Ecology and Farming No 3/2013

Who Made your clothes?

Brazil and the World Football Cup, how does this affect organics?

ecology AND

No 3 // November 2013

SUSTAINING SOIL FERTILITY

EMPOWERING SMALLHOLDERS

Organic growth in Belgium

Certification body

FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENTInspection and certification of products, systems and services

Drafting of standards

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Tableof Con

tents

NOVEMBER 2013 // NR 3

COTTON 8 Who made your clothes? Where do our clothes come from?

AGRiCulTuRe12 Empowering smallholders A key for the future of agriculture

WORlD16 Brazil and the World Football Cup, how does this affect organics? BioBrazil Fair-Biofach 2013 took place during the month of protest

SOil22 APPROACHES AND THEIR WIDER APPLICABILITY Sustaining Soil Fertility

AGRiCulTuRe26 Productivity and profitability of organic agriculture in East Africa Comparing organic farming systems

COuNTRY RePORT30 Organic growth in Belgium

After a period of stagnation the Belgian organic sector

has once again started to grow

AND mORE.... Editorial 5 News 6 Calendar 34 Contact 34

9x5cm_Final.pdf 1 5/28/13 2:22 PM

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5ECOLOGY & FARmING | 3-2013

Denise Godinho Peter Brul

INTRODuCTION

I don’t want to bother you with the troubles of running

a magazine nowadays. Times are not only difficult for

magazines, but for many companies. But in this case,

it is also linked to the question how well the organic

movement is.

The market for media and especially printed media

is extremely difficult and changes drastically. People

do not want to pay anymore for subscriptions and for

advertisements. Partly that is caused by recession,

another (more structural) impact comes from internet.

You can get everything for free on internet. People,

including organic decision makers, read less and less

background articles and favour short, fast and posi-

tive stories about ‘the latest news’.

The assumption that there is a global organic move-

ment and market (which is the basis for a global

magazine) is wrong. There are only local organic

movements, which act local and think local. They are

not interested in news and background articles from

elsewhere. The global movement, interested in global

issues, is just a very small group. What Tip O’Neill,

the former Speaker of the U.S. House said about poli-

tics, counts also for organic: “All organics is local.”

The organic sector is since around 20 years used

to be a donor and government darling. Apart from

the commercial things and part of the certification ,

everything was always subsidized, there is no culture

of paying for information. Companies in the organic

industry believe they have a good story that genera-

tes so-called free publicity. In their opinion, adverti-

sing is for products without a good story, like Coca

Cola, Mercedes and Rolex. And when they advertise,

it is with consumer goods, focussed on consumers,

not B2B. Another reason why they might not adver-

tise is, because many of the organic producers, pro-

cessors and traders are in a bad shape. The market

and the production is growing, but increase of turn-

over comes from newcomers, with heavy pressure

on prices and profit. Everybody tries to reduce costs

where possible.

Organic has become a real industry with a serious

and a growing turn-over, where millions of people are

working. But organic is also a movement to renew

agriculture, focussed on improvement of the agricul-

tural methods itselves, on socio-economic results,

impact on nature and environment including (agro)

biodiversity, food security and food quality. More and

more consumers in a growing number of countries

are convinced of these qualities of organic produc-

tion. But I have the impression that the link between

the industry and the movement (the ideals) is getting

weaker. Certifiers guarantee for the consumers that

the products meet the standards, governments make

the rules. The link between the governments, the

industry and the consumers is becoming more a pro-

fessional semi-bureaucratic organisation, less a kind

of movement with ideals. It is getting more and more

professional, but the soul is getting thinner. Maybe I

am wrong, or I exaggerate. But it is definitely true that

the times for an international magazine on organic

movements and markets are changing. It is not easy,

but exiting.

Your reactions are, as always, appreciated.

Peter Brul, editor in chief

All organics is local?

6 3-2013 | ECOLOGY & FARmING

REGISTRATION NOW

OPEN FOR THE ORGANIC

WORLD CONGRESS

Registration is now open for the 18th

Organic World Congress taking place

October 13-15, 2014 in Istanbul.

IFOAM Affiliates benefit from a 20%

discount on 3-day tickets. To ensure

you receive this, please send a mail

to [email protected]. You will

then be sent a link with which you

can complete your registration. More

information on registering can be found

here. We look forward to greeting you

in Istanbul!

IFOAM PARTICIPATION IN THE UNITED NATIONS CLIMATE CHANGE

NEGOTIATIONS - COP19, POLAND

At the COP19 in Warsaw, IFOAM

informed international and national

decision makers of the multiple bene-

fits of high-sequestration organic agri-

culture for climate change resilience,

food security and sustainable develop-

ment.

IFOAM was proud to have a chance to

host a side-event during the negotiati-

ons on transforming farming systems

for food & climate security & sustaina-

ble rural development together with the

Environmental Defense Fund on Friday

15th November. More information can

be found on www.ifoam.org.

In addition IFOAM was one of the

organizers of the Global Landscapes

Forum, which was held on the sideli-

nes of the negotiations to develop the

potential of the landscape approach to

inform future UNFCCC agreements

and the achievement of the propo-

sed Sustainable Development Goals.

IFOAM partnered with the Research

Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL),

Biovision Foundation and the Millen-

nium Institute to co-host an event that

explored the international, national and

local policies and initiatives required

to enable equitable and resilient sustai-

nable rural development and realize

the right to food at the landscape and

community levels – especially for vul-

nerable people.

The IFOAM lead event featured a

range of key stakeholders including

IUCN, UNCCD and FAO.

How economic growth has become anti-life

BY VANDANA ShiVA

An obsession with growth has eclipsed our concern for sustainability, justice and human dignity. But people are not disposable – the value of life lies outside economic development

Limitless growth is the fantasy of econo-

mists, businesses and politicians. It is seen

as a measure of progress. As a result, gross

domestic product (GDP), which is supposed

to measure the wealth of nations, has emerged

as both the most powerful number and domi-

nant concept in our times. However, economic

growth hides the poverty it creates through

the destruction of nature, which in turn leads to

communities lacking the capacity to provide for

themselves.

The concept of growth was put forward as a

measure to mobilise resources during the second

world war. GDP is based on creating an artificial

and fictitious boundary, assuming that if you

produce what you consume, you do not produce.

In effect , “growth” measures the conversion of

nature into cash, and commons into commodi-

ties.

Thus nature’s amazing cycles of renewal of

water and nutrients are defined into nonproduc-

tion. The peasants of the world,who provide 72%

of the food, do not produce; women who farm

or do most of the housework do not fit this para-

digm of growth either. A living forest does not


Newscontribute to growth, but when trees are

cut down and sold as timber, we have

growth. Healthy societies and com-

munities do not contribute to growth,

but disease creates growth through, for

example, the sale of patented medicine.

Water available as a commons shared

freely and protected by all provides for

all. However, it does not create growth.

But when Coca-Cola sets up a plant,

mines the water and fills plastic bottles

with it, the economy grows. But this

growth is based on creating poverty

– both for nature and local communi-

ties. Water extracted beyond nature’s

capacity to renew and recharge creates

a water famine. Women are forced to

walk longer distances looking for drin-

king water. In the village of Plachimada

in Kerala, when the walk for water

became 10 kms, local tribal woman

Mayilamma said enough is enough.

We cannot walk further; the Coca-Cola

plant must shut down. The movement

that the women started eventually led to

the closure of the plant.

In the same vein, evolution has gifted

us the seed. Farmers have selected,

bred, and diversified it – it is the basis

of food production. A seed that renews

itself and multiplies produces seeds for

the next season, as well as food. Howe-

ver, farmer-bred and farmer-saved seeds

are not seen as contributing to growth.

It creates and renews life, but it doesn’t

lead to profits. Growth begins when

seeds are modified, patented and gene-

tically locked, leading to farmers being

forced to buy more every season.

Nature is impoverished, biodiversity

is eroded and a free, open resource is

transformed into a patented commodity.

Buying seeds every year is a recipe

for debt for India’s poor peasants. And

ever since seed monopolies have been

established, farmers debt has increased.

More than 270,000 farmers caught in a

debt trap in India have committed sui-

cide since 1995.

