland.

In Monroe County they are also found in scattered locations on Ten Thousand Islands and Cape Sable. In the Florida Keys they are replaced by the more diverse tropical hardwood hammock community including coastal berms or limestone substrate.

Coastal Beach Hammocks

These higher, hammock lands were located in a north-south band between Lake City and Live Oak. Soils tend to be loamy and reasonably good for agriculture. Similar forests are found in the western portion of the region (west of the Suwannee River) across northern Madison County. A number of modest streams drain these highland forests, flowing eventually into the Suwannee or Aucilla rivers and their tributaries. Numerous lakes, ponds, and other wetlands dot the landscape, and probably were more extensive in the past than they are today. Within the hammock areas the resultant pattern is a mosaic of forests and wetland habitats cross-cut by rivers and streams. Such a mosaic of resources presented aboriginal peoples with many potential village locations. The lower, wetter forested areas were less suitable, but still offered resources and attracted aboriginal settlement, especially within the pockets of mesic forest adjacent to water sources.

Hammocks in Northern Florida

Hardwood Hammock Characteristics

‐Hammock may be derived from Seminole name for home. Seminoles Also used Hardwood Hammocks as some of their first encampments.

‐Hardwood because broad‐leafed evergreen and semi‐deciduous trees predominate, as opposed to pines that generally have a softer wood.

‐Refers to an area of higher elevation, usually on limestone outcroppings – two other common foundations are sand and shell mounds. The elevation must be high enough to prevent seasonal flooding.

‐Together with Pine Rocklands, represent South Florida’s upland communities.

Characteristics Continued‐Historically found as far north as Cape Canaveral on the east coast and the Manatee River on the West coast, but human development has destroyed much of the land.

‐Northern Everglades Hammocks are dominated by temperate trees.

‐Southward, towards Miami, tropical species predominate making most people refer to the Hammocks in Everglades National Park, the Florida Keys and the Atlantic coast (south of Pompano Beach) as tropical hardwood hammocks. South Florida represents the northern extent to which many of these species grow. Live Oaks are the only significant temperate species in tropical hardwood hammocks.

-Hammocks are important habitats for ferns and orchids of West Indian Origin.

‐Most of the tropical species have seeds that are dispersed by birds, providing a possible explanation for how they got to South Florida from the West Indies, where these plants occur naturally and more abundantly.

‐ Florida Keys generally have the most sensitive and rare tropical tree species (like lignumvitae, West Indian Mahogany and Black Ironwood), unfortunately the Keys hammocks are the most endangered.

Characteristics Continued

‐The soil is composed of organic matter (from high amounts of litter that fall from trees) that accumulates on top of a mineral substrate and is moist but rarely inundated.

‐Hammocks generally developed where the surface rocks were harder than surrounding areas – resulting in slower weathering of the rock.

‐ Sinks are produced where chemical weathering caused the rock to collapse and exposes groundwater – contributing to higher humidity.

‐ The edges of Hammocks are nearly impenetrable.• outermost rim often dominated by saw palmetto with sharp, upward curving teeth and may be hiding wildlife like Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake.•Next rim of vegetation is a tangle of vines and shrubs (saw greenbrier and poisonwood) • this combination shields hammocks from wind.

Canopy Characteristics

‐ Closed Canopy• blocks sunlight which prevents much growth at ground level• minimizes temperature fluctuations

‐ Low canopy, of 20m or less in height, due to shallow soils and relatively little  rainfall for tropical species

‐ Tallest trees don’t get very tall – only a few reach as much as 55 ft.• damaged by cold spells while protecting lower levels• targets for lightning• knocked down by hurricanes due to surprisingly shallow roots

Fire Characteristics

‐Hardwood Hammocks are intolerant of fire.

‐The Characteristics which keep fire outinclude

• an open understory, with little fuel accumulation

• a cool, humid interior or moist climate

‐In dry years fires can occur which may destroy humus soil. Soil fires are slow but persistent and kill trees through root damage. However, when fires do not burn the upper soil levels, the can regenerate relatively quickly in about 40 years they regain a closed canopy).

‐Hardwood Hammock is the climax community, which means that it is the final stage in succession for South Florida’s ecosystems if limiting factors prevent the complete development. 

ex. if fire doesn’t maintain Pine Rockland or other fire‐maintained ecosystems and if water doesn’t maintain wetlands.

Plant speciesThe dominant plant species found in South Florida’s tropical Hammocks are

Gumbo limbo (Bursera simaruba), Black Ironwood (Krugiodendron ferrum)Inkwood (Exothea paniculata)Lancewood (Ocotea coriacea),Marlberry (Ardisia escallonoides), Pigeon plum (Coccoloba diversifolia)Satinleaf (Chrysophyllum oliviforme)Poisonwood (Metopium toxiferum)White stopper (Eugenia axillaris) and the buccaneer palm (Pseudophenix sargetii)

Animal speciesThe tropical Hammocks offer refuge for migratory birds like Kirtlands warbler (Dendroica kirtlandii), ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapillus), solitary vireo (Vireo solitarius), and gray kingbird (Tyrannus dominicensis)

Pictured from top then left to right

Tropical Hammocks are also a refuge for local species such as the Everglades mink (Mustela vison), Key Largo woodrat (Neotoma floridana), marsh rabbit (Sylvilagus palustris), Key deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium),gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) and the Largo cotton mouse (Peromyscus gossypinus).

EXOTIC SPECIES

South Florida’s Hammocks have been colonized by exotic species such as the Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius), the Australian pine (Casuarina equisetifolia L.), Air-potato (Dioscorea bulbifera), Old world climbing fern (Lygodium microphyllum), Carrotwood(Cupaniopsis anacardioides), Schefflera and Latherleaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata)

Controlling FactorsHow are hammocks maintained?

Hammocks are the final stage of a vegetative succession here in South Florida as such any interruption in nature results in an interruption in hammock formation

Maintaining a hammock means the final successive stage should be well kept

Vegetative succession is the sequence of changes in the plant composition of a community from its first or initial colonization(usually mosses and grasses) to its final stage(usually large established hardwood trees).

Typical South Florida Vegetative Succession

•The habitat composition and diversity of Tropical hammocks is influenced by several factors including regional rainfall and minimum temperatures, disturbances such as hurricanes and fire, salinity (for coastal areas), surrounding vegetation and elevation.

Hardwood Hammocks

Careful management and preservation of these precious natural wild lands is critical if they are to survive.

The hammocks are elevated far enough above the salt line to allow trees and plants that are not tolerant of salt to establish and grow into lush tropical forests. A thick, spongy layer of leaf litter on the ground helps to maintain moisture while the closed canopy minimizes temperature fluctuations by reducing soil warming during the day and heat loss during the night.

Hardwood Hammocks

The tropical hammocks in Florida grow on three main types of geological formations: old sand ridges, marl deposits (a calcium carbonate sediment), and dead coral beds. In the absence of fire these communities evolved into hardwood hammocks.

Hardwood Hammocks

Because of their slight elevation, hammocks rarely flood. Acids from decaying plants dissolve the limestone around each tree island, creating a natural moat that protects the hammock plants from fire. Shaded from the sun by the tall trees, ferns and air plants thrive in the moisture-laden air inside the hammock.

Hardwood Hammocks

South Florida hammocks are located in a varied range of upland ecosystems ( Fresh water, Estuarine and Marine)

But all have faced a severe decline in the area occupied due to human actions and natural disasters.

Decline and Degeneration

S. Fla. Hammocks

Diminishing So. Fla. Hammocks

Some significant hammock areas have been completely destroyed

Most notable is the virtually complete destruction of Brickell Hammock just south of downtown Miami

This once pristine hammock has been reduced to three small fragments totaling less than 50 acresMiami Rock Ridge hammocks have also been fragmented and isolated from surrounding natural communities due to massive urban and rural development.

Hammocks in Key West have been completely obliterated with the exception of one tiny patch at Little Hamaca Park in the Key West salt ponds

Current Lay-out

Although most remaining tropical hardwood hammocks north of the Florida Keys are in public ownership, much of the remaining hammocks in the Keys are privately owned. The majority of the remaining tropical hardwood hammocks outside of the Florida Keys have now been acquired and are no longer threatened by development.

Large areas of tropical hardwood hammocks are protected in Everglades NP, Big Cypress National Preserve, and Biscayne NP. Other areas with tropical hardwood hammocks on the mainland include several conservation areas on the Miami Rock Ridge which are managed by Miami-Dade County Park and Recreation Department, and the Miami-Dade County Environmentally Endangered Lands Program

Current Lay-out, Cont.

