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Ecology and Management of
Morels Harvested From the Forests
of Western North America
David Pilz, Rebecca McLain, Susan Alexander, Luis Villarreal-Ruiz,
Shannon Berch, Tricia L. Wurtz, Catherine G. Parks, Erika McFarlane,
Blaze Baker, Randy Molina, and Jane E. Smith
United States
Department of
Agriculture
Forest Service
Research Station
General Technical
Report
Page 2
Authors
David Pilz
Rebecca McLain
Susan Alexander
Luis Villarreal-Ruiz
Shannon Berch
Tricia L. Wurtz
Catherine G. Parks is
Erika McFarlane
Blaze Baker
Randy Molina
Jane E. Smith
Cover Art
Page 3
Abstract
Pilz, David; McLain, Rebecca; Alexander, Susan; Villarreal-Ruiz, Luis;
Berch, Shannon; Wurtz, Tricia L.; Parks, Catherine G.; McFarlane, Erika;
Baker, Blaze; Molina, Randy; Smith, Jane E. 2007.
Morchella
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Summary
Morchella.
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Contents 1 Introduction
5 About Morels
Morel Harvesters
75 Morel Commerce
88 Regional Summaries
108 Management and Research
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121 Closing Remarks
124 Glossary
128 Acknowledgments
129 Metric Equivalents
129 Literature Cited
158
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Introduction
Tricholoma magnivelare
Cantharellus Morchella
Morels are more
valuable than
chanterelles and
more abundant than
American matsutake;
hence in combination,
the total value of morel
Northwest is larger
than either of the
others.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-710
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3
1
“Morchella M
1
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Table 1—Names used in this publication for distinctive western morels occurring in western
North America north of Mexico
Our Morelusagea Disturbanceb cladec d Comments
M. elata
M. conica
M. angusticepse M. conica
M. angusticepse M. conica
M. angusticepsf M. atrotomentosa g
M. esculenta
M. crassipes
M. crassipes
M. esculenta
Morchella
rufobrunnea
M. deliciosa
M. deliciosa
Morchella semilibera
Mitrophora semilibera
a
b
c
M. rufobrunnea, M. guatemalensis, M. rigidoides
d
Morchella rufobrunnea Morchella semilibera
e
f
g “M. atrotomentosa
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5
About Morels
Whence Morels
Webster’s Third New
International Dictionary
2
2
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Table 2—Some non-English common names for morels
a Country Referenceb
M. conica
M. semilibera
Morchella
M. angusticeps,
M. esculenta, M. conica
Morchella
Morchella
M. crassipes
Morchella
Morchella
M. esculenta, M. conica
Morchella
M. angusticeps
Morchella
M. elata
Morchella
Morchella c
M. semiliber
M. semilibera
M. elata
Morchella
M. conica
Morchella
M. semilibera
M. elata, M. conica
M. semilibera
M. deliciosa
Morchella
M. costata
M. angusticeps, M. esculenta,
M. conica
Morchella
Morchella
Morchella
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Table 2—Some non-English common names for morels (continued)
a Country Referenceb
Morchella
Morchella
Morchella
M. conica, M. esculenta
Morchella
M. elata
M. esculenta
M. semilibera
Morchella
Morchella
Morchella
M. conica, M. esculenta
Morchella
Morchella
M. esculenta
M. elata, intermedia, d
conica
Morchella
M. esculenta
M. esculenta
Morchella
Morchella
M. esculenta
M. semilibera
M. elata
Morchella
M. esculenta
Morchella
M. esculenta
M. semilibera
M. esculenta
M. elata
M. conica
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3
4
Distribution
3
4
Table 2—Some non-English common names for morels (continued)
a Country Referenceb
Morchella
Morchella
Morchella
Morchella
Morchella
M. conica, M. elata
M. esculenta
Morchella
a
b
c
d
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9
5
Eucalyptus globus Pinus radiata
6
Nothofagus
Castanea sativa Morchella conica
7
Austro-
cedrus chilensis 8
5
6
7
Castanea sativa Tuber aestivum
Morchella conica
8
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Habitats
Disturbance—
Range of habitats—Arora joked that
morels “usually grow
outdoors.”
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9
Trees—
9
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M. elata
Timing
Geopyxis carbonaria
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Taxonomy
Kindred organisms—
Morchella
Morchella
Morels fruit when
winter snow has
melted, the soil is
beginning to warm,
and the air is still
humid.