Poverty is also further spread when

public systems are privatised. The pri-

vatisation of water, electricity, health,

and education does generate growth

through profits . But it also generates

poverty by forcing people to spend

large amounts of money on what was

available at affordable costs as a com-

mon good. When every aspect of life

is commercialised and commoditised,

living becomes more costly, and people

become poorer.

Both ecology and economics have

emerged from the same roots – “oikos”,

the Greek word for household. As long

as economics was focused on the hou-

sehold, it recognised and respected its

basis in natural resources and the limits

of ecological renewal. It was focused

on providing for basic human needs

within these limits. Economics as based

on the household was also women-

centered. Today, economics is separated

from and opposed to both ecological

processes and basic needs. While the

destruction of nature has been justified

on grounds of creating growth, poverty

and dispossession has increased. While

being non-sustainable, it is also econo-

mically unjust.

The dominant model of economic deve-

lopment has in fact become anti-life.

When economies are measured only in

terms of money flow, the rich get richer

and the poor get poorer. And the rich

might be rich in monetary terms – but

they too are poor in the wider context

of what being human means.

Meanwhile, the demands of the cur-

rent model of the economy are leading

to resource wars oil wars, water wars,

food wars. There are three levels of

violence involved in non-sustainable

development. The first is the violence

against the earth, which is expressed

as the ecological crisis. The second is

the violence against people, which is

expressed as poverty, destitution and

displacement. The third is the violence

of war and conflict, as the powerful

reach for the resources that lie in other

communities and countries for their

limitless appetites.

Increase of moneyflow through GDP

has become disassociated from real

value, but those who accumulate finan-

cial resources can then stake claim on

the real resources of people – their

land and water, their forests and seeds.

This thirst leads to them predating on

the last drop of water and last inch of

land on the planet. This is not an end

to poverty. It is an end to human rights

and justice.

Nobel-prize winning economists Joseph

Stiglitz and Amartya Sen have admitted

that GDP does not capture the human

condition and urged the creation of

different tools to gauge the wellbeing

of nations. This is why countries like

Bhutan have adopted the gross national

happiness in place of gross domestic

product to calculate progress. We need

to create measures beyond GDP, and

economies beyond the global supermar-

ket, to rejuvenate real wealth. We need

to remember that the real currency of

life is life itself.

This article has originally been posted on theguardian.com at November 1, 2013


The textile industry has a long history of changing only when

forced to by a crisis or disaster. The latest being the tragic

Bangladesh Rana Plaza factory collapse in April where over 1,000

workers lost their lives. However, unlike previous displays of

procrastination and attention diverting tactics, a substantial num-

ber of retailers and brands reacted quickly to ensure action was

indeed taken. A coalition of 70 leading clothing brands, retailers

and trade unions backed by the International Labor Organization

and the IndustriALL and UNI global trade unions has announced

the next steps for their precedent-setting, five-year Accord on

Fire and Building in Bangladesh.

We saw a similar response by the industry to the recent exposé

by Greenpeace. The Detox campaign was launched in 2011 to

Where do our clothes come from? And do we really want to know? Liesl Truscott, Farm Engagement & European Director at Textile Exchange, says that if the public response to the recent Bangladesh disaster is anything to go by, many more of us do care and expect our clothing retailers to care too!

expose the direct links between global clothing brands, their sup-

pliers and toxic water pollution around the world. The campaign

exposed the toxic discharges resulting from textile dying and

other manufacturing processes and challenged global sportswear

brands to champion a “toxic-free future”. Since then, some of the

world’s largest fashion retailers have committed to build a road-

map to Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals (ZDHC).

Twenty years ago we were forced to acknowledge the damage

and lives lost through pesticide use and abuse in cotton cultivati-

on. The Environmental Justice Foundation exposed the ecological

and human rights disaster of Uzbekistan’s cotton industry, inclu-

ding child and forced labour and the devastation of the Aral Sea.

Also in the late 80s legendary ethical fashion heroine Katharine

Who Made Your Clothes?

Where do our clothes come from?

BY lieSl TRuSCOTT

Lilipiache Organic Cotton lingerie www.lilipiache.com


COTTON

Hamnett (awarded a CBE by Queen Elizabeth in 2011) told us we

had “blood on our hands” due to the amount of deaths and des-

truction caused by chemical use in the cotton industry.

Despite this awareness raising and industry exposure the domi-

nation of our capitalist system and consumer appetites for con-

sumption means that industry and consumer behaviour is very

slow to change.

But is change starting to speed up?

Fast forward to 2014, April 24th to be exact and we will see our

first Fashion Revolution Day. The aim of the event is to encourage

transparency, and connect wearers to the origins of their clothes

– in particular the people behind the production.

Among the many challenges facing a more sustainable textile

industry, knowing where to start is often the biggest! The textile

value chain can be long and fragmented. Many retailers and their

customers are often so far removed from the origins and impacts

of production that it’s extremely difficult for companies to market

and build a thriving business that incorporates sustainable prac-

tices.

But of course we cannot knowingly accept any more Bangladesh

or Uzbek disasters... or for that matter the multitude of human

suffering and ecological degradation that remains invisible to the

fashion shoppers.

Organic – A Beacon For The Industry

For the past eleven years, we at Textile Exchange (TE) have been

contributing to the knowledge and awareness-raising of the

benefits of organic cotton. Textile Exchange’s Farm Hub is the

epicentre of the work in organic cotton. The philosophy of organic

offers us a holistic and integrated approach to value chains where

people and the environment are respected. This philosophy and

the four guiding principles (health, ecology, fairness, care) develo-

ped by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Move-

ments (IFOAM) provide the basis of an organic practitioner’s work

ethic and relationships with suppliers, customers, and the Earth.

But of course we need more than a definition to prove the worth

of organic as the beacon of sustainability. We need quantitative

data, particularly from the farms – where the water use, land use,

and impacts of climate change are felt most keenly - to support

the move by businesses to invest in organic.

There are a growing number of indices and rating systems in

development these days; creating a demand for sustainability

data. Impact assessment and Lifecycle Inventory data are increa-

singly being used to drive the textile industry towards investing in

more sustainable raw materials, more resource efficiency and less

hazardous processes, and pushing organizations and companies

to better quantify performance improvement.

C&A’s Water Footprint The C&A Foundation, the fashion company

C&A, and the Water Footprint Network (WFN) have just published

two new, trailblazing studies on the sustainable use of water, and

on C&A’s own water footprint along the international value chain

for the manufacture of cotton products.

The studies showed that with conventional cultivation, the grey

water footprint of cotton is about five times larger than if an Who Made Your Clothes?


organic method of cultivation is used. A primary contributor to

the bigger water footprint was the use of chemical pesticides on

conventional farms. For C&A, these studies have confirmed the

benefits of a move to organic cotton and shows that the water

footprint of conventional farming can be reduced through impro-

ved farming practices.

PumA Lifecycle Inventory for Organic Cotton Cultivation

in India Earlier this year, PUMA, PE International, and Textile

Exchange collaborated to produce a life cycle inventory (LCI) for

organic cotton cultivation in India. This project was based mainly

on the PUMA value chain and sourcing regions. The results

showed that water consumption in organic cotton was 18 times

lower than for conventional cotton, energy demand was 72 per-

cent lower and Global Warming Potential was 40 percent lower

for organic cotton than for conventional cotton.

much of these results were underpinned by the pioneering

work by Trucost and PumA on Environmental Profit & Loss,

which not only revealed that the most significant impact of textile

production occurs at “farm level” i.e. textile raw material produc-

tion, but also put “natural capital” and “ecosystem services” on

the radar for the industry. The study showed that if monetized,

over half (57 percent or € 83 million) of all PUMA’s environmen-

tal impacts are associated with the production of raw materials

(including leather, cotton and rubber).

Some companies are leading the way on transparency. The

Pi foundation (the charity arm of UK brand Pants To Poverty) is

leading a project where Pants to Poverty is opening itself up for

external scrutiny with complete transparency (financial, environ-

mental and social) throughout the value chain from seed to post

consumer disposal or upcycling. Pi foundation has assembled an

inspirational international network of leading experts to develop a

framework and methodology to measure, communicate and allo-

cate a value to the 3 dimensions of profit generated by its under-

wear brand. All of the research, assumptions tools and methodo-

logies will be made available, open source, for others critique it

and build consensus around true corporate profitability.

