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Turk J Zool2011; 35(3) 333-341 ©
TÜBİTAKdoi:10.3906/zoo-0904-19
Ecology and biology of scorpions in Palmyra, Syria
Adwan Hussien SHEHAB1, Zuhair Sami AMR2,*, Jeremy Arthur
LINDSELL31General Commission for Scientifi c Agricultural Research
(GCSAR), Douma, P. O. Box 113, Damascus - SYRIA
2Department of Biology, Jordan University of Science &
Technology. P. O. Box 3030, Irbid - JORDAN3Th e Royal Society for
the Protection of Birds, Th e Lodge, Sandy, Beds, SG19 2DL - UK
Received: 21.04.2009
Abstract: Near Palmyra, in the Syrian Desert, 5 species of
scorpions belonging to 2 families (Buthidae and Scorpionidae) were
observed; Buthacus tadmorensis, Androctonus crassicauda, Leiurus
quinquestriatus, Orthochirus scrobiculosus, and Scorpio maurus
palmatus. B. tadmorensis accounted for 80.6% of the total number of
recovered or observed scorpions, while O. scrobiculosus was the
least common (1.4%). Pitfall traps proved to be more effi cient at
sampling (304 individuals) than checking under stones (57
individuals). Pitfall trapping results showed that scorpion
abundance diff ered signifi cantly between the 3 survey areas,
while their abundance showed no signifi cant diff erence among the
3 areas when employing the under-stone method. Notes on predation
of scorpions (interspecifi c and intraspecifi c) and predators of
scorpions are also included. Seasonal abundance and emergence of
scorpions is described briefl y. Biometric data on collected
scorpion species indicating their weight are given. Population
structure of B. tadmorensis during the study period is
analyzed.
Key words: Scorpion, Buthacus tadmorensis, pitfall trapping,
predation, population structure, Syria
Research Article
* E-mail: [email protected]
IntroductionLimited knowledge is available concerning the
scorpions of Syria. Only 2 recent papers addressed the
systematics of the scorpions of Syria (Kabakibi et al., 1999;
Stathi and Lourenço, 2003). Kovařík and Whitman (2004) listed 5
species of scorpions from Talilah National Park, within the
vicinity of Palmyra, Syria. On the other hand, there is a complete
lack of species richness and abundance data for scorpions
inhabiting the Syrian Desert.
In the Middle East, Warburg et al. (1980) studied the scorpion
distribution and diversity in arid regions of northern Palestine.
Warburg (2000)
studied several aspects of scorpion cohabitation. Th e burrowing
behavior of Scorpio maurus palmatus was investigated by Rutin
(1996). Fragmentary reports dealt with predation of other animals
on scorpions in the Middle East (Tigar and Osborne, 2000; Zlotkin
et al., 2003) including reptiles and birds. No previous study
addressed the diversity and ecology of scorpions in Syria.
Th e systematics of the genus Buthacus was revised by Kovařík
(2005). He placed in synonymy with B. macrocentrus at least 3 other
species, Buthacus tadmorensis Simon, Buthus pietschmanni Penther,
and Buthacus yotvatensis Levy et al. However, Lourenço
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Ecology and biology of scorpions in Palmyra, Syria
334
(2006) argued on the validity of the new assignment of B.
tadmorensis, and concluded that B. tadmorensis is a valid species,
not related to B. macrocentrus as asserted by Kovařík (2005).
Furthermore, analysis of the morphological characteristics of the
species of Buthacus distributed in Sinai and the Middle East,
including Syrian specimens, indicate only that Buthacus leptochelys
nitzani Levy, Amitai & Shulov, 1973, could be a junior synonym
of B. tadmorensis (Lourenço, 2006). For the purpose of uniformity
in the literature, we will consider the name B. tadmorensis for the
Palmyra scorpion.
While undertaking ecological fi eldwork near Palmyra, Syria, we
collected a large number of scorpions and made a number of fi eld
observations. Th e aims of the present study were to investigate
scorpion diversity and abundance, compare 2 sampling methods,
comment on the population structure of Buthacus tadmorensis, and
document some fi eld observations of these scorpions.