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Morchella Verpa Gyromitra
Morchella
Verpa
Gyromitra
Morel species—Calling morel taxonomy
“problematic” is an
understatement.
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10
10
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Morchella Verpa
Morchella
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
M. rufobrunnea .
M crassipes
Species Descriptions
Most morels in
North America lack
meet the standards
of the International
Code of Botanical
Nomenclature.
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The Known Morels in Mexico, a Description of a New Blush-
ing Species, and New Data on
Head:
Ribs:
Pits:
Stalk:
Spore size:
11 12
11
12
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
M. elata-M. angus-
ticeps-M. conica
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Pink morel
Head:
Ribs:
Pits
Stalk:
Spore size:
Green morel
Head:
Ribs:
Pits:
Stalk:
Spore size:
Morchella elata M conica M angusticeps
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Gray morels
Head:
Ribs:
Pits:
Stalk:
13
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Spore size:
Morchella atrotomentosa
M esculenta atrotomentosa as a “nov var ad sic int
M esculenta
Mountain blond morel
Head:
Ribs:
Pits:
Stalk:
Spore size:
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M esculenta
M esculenta
M esculenta
M esculenta
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Yellow morel
Head:
Ribs:
Pits:
Stalk:
Spore size:
Morchella
rufobrunnea
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Red-brown blushing morel—Morchella rufobrunnea
Head: Ribs:
Pits:
Stalk:
Spore size:
Clethra
M
deliciosa M. rufobrunnea M. rufo-
brunnea
M esculenta M rufobrunnea
M guatemalensis M herediana
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Half-free morel Morchella semilibera
Head:
Ribs:
Pits: Stalk:
Spore size:
M semilibera
M semilibera
Verpa bohemica
Verpa
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Morchella semilibera
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Potentially harmful look-alikes—
Verpa Gyromitra
Verpa bohemica
Morchella Verpa Gyromitra
Helvella Disciotis
Discina
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Morchella, Gyromitra, Verpa. Gyromitra Verpa
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Biology
Overview—
14
14
To understand
how morels seem
unique among
edible forest fungi
in their adaptations,
it is necessary to
understand their
life cycle, modes
of nutrition, and
reproductive strategies.
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Tuber
Morchella
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Morels might be
capable of the highly
unusual feat of haploid
meiosis.
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Mycelia—
Costantinella cristata
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15
15
“individual” and its
spatial extent in the
soil is problematic.
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Costantinella cristata
Morchella
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Mycorrhizae—
16
17 M. rotunda M esculenta M elata
16
17
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M esculenta
18
M
elata
M esculenta M elata
Morchella
Muffs—
18
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Alnus glutinosa Rubus tomentosus
Robinia pseudoacacia
Sclerotia—
Sclerotina sclerotiorum
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Fruiting—
Factors that facilitate fruiting—
Morchella
Such fruiting may
represent a last-ditch
effort to reproduce
when the morel’s food
source disappears.
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Geopyxis carbonaria
G. carbonaria
M elata
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19
19
decomposable organic
matter could come from
forest soil organisms
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M elata
Factors that trigger fruiting—
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Morchella rotunda
20
21
Factors that support fruiting—
Fruiting body—
Morchella
20
21 a
a
a
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46
22
M delicious M esculenta
22
When conditions
are optimal, these
primordia can grow,
in 1 day, into morel
fruiting bodies that are
size.
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M
conica M esculenta
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Aradus debilis Aradus
Spores—
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Population genetics—
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Inbreeding and haploid meiosis
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Podospora anserina
Reproductive strategies—
Whether any species of
morel actually conducts
haploid meiosis in
nature is not known,
but it might be a useful
strategy for colonizing
new habitats.
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morels in western
forests remain
somewhat of an
ecological mystery.
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Cultivation
Context—
Agaricus Lentinula edodes Pleurotus
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History—
M esculenta”
Morchella rufobrunnea
Morchella
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Agrocybe aegerita Pholiota nameko
Constraints and opportunities—Morels have a
complex life cycle
that complicates the
process of scaling up
cultivation methods to
procedures.
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23
23
Morchella
Morchella
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Prospects—
M
hortensis
Morchella
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The Handbook of Fungal Technology
Morchella
Collecting to Cooking
Harvesting—
Wild-collected morels
likely will have a value
premium in markets for
many years to come.