In the Florida Keys (Monroe County), significant areas are protected in Key Largo Hammocks State Botanical Site, National Key Deer Refuge, and other Federal, State, local, and privately owned conservation areas. Nevertheless, a significant amount of tropical hardwood hammock remains in private ownership and is still threatened by development in the Keys

Of the tropical hardwood hammock types addressed here, the upland coastal rock barren is the most threatened by development

The small number and size, four sites totaling 4.5 ha (11 acres) of these unique areas, makes them susceptible to development impacts and invasion by exotic plants

Fragmentation

Fragmentation of tropical hardwood hammocks and their artificial separation from other communities has had very serious effects on both the hammocks and the wildlife that utilize them

The physical separation of Key Largo wood-rats caused by hammock fragmentation makes it more difficult for them to locate a mate Fragmentation may also make it difficult for certain migratory bird species to survive in the developed landscape

Urban Development

In addition to outright habitat loss and its associated fragmentation effects, the process of urbanization and rural development itself has caused significant negative effects on tropical hardwood hammocks

The development of roads, among other things, has increased access to natural areas, including hammocks, to collectors of orchids, bromeliads, ferns, butterflies, and Liguus tree snails Roads also lead to wildlife mortality from automobile traffic, including that of the Florida panther.

Fluctuations in the Mean Water Table

Tropical hardwood hammock has been affected by both reductions, and increases in the mean water tableOn the Miami Rock Ridge, the average water table has dropped by several feet since the beginning of the century

This has contributed to the extirpation of at least two fern taxa, one an endemic hybridIn contrast, tropical hardwood hammocks in the SFWMD Water Conservation Areas have been flooded out within the last few decades, and on many tree islands tropical hardwood hammock trees have been completely destroyed by high water

Effects of Exotic Introduction

Exotic plant species have also significantly affected tropical hardwood hammocks

At least 162 species of exotic plants are now known to invade tropical hardwood hammocks in South FloridaImpacts of exotic plant species have been particularly severe in hammocks on the Miami Rock Ridge In some cases, exotic plants now compose 50 percent of the flora of hammock fragments on the Ridge. Vines, such as Gold Coast jasmine (Jasminum dichotomum), air-potato (Dioscorea bulbifera), and nephthytis (Syngonium podophyllum), have decimated many hammocks on the Miami Rock Ridge

Effects of Exotic Introduction, Cont.

Exotic trees and shrubs such as Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius) are problematic in hammocks throughout South Florida, including undisturbed areas in Everglades NP Coastal berm hammocks along the shores of Florida Bay have been heavily impacted by the sprawling vine-like shrub latherleaf (Colubrina asiatica) Recent GIS mapping of invasive exotics throughout the Florida Keys shows that approximately 2,833 ha (7,000 acres) of susceptible upland habitat have been invaded by exotic plants, especially Australian pine, Brazilian pepper and latherleaf

Effects of Exotic Introduction, Cont.

Exotic animals have also impacted tropical hardwood hammocks. Introduced species that occur in South Florida rocklands include seven mammals, about 30 birds, four amphibians, and 25 reptiles

Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus), black rat (Rattus rattus), fire ant (Solenopsis invicta), and hog (Susscrofa) as well as the domestic cat (Felis domesticus), have all been found in South Florida hammocks

Black rats and fire ants both prey on the endangered Stock Island tree snail, and fire ants may increase the mortality of the Key Largo woodrat Feral and domestic cats prey on both the endangered Key Largo woodrat and resident and migratory land birds

Effects of Fire

While tropical hardwood hammocks burn naturally under certain conditions, anthropogenic fires have caused severe damage to tropical hardwood hammocks in the past.

Fires set during the dry season can burn into hammocks and destroy the humus layer and tree roots, effectively destroying the hammock Recovery time for such hammocks is clearly very long

Contamination

A variety of contaminants have also affected tropical hardwood hammocks and their constituent fauna. Mosquito spraying has been implicated in a number of problems, including the direct mortality of the Schaus swallowtail butterfly and other butterflies. This in turn, reduces food availability for land birds.Mosquito spraying may also impact food availability of the Key Largo woodrat. Rodent control agents are also known to be problems, specifically for the Key Largo woodrat. Other pesticides are known to cause the mortality of Stock Island tree snails and other invertebrates

Natural Phenomenon

Hurricanes and other disturbance phenomena, which are natural parts of the South Florida Ecosystem can also have negative effects once fragmentation and the spread of exotic plant species have occurredOnce species become rare (e.g., the Schaus swallowtail butterfly), extreme climatic events, such as hurricanes, freezes, and droughts, can become serious threats

In September 1998, Hurricane Georges caused major alterations to tropical hardwood hammocks in the lower Keys including damage where roads and other forms of fragmentation opened the hammocks to wind turbulence resulting in downed or broken trees. Aside from wind damage, the storm surge associated with Hurricane Georges overwashed the Cactus Hammock on Big Pine Key resulting in the loss of the hammocks understory.

Hardwood HammocksTropical hardwood hammocks are evergreen, broad leaved forests predominantly composed of trees common to the Bahamas and the Greater Antilles.Soil in these habitats are composed mostly of organic matter due to the high litter dropped by these trees.These habitats are rarely inundated and relatively fire-free and form small “islands” in the Everglades surrounded by other habitats.

Hardwood Hammocks.The woody vegetation is mostly composed of species at or near there northern extent and are more widespread in the West Indies and elsewhere in the tropics.The habitat composition and diversity is influenced by several factors including regional rainfall and minimum temperatures, disturbances such as hurricanes and fire, salinity (for coastal areas), surrounding vegetation and elevation.

Hardwood Hammock.A relatively mature hammock has a closed canopy that can be 20m or less in height.The closed canopy allows very little light to penetrate into the forest, influencing sub-canopy species.This also allows for more moderate moisture and temperature conditions.If you stand in the middle of a hardwood hammock, you would probably describe it as a tropical jungle.

Habitats in Peril

There was never a large area of rockland pine forest or tropical hardwood hammock to begin with.Most settlers in south Florida converted most these habitats first due to its location and elevation.Most pinelands were logged after 1896 when the Florida East Coast Railroad reached south Florida.

Habitats in perilMost pineland were also cleared for agriculture of introduced crops such as coconuts, grapefruit, limes, mangos, and avocados. Today, habitats that survived logging and development are now being threaten by invasive, exotic species such as Brazilian pepper Australian pine and umbrella tree.Hammocks in the Keys are still threaten due to development because most are privately owned and are not protected.

Questions of the day.Where are Hammocks mainly found?List some characteristics of Hammocks?Name 3 types of invasive species that threatens South Florida Hammocks What are the dominant species of South Florida’s tropical Hammock?What are some of the controlling methods used against South Florida’s HammocksIs South Florida tropical hammocks decreasing or increasing?Which Hammock is unaffected by fire?Name one way in which tropical hammocks are transported?Which portion of tropical hammocks are nearly impenetrable?Name three main types of geological formations where you would find the tropical hammocks in Florida growing? How many species of exotic plants are now known to invade tropical hardwood hammocks of South Florida? What is the name of the hurricane, and in which year did it a caused a major alterations to the tropical hardwood hammocks in the lower Keysand South Florida?

South Florida’s Pine Rocklands

The Pine rock-lands are unique to southern Florida and the

Bahamas. In Florida they are found on limestone substrates on

the Miami Rock Ridge, in the Florida Keys, and in the Big

Cypress Swamp. Pine rock-lands are dominated by a single

canopy tree, South Florida slash pine (Pinus elliottii var. densa), a

diverse hardwood and palm sub canopy, and a very rich

herbaceous layer.

The flora of pine rock-lands is composed of a diverse

assemblage of tropical and temperate taxa. Many endemic plant

taxa are also found in this community. It is a fire maintained

community, requiring periodic fires to eliminate invading

hardwoods, assist in nutrient cycling, and to reduce duff layers.

Pine rocklands also provide critical foraging and nesting habitat for a diverse

array of wildlife, including five federally listed animal species. While significant

areas of pine rocklands are now protected within preserves such as Everglades

NP, Big Cypress National Preserve, and the National Key Deer Refuge, pine

rockland fragments are still threatened on the Miami Rock Ridge and in the

Florida Keys.

Pine rocklands have been heavily impacted by outright destruction,

conversion to agriculture, fire suppression, exotic plant and animal invasions,

collecting pressure on plants and animals, and alterations to hydrology.

Significant work has now been initiated to control exotic plant taxa in pine

rocklands, although much research needs to be conducted on restoring heavily

degraded sites.

Pine rocklands are found in southern Florida, the Bahamas, and Cuba. In Florida, they were

historically found on limestone substrates in Miami-Dade County along the Miami Rock Ridge

from approximately North Miami Beach south and west to Long Pine Key in what is now

Everglades NP.

Pine rocklands in the Florida Keys are now restricted to the Lower Keys. Significant tracts of

pine rocklands occur on Big Pine Key, No Name Key, Little Pine Key, Cudjoe Key, and Upper

Sugarloaf Key in Monroe County.

They also occur in the Big Cypress National Preserve in Collier County. Alexander (1953)

has shown that a small area of pine rockland once existed in the Upper Keys on Key Largo, but

has since undergone succession to rockland hammock.