Revolutions ... and Collaboration... We need Both

Alongside the number of campaigns driving industry manifesto’s

and accords, and the great progress made by our “trail blazers

and pioneers”, there are a growing number of multi-stakeholder

platforms and consortiums developing within the textile industry.

These networks, based on pre-competitive collaboration, provide

enormous opportunities for driving widespread industry-led chan-

ge and growth towards a more sustainable industry.

For example:

The uK Sustainable Clothing Action Plan (SCAP) Companies

representing more than a third of UK clothing sales have signed

up for the SCAP 2020 Commitment to measure and report on the

environmental “footprint” of clothing throughout its life, and to

take action to reduce the impact.

Sustainable Apparel Coalition (SAC) is an industry-wide group

of over 100 apparel and footwear brands, retailers, suppliers,

nonprofits, and NGOs working to reduce the environmental and

social impacts of apparel and footwear products globally. The

focus of the SAC is to create and implement an index (Higg) to

measure the environmental and social performance of apparel

and footwear products.

Rana Plaza showed that companies can come together to colla-

borate and raise standards in the supply chain, to recognize their

responsibilities to the people who make their products, and come

out from behind the veil of anonymity that too many have hidden

behind for too long. The integrated approach of organic – taking

into account environmental, social and economic factors – offers

the best hope that we can to build a better textile industry and

avoid further tragedies.

Textile Sustainability Conference

Join us in Istanbul, an amazing international city, for our global

annual conference with a theme of “Sustainability: The Future

is Now - Unifying Our Industry through Integration and Collabo-

ration”. 2013 promises to be the most interactive and solution-

focused conference to date.

The 2013 Textile Sustainability Conference will bring together

industry stakeholders with the intent to share, listen, learn and

develop scalable solutions over three exciting days. These indu-

stry leaders are working alongside TE staff to develop interactive

sessions and topics that involve and meet the needs of the entire

value chain from raw fiber and chemical inputs to dynamic busi-

ness models that change the role of the consumer.

Figure 1: PUMA Environmental Profit & Loss reveals hot

spots at “Tier 4”


In addition to the main conference sessions, TE will host the

pre-conference 2nd Annual Organic Cotton Roundtable on

November 11. At last year’s Round Table meeting in Hong Kong

two task forces were established: (1) reinvigorating the business

investment model and (2) investing in and securing seed availabi-

lity. A third area of opportunity was identified (3) consumer aware-

ness – a vital part of the success story for the entire value chain.

We look forward to sharing with you the progress we have made

during 2013, and discussing next steps for 2014.

About Textile Exchange

Textile Exchange is a global non-profit organization that conve-

nes networks and acts as a catalyst to accelerate sustainability

across the textile value chain. Textile Exchange (TE) is the go-to

resource for organizations and brands from all over the world who

are working towards textile sustainability.

TE develops and manages textile content standards to safeguard

industry integrity and transparency. TE works diligently with orga-

nic farmers, providing improved access to stable markets, sustai-

nability education and business opportunities.

TE educates people from the farms, mills, factories, brands and

retailers about why organic and sustainable fibers are cleaning

up our planet. TE creates partnerships between companies of all

sizes to encourage solution-based interactions and is committed

to accelerating sustainable practices in the textile value chain

in order to create material change, restore the environment and

enhance lives around the world.

TE is led by a Board of Directors, consisting of fifteen members

from eight countries representing the supply chain, and is sup-

ported by an Advisory Council. The organizations home office is

in the US and the work towards TE’s mission is accomplished

by twenty staff from nine countries. In 2011, Textile Exchange

Europe was incorporated as a registered public charity in the Uni-

ted Kingdom.

Highlights from the Farm Hub

Farm & Fiber Report (latest edition now out!)

Collaborate Learning Series

Organic Cotton Round Table

Future Shapers

Organic In Action

Find A Producer

Learning Journey

World Environment Day


Empowering smallholders

BY GeRAlD A. heRRmANN AND milDReD STeiDle

A key for the future of agriculture

Smallholders play an essential role in food production and food security, in sustaining rural economies and as stewards of biodiversity. The FAO estimates that about 1.5 billion men and women farmers are working on more than 400 million small-scale farms of less than two hectares.


‘Accreditation Requirements for Bodies

Certifying Organic Production and Proces-

sing’ which forms part of IFOAM’s norms.

In 2003, IFOAM submitted a ‘Position on

Smallholder Group Certification for Orga-

nic Production and Processing to the EU’.

This document showed the consensus

reached by the global organic sector on

ICS requirements and resulted in the EU

recognising group certification, largely

accepting all the criteria established by

IFOAM. In 2004, IFOAM published a

training kit on ICS for smallholder group

certification (another output of the consul-

tation process). These materials are still

key resources for anybody involved with

group certification.

In 2008, IFOAM organised a debate

around the topic ‘Group certification, who

should be eligible?’ This debate gathered

input from the European pilot project ‘ICS

in the North’ and from ongoing discussi-

ons in the US about the acceptability and

scope of group certification. At this time

IFOAM took a proactive position towards

the US national Organic Standards Board

which was challenging the acceptance

of group certification in the US organic

system. The result was the continuation

of group certification in the US organic

scheme, albeit with some adjustments to

the original practice.

The current situation

Today, group certification is a powerful

tool that helps smallholders to become

organically certified and provides them

with access to global organic markets and

the benefits these bring.

The concept is accepted by relevant

regulations; but has never formally been

integrated within any of the regulations.

Instead, the concept has been recognised

through inclusion in the guidance notes

of, for example, the EU Organic Regulati-

on and the U.S. National Organic Program

(NOP).

Fair Trade, UTZ Certified, GLOBAL G.A.P.

etc.).

The group certification concept

Various groups and certifiers voluntarily

developed group certification systems

in order to reduce the costs and time

involved in certification, some even before

governmental organic regulations were in

place. These systems ensure compliance

with organic standards and require groups

to implement an internal control system

(ICS) operated by a central body of the

group. This central body is responsible for

ensuring that the applicable standards are

complied with, for implementing the ICS

and for co-ordinating the marketing of the

group’s produce.

When an ICS is in place, a group is con-

sidered as a single production unit. Provi-

ded that the ICS functions well, the third

party certification body is able to inspect

and certify the group as a whole, issuing

one single certification for all individual

producers as well as for the collective pro-

cessing and handling activities operated

by the group. Individual group members

cannot use the certification independently;

so centralised marketing of the group’s

produce is essential.

Milestones in the development of ICS

The group certification system started in

the 1990s. Smallholders in developing

countries began to co-operate with cer-

tification bodies to develop systems to

assure compliance with organic standards

for producers as a group. The international

farmers’ organisation Naturland and IMO

(the Institute for Marketecology) are the

pioneers of this approach.

Later on, IFOAM came to play a key role

in harmonising the concept of group

certification and ICS, through extensive

consultation with the global organic move-

ment in the 1990s and the early 2000s.

Group certification is regulated by a speci-

fic set of requirements, set out in IFOAM’s

AGRICuLTuRE

These small farmers mostly supply

local and regional markets. By orga-

nising themselves in groups they can

improve their access to local as well as

national and international organic markets.

Today, grower groups are major suppliers

of products such as coffee, cocoa, tea

and more. Markets and consumers in

the North depend on these smallholder

groups, who benefit from participating in

global organic markets. Although there is

a lack of market statistics to substantiate,

for example, how much organic coffee

is produced by self-organised grower

groups or contract farming, it is known

that a large proportion of organic coffee is

produced and marketed in this way. If the

market access of such grower groups was

to be restricted it is likely that there would

be a substantial decline in the availability

of organic coffee in the main consumer

markets.

Restrictive norms and regulations are a

burden for small scale farmers

It is imperative that small-scale farmers

are not marginalised and unduly excluded

from the organic sector by factors bey-

ond their control. Third party certification

systems can be a burden on small-scale

producers and innovation with a focus on

cost efficiency can help to improve their

situation.