Materials and methodsStudy sitesPalmyra is located in the heart
of the Syrian
Desert. Th e annual rain fall is about 127 mm (average for the
last 50 years), with the maximum annual mean temperature reaching
25 °C and a minimum of 12 °C. January and February are the coldest
months in Palmyra, where in previous years the average monthly
minimum temperature reached -4.4 °C. June, July and August are the
hottest months, and the monthly temperature can reach 42 °C in
July. Near Palmyra, within the Northern Bald Ibis Reserve, 3 sites
were selected as study areas (Figure 1). Th e following are
descriptions for each site:
1. Site 1: about 596 m asl. Located 18 km northeast of Palmyra.
Th is is a fl at arid area, with small wadi beds formed by fl ash
fl oods. Scattered stones are abundant over the hard soil. Sand
sheets caused by wind action are formed in some parts of this area
and dominant vegetation consists of Peganum harmala with less than
1% cover. Other plants include Achillea fragantissima, Poa sinaica,
and Haloxylon articulata.
2. Site 2: about 732 m asl. Located 18 km northwest of site 1.
Th is is an arid area with hard soil and few rocks. It is a fl at
area with wadi systems. Vegetation cover is about 10%, with
Anabasis syriaca being the dominant species. Other less common
plants include H. articulata and Poa sinaica.
3. Site 3: altitude 924 m asl. Located 19 km west of site 2. A
fl at arid area with loose soil and scarce stones. Vegetation cover
is less than 1%
Figure 1. Landscape of the 3 study sites.
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A. H. SHEHAB, Z. S. AMR, J. A. LINDSELL
335
and consists of Anabasis syriaca, H. articulata and Poa
sinaica.
Within the study area, we identifi ed numerous species of
arthropods that were collected in pitfall traps or were observed
under stones. Hymenoptera (ants) and coleopterans were the most
frequently encountered insects and represented several families
(Tenebrionidae: Trachiderma hispida, Erodius sp., Mesostena sp.,
Akis sp., Adesmia sp., Pimelia sp., Zophosis sp.; Carabidae:
Calosoma chlorosticum; Buprestidae: Julodis distincta; and
Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeus sacer). Solphugidae, Empusidae
(Berpharopsis sp.), and Acrididae were less abundant.
Scorpion collectingPitfall transects: In each study site, 6
transects were selected. For
each transect, 5 plastic containers (13 × 9 cm) were leveled in
the ground, 50 m apart, and were without bait. Scorpions were
inspected, measured, identifi ed, and then released every 2-7 days
beginning from April 2008 to the end of July 2008. Other arthropods
that were trapped in the plastic containers were also identifi ed
where possible, counted, and then released.
Under-stone collecting:At each site, 20 stones (15-30 cm in
diameter)
were lift ed to check for the presence of scorpions. Th is
method was employed every 15 days beginning from April until the
end of July.
Data analysisTh e association of scorpion abundance with
locality and methods of survey were analyzed using Genstat 7th
edition soft ware for general analysis of variance.
Predation activityDuring the fi eld work, various activities
of
collected scorpions were recorded, including scorpion-scorpion
predation and predation of other animals on scorpions. Th e
predation of these animals was documented with digital images.
BiometryTotal body length (from the anterior edge of
the prosoma to the end of the telson) for collected scorpions
was measured by means of a digital calliper (measuring range: 0-150
mm), and scorpions were weighed using a digital balance (0.01 g
increments).
ResultsScorpion diversityA total of 361 scorpions representing 5
species
(Figure 2) belonging to 2 families (Buthidae and Scorpionidae)
were collected from the study area: Buthacus tadmorensis (Simon,
1892), Androctonus crassicauda (Olivier, 1807), Leiurus
quinquestriatus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1829, Orthochirus
scrobiculosus (Grube, 1873), and Scorpio maurus palmatus (Hemprich
& Ehrenberg, 1829).
Table 1 shows the number of recovered species from the 3 study
sites using the pitfall traps and under-stone collecting method. By
far, B. tadmorensis was the most commonly collected species for
both methods, accounting for 63.6%-86.6% of the total number of
collected scorpions from all 3 sites. Orthochirus scrobiculosus was
the least common species (2.7%-3.9% of the total number of
collected scorpions) and was recovered from 2 areas. In site 2, B.
tadmorensis was found in pitfall traps along with A. crassicauda,
O. scrobiculosus, and L. quinquestriatus.
Comparison between pitfall and under-stone sampling methods
Pitfall trapping proved to be more effi cient than the
under-stone method; while the fi rst method yielded 304 scorpions,
the second yielded only 57 scorpions.
Both pitfall traps and searching under stones recorded 5
scorpion species during the entire period of the study. Orthochirus
scrobiculosus and S. m. palmatus were recovered from under stones
during April only.
Pitfall trapping methodPitfall results showed that scorpion
abundance
diff ered signifi cantly between the 3 areas; Site 1 (M = 1.4
scorpions), Site 2 (M = 2.8 scorpions), and Site 3 (M = 3.4
scorpions), with the lowest in Site 1 and highest in Site 3 (F =
3.83, P = 0.028). Th e diff erence was signifi cant only between
Site 3 and Site 1, while no signifi cant diff erences were observed
in scorpion abundance between Site 2 and Site 3 or Site 2 and Site
1 (LSD = 1.487).