Some pinelands in areasof limestone outcropping in Broward County may also be referable to

this community. The largest remaining contiguous areas of pine rockland are found in the Long

Pine Key area of Everglades NP in Miami-Dade County, on Big Pine Key in Monroe County,

and in the Big Cypress National Preserve in Collier County. Small pine rockland fragments

also persist along the Miami Rock Ridge from Florida City north to approximately Southwest

32 nd Street in Miami-Dade County.

The flora of pine rocklands is influenced by the community’s proximity to the tropics

as well as its peninsular connection to mainland Florida (Robertson 1953, Snyder 1986,

Snyder et al. 1990). K. Bradley and R. Hammer (unpublished data) have recorded 374

native plant taxa in pine rocklands of Miami-Dade County, outside of Everglades NP.

Although species diversity and richness varies geographically for pine rockland

communities, the Richmond tract in Miami-Dade County contains 260 taxa of native

plants (DERM 1994), the Navy Wells Pineland Preserve contains 172 taxa, and the

Tamiami Pineland Preserve contains 163 taxa.

Yes the area on which FIU University park campus is built was once a part of the Pine

rock-lands of Tamiami.

Taxa with their entire United States distribution in South

Florida which are limited to pine rocklands include Bahama sachsia (Sachsia

polycephala), pineland daisy (Chaptalia albicans), quailberry (Crossopetalum ilicifolium),

and shrub eupatorium (Koanophyllon villosum).

A number of species in pine rocklands are disjunct from sandhill communities in central

Florida. These include Asclepias viridis, Cyperus filiculmis, Desmodium marilandicum,

dollarweed (Rhynchosia reniformis), Gray’s beakrush (Rhynchospora grayi), green-eyes

(Berlandiera subacaulis), Rhynchosia michauxii, Tracy’s bluestem (Andropogon tracyi),

and Zornia bracteata. These taxa are primarily found in deposits of sand in the northern

Biscayne pinelands,although Asclepias viridis can also be found on Big Pine Key.

The overstory of pine rocklands is open and dominated by a canopy of South Florida slash

pine ranging in height from 20 to 24 m (65.6 to 79.2 ft) (Snyder et al. 1990). In the lower

Keys the pine trees are smaller and the subcanopy includes Thrinax and Coccothrinax.

Pine rockland occurs on relatively flat, moderately-to well-drained terrain.

Because limestone bedrock is at or very near the surface, soils are generally small

accumulations of sand, marl, and organic material in depressions and crevices in the

rock surface. Drainage varies according to the porosity of the limestone substrate, but

it is generally rapid. Consequently, most sites are wet for only short periods following

heavy rains. During the rainy season, however, some sites may be shallowly inundated

by very slow-flowing surface water for up to 60 days per year (FNAI and Florida

Department of Natural Resources 1990).

Each of the three regions where pine rocklands occur in Florida has unique geological

attributes. In Miami-Dade County, the community is associated with the Miami Rock

Ridge, a formation of Miami oolitic limestone which extends for 70 miles from

northeastern Miami-Dade County to the Mahogany Hammock region of Everglades

NP (DERM 1993, 1994). The surface is often irregular with solution holes up to

several meters in width and depth.

Florida’s “Mountains”

An Endangered Ecosystem

Pine Rocklands are a globally imperiled ecosystem.

This rare pineland is found only in South Florida and the Bahamas, and there’s very little of it left.

Only about 2% of the original pine rocklands remain today.

about 17,348 acres are left, mostly inside Everglades

National Park

Pine Rockland

Distribution

Pine Rockland Characteristics

Dominated by two plants: slash pine

saw palmetto

The ground here is composed of marine oolitic limestone rock

Habitat occurs along the Miami Rock Ridge geological formation

The limestone easily dissolves, causing ankle-twisting “solution holes”

Home to many endemic sp.

Pyrogenic community fire frequency of 5-7

years

Oolitic Limestone

Slash Pine

Saw Palmetto Solution Hole

Ecosystems of Florida

Pine Rocklands: “High and Dry”

Pine rocklands are the “highest and driest” ecosystem in South Florida

With an elevation of about 6 feet above sea level, pine rocklands are above the water table

one of the few dry areas in the otherwise soggy Everglades environment

In fact, pine rocklands are so dry that the life here has had to adapt

home to drought resistant plants and animals

Plant Diversity

This is South Florida’s most floristically diverse plant community

Over 400 types of native plants occur here

31 endemic species (found nowhere else on earth), of which seven are listed as federally endangered.

Understory of saw palmettos, beauty berries, willow, bustic, locust berries, broom grasses and silver palms.

Photo: Debbie Matthews

Deltoid spurge (Chamaesyce deltoidea ssp. Deltoidea)

Original photograph by Joy Kline,

Multi Species Recovery Plan .

Home to rare and endangered plants…

Several federal- and state-listed plant species are found in the rocklands, including…

deltoid spurge

Small’s milkwort (endemic)

Small’s Milkwort (Polygala smallii)

Photography: Roger Hammer

Some animals found in Pine

Rocklands… Florida panther (Puma

concolor coryi)

Florida black bear (Ursus americanus floridanus)

Cuban treefrog (Osteopilus septentrionalis)

green anole (Anolis carolinensis

black racer (Coluber constrictor)

Key Deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium)

Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)

Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus)

Prior to development, there were

about 185,000 acres of pine

rockland in Miami-Dade County

Today, only about 4,000 acres of

pine rockland remain outside of

Everglades National Park

“Pine Rocklands Born from Fire”, a Miami-Dade County publication

Succession

Within pine rocklands are isolated pockets of tropical plants called tropical hardwood hammocks, where plants such as Live Oak, Mahogany, and Red Maple may be found

In the absence of regular fires, succession (a kind of ecosystem “evolution”) will cause a pine rockland to become a hardwood hammock (a “climax community”)

Many former pine rockland sites have transitioned to hammock or have become invaded by non-native species

This has caused a net loss of biodiversity and the extinction or near extinction of several plant species

Tropical Hardwood Hammock http://sofia.usgs.gov/publications/papers/pp1011/images/hard_hammocksx.jpg

History of Pine Rocklands

Historically, pine rocklands were South Florida’s dominant plant community, occupying about 152,000 acres along the Miami Rock Ridge

Because of its high elevation, the Miami Rock Ridge was the first area to be impacted by development

Early 1900’s settlers built their towns and homes here because it was higher in elevation and less likely to flood

Rock-plowing a formerly pine rockland agricultural field southwest of

Homestead—Ecosystems of Florida, Myers and Ewel editors

Dade County Slash Pine

(Pinus eliotti var. densa) Dade County Slash

Pine was used as the main source of lumber to build homes and other buildings

The plant was desired because of its resistance to fire and termites

Dade County pine piled for burning—Florida State Archives,

McCally, David The Everglades: an Environmental History http://www.sfrc.ufl.edu/Extension/pubtxt/for21.htm

http://www.coralsprings.org/environment/ShadeTreeList/SlashPine.cfm

Fire Ecology

Pinelands Need Fire

Being a dry habitat, pinelands are prone to

many wildfires

Fire may seem like a bad thing, but to

pinelands it is crucial because…

Benefits of Burns

Fire helps spread the seeds of many rockland plants

Fire prevents succession from turning the pineland into a hardwood hammock by reducing competition from hardwoods

Fire recycles nutrients in the form of ash, fertilizing the soil for the next generation of seedlings

Fire aids seed germination by opening the canopy to allow sunlight to reach the soil

Fire will usually eliminate exotic plant species

Prescribed Burns

Wildfires are dangerous and unpredictable and could

cause damage to homes and property if out of control

Prescribed Burning is used as a way to protect the

ecosystem and people

Planned burns can be controlled with minimal negative

impacts to the surrounding area

The intensity of natural wildfires is diminished because the

“fuel” of accumulated vegetation has already burned

Conservation Efforts:

“Connect to Protect”

Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden

recently launched the Connect to

Protect Network with funding from the

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Their objective is to create corridors

and "stepping stones" that connect

isolated pine rockland remnants in

Miami-Dade County.

This will allow the Interchange of

seeds and pollen

Bees, butterflies and birds can

find and transport seeds and pollen

across developed areas that

separate the now fragmented pine

rocklands.

A pine rockland fragment impacted by a nearby roadway

Why “Connect to Protect”?

Interchange of seeds and pollen improves:

gene flow

the genetic health of native plant species

the likelihood that these species will persist over the long term.

In addition, planting pine rockland species increases the numbers of individual plants, providing additional protection against extinction.

A wasp pollinates the pine rockland endemic

crenulate lead plant

Fairchild Tropical Garden website

Pine Rocklands: you can help save this imperiled habitat, unique to

South Florida!

Some of the references used in

creating this presentation… Ecosystems of Florida edited by Ronald L. Myers and John J.