Organic regulations require all certified

operators to undergo at least one inspec-

tion a year, carried out by a third party

inspection body. This applies equally to

any operation, whether large or small, and

whether in the North or South. In develo-

ping countries there is often no local orga-

nic inspection body and even where there

is such a body available, the costs for

certification can still be too high for small-

holders to afford. This rigorous certifica-

tion system is costly and time-consuming

and excludes individual small producers,

especially those in developing countries,

from participating in organic markets (and

others with sustainability criteria, such as

Continuous efforts are needed in order to

maintain the group certification option in

the future. While it is important to lobby

regulatory bodies on this issue, the real

challenge for stakeholders is the effective

and harmonised implementation of ICS

systems in line with the group certification

requirements.

Challenges

The implementation of a group’s ICS is a

demanding task and involves several key

challenges, including:

• reliableimplementationofthegroup’s

internal functions and procedures,

which must conform to the requi-

rements of the relevant regulations,

standards and the third party certifi-

cation body involved

• comprehensiveandtransparent

administration, including the ability to

retrieve documentation from indivi-

dual members of the group

• thecomprehensiveapplicationofthe

workflow of internal control, certifica-

tion and corrective actions and other

internal procedures.

It has been observed that there are great

differences in groups’ performances in

these respects, as well as in the practices

of the certifiers of groups. Critics of ICS

rightfully complain about this. There is

lack of consistency in the control measu-

res applied by, and to, organised groups

implementing an ICS. Often, a group can-

not supply a complete internal farmer’s

list and there is a lack of consistent infor-

mation about things such as an individual

farmer’s certification status, the respective

crop area, the estimated harvest and even

the date of the last internal inspections.

This has led the two main regulators (the

NOP/ EU) to increase the percentage of

external re-inspections, which has resul-

ted in an additional financial burden. It

has even led to discussions (in the lead

up to the revision of the EU regulation)

about whether to eliminate the option of

the grower group ICS system entirely.

These are alarming signs as raising costs,

or even the complete loss of the grower

group certification concept, would make

it far harder (or in the latter case virtually

impossible) for small-scale farmers to

access organic markets

Closing the gap

Various organisations, including IFAD,

FAO, UNEP and development and export

agencies, are taking very welcome and

concrete steps towards supporting small-

scale farmers. However, more activities,

and especially instruments, are needed

to create sound and stable groups that

can provide support in developing reliable

access to relevant markets.

This is where a new initiative comes

into play, one which aims to close this

gap. Organic Services, an international

consultancy, in combination with the

certification body CERES, has developed

‘Group Certification (GC) Management’ a

tool for professionalising small farmers’

organisations. Other certification bodies

(including the Instituto Biodinamico, the

IMO and the Naturland Association) have

also participated in its development. GC

Management supports self-organised

groups and businesses working with small

producers on a contract farming basis to

better manage their ICS.

GC Management builds on Ecert® – a

generic and modular workflow based

audit, certification, customer relationship

management and management tool for

certification bodies, which is widely used

around the globe. The software has been

simplified to create a lighter version that

is suitable for use by groups and more

affordable. Its development has been (and

is being) supported by a public-private

partnership co-financed by DEG (Deut-

sche Investitions und Entwicklungsge-

sellschaft mbH), a German development

finance institution. CG Management was

launched at BioFach 2013 and has since

been applied in different places around

the world.

Functionalities and benefits

GC Management facilitates groups to

meet the complex administrative and

documentary requirements of various

standards by focusing on the workflow of

the internal control process.

All the internal procedures and data are

managed by an efficient database, which

includes reports, e.g. lists of farmers and

crops and corrective actions, as well as

data about exports that make it easier

to provide the external certifier with the

information required. This system helps

avoid problems with loss of data or retrie-

val of paper documentation and ensures

that the data are kept up to date and

available at any time. This helps avoid

the group management system being

compromised when, for example, admi-

nistrative personnel or officers change,

thereby increasing the group’s stability

and reliability, helping to contain or even

lower costs.

GC Management is multi-lingual, and can

be globally accessed through the internet.

No installation is required. The system

is updated regularly and offers multi-

standard inspection checklists showing

the control points/ indicators for the main

organic standards (e.g. those of the EU,

the US and Japan, Naturland, Biosuisse

and Demeter) and sustainability criteria

(e.g. the Sustainable Agriculture Network

(SAN), Fair Trade, UTZ Certified, GLOBAL

G.A.P). Additional standards and langua-

ges can easily be added in the future.

Global implementation needs local partners

Implementation of GC Management is

through local or regional implementation

partners (IPs), or, where no IP exists,

directly by Organic Services. The IPs sup-

port the grower groups, and provide them

with training (they themselves are trained

and assisted by Organic Services). IPs

are the best vehicle for guaranteeing fast

service and support in the local language

and also have more detailed knowledge of

local conditions.

The United Nations General Assembly has

declared 2014 to be the ‘Year of Family

Farming’. We hope that the launch of GC

Management will contribute to the impro-

vement of the livelihoods of small farmers

around the world and help them to better

work together and thus strengthen their

market position in local, regional and

international markets. It should also help

to improve food security, sustain rural

economies and biodiversity and keep

traditional systems and knowledge alive

for future generations of small family far-

mers.

Authors’ details

Gerald A. Herrmann (g.herrmann@

organic-services.com) and Mildred Steidle

([email protected]) are the

Directors of Organic Services - Interna-

tional Management and Strategy Con-

sulting, Germany. For more information

about the functionalities and capabilities

of GC Management please visit www.

group-certification.com or www.organic-

services.com


Springbockvley Farm, Namibia

ekkehARD külBS, JuDiTh iSele & WieBke VOlkmANN

The efficiency of low input livestock farming



BY AleXANDRe hARkAlY




BioBrazil Fair-Biofach 2013 took place during the month of protest.

This summer the whole world heard about the street protests in Brazil. On just one day (11th July) there were more than 30 protests in different parts of the country! What is the background to these protests? Brazil has enjoyed 16 years of new social aware-ness and the Labour government is now in its third term, with Labour Party President Dilma Roussef having inherited all of the positive results of the Lula and Fernando Henrique years. At the same time, however, the country is widely reported as having invested more than R$ 30 billion (circa 9.25 billion Euro) in building infrastructure (stadiums, airports, streets etc.) for the 2014 World Cup. It is this fact that has outraged so much of the population in a country where there are still 12 million people living at hunger level, where hospitals are full and health care is poor, where the highways are badly maintained, where the education system is struggling and teachers are very badly paid and where the judicial system is ama-zingly inefficient. The protests were triggered when the bus fares in many cities were raised in line with last year’s inflation. People asked why they had to pay this increase when such massive investments were being made for the World Cup, an event which did not seem to be providing any direct benefits to the people. A free and peaceful movement called the ‘free pass movement’ triggered the protests.

Photo: A

lexander Joe


established by 5 NGOs from São Paulo city, with which has

engaged in talks with the House of Representatives, and pro-

moted lectures and other events, leading several deputies to

announce their support for the organic movement. To create a

whole set of laws for organic products in Brazil, it is necessary

to engage with deputies and senators.

Yet at the same time, organic products in the supermarkets

are generally expensive and sales are concentrated among the

elite. The latest consumer profile studies show that 92% of

organic consumers have an income of U$ 7800/year or more

(this in a country where the average income is U$ 4140/year).

There is still much work to be done in order to consolidate

organics as a popular movement.

The government has announced an ambitious Plan (Plano

Nacional de Agroecologia e Agricultura Orgânica – National

Plan for Agroecology and Organic Agriculture) with funding in

running to several hundred million Reals . President Dilma was

at the launch ceremony and seemed to take a real interest.

This plan is intended to stimulate the organic sector with trai-

ning, credit, research, public purchasing of organic produce

and other actions. It remains to be seen how this plan will fit

within the new political order being drawn by the streets and

It seems that the country has woken up to the ruling classes’

inability to solve the major problems and challenges facing

the country. The ruling classes are worried and do not know

what to do. They have suddenly realised that political protests

are being organized by civil society without any participation

by political leaders! They have ‘missed the train’ because they

were blind to the feeling of protest growing on the streets.