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There is no reason to
believe that cutting
morels does more harm
than pulling.
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Processing—
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Marketing—
Culinary use—
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24
Toxins and Contaminants
Toxins in look-alike mushrooms—
Gyromitra Verpa
Gyromitra Verpa
24
The cardinal rule is to
always cook morels
thoroughly and start
with modest quantities
until you become
effects.
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Gyromitra gigas
Verpa bohemica Gyromitra
Verpa bohemica
Morel toxins—
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M esculenta
M conica
Another concern
is whether morels
can absorb toxic
retardant slurries.
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Public health regulations—
Gyromitra Verpa in
Gyromitra esculenta Verpa bohemica.
Gyromitra esculenta, Verpa bohemica, Helvella
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Gyromitra
esculenta Verpa bohemica
Verpa bohemica
Morel Harvesters
Personal Use
We know of no
documented instances
of consumers being
seriously poisoned by
wild mushrooms that
were commercially
collected in western
North America.
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Commercial
pounds
Ethnic diversity—
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Residence—
Income strategies—
Mobility—
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Patch-lines—
Harvest site portfolios—
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
tree death are scattered
and unpredictable.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-710
Cooperation—Information is a
particularly important
form of social currency,
and buying stations
constitute one of the
most important sites of
information exchange.
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Motivations—
Wages—
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Opinions about forest management—
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Morel Commerce
International
Globally, 300,000
pounds of dried morels
are traded annually.
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25
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Economics
Value—
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The usefulness of
drying and holding
morels for sale later
in the year depends
on the cost of drying
and holding the
mushrooms and the
international supply
of dried morels in any
given year.
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26
26
Table 3—Estimated quantities of morels harvesteda and value of commercial mushroom permits
sold on national forests in Oregon and Washington during 2004 and 2005
January-June 2004 January-June 2005
Pounds Dollars Pounds Dollars
b
a
b
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Markets—
Businesses—
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Local Impacts
Social impacts—
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Environmental impacts—
Morchella
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Policy and Regulation
Land ownership and harvest access—
Development of regulations—
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Current regulations—
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86
)
Challenges—
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Reasonable prices,
regulations that
are sensible, and
convenient times,
places, and means
for obtaining permits
all enhance harvester
acceptance.
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Regional Summaries
Mountains of Mexico
Morchella an-
gusticeps M. conica, M. costata, M. elata M. crassipes,
M. esculenta
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Morchella
Morchella
M. elata M. esculenta
M. guatemalensis
M. rufobrunnea
Clethra
M.
deliciosa M. rufobrunnea
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M. esculenta
Abies religiosa
Pinus patula
Abies hickelii
Morel harvesting in
Mexico is a seasonal
and traditional
activity of indigenous
and mestizo (mixed
indigenous and
European ancestry)
communities.
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Morchella
M. angusticeps, M. conica, M. costata, M. elata,
M. esculenta, M. rufrobrunea M. umbrina
unidades de manejo ambiental
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Interior West and Rocky Mountains
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Polytrichum
Ceanothus prostratus
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Letters that request
collecting opportunities
mailboxes of USFS
botanists and forest
supervisors on national
forests with recent
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Coast and Cascade Ranges in Oregon and Washington
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To date, managers
remain largely
unconcerned
about whether
morel harvesting is
sustainable.
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Boletus pinophilus
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Table 4—Number and value of mushrooma-harvesting
permits sold by the tri-forest permit collaboration of
the Malheur, Umatilla, and Wallowa-Whitman National
Forests
Year Permits sold Value
Number Dollars
a
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27
27
Private timberland
owners typically
concentrate on salvage
and have safety and
liability concerns
regarding mushroom
harvesters during
these operations.
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28
Western Canada
28
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29
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30 31
32
33
34
30
31
32
33 a a
34
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35
36
37
35
36
37
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
An overlay of un-
extinguished aboriginal
rights and titles also
govern rights of access
and use of much of
British Columbia’s
public lands.
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Interior Alaska
Morchella
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Management and Research
Sustainability
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Productivity
Often the only way to
reasonably monitor
sustainable production
is on the scale of
landscapes and over
periods of decades or
centuries.