Ewel

The Everglades An Environmental History by David McCally

Everglades National Park brochure and website (www.nps.gov/ever)

The Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden website (www.fairchildgarden.org)

Fire in South Florida Ecosystems by Dale Wade, John Ewel, and Ronald Hofstetter

Pine Rocklands Born From Fire a Miami-Dade County Parks publication

The USGS’s South Florida Information Access (SOFIA) website

www.floridahabitat.org

NAME(S): Marshes I. INTRODUCTION

A. Definition (Audobon): Shallow wetlands with low, emergent, soft stemmed vegetation, few or no standing trees, and standing water throughout most of the year. Emergent: plants whose leaves and stems rise above water, but roots are submerged. B. Varieties: Sawgrass marsh is the predominant Everglades plant community, but over 100 species are present in Everglades’s marshes that can be differentiated into at least 3 marsh communities (sawgrass, flag, and water lily marshes). The overlap between the marsh communities is so great that any one of them may include portions of any of the other. Principal factor contributing to differences in communities is topography and resulting hydroperiod, water depths and fire frequency.

II. DISTRIBUTION Before development and drainage (100 years ago) 60% of Florida's surface was wetlands. Now they occupy 15-20 percent. Marshes make up about 1/3 of all wetlands in Florida.

1. Sawgrass marsh: Their nearly continuous growth pattern forms a southwesterly arch down the center of the county from the Dade-Broward county line towards Whitewater Bay, but the Shark River Slough is the main area associated with sawgrass marshes

a. Dense variety: Historically covered most of northern Everglades, growing to 9 ft tall in deep peat soils. b. Sparse variety: Occurs in lower elevations and occupies similar sites as flag marsh

2. Flag marsh: Found throughout the Everglades in patches surrounding sawgrass marshes. 3. Water lily marsh: Historically, it grew along natural bodies of water like ponds, sloughs, cypress swamps, and streams. Today, it also grows along man made bodies of water including rivers, and flooded water conservation areas.

III. DESCRIPTION A. ABIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS 1. PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES

Topography and elevation determine distribution of marshes. Marshes are well-developed in southern Florida due to the flat topography and poor drainage. Coastal ridges act as natural barriers to drainage.

2. GEOLOGY/SOILS a. Marshes occur where:

• Surface deposits are impermeable • Water table intersects the land surface, e.g., Everglades • Marsh is hydrologically connected to a river

b. Periphyton: ground cover Calcareous green and blue-green algae that precipitate calcareous marl in freshwater habitats. Greens associated with peat. Blue-greens with marls. Primary producer and integral part of the food chain.

3. HYDROLOGY a. Sawgrass and flag marsh: hydroperiod range from less than 6 months to 12 months, per year. Water depth varies with hydroperiod from zero in the dry season to maximum depths of 1 to 1.5 ft during wet season. b. The water lily marsh is the deepest marsh with the longest hydroperiod from 10-12 months/yr in water with depths >3 ft during wet season.

4. FIRE a. Sawgrass and flag marsh: fire has been consistently frequent in prehistoric sawgrass and flag marshes. The impact of fire depends on soil and water conditions. The deeper, more extensive burns during dry season and when water rises to rapidly may be harmful. However, sawgrass and dominant plants of flag marshes are adapted for surviving in frequent low to moderate fires.

b. Water lily Marsh: Due to its occurrence in deeper marshes, it has the lowest fire frequency of all marshes.

B. BIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS 1. GENERAL FLORAL DESCRIPTION

Marshes in general are comprised largely of herbs, few shrubs and fewer trees. No epiphytes. Vines are rare.

i. Sawgrass marsh: Sawgrass (Cladium jamaicensis) is the dominant plant • Dense variety: Grows tall (9 ft) and occurs on higher ground and is underlain by deep organic soils. Includes other tall emergent’s including cattail, ferns, and small shrubs. Areas with excess nutrients get invaded by cattail. • Sparse variety: Grows less tall (3-5 ft) and occurs in lower elevations and occupies similar sites as flag marsh. Includes spikerush, arrowhead, and maidencane. Periphyton common in sparse sawgrass marshes.

ii. Flag marsh: pickerelweed, arrowhead, spikerush, and maidencane are among dominant plant species, all of which have flag-like leaves iii. Water Lily Marsh: white water lily, never wet, yellow lotus, naiad, and bladderwort are dominant plant species, all of which have floating leaves.

a. ENDEMICS None

b. EXOTICS Melaleuca quiquenervia: Melaleuca Schinus teribenthifolius: Brazilian pepper

c. DIVERSITY Marsh: 119 species, mostly of temperate origin

2. GENERAL FAUNAL DESCRIPTION The largest percentage of animal diversity associated with marshes is represented by birds, followed by fish, reptiles and amphibians, and mammals. Mammals and birds can forage in the shallow marshes and settle in the tree islands. No endemic species with a growing number of exotic species, including: Clarias batrachus (walking catfish) and Tilapia niloticus (blue tilapia). a. Birds

An exceptionally large population of birds results from the combination of permanent residents and migratory species. The majority of the bird species are fish eaters that forage in the marshes. Historically, the most common birds have included various species and varieties of herons and egrets (Ardeidae family), and ibises (Threskiornithridae family). Several raptors frequent the marshes, including the bald eagle (Haliaeetus leuccocephalus) and snail kite (Rostrhamus sociabilis), which is also known as Everglades kite.

b. Fish A review of the collection of fish in the entire Everglades region over a 12 year span documented only 43 species. The study found the majority of the fish to be small and living within the marshy areas while most of the larger fish were new to this environment, located mainly in the drainage canals and riverbanks. One of the largest families of little fish represented were the killifishes (Cyprinodontidae family). Some of the more common of the larger species included the members of the catfish family (Ictaluridae) and gar (Lepisosteus spp.). These marshes probably lacked large fish prior to the dredging of canals due to the absence of large and easily navigable waters.

c. Mammals Most of the mammals associated with marshes today are small and found in shallow marshes. The mammals include the round-tail muskrat (Neofiber alleni) and marsh rabbits (Sylvilagus palustris). In the past, marshes supported much larger populations of black bear (Ursus americanus floridanus).

d. Reptiles and Amphibians

The reptiles and amphibians are also common to the shallow marshes, including the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis), cottonmouth water moccasins (Agkistrodon piscivirous), and pig frog (Rana grylio).

e. Pesty Invertebrates In addition to the wildlife, an abundance of a few pesty invertebrate species such as the mosquito, gnat, deerfly, and horsefly inhabit the marshes. The explorer James Pierce, in his expedition across the Everglades, made note of the abundance throughout the Everglades of an "alligator flea" whose bite caused as much pain as a hornet's sting

IV. FACTORS INFLUENCING SPECIES ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION A. ABIOTIC FACTORS

Fire limits invasion of woody species. The color of Everglades’s peat is due to burning. B. BIOLOGY AND/OR BEHAVIOR

Biological Adaptations 1. Vegetative reproduction

Seldom sprout from seed – helps ensure reproduction in wet environment 2. Internal air chambers

Facilitate oxygen transport – also helps facilitate survival in flooded environment 3. Fire tolerant

In saw grass, the terminal bud is below ground so it is hard to burn and kill V. SUCCESSION

Related communities include hardwood and willow swamps, cypress swamps, cypress savannas and pine flatwoods.

VI. HUMAN USE AND LAND COVER CHANGE Drainage of the Everglades has been the single largest cause of marsh and wet prairie loss. Other activities that have altered the hydrology of this area include the introduction of exotic plant species including the cajeput tree (Melaleuca quinquenervia) and water hyacinth (Eichornea crassipes). In Dade County, the wet prairie and sawgrass marshes of the eastern Everglades have been particularly reduced. In the northern extreme of Dade County, within Conservation Area 3, swamp trees and shrubs have almost completely disappeared, and sawgrass marsh has been displaced by water lily marsh due to prescribed periods of flooding. Animals have also been affected by changes in the hydrology of the region. Wading bird populations have decreased in numbers as a direct result of hydrologic changes. The increase in alligator nest flooding has affected the breeding cycle of many birds that depended on food sources in the alligator holes during the naturally occurring dry season. Other alterations to the composition of animal life in this region are the result of over-hunting. Some of the most over-hunted animals include birds for their plumes.

NAME(S): Wet Prairies I. INTRODUCTION

A. Definition: Some consider wet prairies to be a type of marsh. Hydroperiod is shorter, depth of flooding is less, little or no organic matter accumulates, and fire frequency is greater, dominated by grasses, fewer emergent aquatics and periphyton. B. Varieties: Two main varieties in South Florida include marl prairie (mixed prairies) and peat prairie. Marl prairies are important feeding areas for wading birds early in dry season (Oct- Jan) when prey like crayfish and some amphibians may be easy to find and catch. Also small fish and invertebrates concentrate in flooded solution holes (they dry up later in dry season). Peat prairies are important feeding areas for wading birds towards end of dry season (March-April), when they are more likely to provide a wet habitat for drought intolerant invertebrates and other species than is marl prairie.

II. DISTRIBUTION A. Marl Prairie: eastern and western edges of the southern Everglades extent. B. Peat Prairie: In northern and central Everglades.

III. DESCRIPTION A. ABIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS 1. PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES

Topography, elevation, and soil composition determine distribution of wet prairies. These are well-developed in southern Florida due to the flat topography and poor drainage. Coastal ridges act as natural barriers to drainage.