Throughout June, there were protests on the streets every day,

some with 50 participants, some with several thousands. On

June 20 more than 1.4 million people demonstrated across the

country.

What does all this have to do with the organic movement?

On one hand we can say that the organic movement has

gained a place on the streets of Brazil: there are an amazing

number of organised street markets (more than 186 in 50

cities!), special health food shops, supermarkets, and crèches

and schools where organic food is provided. The Ministry of

Agriculture has registered more than 11,000 organic operators

in the country (probably the tip of the iceberg). All these deve-

lopments involve popular mobilisation, organising a movement

that can talk with the authorities and negotiate more space

for manoeuvre. Recently a parliamentary platform has been

BioBrazil Fair-Biofach 2013. Photo: Francal Feiras.


At present the Ministry of Agriculture records show that there

are 10,000 farmers registered as organic. The plan is to reach

50,000 in the next 3 years. The government will accept not

only certified farmers but also those who are validated through

participatory systems and engaged in direct sales. In the

coming a further 17 or so participatory control groups will join

the 4 that are already approved, bringing more than more than

1,000 farmers into the organic fold.

What is the state of the organic movement in Brazil today?

•In2012saleswereworthU$500M(circa375MEuro);

•50-60%oforganicproducegoesforexport;

•Twothirdsoforganicsalesgothroughsupermarketsand

the rest through specialised shops, deliveries and street

markets;

•Imports(fromtheUSA&EU)arevaluedatUS$25M(circa

18 million Euro).

•Reportsshowaverystrongincreaseinorganictradein

2013.

At the end of June, Bio Brazil Fair | BioFach Latin America

and NaturalTech became the nationwide trade show for the

if it will be implemented effectively. Its main focus will be on

production, the use and conservation of natural resources,

knowledge, trade and consumption. The main features of the

programme are shown below.

•R$6.5billionincredittoorganicandagroecological

producers.

•R$758millionforastateadvisoryprogrammeforfar-

mers.

•R$600millionforaccesstowater.

•R$165millionforthepurchaseoforganicandagroeco-

logical food by government agencies.

•R$150millionforseedacquisitions.

•R$100millionforsupportofwildharvesting,agroeco-

logy and organic agriculture.

•R$65millionforresearchandextension.

•R$24milliontopromoteorganicandagroecological

products.

•R$17.5millionforseedbankstructure.

•R$15milliontosupportactionsbyyoungpeople.

•R$8.4milliontosupportactionsbywomen.1

1 At the time of writing I Brazilian Real = 0.32 Euro

COuNTRY PROFILE

Brazil’s immense potential in ‘biodiversity products’ – such as acai, guaraná, nuts and oils from the Amazon.

Photo: Alexandre Harkaly


organic sector. According to Abdala Jamil Abdala, President of

FRANCAL, (the owner of the trade show) “The large number of

people in the aisles and booths, professional buyers as well as

the consuming public, prove the success

of this edition.” Between 27 and 30 June,

21,485 visitors (including industry professio-

nals) attended the fair, tasting and purcha-

sing products from over 200 exhibitors. The

number of professional buyers was 20%

higher than in 2012.

One of the main new factors that added

power to Bio Brazil Fair this year was the

partnership with Nurnberg Messe, promo-

ter of German BioFach – the world’s most

important organic trade fair, which also

promotes events in India, China, Japan and

the United States – and IPD, Institute for the Promotion of Deve-

lopment, Partner at Apex-Brazil in Brazil Organics which seeks

to stimulate Brazil’s exports sector. According to Ligia Amorim,

Director General of Nurnberg Messe Brazil: “Noting the potential

growth of the organic sector, BioFach Latin America returned to

Brazil in partnership with Bio Brazil Fair. The goal is to combine

our efforts to generate business, providing knowledge exchange

through inviting international speakers and

to increase product visibility on the world’s

markets. Brazil’s organic fair is now definitely

a major event in the world calendar of the

organic sector. Despite the short lead time, we

managed to attract visitors and exhibitors from

various countries including Poland, Argentina,

the Netherlands and Peru. We can say that this

partnership promises good market results.“

The ninth edition of the event’s International

Forum was attended by stakeholders from

the organic world from different countries to

discuss international market trends and oppor-

tunities for Brazilian products in the global market. Speakers

included representatives of the Organic Trade Association (OTA)

of the USA and Canada, the former OTA President and IFOAM

Board Chair Katherine DiMatteo.

Young professionals are being trained by IBD veteran inspector in Belém, an acai producing region.


“Brazil’s organic fair is now definitely a major event in the world calendar of the organic

sectors”


Exports from Brazil to the rest of the world are also increasing.

Organics Brazil (the national export promotion agency for orga-

nic products), supported by APEX (the federal export promo-

tion agency) record that a total of U$ 195.2 Million of organic

products have been exported in the last two years, mainly to

Europe and the USA. Ming Liu, Director of Organics Brazil has

helped Brazilian organic companies attend more than 25 interna-

tional trade shows over the past 5 years.

Recently certified Brazilian organic producers have seen sig-

nificant increases in demand. Will this affect the international

market? Will Brazil become an important importer and exporter

of organic products?

Brazil’s immense potential in ‘biodiversity products’ – such

as acai, guaraná, nuts and oils from the Amazon – and the

development of national and international markets don’t just

depend on research and product development.

It is also necessary to educate people about local social and

environmental realities and consumer demands for quality and

traceability.

If Brazil manages to overcome its social problems and those to

do with logistics, infrastructure and bureaucracy, it may take off

into the 21st Century, like the flying saucer envisaged by Nie-

meyer. The organic sector is trying to play its part in making this

happen!

World famous architect Oscar Niemeyer recently designed the cultural Museum of Niteroi, on the opposite side of Guanaba-

ra Bay from Rio de Janeiro. This is a projection of the country’s future, but in reality the trajectory of the Brazilian economy

remains a challenge. Rio de Janeiro in the background stands as a symbol for Brazilian leadership in international events.



BY ROB BARNhOORN

Sustaining soil fertility

APPROACHES AND THEIR WIDER APPLICABILITY

Agricultural researchers and international ex-perts frequently point out that organic agricul-ture yields less than conventional agriculture. In the article “The crop yield gap between organic and conventional agriculture” published last year in Agricultural Systems1, the authors com-pared conventional and organic agriculture, analysing 362 sets of yield data and found an average difference of 20% in favour of conven-tional agriculture. Another important finding was that the yield gap between conventional and organic farming tends to get bigger when opti-mal growing conditions are met. In my view, this raises the question of what will happen under far less ideal circumstances. This is obviously of key interest to farmers, particularly in tropical regions.


SOIL

Soil fertility management

Agricultural researchers Kees van Veluw

and Merijn Bos have extensive experience

in soil fertility management in tropical

agriculture. From 1995 until 2001 van

Veluw worked for UNICEF as an agricul-

tural advisor in northern Ghana. A board

member of Organic Agricultural Projects

in Ghana (ELPG), he continues to visit the

country every year. “Northern Ghana is

an area with red-coloured, poor tropical

soils which have a low capacity to retain

moisture and bind minerals and, as such,

they exhibit extremely low fertility levels.

As a result, applying chemical fertilisers

does not have much of a positive effect.

The only way to change this situation

is by providing the soil with sufficient

organic matter. This can be done through

mulching, manuring or adding compost.”

Van Veluw saw how this worked in nor-

thern Ghana: “Local farmers adopted the

compost approach with some scepticism.

But after two years, farmers reported that

the use of compost had led to softer soils

with higher moisture levels. The increased

soil water storage capacity proved to be

very important. Due to climate change

the rainy seasons are less reliable and

are usually interspersed with dry spells

that might persist for weeks in a row.

Compost-enriched soils can then make a

difference, providing seedlings with just

enough moisture to get through a dry

spell.”

These farmers’ maize yields went up

from 1,000 kg/ha to 3,000-4,000 kg/ha.

Meanwhile, a reduction of slash and burn

practices, in uncultivated fields and forest

patches, led to much more organic matter

being available for compost production.