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Table 5—Unbiased stand-level estimates of mean morel productivity (counts
forest stands in northeastern Oregon that were selected to represent three stand
conditionsa
1995d 1996 Stand
Site locationb conditionc Count Weight Count Weight
Morels/acre Pounds/acre Morels/acre Pounds/acre
a
b
c
d
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British Columbia, and the Northwest Territories
Year Mean
a count weight Reference
Number/ac lbs/ac
b
c
c
c
d e
f
a
b
c
d
e
f
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Forest Management
Tree death—
A key research
question is whether
mycelial colonies or
sclerotia of morels
persist in the soil
through stand-
replacement events.
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Timber harvesting—
Soil disturbance—
Fires—
Intentional disruption
or compaction of soil
has too many potential
negative impacts on
tree growth to consider
its use for enhancing
morel crops.
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Other issues—Morels from western
North America could
command a premium
price if they can be
marketed as collected
from pristine areas.
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Enhancing morel harvest opportunities—
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38
Harvest Management
Equitable access—
38
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Land tenure and harvest pressure—
Liability insurance—
and regulations are
apt to be more widely
accepted if managers
involve all interested
parties in making
regulatory decisions.
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Useful Research
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Taxonomy— Morchella
Morchella
Morchella
The jumbled taxonomy
of North American
Morchella species
and their lack of valid
species names is
perhaps the biggest
current impediment to
morel research.
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Ecology—
Morchella
Reproduction and population genetics—
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Morchella
Morel commodity chains
Closing Remarks
The capacity of
state, federal, and
provincial governments
in western North
America to support
the wild mushroom
industry is hampered
by a profound lack of
published information
about morel commodity
chains.
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Glossary
allele—
anastomosis—
ascomycetes—
ascus, asci (plural)—
Morchella
ascospores—
asexual
basidium, basidia (plural)
Morchella,
chromosome—
clade—
conidiophore—
conidium, conidia (plural)—
cytoplasm
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
dikaryotic—
diploid—
ectomycorrhiza—
fruiting body (American usage) or fruit body (elsewhere)—
Morchella
fungivore—
genome—
haploid—
Hartig net—
heterokaryotic—
hymenium—
hypha, hyphae (plural)—
hypogeous—
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karyon—
macroscopic—
meiosis—
multikaryotic—
multinucleate—
mycelium, mycelia (plural)—
mycology—
mycophagy—
mycophilic—
mycophobic—
mycorrhiza, mycorrhizae or mycorrhizas (plural)—
nucleus, nuclei (plural)—
polymorphic—
primordium, primordia (plural)—
rhizomorphs—
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
riparian
saprobe, saprobic—
sclerotium, sclerotia (plural)—
sensu lato—
septum, septa (plural)—
sporocarp—
Morchella
stipe—
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-710
Acknowledgments
Page 135
Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Metric Equivalents
Literature Cited39
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-710
Alexopoulos, C.J.; Mims, C.W.; Blackwell, M. 1996.
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Morchella conica
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Blanco-Dios, J.B. 2002.
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Morchella Verpa Disciotis
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Burros, M. 1985.
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Buscot, F. 1992b.
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Buscot, F. 1993. Morchella esculenta
Buscot, F. 1994.
Morchella elata Picea abies
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Buscot, F.; Kottke, I. 1990. Morchella rotunda
Picea abies
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Morchella rotunda
Page 140
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-710
California Code of Regulations. 1996.
Carpenter, S.; Trappe, J.M.; Ammirati, J., Jr. 1987.
Casey, K. 1995.
Chandra, A. 1989.
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Morchella
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Coombs, D. 1994.
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Crous, P.W.; Cother, E.J. 2003.
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Morchella
Dähncke, R.M.; Dähncke, S.M. 1984.
Dalgleish, H.J.; Jacobson, K.M. 2005.
Morchella esculenta
de Geus, P.M.J. 1995.
DeWolf, S. 2001
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Duchesne, L.C.; Weber, M.G. 1993. Morchella
conica Pinus banksiana
Page 142
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-710
Fabricant, F. 1980.
Morchella
Ferndock, M. (Each, P.; Mikkelsen, A., eds.) 1986.
Fine, G.A. 1998.
Fire-Trol Holdings, L.L.C. 1999.
Fischer, D.W.; Bessette, A.E. 1992.
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Fritze, H.; Pennanen, T.; Kitunen, V. 1998.
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Pinus ponderosa
Gadbow, D. 2001a.