2. GEOLOGY/SOILS a. Marl Prairie: Occurs on thin calcitic soil called marl over limestone rock. Limestone rock may be exposed (pinnacle rock) or submerged (in solution holes) b. Peat Prairie: Occurs on peat soil (partially decomposed plant material – highly flammable). c. Periphyton, calcareous green and blue-green algae that precipitate calcareous marl in freshwater habitats is a common ground cover on wet prairies, although less so than in marshes. Greens associated with peat prairies, blue-greens with marl prairies. Primary producer and integral part of the food chain.

3. HYDROLOGY a. Marl Prairie: Averages between 3 to 7 months/yr with 1-2 ft of water. b. Peat Prairie: Longer hydroperiod that marl prairie, but still among the shortest hydro periods and lowest water depths in marsh areas.

4. FIRE In natural conditions, peat prairies have the highest fire frequency of any of the marsh-type communities.

B. BIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS 1. GENERAL FLORAL DESCRIPTION

Marl Prairie includes low sawgrass, beak rushes, spike rush, white top sedge, and muhly grass. A type of marl prairie containing scattered dwarf cypress trees is called Dwarf Cypress Prairie. Peat Prairies have less plant diversity that marl prairies. Maidencane, Tracy’s beak rush, or spike rush are dominant plants.

a. ENDEMICS None

b. EXOTICS Melaleuca quiquenervia: Melaleuca Schinus teribenthifolius: Brazilian pepper

c. DIVERSITY Wet prairie: 172

2. GENERAL FAUNAL DESCRIPTION Similar to that of marshes with less and smaller fish abundance during wet season.

IV. FACTORS INFLUENCING SPECIES ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION A. ABIOTIC FACTORS

A. Fire Fire limits invasion of woody species. The color of Everglades’s peat is due to burning.

B. BIOLOGY AND/OR BEHAVIOR Biological Adaptations 1. Vegetative reproduction

Seldom sprout from seed 2. Internal air chambers

Facilitate oxygen transport 3. Fire tolerant

In saw grass, the terminal bud is below ground V. SUCCESSION

Closely related communities include hardwood and willow swamps, cypress swamps, cypress savannas and pine flatwoods.

VI. HUMAN USE AND LAND COVER CHANGE Drainage of the Everglades has been the single largest cause of marsh and wet prairie loss. Other activities that have altered the hydrology of this area include the introduction of exotic plant species including the cajeput tree (Melaleuca quinquenervia) and water hyacinth (Eichornea crassipes). In Dade County, the wet prairie and sawgrass marshes of the eastern Everglades have been particularly reduced. In the northern extreme of Dade County, within Conservation Area 3, swamp trees and shrubs have almost completely disappeared, and sawgrass marsh has been displaced by water lily marsh due to prescribed periods of flooding. Animals have also been affected by changes in the hydrology of the region. Wading bird populations have decreased in numbers as a direct result of hydrologic changes. The increase in alligator nest flooding has affected the breeding cycle of many birds that depended on food sources in the alligator holes during the naturally occurring dry season. Other alterations to the composition of animal life in this region are the result of over-hunting. Some of the most over-hunted animals include birds for their plumes.

SPECIES LIST FOR MARSHES AND WET PRAIRIES I. PLANTS 1. Aquatic Herbs

Saw grass: Cladium mariscus Southern cattail: Typha domingensis Duck-potato: Sagittaria lancifolia Hydrilla: Hydrilla verticillataEX Pickerelweed: Pontederia cordata Spatterdock: Nuphar lutea Spike rush: Eleocharis cellulosa Tickseed: Coreopsis leavenworthii [state wildflower] White water lily: Nymphaea odorata White-topped sedge: Rhynchospora colorata

2. Shrubs Brazilian pepper: Schinus terebinthifoliusEX Cocoplum: Chyrsobalanus icaco St. John's Wort: Hypericum fasciculatum Swamp primrose: Ludwigia octovalvis Wax myrtle: Myrica cerifera

3. Trees Bald cypress: Taxodium distichum Melaleuca: Melaleuca quinquenerviaEX Swamp willow: Salix caroliniana Sweet bay: Magnolia virginiana

II. ANIMALS 1. Birds

American coot: Fulica americana American swallow-tail kite: Elanoides forficatus Anhinga: Anhinga anhinga Bald eagle: Haliaeetus leucocephalusT Barn swallow: Hirundo rustica Belted kingfisher: Ceryle alcyon Black vulture: Coragyps atratus Cattle egret: Bubulcus ibisEX Common moorhen: Gallinula chloropus Common grackle: Quiscalus quiscula Great blue heron: Ardea herodius Great egret: Casmerodius albus Green-backed heron: Butorides striatus Little blue heron: Egretta caeruleaSSC Northern harrier hawk: Circus cyaneus Red-shouldered hawk: Buteo lineatus Snail kite: Rostrhamnus sociabilisT Snowy egret: Egretta thulaSSC Tricolor heron: Egretta tricolorSSC Turkey vulture: Cathartes aura White ibis: Eudocimus albusSSC Wild turkey: Melagris gallopavo Wood stork: Mycteria americanaT

2. Amphibians Green tree frog: Hyla cinera Leopard frog: Rana sphaerocephala

3. Mammals Bobcat: Lynx rufus Gray fox: Urocyon cinereoargenteus Marsh rabbit: Sylvilagus palustris Raccoon: Procyon lotor River otter: Lutra canadensis Round tailed Muskrat: Neofiber alleni White-tailed deer: Odocoileus virginanus Wild hog: Sus scrofaEX

4. Reptiles American alligator: Alligator mississipiensisSSC Black racer: Coluber constrictor Brown anole: Anolis sagreiEX Carolina anole: Anolis carolinensis Florida cooter: Pseudemys floridana Florida softshell: Apalone ferox Pygmy rattlesnake: Sistrurus miliarius Rough green snake: Opheodrys aestivus Water moccasin (cottonmouth): Agkistrodon piscivorus

5. Amphibians Pig frog: Rana grylio

6. Fish Blue tilpia: Tilapia niloticusEX Chinese grass carp: Ctenopharyngodon idellaEX Florida Gar: Lepisoteus platyrhincus Killifish Largemouth bass: Micropterus salmoides [state fw fish] Mosquitofish: Gambusia affinis Oscar: Astronotus ocellatusEX Spotted sunfish: Lepomis punctatus Walking catfish: Clarias batrachusEX

7. Invertebrates a. Butterflies

Giant swallowtail: Heraclites cresphontes Gulf fritillary: Agraulis vanillae Monarch: Danaus plexippus Zebra: Heliconius charitonius [state butterfly]

b. Crustaceans Crayfish: Procambus alleni

c. Gastropods Apple snail: Pomacea paludosa

d. Insects Freshwater Mosquito: Psorophora confinnis Honey bee: Apis mellifera Lubber Grasshopper: Romalea microptera

For superscript by species name: C = commercially exploited, SSC = species of special concern, T = threatened. Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission listings. EX = exotic.

NAME(S): Wetland Tree Islands I. INTRODUCTION

A. Definition: The low-lying tail end of tree islands. (Note: The upstream head of the tree islands are tree island hammocks similar to those in rocklands, and are dominated by tropical woody shrubs instead of trees.) Wetland tree islands are dominated by temperate vegetation similar to that found in freshwater swamps of southeastern US. B. Varieties: Bay heads, Willow heads, and Cypress heads C. Emerged 1,000 years ago (4,000 yrs after Everglades began to emerge).

II. DISTRIBUTION Wetland tree islands are scattered throughout the Everglades mostly in the Shark River Slough region and near pinelands in Everglades National Park. Also found in the Eastern Flatlands in the Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge.

III. DESCRIPTION A. ABIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS 1. PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES

Small forests situated in open marsh areas extending in size from one acre to hundreds of acres. The upstream end sometimes has an area of elevated rock that supports a hammock. The tail end supports the wetland tree species. Areas directly bordering the islands are deeper less densely vegetated areas called moats. Moats may be formed from as acid from tree litter dissolves marl or as the result of alligator hole building. Moats are frequented by alligators and their prey and may also help to prevent marsh fires from entering the islands.

2. GEOLOGY/SOILS Occur over depressions or cavities in limestone rock that are filled with peat to 1-3 ft above surrounding marsh.

3. HYDROLOGY Tail end may be submerged year round, with upstream ends experiencing hydroperiod ranging from 2 to 9 months/yr in a few inches to more than one foot of water.

4. FIRE Associated with marsh fires B. BIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS 1. GENERAL FLORAL DESCRIPTION

Most of the vegetation on tree islands is found on rocky heads and is typically surrounded by sawgrass. Upstream upland hammocks include tropical shrub and tree species found in tropical hardwood hammocks. Downstream tail end includes mostly temperate species of trees.

i. Bay heads: dominated by red bay or sweet bay. The most common type of wetland tree island in the Everglades. ii. Willow heads: dominated by coastal plain willow. Often marks location of bay heads completely destroyed by fire where fire destroyed peat and reduced elevation. iii. Cypress heads: dominated by pond or bald cypress or combination of both.