Urban waste proved to be another reliable

source of organic matter for compost.

Kees van Veluw likes to point out that he

does not favour any dogmatic approach:

“I would not say that chemical fertilisers

are poison, but they won’t do any good

unless you provide sufficient organic mat-

ter to your field to get the soil’s mineral

binding capacity in shape. Only then

would an additional input of chemical

fertiliser provide some extra nutrients that

could be well used.”

Fellow researcher and agroecologist

Merijn Bos has analysed how the Sekem

farming system in Egypt has greatly

improved desert soils by applying com-

post and green manure. He examined the

contribution that compost made to incre-

asing organic matter levels in poor soils,

improving their robustness and reducing

vulnerability to the effects of climate

change. This led to a large increase of

the carbon concentration in the upper soil

layer (upper 50 cm) within just four years.

Carbon levels rose from 3.9 tonne/ha (the

normal level in desert soil) to 18.1 tonne/

ha, more than four times as high and indi-

cating a comparable increase in organic

matter levels.

Agroforestry

Another succesful farming approach

in tropical regions is agroforestry, a

smart and sustainable combination of

woody perennials and agricultural crops.

Examples include: traditional homegar-

dens with several tree layers, including

fruit trees; rice/teakwood cultivation

systems; the ‘alley cropping’ concept,

which uses nitrogen-binding Leucena

hedgerows with crop rows in between;

and last bwut not least, cacao and/or

coffee growing under shade trees. In

2010, Merijn Bos and others2 evaluated

one hundred agroforestry-systems in

eastern Congo, where cacao growing is

combined with shade trees. Bos affirms:

“This approach provides a strong boost to

organic matter levels, while mitigating cli-

mate change-related effects and guaran-

teeing biodiversity in a region where mas-

sive deforestation is taking place.” Kees

van Veluw has seen agroforestry in action

in northern Ghana: “One farmer alternated

forest strips with corn fields. He collected

leaves from the forest and deposited them

on the cultivated lots, creating a mulch

layer. The mulch strongly reduced the

impact of raindrops (‘splash erosion’) but

also increased soil moisture retention and

the amount of humus released to the soil.

A welcome side effect of this particular

agroforestry system was that traditional

but largely forgotten vegetables, such as

Amaranth, spontaneously emerged again

and were recognised and promoted by

elderly village women.”

Long-term effects

Yield studies usually compare the cur-

rent position of conventional and organic

farming systems but do not take into

APPROACHES AND THEIR WIDER APPLICABILITY “local farmers

adopted the compost

approach with some scepticism.

But after two years, farmers

reported that the use of compost had led to softer soils with higher moisture levels.”

Let’s join forces on our way to sustainability!

We set up emission reduction projects in developing countries and generate sustainable carbon credits through organic composting.

We develop and manage composting projects and help farmers improve soil fertility.

We deliver customized sustainability solutions worldwide.

Interested? Find out more about our services at www.soilandmore.com or contact as at +31 (0)880 079 500 / [email protected]

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the environment. Rijk Zwaan. www.rijkzwaan.com

423797RZW_adv187x126.indd 1 03-02-11 09:17


before serious fertility losses became

obvious. In the 1970s and ’80s when I

travelled through German winegrowing

areas situated on sandy soils, I could spot

mineral deficiency symptoms for nitro-

gen, potassium and magnesium (yellow

and red leaves) by mid summer. Due to

organic matter depletion, low-lutum soils

(soils with a low clay particle content,

predominantly sandy) lost their capacity

to effectively bind minerals. A few heavy

rainshowers would suffice to leach out an

entire chemical fertiliser dressing!” Most

winegrowers reacted by increasing fertili-

zer amounts and/or application frequency,

without producing the desired results. In

the 1980s and ’90s organic winegrowers

in Germany, Austria and Switzerland

started to make use of undergrowth

again, including sowing green manure

crops. Within a few years, the mineral

account any long term effects. Jan Oude

Voshaar, a pioneer organic winegrower

in the Netherlands, points out that, in the

long run, European conventional systems

on sandy soils run the same risk of a

soil fertility collapse as the African red

soils, discussed above. He draws on an

example from European viticulture: “In the

1950s and ’60s, European winegrowers

massively adopted new cultivation tech-

niques, getting rid of undergrowth and

abundantly applying chemical fertilisers in

combination with herbicides, insecticides

and fungicides. This greatly reduced the

required field labour and yields steeply

increased, so winegrowers saw a double

bonus! A far less noticeable effect was,

however, that the organic matter contents

gradually fell. Because these soils origi-

nally had a high organic matter content,

it took as long as fifteen to twenty years

deficiencies disappeared and slope ero-

sion was significantly reduced. Seeing its

effectiveness, neighbouring non-organic

winegrowers enthusiastically emulated

this approach of using undergrowth, thus

restoring their fields’ soil fertility levels.

Unfortunately, outside these countries it is

still mainly only organic winegrowers who

apply this form of soil fertility manage-

ment.

We can conclude from this that organic

soil fertility management is not based

on idealistic but unpractical foundations.

Rather, it is a matter of using sound prin-

ciples for securing long-term soil fertility,

taking into account local circumstances

and combining local knowledge with long-

term experiences from elsewhere.

Tomek de Ponti, Bert Rijk, Martin K. van

Ittersum; Agricultural Systems 108 (2012)

1-9 : The crop yield gap between organic

and conventional agriculture

Koopmans, C.J., Bos, M.M. & Luske, B.;

Resilience to a changing climate: carbon

stocks in two organic farming systems in

Africa. Louis Bolk Institute, Driebergen,

The Netherlands

Authors’ details

Rob Barnhoorn, M.Sc. is an agronomist

and journalist/translator in the fields of

agriculture, food and the environment.

E-mail address: [email protected]

An earlier version of this article appeared

in the April 2012 edition of ‘Ekoland’, the

Dutch organic magazine.


Productivity and profitability of organic agriculture in East Africa

In their 2008 study for UNCTAD/UNEP Organic agriculture

and Food security, Rachel Hine, Jules Pretty and Sophia

Twarog stated that: Organic agriculture can increase agricul-

tural productivity and can raise incomes with low-cost, locally

available and appropriate technologies, without causing envi-

ronmental damage. (1) All case studies which focused on food

production (2) have shown increases in per hectare productivity

of food crops, which challenges the popular myth that organic

agriculture cannot increase agricultural productivity.” In fact,

Pretty et al. (2005) had found that average crop yields covering a

variety of systems and crops increased by 79% when sustaina-

BY PeTeR TON

Organic agriculture is generally applauded for its sustainable production of food, feed, fibre and fuel, without the use of any contaminants such as synthetic pesticides and fertilizers or genetically-modified organisms. The organic crop management practices contribute to enhancing the resilience of farms and rural livelihoods against erosion and climate extremes (drought spells, heavy rains). So far so good, but what about the productivity and the profitability of organic farming systems? We here discuss the case of East Africa based on a recent literature review.

Comparing organic farming systems

Productivity and profitability of organic agriculture in East Africa


ble agricultural practices were adopted. Re-analyzing the same

database, Hine et al. (2008) found an even higher average crop

yield increase for all African projects (116%) and for the projects

in East Africa (128%).

Confusing claims

In a 2012 literature review in Nature, however, authors Verena

Seufert, Navin Ramankutty and Jonathan A. Foley find that orga-

nic yields in developing countries are on average 42% lower than

conventional. The meta-analysis by Seufert et al. does not make

explicit mention of East Africa, yet it is evident that their findings

do not match with those of Hine et al. How come? What can we

learn from this for positioning organic agriculture in the global

debate on the intensification of smallholder agriculture?

Comparing organic farming systems

Comparing farming systems is complex by nature. Comparative

organic research would ideally consider different types of farming

with same crop and cropping system and which are geographi-

cally close. The comparison would comprise plants or trees of

the same variety and of similar age. Also, the farmers conside-

red should ideally be from the same socio-economic group and

© B

ill & M

elinda Gates Foundation


position and have equal access to resources (land, water, labour,

inputs, capital). Data would ideally distinguish farming by women

and men. In comparative research actually there is no end to the

number of parameters to study and keep ‘constant’ in order to

draw relevant conclusions.