A signifi cant diff erence was found between the 5 scorpion
species trapped in pitfalls (F = 41.78, P < 0.001), where B.
tadmorensis was the most abundant
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Ecology and biology of scorpions in Palmyra, Syria
336
(M = 10.33 scorpions), while no signifi cant diff erence was
found between the other 4 species themselves (LSD = 1.919), A.
crassicauda (M = 0.63 scorpions), L. quinquestriatus (M = 1.21
scorpions), O. scrobiculosus (M = 0.13 scorpions), and S. m.
palmatus (M = 0.38 scorpions).
Under-stone methodScorpion abundance employing the
under-stone
method showed no signifi cant diff erence between the 3 areas:
Site 1 (M = 0.25 scorpions), Site 2 (M = 0.50 scorpions), and Site
3 (M = 0.67 scorpions) (F = 2.74, P = 0.073).
A signifi cant diff erence was found among the 5 scorpion
species recovered from under stones (F = 19.82, P < 0.001),
where B. tadmorensis was the most abundant scorpion species (M =
1.79 scorpions), while no signifi cant diff erence was found among
the other 4 species (LSD = 0.471), A. crassicauda (M = 0.12
scorpions), L. quinquestriatus (M = 0.29 scorpions), O.
scrobiculosus (M = 0.08 scorpions), and S. m. palmatus (M = 0.08
scorpions).
Seasonal abundance of scorpions Table 2 shows the number of
collected scorpions
over the study period. Numbers of scorpions collected
A B
C D
E
Figure 2. Scorpions collected from the study area. A) Scorpio
maurus palmatus, B) Androctonus crassicauda, C) Orthochirus
scrobiculosus, D) Leiurus quinquestriatus, and E) Buthacus
tadmorensis.
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A. H. SHEHAB, Z. S. AMR, J. A. LINDSELL
337
in pitfalls increased signifi cantly over the season (F = 5.02,
P < 0.001), with the highest levels in July (LSD = 2.428); the
number of scorpions observed under stones decreased signifi cantly
over the season (F = 2.28, P = 0.041), with the highest levels in
the second half of April (LSD = 0.596). For instance, both B.
tadmorensis and L. quinquestriatus increased about six-fold.
Buthacus tadmorensis was the most common species throughout the
study period (Table 2), reaching the highest level in July, with A.
crassicauda ranked second. Numbers of O. scrobiculosus remained
constant over the study period.
Predation by scorpions of other arthropodsWe observed several
occasions where scorpions
predated on other arthropods as well as other scorpions; B.
tadmorensis was observed feeding on a mantid of the genus
Eremiaphila sp. during day time in a pitfall trap, while B.
tadmorensis was observed feeding on a 1-cm spider.
Interspecifi c predation among scorpions was observed; an adult
L. quinquestriatus fed on all body parts except the metasoma of B.
tadmorensis. Intraspecifi c predation was also observed, with an
adult B. tadmorensis attacking a 3-cm young individual from its
chelicerae. In captivity, a gravid
Table 1. Recovered scorpions employing under-stone method and
pitfall transects in the study sites.
Scorpion speciesUnder stones Pitfalls transect
TotalSite 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 1 Site 2 Site 3
N % N % N % N % N % N % N %
A. crassicauda 1 9.1 2 10 0 0 3 5.4 8 7.1 4 2.9 18 5
B. tadmorensis 7 63.6 14 70 22 84.6 40 71.4 97 86.6 111 81.6 291
80.6
L. quinquestriatus 3 27.3 1 5 3 11.5 6 10.7 2 1.8 21 15.4 36
10
O. scrobiculosus 0 0 1 5 1 3.9 0 0 3 2.7 0 0 5 1.4
S. m. palmatus 0 0 2 10 0 0 7 12.5 2 1.8 0 0 11 3
Total 11 100 20 100 26 100 56 100 112 100 136 100 361 100
Table 2. Th e number of recovered scorpions using opportunistic
collecting and pitfall traps during the study period from the 3
sites.