2. GENERAL FAUNAL DESCRIPTION The composition of animals in tree islands is almost the same as that of the surrounding marshes since animals that forage in the marshes tend to use the tree islands for shelter. The largest percentage of animal diversity associated with marshes is represented by birds, followed by fish, reptiles and amphibians, and mammals.

IV. FACTORS INFLUENCING SPECIES ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION A. ABIOTIC FACTORS

Topography, hydroperiod and accumulation of debris from dislocated blocks of peat and making of alligator holes.

V. SUCCESSION

A. The origin of tree islands may be the result of the rooting of floating mats of vegetation during periods of low water levels. As the peat accumulates on these rooted mats of vegetation, sawgrass gives way to willows (Salixspp.) and eventually to bays (Perseaborbonia and Magnolia virginiana), wax myrtle, cocoplum, and dahoonholly (Ilex cassine), and finally to a fully developed hammock tree island. Other contributing factors may include the accumulation of debris from the making of alligator holes allowed invasion of trees. B. Willow heads form where bay heads have been completely destroyed by fire, destroying peat, reducing elevation, and increasing hydroperiod.

VI. HUMAN USE AND LAND COVER CHANGE Most every tree island includes has been used as a camp for exploiting or processing marsh resources since Formative period. Changes to these islands is resulting from changes in hydroperiod associated with drainage efforts

NAME(S): sloughs, ponds, creeks, alligator holes, solution holes

I. INTRODUCTION A. Moving water

1. Slough: Deepest most permanently flooded areas of moving water in a marsh

2. Freshwater Creeks: small seasonally flooded areas of moving water in a marsh. Individual ponds, alligator holes and solution holes may connect due to flooding in the wet season and act as centers of creeks.

3. Tidal Creeks: creeks of brackish water in southernmost extreme of peninsula that result when freshwater from sloughs meets with marine water during high tide.

B. Standing water

1. Alligator holes and solution holes: small seasonally flooded open water areas scattered throughout the Everglades. 2. Ponds: small open water areas flooded continuously throughout the year and scattered throughout the Everglades. II. DISTRIBUTION Best known sloughs include the Shark River Slough (central Everglades) and Taylor Slough (southeastern Everglades). Freshwater creeks and standing water areas are widely distributed throughout the Everglades. Tidal creeks are found throughout southern extreme of the peninsula, particularly the southwestern edge.

III. DESCRIPTION

A. ABIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS

1. PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES

Topography and elevation determine distribution of marshes. Marshes are well-developed in southern Florida due to the flat topography and poor drainage. Coastal ridges act as natural barriers to drainage.

2. GEOLOGY/SOILS

• sloughs, ponds, creeks, alligator holes, and solution holes occur where: • Surface deposits are impermeable • Water table intersects the land surface

3. HYDROLOGY

Slough hydroperiod averages about 11 months/yr, but may be constant for various years. Water depths exceed 3 ft in wet season, and may not drop below 1 ft during dry season.

B. BIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS

1. GENERAL FLORAL DESCRIPTION

Dominant vegetation in sloughs includes submerged and floating plants like bladderwort, white water lily, floating heart, and spatterdock. Tree island hammocks are commonly distributed within slough areas, especially in northern Everglades in the Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge and Shark River Slough. Vegetation is absent inside freshwater ponds and creeks, but floating and submerged plants surround their edges. Mangroves, salt marshes, and estuarine vegetation surround the brackish water tidal creeks.

a. ENDEMICS None

2. GENERAL FAUNAL DESCRIPTION

Sloughs provide year round habitat for drought intolerant animal species including freshwater fishes and invertebrates, which serve as prey for wading birds, amphibians, and terrestrial mammals and reptiles. Ponds and creeks are important habitat for fish and invertebrate during dry periods since they concentrate prey for wading birds and other animals.

IV. FACTORS INFLUENCING SPECIES ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION A. ABIOTIC FACTORS

Hydroperiod and hydro pattern B. BIOLOGY AND/OR BEHAVIOR

• Feeding patterns • Different strategies for birds reduce competition when they feed in the same area. • Congregation of predators at alligator holes, ponds, and solution holes during dry season.

V. HUMAN USE AND LAND COVER CHANGE Drainage of the Everglades has been the single largest cause of loss of aquatic communities in marshes. Other activities that have altered the hydrology of this area include the introduction of exotic plant species including the cajeput tree (Melaleuca quinquenervia) and water hyacinth (Eichornea crassipes). Animals have also been affected by changes in the hydrology of the region. Wading bird populations have decreased in numbers as a direct result of hydrologic changes. The increase in alligator nest flooding has affected the breeding cycle of many birds that depended on food sources in the alligator holes during the naturally occurring dry season.

Tree Islands of South Florida

Tree Islands

Characteristics• Originates on a high spot of the rock base• Stationary• Can support upland tress if the elevation is high enough• Grows in downstream direction, producing tear-shaped tail• Phosphorus levels can be about six times higher in fixed tree islands than

surrounding marsh

Tree Island FormationPop-up• Most common process• “Floating,” or moving tree island• Occurs in sloughs where water lilies are abundant• Water lily roots and rhizomes fill with gas and gas bubbles (mostly methane), causing

slough bottom peat to become buoyant; if the slough-bottom peat becomes large enough to exceed the peat’s strength to hold it together, it detaches or “pops up”

• Roughly circular; can span about 30 to 90 feet across, about a foot thick• Most common in Loxahatchee, around 4000 bay headsStrand• Only recently discovered• Narrow and elongated• Largest can be about a mile long and a thousand feet wide• Only occur in Loxahatchee (abundance of slough habitat protects them from fire)• The dominant species is the Dahoon Holly (Ilex Cassine)• Over a hundred of them

Gandy’s the Magic WordGandy Peat

• “Once established, generations of trees and shrubs produce accumulations of roots, twigs, branches, and leaves that become woody peat, called Gandy peat, which is more resistant to aerobic decay than marsh peat because of tannins and other decay inhibiting chemicals produced by woody plants.”

• Tree island elevations stay above surrounding marsh as Gandy peat accumulates.

The Island Itself• Colonizes/develop rapidly with

wind blown seeds• Island is usually temporary• Associated with a variety of disturbed

habitats• Prefers lower, wetter elevations • Dependent on flooding conditions

and fire regimes• Long term without fire, willows are

displaced by other tree species or sawgrass

• Good marker for active alligator holes(because alligators tend to dig in depressed wetland areas during low water)

• Could mark the location of a bayhead destroyed by fire, especially if the fire has burned the peat soil, thereby reducing the elevation

Flora Found Inside Everglades Tree Islands

Trees

Common Name Scientific Name

Pond-cypress* Taxodium Acendens

Bald-cypress* Taxodium Distichum

Strangler Fig Ficus Aurea

Sweetbay Magnolia Virginiana

Pond Apple (Custard apple) Annona Glabra

Swamp Bay* Persea Palustris

Red Maple Acer Rubrum

Carolina Ash, Water Ash, Pop Ash Fraximus Caroliniana

Flora

Common Name Scientific NameCabbage Palm Sabal PalmettoCarolina Willow, Coastalplain Willow* Salix CarolinianaWax Myrtle, Southern Bayberry Myrica CeriferaCoco Plum Chrysobalamus

IcacoDahoon (Dahoon Holly) Ilex CassineCommon Buttonbush Cephalanthus

OccidentalisAmerican Elder, Elderberry Sambucus

Canadensis

Carolina Willow, CoastaPlain Willow

Small Trees/Shrubs

Flora

Understory and Ground Cover Plants

Common Name Scientific NameRoyal Fern Osmunda RegalisGiant Leather Fern Ascrotichum

DanaeifoliumSwamp Fern, Toothed Midsorus Fern Blechnum SerrulatumSword Fern, Wild Boston Fern Nephrolepis ExaltataHottentot Fern (Shiny Maiden Fern) Thelypteris Interrupta

Royal Fern

Willows and Willow Heads

Salix Caroliniana

Costal plain Willow or Carolina Willow• Shrub or tree up to 20ft (6m) tall with

several trunks• Twigs reddish to grayish-brown, thin, brittle• Leaves green• Catkins (flowering spikes) 3-4in (7.5-10cm)• Flowers very small, numerous, pale yellow• Capsules about 1/4in long

Cypress Dome

The tallest trees are in the center and shorter trees at the edge, hence the dome shape of this cluster of trees.

-Long hydroperiods(over 3 months)-Low land elevation(prairies and marsh flats)

- Domes tend to be circular in shape with a hollowing in the center

- Water depth varies from dome to dome and within the dome, being deepest at the very center where there is a depression formed from alligators or dissolution of limestone

- Domes are formed in areas of slightly higher nutrients with the riches soil found in the deepest areas thus promoting the growth of the tallest trees.