The literature review clearly revealed that such comparative orga-

nic research is very scarce: through Internet and library searches

and contacts with key experts only one single in-depth compara-

tive study was encountered for East Africa. In-depth research in

organic farming systems was also found to be scarce, while most

studies available consist in a qualitative description of the orga-

nic system without any quantification or information about the

characteristics of projects’ participants. Organic research is likely

limited due to its subordination in general funding for agricultural

research. There is clearly a need for new, reliable and relevant

comparative organic research.

Understanding productivity claims

To understand the contradicting productivity claims above, we

have to go back to the source documents and consider the

contexts of production. Seufert et al. refer mainly to publications

about high-input agriculture in developing countries. Hine et al.

(2008) and Pretty et al (2005), however, refer explicitly to small-

holder production. They look into organic agricultural practices

in resource-conserving agriculture; i.e. to organic-compatible

cultivation practices which cannot be equated with an organic

system.

In “The economics of certified organic farming in tropical Africa:

a preliminary assessment”, the Danish researchers Peter Gibbon

and Simon Bolwig (2007) confirm that smallholders participating

in three organic conversion projects studied in Uganda did incre-

ase their productivity and their income as compared to other far-

mers. Gibbon & Bolwig stress that smallholders in East Africa do

not generally have access to farmer education and training. The

organic conversion projects studied did provide smallholders with

access to appropriate agro-ecological knowledge and expertise.

The yield gains achieved are likely to be linked to access to far-

mer education and training rather than to the production system

being certified organic.

This conclusion holds important implications for promoting

smallholder agriculture in East Africa. In fact, smallholders can

quite easily improve their productivity and their production if they

gain access to adequate professional knowledge and expertise.

Organic conversion projects appear to be well-geared towards

providing such farmer education and training and therefore merit

further promotion and support.

Understanding the organic model in place

Seufert et al.’s general conclusion is that, globally, organic yields

are lower than conventional depending on crop, species and pro-

duction system (rain-fed/irrigated). A main technical explanation

for this yield gap is the lower availability of nitrogen (N) at peak

period (i.e. the fruiting stage).

Yet, certified organic production in East Africa increased an aver-

age 8.5 % per year in the period 2007-2011 according to IFOAM

data. Two-thirds of crop area is in Uganda and one-third in Tan-

zania.. How to understand that organic agriculture is sustained in

East Africa and is gaining increasing market share? The answer

lies in the specificity of the organic value chains. Comparing

organic and conventional farming systems is not sufficient to

understand the “organic model” in East Africa.

In 2011, over 330,000 farmers were involved in certified-organic

production in East Africa, growing a wide range of crops for

export (coffee, tea, cotton, tropical fruits, spices, etc.). These far-

mers make a living out of organic. They do so under a production

and trading model based on contract farming.

Contract farming is an institutional arrangement that provides

participating farmers with access to markets. Access to markets

may favor the time and the effort which farmers spent on the

contracted crop. Future comparative research should therefore

take such contractual arrangements into account.

Understanding profitability

The profitability of farming is a function of:

Produce x Quality x Price - Costs of production

The monetary costs of organic production are usually lower than

for conventional due to a reduced use of external inputs (e.g.


fertilizers, pesticides, etc.) depending on crop and production

system. Many organic farmers can thus afford to have a some-

what lower yield. In East Africa, however, this argument does

hardly apply while most smallholders use few external inputs for

reasons of cost and limited availability, and yield improvement is

common in organic conversion projects.

The organic farmers in East Africa generally fetch a higher price

for that part of their produce which meets export quality. The

remaining produce is sold at conventional prices on local mar-

kets. The premium price for the quality product compensates in

part for higher costs in processing (e.g. grading, cleaning etc.).

When the organic premium price is insufficient to compensate for

higher costs, farmers will simply opt out as none of the farmers

are tied up to the organic scheme beyond the seasonal contract.

More so, farmers have repeatedly opted out of organic schemes

even when still under contract. This ‘side-marketing’ may occur

in particular when conventional market price is higher than antici-

pated. Enforcement of contracts is difficult in the contexts of East

Africa. Farmers’ continued voluntary participation in the organic

schemes may therefore be considered a proxy for profitability.

What can we learn from the review?

Important yield and production increases are possible in East

Africa with organic agriculture. Organic agricultural practices pro-

vide an opportunity for smallholders to improve the productivity

and the profitability of their farming operations without recurring

to expensive solutions or increasing their indebtedness.

Organic production in East Africa is largely an institutional arran-

gement in which exporters organize smallholders to produce and

process certified organic produce for export to well-established

organic markets in Europe, the USA and Japan. The smallhol-

ders are provided with training and extension services and they

receive a premium for produce that meets the exporters’ specifi-

cations. The training provided as part of the institutional arrange-

ment between exporters and smallholder producers is critical to

achieving productivity and quality gains.

Finally, the review finds that in-depth academic research on orga-

nic agriculture in East Africa is very scarce and merits support.

Actors are encouraged to prioritize comparative research into the

impacts of organic agriculture in terms of productivity and profita-

bility as well as on resilience and food security.

1) The literature review was commissioned by IFOAM under the project OSEA II which works on regional cooperation for organic standards and certification capacity in East Africa.

2) Seufert et al. (2012), Comparing the yields of organic and conven-tional agriculture. In: Nature, No. 485 (10 May 2012), pp. 229-234.

Certified-organic production in Kenya, Rwanda and Burundi is still very small.


The Belgian organic sector grew significantly from the late 1990s until 2001 but then experienced five years of decline and stabilisation. The sector started to grow again in 2006 and since then, both organic production and consumption have continued to grow steadily.

Organic growth in BelgiumAfter a period of stagnation the Belgian organic sector has once again started to grow.

BY PAul VeRBeke


Considering the low level of organic

production in the Flemish region

(compared to neighbouring countries),

and being convinced of market opportu-

nities in the organic sector, a programme

entitled “Bio zoekt Boer” (Farmers wan-

ted for Organic) was started in 2009.

The main aim of the project is to provide

primary information about the technical,

social and economic feasibility of organic

farming. The programme has been quite

successful, and has led to many farmers

converting to organic production. The

most important success factor is pro-

bably the support and collaboration of

2 traditional farmers’ organisations, the

Algemeen Boerensyndicaat (ABS) and

Boerenbond (BB), who have worked toge-

ther with BioForum Flanders. A second

project, ‘Bio zoekt Keten’ (Organics seek

[supply] chains) is intended to develop

market opportunities for the organic sec-

tor.

Organic food consumption

According to a study commissioned by

VLAM and carried out by GfK, the sale of

organic food products reached 417 million

Euro in 2012 (a 7% increase compared to

2011). Fresh organic food has a market

share of 1.9% and the largest sectors by

market share are organic meat substitutes

(24.5%), eggs (8.9%), vegetables (5%)

and bread (3%).

Distribution channels

Conventional supermarkets are the main

distribution channel with 44.4% of the

market, a relatively low market share

since they account for about 70% of con-

ventional food sales. Specialised organic

grocery stores have grown strongly and

have a market share of 31.5%.

The Delhaize and Colruyt supermarket

chains both offer a wide range of pro-

ducts. Their shops are spread across the

whole country and can be found in most

neighbourhoods in every town. Most of

their organic products are packed under

their own private organic brands. The

Colruyt Group also has an organic super-

market chain, named BioPlanet, which

has 9 stores.

In recent years other supermarkets, such

as Spar (half of the Belgian Spar shops

belong to the Colruyt Group) and Makro

have also started stocking organic pro-

ducts. Lidl and Aldi only sporadically

have organic products.

Apart from the supermarkets, there are

approximately 365 specialist organic

shops, most of them independent. Howe-

ver, two chains of shops have joined

forces for purposes of purchasing, pro-

motion and quality control, sharing the

same name and identity. In Flanders the

Bioshop chain unites 20 such shops. Ori-

gin’O has 15 shops.