Scorpion speciesMethod of collecting
MonthTotal
April May June July
A. crassicaudaUnder stone 1 0 2 0 3Pitfall traps 2 6 1 6 15
B. tadmorensisUnder stone 12 10 12 9 43Pitfall traps 19 41 91 97
248
L. quinquestriatusUnder stone 1 0 4 2 7Pitfall traps 1 0 6 22
29
O. scrobiculosusUnder stone 2 0 0 0 2Pitfall traps 0 1 1 1 3
S. m. palmatusUnder stone 2 0 0 0 2Pitfall traps 0 3 3 3 9
Total 40 61 120 140 361
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Ecology and biology of scorpions in Palmyra, Syria
338
female of B. tadmorensis gave birth to 21 individuals, all of
which later died; the mother ate all of them within a day.
Predators of scorpionsDuring our study we observed several
animals,
including beetles, ants, lizards, and birds, feeding on
scorpions. On one occasion, a lizard of the species Acanthodactylus
boskianus viciously attacked a 5-cm B. tadmorensis (Figure 3A).
Northern Bald Ibis, Geronticus eremita, was photographed by Lubomir
Peske during June 2007 at Site 3, while feeding on B. tadmorensis
(Figure 3B). Droppings of the Bald Ibis collected under the Ibis
nesting sites yielded a few remains of B. tadmorensis. Within the
pitfall traps, remains of B. tadmorensis were found in association
with the presence of ants, Trachyderma hispida, Erodius sp., and
Pimelia sp. Pellets collected near a nest of a Little Owl, Athene
noctua, revealed many remains of B. tadmorensis, S. m. palmatus,
and A. crassicauda.
Biometric data on scorpionsA total of 14 B. tadmorensis
representing diff erent
sizes were weighed. Scorpions measuring 4, 5, and 6 cm in length
had an average weight of 0.39 g (n = 6, 0.29-0.57 g, SD ± 0.124),
0.466 g (n = 5, 0.33-0.62 g, SD ± 0.113), and 0.95g (n = 3,
0.6-1.26 g, SD ± 0.332) respectively. A single O. scrobiculosus
measuring 2 cm in length weighed 0.08 g, and 2 A.
crassicauda measuring 8 cm each had an average weight of 3.33g
(n = 2, 2.68-3.98 g). We also collected 4 L. quinquestriatus
measuring 2 cm (n = 1) and 6 cm (n = 3, 1-1.98 g, SD ± 0.494), with
an average weight of 0.33 g and 1.53 g, respectively, and 4 S. m.
palmatus with body length ranging from 3-7 cm, weighing 0.36 g (3
cm, n = 1), 2.05 g (6 cm, n = 2, 1.47-2.6 g, SD ± 0.841), and 2.22
g (7 cm, n = 1).
Population structure of B. tadmorensisButhacus tadmorensis was
the most common
species, allowing us to study variation in size in order to
determine population structure. Scorpions measuring 2 cm
constituted the highest percentage of the population (34.1%), and
larger scorpions reaching about 6 cm constituted 4.9% of the
population (Figure 4). Th e observed diff erences among collected
specimens were probably due to diff erent instars or sex of the
arthropod. One of the 6-cm long specimens was a gravid specimen of
B. tadmorensis, which gave birth to 21 young during 24 July
2008.
Size groups of collected B. tadmorensis were similar among the 3
study sites (Figures 4 and 5). Small scorpions measuring 2 cm in
length were the most common in all study areas. Th e number of
small scorpions increased dramatically over the study period. Large
scorpions measuring 5 cm increased to a maximum in July and the
largest size recorded in this study was 6 cm in length, although
their numbers were very low throughout the study.
AB
Figure 3. Predators of scorpions. A) Lizard, Acanthodactylus
boskianus feeding on B. tadmorensis. B) Th e Northern Bald Ibis,
Geronticus eremita feeding on B. tadmorensis.
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A. H. SHEHAB, Z. S. AMR, J. A. LINDSELL
339
DiscussionDiff erent methods have been evaluated for
sampling various terrestrial arthropods, including pitfall
traps, active searching of quadrats, wet cloths, and drive
transects (Tigar and Osborne, 1997; Druce et al., 2004). In
general, scorpions were most eff ectively sampled using pitfall
traps. Our results are in agreement with Druce et al. (2004), for
whom pitfall trapping resulted in a higher number of recovered
samples than searching under stones. Even if active searching at
night using ultraviolet light is considered the most eff ective
sampling method (Sissom et al., 1990; Warburg, 1997), this method
is time and eff ort consuming and requires several fi eld
biologists, so we did not test it.
Th e majority of the scorpion species recovered during this
study were collected using pitfall traps, while O. scrobiculosus
and S. m. palmatus were recovered during April by searching under
stones. Th is is perhaps due to the mild temperature during April,
compared with the hot summer months when both species retreat to
their deep burrows (Amr and Al-Oran, 1994). Rutin (1996) found that
S. m. palmatus was active during April, excavating soil for burrow
preparation.