Domes are found in areas with

Vegetation

- Pond Cypress

- Bald Cypress

Epiphytes

Bromeliad

Ball moss

Pond Apple

Animals

- American Alligator- Freshwater Shrimp- Mosquito Fish- Frogs- Turtles - White Tail Deer- Barred Owl- Salamanders- Water snakes- Bobcat- Florida Panther- Raccoon

Clyde Butcher

H A M M O C K S

H A M M O C K S• Hammocks are broad-leaved, evergreen

forests composed primarily of trees common to Southern Florida.

• More than 150 species of trees and shrubs are native to the Rockland hammocks of Dade, Monroe and Collier counties.

Tropical hammocks provide habitat for a variety of wildlife species, many of which are

unique to this habitat.

Threatened or Endangered Trees

• Brittle thatch palm (Thrinax morrissii)• Buccaneer palm (Pseudophoenix sargentii)• Cupania (Cupania glabra)• Florida thatch palm (Thrinax parvitolia)• Krug's holly (Ilex krugiana)• Lignum-vitae (Guaiacum sanctum)• Manchineel (Hippomane mancinella)• Silver thatch palm (Coccothrinax argentata)• Tree cactus (Cereus robinii)

Mammals

• Everglades mink (Mustela vison)• gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis)• Key deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium)• Key Largo cotton mouse (Peromyscus

gossypinus)• Key Largo woodrat (Neotoma floridana)• marsh rabbit (Sylvilagus palustris)

Exotic Species• Schinus terebinthifolius (Brazilian pepper) -

this plant is the worst invader of infrequently burned pinelands.

• Bischofia javanica• Schefflera actinophylla• Colubrina asiatica - a woody vine which

smothers hammocks in coastal areas• Syngonium - a herbaceous vine• Sansevieria - a ground-covering herbaceous plant• Melaleuca quinquenervia - this tree is a major

threat to the south Florida rocklands ecosystems within the boundaries of the Big Cypress Preserve and to other ecosystems throughout south Florida.

Brazilian Pepper

Melaleuca

Help Protect Florida’s Tropical Hammocks!

What is a Wet Prarie?

•It is one of South Florida’s wetland ecosystems. The main difference between the wet prairies and the freshwater marshes is elevation and their hydro period. They are classified as having a short term hydropattern, and in comparison to the freshwater marshes, are flooded the least amount. Their short hydroperiod floods the area for about 50-150 days a year. Marshes and wet prairies are found as isolated features in the landscape or as zones so a small area may contain many different types of wetlands like marshes, sloughs, and creeks. Slight changes in elevation, depression, bedrock exposure, soil types and fire tendency create a lot of biodiversity in any single area and causes changes in the amount of time the soil is hydrated.

What are Wet Prairies composed of?• The wet prairies are composed of marl soils, sandy soils, and exposed

limestone bedrock, depending on which part of Florida you are. In the north part of South Florida, below Okeechobee, the marl and sandy soils are found. In the southeastern Everglades and in the dwarf cypress savannahs the limestone bedrock is dominant. The exposed limestone in this area of the wetlands has many solution holes. These holes are due to water accumulation that over time dissolves the limestone, leaving a basin in the middle of the bedrock.

• Due to the fact that they are covered with water, the wet prairies organisms have adapted to life in a nutrient and oxygen poor environment. The type of germaniation and adaptations vary from species to species however for the most part woody vegetation is limited to higher elevations or depression as is the case for cypress domes. The soil associated with wet praries of the southeastern part of Florida is composed of poorly drained marls or a combination of marl and sand with limestone underlying them.

Wet Prairies and Fire• Fire is an important part of the wetland ecosystems and wet prairies

are no exception. Short hydroperiod prairies and freshwater marshes are dry enough to burn during the dry season. The wet prairies are maintained by the combination of hydro patterns and fire. Frequent fires prevent the woody vegetation to outgrow the herbaceous plant life in the wet prairies. During the majority of the year, wet soils protect sawgrass roots from damaging fires. While the above-ground plant tissues are burned, the wet roots are able to survive, allowing the plant to make a complete recovery.

• Without fires natural succession would occur and there would be fewer habitats to support the diversity of life that exist in the wetlands of South Florida. Because they are more often dry and have few wetland species that inhabit the area, wet prairies are sometimes hard to classify and protect.

Cost of Conservation• Currently, massive efforts are underway to restore, protect and conserve the

Florida Everglades, the country's largest marsh ecosystem. Marsh conservation includes acquiring channeled and drained marshlands and restoring them by removing channels and dams, and then reflooding. Conservation of the Everglades, and all marshes, takes into consideration the importance of hydrologic cycles and fire regimes. Due to the wide variety of natural conditions among marshes, they must be managed on an individual basis.

• Projects "most critical" to restoring the Florida Everglades are running years behind schedule, and the cost of the massive $15 billion project is rising and shows no sign of slowing, federal investigators found in a report released Monday. A new report said that restoring the Everglades is costing more than expected -- and taking longer. The review by the Government Accountability Office found that the total projected cost of the restoration effort increased 28 percent in six years – from 15.4 Billion in 2000 to at least 19.7 billion in 2006 – but that the true cost “could be significantly higher”

- July 3, 2007 Miami Herald

The conservation threats on Wet Prairies

Conservation Threats• Conversion to agriculture• Conversion to housing

and urban development• Groundwater withdrawal• Incompatible fire• Incompatible forestry

practices• Incompatible recreational

activities

• Incompatible resource extraction–mining/drilling

• Invasive animals• Invasive plants• Nutrient loads–agriculture• Nutrient loads–urban• Roads• Surface water withdrawal

and diversion

• The wetland prairies habitat has many threats, mostly ditching and hydrologic. Fragmentation caused by roads to this habitat effects the hydrology. Groundwater withdrawal for agricultural purposes has impacted the wetlands in localized areas throughout Florida. Nearly all Wet prairie systems in unprotected lands have suffered from direct habitat conservation and the landscape of the Wet prairies habitat has been converted to other land uses, mostly agriculture & urban/suburban development.

• The Wet prairies wetlands in both agricultural and urban setting receive nutrients from the discharges of storm water; this gives changes in the plants called faunal changes.

• Wet prairie habitats statewide are receiving adequate fire difficulties in burning these habitats and lack of knowledge of the fires.

• Additional threats are the water control structures affected in Wet prairie habitat, mostly in the Everglades.

Apple Snailsa Keystone Species?

Apple Snails

• Apple Snails are not selective about their food and eat almost everything available in their environment.

• The Apple Snail is one of the few species of snail that is not a hermaphrodite.

• Apple Snails have a gill like respiratory system on the right side of their body and a lung to take in oxygen on its left side.

Apple Snail Eggs

• These snails lay eggs on the stems of plants who’s bases are submerged by water.

Human Impact on Water levels

• Because we have canals and other water management systems, the Everglades receives unnatural supply or lack of supply of water.

Water Levels and Apple Snail Eggs

• Unbalanced water levels can mean life or death for Apple Snail eggs.

Apple Snail laying Eggs

FIU and it’s Inhabitants

•FIU has more than it’s share of Florida native animals on campus, and the Apple Snail happens to be one of them.

•Apple Snails are well adapted to tropical regions with periods of drought alternated with periods of excessive rainfall.

Where can these species be found on FIU’s Campus?

• Florida International University does have a lot of lakes, and ponds which is home to an array of different species of animals. Our Apple Snail is one of these lucky species.

Why are Apple Snails so Important?

What’s so important about Apple Snails?

• The Apple Snail is the main food source Snail Kites will eat and the only food they will feed their chicks.

• The Apple Snail is a Keystone Species to the Snail Kite.

• The Snail Kite is one of the rarest birds of prey in the United States, and lives primarily in South Florida.

• It's wingspan can reach up to 4 feet in length. • Snail Kites live and thrive in freshwater

marshes and shallow lakes.

The End!

NAME(S): Swamps I. INTRODUCTION

Definition: Forested wetlands 4 Varieties: Cypress domes (ponds), Mixed pine and cypress forest, Mixed swamp forest, Dwarf cypress forest

II. DISTRIBUTION Common in Big Cypress Swamp, SW Coastal Region

1. Cypress domes: Most common of Florida’s swamps. In south Florida most common in Big Cypress in areas with mineral soil underlain by marl and limestone. 2. Mixed pine and cypress Forest: occurs on level, sandy soil with poor drainage. Widespread in western Big Cypress Swamp from Fakahatchee Strand to Naples. 3. Mixed swamp forest: – occur in Fakahatchee Strand within The Big Cypress Swamp Refuge. Often exist as thin and sparse continuations of cypress ponds. 4. Dwarf cypress forest: Widespread throughout the Everglades and Big Cypress Region.

III. DESCRIPTION A. ABIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS 1. PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES

a. Cypress domes: (cypress pond): Area where cypress trees rise above surrounding marsh while growing in an organic muck-filled depression with a longer and deeper hydroperiod than surrounding areas. b. Mixed pine and cypress forest: high fire frequency and wet sand does not favor peat production and restricts vegetation to wetland species c. Mixed swamp forest: Cypress strands where wet conditions allowed the succession of hardwood trees from cypress d. Dwarf cypress forest: Sparse areas of cypress savannas where old, but dwarfed species of pond cypress dominate.