These shops usually offer a range of

organic products that differs from that

available in the supermarkets. These

include whole grain products, products

without any sugar and/or food additives,

all kinds of vegetarian products and so

on. Apart from fresh products (such fruit

and vegetables) and general groceries

they usually sell a wide range of (often

imported) organic bread and a choice

of organic cheese. They also often sell

ecological cleaning and beauty products.

These shops mainly appeal to regular

buyers who are convinced of the quality

of organic products.

Quite a large proportion of organic far-

mers (an estimated 30 to 50%) market

their organic products themselves. They

COuNTRY REPORT

The DelhAize AND COlRuYT SuPeRmARkeT ChAiNS BOTh OffeR A WiDe

RANGe Of PRODuCTS.


ingredients and processed food products.

A lot of imported products come from the

Netherlands, France and Germany. No

precise figures are available for the import

and export of organic produce.

Nevertheless, it should be mentioned that

for, fresh products, the Belgian sector

prefers local produce. For example, if

the supply of organic eggs cannot meet

demand, the sector will first try to con-

vince local farmers to convert and invest

in organic production.

Beef and pig production

In Wallonia, organic beef production plays

a major role in the organic sector. In the

wake of the BSE and food crises in 1999

and 2000/2001 the demand for organic

meat grew explosively. However, after

the crises passed, demand decreased

again. Today, 8.6% of the national beef

cattle herd is organic. There are far fewer

organic pigs: only 10,300 animals were

kept organically in 2012, less than 1% of

the total.

Belgium has just 10 organic butcher’s

shops. Delhaize supermarkets have sold

organic meat for several years, while Col-

ruyt supermarkets only offer a very limi-

ted number of meat products (although

Bioplanet has a wider range). Unlike the

conventional meat sector, organic meat

usually comes from Belgian farms and

processors. According to a study by

BioForum Wallonie, more than half of Bel-

gium’s organic meat is exported. At the

either sell their produce at the farm or at

a market or offer a weekly box of fruit and

vegetables that consumers can pick up at

a sales point of their choice. CSA (Com-

munity Supported Agriculture) farming

and self-harvesting initiatives are quite

new in Belgium, but seem to be very suc-

cessful.

Belgian food products in general and

fruit and vegetables in particular have an

excellent international reputation. Nevert-

heless, the majority of organic farms

and companies are relatively small and

diversified. This makes it difficult for the

sector to compete with larger farms and

foreign companies. The Belgian market

cannot be seen in isolation from the sur-

rounding European market. If demand

on the French or German markets is very

high, this gives Belgian producers more

export opportunities. As Belgium is a very

small country, with an extensive road

system and small organic sector, imported

products account for an important part

of the market for primary products, food

BelGiAN fOOD PRODuCTS iN GeNeRAl AND

fRuiT AND VeGeTABleS iN

PARTiCulAR hAVe AN eXCelleNT iNTeRNATiONAl

RePuTATiON.


the Biogarantie label takes products bey-

ond minimum organic standards.

There are quite a lot of foreign organic

products on the Belgian market, with one

or more labels. In Belgium, the most well-

known are ‘EKO’ from the Netherlands,

‘AB’ from France, and the German labels.

Foreign organic products can also obtain

the Belgian Biogarantie label. This facilita-

tes recognition by the Belgian consumer.

Some products comply with the

standards of the biodynamic movement,

but only a few Belgian farmers follow

Demeter standards. Demeter products are

only sold in specialised organic shops.

Paul Verbeke is supply chain manager with BioForum, the Flemish organic association: e mail [email protected]. For more details about the Belgian organic sector you can visit: www.bioforum.bewww.biogarantie.bewww.biowallonie.be

same time, there is a great demand for

fresh ham to be dried.

Vegetables and fruit

Some cooperatives/auctions such as

Bel’Orta and BFV sell organic fresh fruit

and vegetables produced by their farmer

members. They concentrate on Belgian

products and make it easier for large

buyers such as supermarket chains and

wholesalers, to find large quantities with a

good quality and continous delivery. Des-

pite this more than 50% of organic fruit

and vegetables sold in the supermarkets

are imported because of a lack of Belgian

products. In the off-season (January to

April), vegetables tend to come from sou-

thern countries such as Spain, Morocco

and Egypt, while a lot of fruit is imported

from the Southern hemisphere in off-

season (e.g. apples from Chile, Argentina,

New-Zealand or South Africa).

Processed food products

A significant proportion of organic proces-

sed food products is imported, including

bread, pasta, other cereals, and dairy

products. At the same time Belgian com-

panies also export a lot of their organic

products. High quality products such as

‘Ganda’ ham, specialty cheeses, choco-

late, beer, fruit juices and other local spe-

cialties are exported throughout Europe.

Biogarantie

Most organic products sold in Belgium

bear the Belgian ‘Biogarantie’ label, a pri-

vate label that has been in existence for

more than 30 years. It is owned by Bioga-

rantie vzw, a non-profit organisation which

represents the Belgian organic sector.

It can only be used on certified organic

products after payment of royalties and

membership.

The Biogarantie standards are broader

than European legislation and take into

account different aspects of sustainability

during production and handling. Therefore

Strengths and weaknesses of the Belgian organic sector

The Belgian organic sector has the following strengths:

•Thereisagrowingtendencytoconsumehealthyfoodandorganicfood

fits this description perfectly.

•Thereisagrowinginterestinenvironmentally-friendlyproduction;itis

increasingly accepted and known that organic agriculture is more environ-

mentally friendly than non-organic agriculture.

•Thenationalmarketfororganicproductsappearstobegrowingeach

year by 10% to 15%.

•Organicproductscanbefoundinmostsupermarkets,andthisstimu-

lates sales and market penetration.

On the other hand, it is clear that the sector also has several weak points:

•Non-organicfoodproductsalsotrytosellthemselvesasbeinghealthy.

With so many products making health claims, consumers often cannot see

the wood for the trees.

•Belgiumisaverysmallcountrywithaveryextensiveroadsystem;itis

therefore every easy to import products from the surrounding countries.

•Organicproductsarerelativelyexpensivecomparedtonon-organicpro-

ducts, and this reduces growth opportunities within the organic sector.

•Fewfarmersdaretoconverttoorganicagriculturebecauseoffinancial,

social and practical constraints.


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Calendar

Items

Publisher Jaap van Westering

Editorial staff Peter Brul (editor in chief)Denise Godinho, Nick Parrott

Contributors to this issue Authors & photos: Rob Barnhoorn, Francal Feiras, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Alexandre Harkaly, Gerald A. Herrmann, Alexander Joe, Lilipiache NYC, Mildred Steidle, Peter Ton, Liesl Truscott, Kees van Veluw, Paul Verbeeke

Editorial office P.O.Box 696, 3740 AP Baarn, The NetherlandsT +31 (0) 35 88 735 31F +31 (0) 35 54 241 19E [email protected] www.ecologyandfarming.com

CONTACT

Ecology & Farming is a magazine for all elements of the organic movement - from organic farmers’ associations to organisations from the organic food industry and Fair Trade; from research institutions to certifiers; from organic consumers to organic advocates. Ecology & Farming provides information on key issues in the organic sector and offers the space for discussions on the topics of the day. The articles published in Ecology & Farming reflect the opinions of their respective authors and should not be interpreted as an official IFOAM position.

IFOAM The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements is the umbrella organisation for the organic movement. Established in 1972, IFOAM has over 800 affiliates in more than 100 countries. and represents the common interests of the organic movement based on the principles of organic agriculture (ecology, health, fairness, care). IFOAM’s mission is to lead, assist and unite the organic movement in its full diversity.

Peter Brul has been working in the organic sector as afarmer, researcher and consultant for more than 35 years. He combines the role of Chief-Editor of Ecology & Farming with his own consultancy.

Van Westering Groep B.V. have been publishing magazines since 1988. VWG also maintains a focus on ecology through Ekoland, the professional magazine for organic farming in the Netherlands and Belgium and Gezond Bouwen & Wonen, a professional magazine about sustainable building and living.

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JANuARY 2014 - OCTOBER 2014 //

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Ecology and Farming No 3/2013

Documents

organic textiles

organic cosmetics

belgian organic sector

tradin organic agriculture

safer raw materials

certification of products

fair trade concerns

wide range of products