Gadbow, D. 2001b
Gecan, J.S.; Cichowicz, S.M. 1993.
Gessner, R.V. 1995.
Morchella
Gessner, R.V.; Romano, M.M.; Schultz, R.W. 1987.
Morchella deliciosa M esculenta
Ghosh, S.; Majumdar, S.K. 1986.
Morchella
Gilbert, F. 1961. Morchella
Gilmore, M.R. 1919.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-710
f
Giunta Regionale dell’Umbria. 1987.
Morchella conica
Gove, P.B.; Merriam-Webster Editorial Staff, eds. 1993.
Grace, B.C. 2005.
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Morchella
Guin, J. 1997
Güler, P. 2000. Morchella esculenta
Guzmán, G. 1977.
Guzmán, G.; Tapia, F. 1998.
Morchella rufobrunnea M guatemalensis
Guzmán-Dávalos, L.; Rodríguez-Alcantar, O. 1993. Morchella
guatemalensis Morchella guatemalensis
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Hallen, H.; Volk, T.; Adams, G. 2001.
Hammond, C. 1999.
Hanlin, R.T.; Hahn, C.G. (illustr.). 1990.
Hansis, R. 1998.
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Hemmes, D.E.; Desjardin, D.E. 2002.
Helfferich, D. 2005.
Hervey, A.; Bitis, G.; Leong, I. 1978.
Morchella esculenta
Page 146
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-710
Hosford, D.; Pilz, D.; Molina, R.; Amaranthus, M.P. 1997.
Huffman, D.M.; Tiffany, L.H. 2001.
Morchella conica, elata y esculenta Morchella
conica, elata esculenta
Iqbal, M. 1993.
Jacobs, M.E. 1982.
Jacquetant, E. 1984.
Johnston, G. 2001
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Morchella esculenta
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Kasischke, E.S.; Rupp, T.S.; Verbyla, D.L. 2006.
Morchella
Keefer, M.E. 2005.
Kendrick, B. 2001.
Korhonen, M. 1986.
Kreisel, H. 2005.
Kuo, M. 2002 (December).
Kuo, M. 2005.
Kuo, M. 2006 (February).
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-710
Leonard, T.J.; Volk, T.J. 1992.
LeVaux, A. 2005.
Lonik, L. 2002.
Love, T.; Jones, E. 2001.
Love, T.; Jones, E.; Liegel, L. 1998.
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Mader, R. 2005.
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Masaphy, S. 2005. Morchella
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Matruchot, L. 1892.
Morchella
McKnight, K.H. 1987.
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Miller, H. 2003.
Miller, J. 2004a.
Miller, J. 2004b.
Page 150
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-710
Miller, S.L.; Torres, P.; McClean, T.M. 1994.
Morchella
Minnesota Statutes. 1998. Morchella esculenta
Moerman, D.E. 1998.
Molina, R.; Massicotte, H.; Trappe, J.M. 1992.
Molliard, M.M. 1904a. Morchella esculenta
Morchella esculenta
Molliard, M.M. 1904b.
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Montréal Process Working Group. 2003.
f
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Morchella
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-710
Morchella
O’Driscoll, P. 2001.
Olynyk, J.; Bergner, K. 2002.
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Ower, R. 1982. Morchella
esculenta
Ower, R.D.; Mills, G.L.; Malachowski, J.A. 1986 (June 17).
Morchella
Ower, R.D.; Mills, G.L.; Malachowski, J.A. 1988 (July 19).
Morchella
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Morchella
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Parks, C.G.; Schmitt, C.L. 1997.
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Pinus
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Pilz, D.; Molina, R. 1998.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-710
Pilz, D.; Molina, R. 2002.
Pilz, D.; Molina, R.; Mayo, J. 2006c.
Morchella esculenta
Pugh, G.J.F.; Boddy, L. 1988.
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
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Schmidt, E.L. 1983.
Morchella esculenta
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Proyecto de Conservacion y Manejo Sustentable de Recursos Forestales
Morchella elata Morchella esculenta
Morchella elata
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-710
Morchella esculenta
Shanley, P.; Pierce, A.R.; Laird, S.A.; Guillen, S.A. 2002.
Morchella esculenta
Morchella esculenta
Morchella esculenta
Morchella esculenta
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Smith, S.E.; Read, D.J. 1997.