Relative abundance of scorpions was studied among some North
American species using pitfall traps (Bradley and Brody, 1984). It
was found that
Paruroctonus utahensis was the dominant species in fl at
grassland habitat, along with other species in low numbers. Other
species (Vejovis coahuilae and Vejovis russelli) were associated
with rocky cliff habitat. In our study, Site 3 had the highest
number of scorpions, and B. tadmorensis was the most dominant
species. Th is is perhaps due to the dominant loose soil, while the
other 2 sites (Site 1 and Site 2) have harder and drier soil
textures.
Höfer et al. (1996) studied the surface abundance of the
scorpion Brotheas amazonicus, using pitfall traps. Th ey found that
capture rates in the primary plateau forest and in the primary
forest on white sand soil were higher than in disturbed areas. Th
ey concluded that high structural diversity, ultimately refl ecting
the availability of hiding places, is important for B. amazonicus.
Our study sites were located within the arid Irano-Turanian
biotope, with variations in soil hardness and vegetation cover.
Structural habitat diversity in the study sites are low, and
consist of burrows, scattered stones, and hiding places under
bushes.
It seems that emergence from burrows at night is related to
decreasing levels of ambient temperature and insect abundance. Th
is opinion by shared with Polis (1980). In the study areas, several
species of terrestrial arthropods were also trapped in the pitfall
traps, with the highest number of various arthropods recorded from
Site 3.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
2 3 4 5 6Length in cm
Site 1
Site 2
Site 3
No.
of s
corp
ion
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
April May June July
No.
of s
corp
ions
2 cm
3 cm
4 cm
5 cm
6 cm
Figure 4. Comparison between body length of collected B.
tadmorensis from the 3 study sites. Combined data from under-stone
collecting and pitfall traps.
Figure 5. Body length of collected B. tadmorensis from all the
study sites using under-stone collecting and pitfall traps.
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Ecology and biology of scorpions in Palmyra, Syria
340
Many species of vertebrates and invertebrates were reported to
feed on scorpions. Polis et al. (1981) listed about 150 species
that feed on scorpions. Among vertebrates, birds and lizards were
the most signifi cant predators. Th ese studies indicated predation
of scorpions by the desert monitors, Varanus sp. (Millot and
Vachon, 1949; Cisse, 1972), the Common Kestrel, Falco tinnunculus,
and the Woodchat Shrike Lanius senator, in Eurasia and Africa
(Lourenco and Dekeyser, 1976). Th is study reports, for the fi rst
time, predation by Acanthodactylus boskianus on B. tadmorensis.
Ptyodactylus spp. was found to feed on scorpions both naturally and
under laboratory conditions (Zlotkin et al., 2003). It seems that
Acanthodactylus boskianus can tolerate the venom of B. tadmorensis,
which is less potent for humans than L. quinquestriatus.
Th e Little Owl and the Northern Bald Ibis also predated on this
species. Owls were reported to feed on scorpions in the Middle
East; pellets of the Desert Eagle Owl, Bubo ascalaphus were found
to include remains of A. crassicauda, Compsobuthus werneri, and S.
m. palmatus (Rifai et al., 2000). Shehab (2004) found that
scorpions constituted 9.22% of prey items of the Eagle Owl in the
Syrian Desert, while the Little Owl fed on other unidentifi ed
scorpions (Obuch and Krištìn, 2004). Th e diet of other birds such
as the Houbara Bustard (Chlamydotis macqueenii) included
Buthacus yotvatensis nigroaculeatus and Vachoniolus spp. in Abu
Dhabi (Tigar and Osborne, 2000). Vachon (1952) reported predation
of scorpions by the Northern Bald Ibis, Geronticus eremta, in
Southeastern Europe, Asia and Northern Africa.
Scorpions will capture almost any prey that they can overcome.
Th ey feed primarily on several groups of insects, arachnids, and
other arthropods (Williams, 1987). Intraspecies predation was
reported among many scorpion species in North America (Polis,
1979). We report here predation of L. quinquestriatus on B.
tadmorensis and cannibalism among B. tadmorensis. Maternal
cannibalism in B. tadmorensis was observed, although only in
captivity.
AcknowledgmentsWe would like to thank Professor Adel Safar,
the Minister of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform, Engineer Ali
Hamoud, the Director General of the General Commission of Al Badia
Development and Management, and the General Commission for
Scientifi c Agricultural Research for facilitating the fi eld work,
and for their encouragement and continuous support. We also wish to
express our gratitude to BirdLife International for supporting this
study.
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