2. GEOLOGY/SOILS Geology variable but requires an impermeable layer. Bald (taller) cypress dominates in areas with peat soil and Pond (shorter) cypress dominates in areas with marl soil.

3. HYDROLOGY Flooded soil with low oxygen and high levels of iron, manganese, and hydrogen sulfide.

i. Cypress dome: long hydroperiod of at least 10 months/yr. Major water source comes from rainfall and groundwater, but also surface flow. ii. Mixed pine and cypress forest: short hydroperiod 7 months or less iii. Mixed swamp forest: moderate hydroperiod of 7 to 9 months/yr. Major source of water includes rainfall and groundwater, but also includes surface flow. iv. Dwarf cypress forest: shortest hydroperiod of about 3 to 6 months/yr.With rainfall providing main water source.

4. FIRE Common, particularly where hydroperiod is short and in peat soil of cypress domes during dry season. Cypress is moderately resistant to fire.

B. BIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS 1. GENERAL FLORAL DESCRIPTION

Largely herbs, few shrubs and fewer trees. Many epiphytes (especially in mixed swamp forest) Vines rare. Trees are medium to large in size.

i. Cypress dome: common trees include cypress (pond and bald), slash pine, cabbage palm, red maple, loblolly bay, sweet gum, sweet bay, guava, laurel oak, coastal plain willow. Common shrubs include cocoplum, wax myrtle, dehorn holly, and sparkleberry. Common vines include strangler fig, summer grape, calusa grape.

ii. Mixed pine and cypress forest: Over story almost completely dominated by slash pine and pond cypress. Understory commonly contains cabbage palms and herbaceous species. iii. Mixed swamp forest: Bald cypress dominates with scattered hardwood trees. About equally rich in diversity of woody species as cypress ponds, but larger diversity of epiphytes. Most notably orchids, bromeliads, peperomias, and ferns. iv. Dwarf cypress forest: low vegetation density and diversity. Dominated by pond cypress with virtually no hardwood trees, shrubs, or vines.

a. CANOPY LAYER Canopy is usually open but may be closed

b. ENDEMICS Many endemics found in mixed swamp forest of Fakahatchee Strand c. EXOTICS

Melaleuca quiquenervia: Melaleuca Schinus teribenthifolius: Brazilian pepper Many others

d. DIVERSITY South Florida freshwater swamps support 188 plant species. The Fakahatchee Strand within the Big Cypress Swamp supports over 400 native species of plants, but only 183 of these are within a “cypress swamp” ecological community. Low to high diversity:

• Dwarf cypress forest/ cypress savannas • Mixed pine and cypress forests • Cypress domes/cypress pond • Mixed swamp forest

2. GENERAL FAUNAL DESCRIPTION Freshwater swamps support the most diverse and abundant terrestrial fauna in S. Fl. a. Birds

Some of the more common birds include the limpkin (Aramus guarauna), ibises, wood storks (Mycteria americana), several species and varieties of herons and egrets wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo), and swallow-tail kites (Elanoides forficatus). This community also supports the less frequently occurring bald eagle and used to support the now extinct the ivory-billed woodpecker (Campephilus principalis).

b. Mammals Several small mammals live in cypress swamps, particularly the raccoon, the southeastern shrew (Sorex longirostris) and cotton mouse (Peromyscus gossypinus). Currently threatened species including the Florida panther, Florida black bear, mangrove fox squirrel (Sciurus niger), and mink (Mustela vison) are found in the swamps of the Big Cypress.

c. Amphibians and reptiles Several amphibians and reptiles are common to cypress swamps. Some of the most obvious reptiles include the American alligator, cottonmouth water moccasin, and several anoles (Anolis spp.). Several rarer or endemic species of amphibians and reptiles also are found in cypress swamps, including the glossy crayfish snake (Regina rigida) and the striped crayfish snake (R. alleni).

IV. FACTORS INFLUENCING SPECIES ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION A. ABIOTIC FACTORS

Hydroperiod is the key to explaining difference in swamps. Few species can tolerate flooded soil, low oxygen and high levels of iron, manganese, and hydrogen sulfide. Once established cypress is one of the most flood tolerant species.

B. BIOLOGY AND/OR BEHAVIOR Birds and mammals prefer to make their homes in the more wooded areas that provide shelter from predators and allow for nesting. Insects are limited in the woods due to insecticidal properties of the cypress bark.

VI. HUMAN USE AND LAND COVER CHANGE Changes in the original natural environment of the Big Cypress Spur include a reduction in the area of cypress forest habitats and an associated decrease in the vegetation and wildlife population of those areas. These changes have been the result of logging practices and altered water quantity and quality. Logging began in the late 1800s and continued until 1950. Much of the area surrounding the cypress swamps was greatly altered in the efforts to provide access roads to the loggers. As a result, the topography and drainage patterns of the swamps were altered, affecting the natural hydrologic cycle.

More direct changes in the water quantity were caused by drainage and subsequent flood control and water management policies. In some areas the effects of drainage included a shift in the biotic composition of the cypress forests. More specifically, a decrease in successful reproduction of cypress trees has been coupled with an increase in the population of shrubs and hardwoods.

SPECIES LIST FOR SWAMPS I. PLANTS 1. Trees

Red bay: Persea borbonia Live oak: Quercus virginiana Royal palm: Roystonea elataEX Cabbage palm: Sabal palmetto[state tree] Dahoon holly: Ilex cassineC Laurel oak: Quercus laurifolia Bald cypress: Taxodium distichum Red maple: Acer rubrum Pond apple: Annona glabra Pop ash: Fraxinus caroliniana Melaleuca: Melaleuca quinquenerviaEX Swamp willow: Salix caroliniana Sweet bay: Magnolia virginiana

2. Shrubs Brazilian pepper: Schinus terebinthifoliusEX Cocoplum: Chyrsobalanus icaco Wax myrtle: Myrica cerifera

3. Aquatic Herbs Duck-potato: Sagittaria lancifolia Pickerelweed: Pontederia cordata Spatterdock: Nuphar lutea Leather fern: Acrostichum danaeifoliumT

4. Epiphytes Butterfly orchid: Encyclia tampensisT Cardinal air plant: Tillandsia fasciculataC Resurrection fern: Pleopeltis polypodioides

5. Vines Muscadine grape: Vitis rotundifolia

II. ANIMALS 1. Birds

American swallow-tail kite: Elanoides forficatus Anhinga: Anhinga anhinga Black vulture: Coragyps atratus Wood stork: Mycteria americanaT Belted kingfisher: Ceryle alcyon Great blue heron: Ardea herodius Great egret: Casmerodius albus Green-backed heron: Butorides striatus Little blue heron: Egretta caeruleaSSC White ibis: Eudocimus albusSSC Wild turkey: Melagris gallopavo Red-shouldered hawk: Buteo lineatus Snowy egret: Egretta thulaSSC Tricolor heron: Egretta tricolorSSC Turkey vulture: Cathartes aura Barred owl: Strix varia Palm warbler: Dendroica palmarum

Bluejay: Cyanocitta cristata Common flicker: Colaptes auratus Pileated woodpecker: Dryocopus pileatus

2. Mammals Bobcat: Lynx rufus Raccoon: Procyon lotor River otter: Lutra canadensis White-tailed deer: Odocoileus virginanus Wild hog: Sus scrofaEX Florida black bear: Ursus americanus ssp. floridanusT Florida panther: Felis concolor ssp. coryiT [state animal] Gray squirrel: Sciurus carolinensis Opossum: Didelphis virginiana Cotton mouse: Peromyscus gossypinus Mangrove fox squirrel: Sciurus niger Mink: Mustela vison Southeastern shrew: Sorex longirostris

3. Reptiles American alligator: Alligator mississipiensisSSC Black racer: Coluber constrictor Brown anole: Anolis sagreiEX Carolina anole: Anolis carolinensis Florida cooter: Pseudemys floridana Florida softshell: Apalone ferox Water moccasin: Agkistrodon piscivorus Rough green snake: Opheodrys aestivus Red rat snake: Elaphe guttata Southern five-lined skink: Eumeces inexpectatus Glossy crayfish snake: Regina rigida Striped crayfish snake: R. alleni

4. Amphibians Green tree frog: Hyla cinera Leopard frog: Rana sphaerocephala Southern toad: Bufo terrestrisEX

5. Fish Mosquitofish: Gambusia affinis

6. Invertebrates a. Butterflies

Giant swallowtail: Heraclites cresphontes Gulf fritillary: Agraulis vanillae Monarch: Danaus plexippus Zebra: Heliconius charitonius[state butterfly]

b. Crustaceans Crayfish: Procambus alleni

c. Spiders Star Spider: Gasteracantha elipsoides Golden orb weaver: Nephila clavipes

For superscript by species name: C = commercially exploited, SSC = species of special concern, T = threatened. Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission listings. EX = exotic.