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Sturgis, W.C. 1905. Morchella esculenta
Szuecs, J. 1958 (September 9).
Szuecs, J.; Wiles, G.M. 1950 (May 2).
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-710
Taylor, J.W.; Spatafora, J.; Berbee, M. 1996.
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
1996.
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f
Vehling, J.D., ed. and transl. 1977.
Apicius
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-710
Villarreal, L.; Gómez, A. 1997.
Villarreal, L.; Pérez-Moreno, J. 1989.
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Volk, T.J.; Leonard, T.J. 1989a.
Morchella
Volk, T.J.; Leonard, T.J. 1989b.
Morchella crassipes
Volk, T.J.; Leonard, T.J. 1990. Morchella
Vrålstad, T.; Holst-Jensen, A.; Schumacher, T. 1998.
Geopyxis carbonaria
Picea abies
Walstad, J.D.; Radosevich, S.R.; Sandberg, D.V. eds. 1990.
Morchella
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-710
Wedin, M.; Döring, H.; Gilenstam, G. 2004.
Stictis Conotrema
Werner, P. 2002.
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Willetts, H.J. 1972
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
World Bank. 1997.
Yamin, S. 2005.
Yoon, C.-S.; Gessner, R.V.; Romano, M.M. 1990.
Morchella esculenta
Yukon Energy, Mines, and Resources. 2004.
f
Zamora, M.; Torres, J.M.; Zamora, L. 2001.
Podospora anserina
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-710
a
True morelsb
Morchella Costantinella cristata
Morchella
Morchella angusticeps
Morchella esculenta atrotomentosa
Morchella atrotomentosa
Morchella conica
Morchella costata
Morchella crassipes
M.
esculenta
Morchella deliciosa
Morchella elata
Morchella esculenta
Morchella guatemalensis
Morchella herediana
Morchella hortensis
Morchella intermedia
M. conica
Morchella rigidoides
Morchella rotunda Morchella
esculenta
Morchella rufobrunnea
Morchella semilibera Mitrophora
semilibera
Morchella umbrina
M. esculenta
Morel look-alikes and related genera:
Discina
Disciotis venosa
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Gyromitra gigas
Gyromitra esculenta
Gyromitra
Gyromitra Helvella
Verpa bohemica
Verpa
Other fungi:
Agrocybe aegerita
Agaricus brunnescens
Boletus
Boletus edulis
Boletus pinophilus
Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae
Cantharellus
Cantharellus,
Craterellus, Gomphus, Polyozellus.
Geopyxis carbonaria
Lentinula edodes
Ophiostoma ulmi
Pholiota nameko
Pleurotus
Podospora anserina
Sclerotina sclerotiorum
Tricholoma magnivelare
Tricholoma matsutake
Tricholoma Tricholoma magnivelare
Tricholoma caligatum
Tricholoma
matsutake
Tuber
Tuber
Xerophyllum tenax
Pteridium aquilinum
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-710
Polytrichum
Fragaria
Trillium
Shrubs:
Vaccinium
Syringa vulgaris
Holodiscus discolor
Ceanothus prostratus
Gaultheria shallon
Rubus tomentosus
Trees:
Alnus
Malus pumila
Fraxinus
Populus
Fagus
Prunus serotina
Picea mariana
Betula
Eucalyptus globus
Prunus laurocerasus
Castanea sativa
Austrocedrus chilensis
Populus
Pseudotsuga menziesii
Ulmus
Picea engelmannii
Alnus glutinosa
Abies hickelii
Carya
Pinus banksiana
Juniperus
Robinia pseudoacacia
Pinus contorta contorta
Acer
Pinus radiata
Picea abies
Quercus
Abies religiosa
Betula papyrifera
Pinus
Pinus ponderosa
Populus
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Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America
Pinus jeffreyi Pinus ponderosa
Pinus coulteri
Nothofagus
Abies lasiocarpa
Larix lyallii
Liquidambar
Platanus
Abies
Liriodendron tulipifera
Pinus patula
Tsuga heterophylla
Larix occidentalis
Clethra
Abies concolor
Picea glauca
Pinus albicaulis
Salix
Insects:
Orgyia pseudotsugata
Aradus debilis
Lymantria dispar
Dendroctonus ponderosae
Choristoneura occidentalis
Animals:
Cervus canadensis
Ursus arctos horribilis
Canis lupus
a
b
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