Ecology

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II Definitions:Definitions:A.A. Ecology: The scientific study of interactions Ecology: The scientific study of interactions

among among organisms and between organisms and organisms and between organisms and their environment or surroundings.their environment or surroundings.

B.B. Biosphere: contains the combined portions of the Biosphere: contains the combined portions of the planet in which all life exists, including land, planet in which all life exists, including land, water and air or atmosphere.water and air or atmosphere.1.1. It extends 8 km above the earthIt extends 8 km above the earth2.2. and 11 km below the surface of the ocean.and 11 km below the surface of the ocean.

IIII Levels of OrganizationLevels of OrganizationA.A. Species: A group of organisms that are so similar Species: A group of organisms that are so similar

to one another that they can breed and produce to one another that they can breed and produce fertile offspring.fertile offspring.

B.B. Population: Groups of individuals that belong to Population: Groups of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area.the same species and live in the same area.

C.C. Communities: Assemblages of different Communities: Assemblages of different populations that live together in a defined area.populations that live together in a defined area.D.D. Ecosystem: This is a collection of all the Ecosystem: This is a collection of all the organisms that live in a particular area together organisms that live in a particular area together with the living and non-living environment. with the living and non-living environment.

E.E. Biome: A group of ecosystems that have the same Biome: A group of ecosystems that have the same

climate and similar dominant communities. climate and similar dominant communities.

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IIIIII Energy FlowEnergy FlowA.A. Producers: Organisms that make (produce) Producers: Organisms that make (produce)

their own food.their own food.1.1. Autotroph: Plants, algae and bacteria that Autotroph: Plants, algae and bacteria that

can capture energy from sunlight or can capture energy from sunlight or chemicals and use that energy to produce chemicals and use that energy to produce food.food.2.2. Photosynthesis: The use of sunlight by Photosynthesis: The use of sunlight by

autotrophs to power chemical reactions autotrophs to power chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and water to that convert carbon dioxide and water to oxygen and sugar.oxygen and sugar.

3.3. Chemosynthesis: This is a process used by Chemosynthesis: This is a process used by autotrophs that have no access to sunlight autotrophs that have no access to sunlight (ocean (ocean depths) and rely on chemical bonds depths) and rely on chemical bonds of inorganic molecules to obtain energy.of inorganic molecules to obtain energy.

EcologyEcologyB.B. Consumers:Consumers:

1. 1. Organisms that must consume other Organisms that must consume other organisms organisms in order to obtain food and energy. in order to obtain food and energy. They cannot They cannot produce food by using produce food by using energy from the sun or energy from the sun or chemical bonds. chemical bonds. These organisms are also These organisms are also called called heterotrophs.heterotrophs.

2.2. Heterotrophs (consumers)Heterotrophs (consumers)a.a. Herbivores: eat only plantsHerbivores: eat only plantsb.b. Carnivores:Carnivores: eat only other animals eat only other animalsc.c. Omnivores: eat plants and/or animals.Omnivores: eat plants and/or animals.d.d. Detrivores (scavenger): feed on dead Detrivores (scavenger): feed on dead

plants or plants or animals (earthworms, snails, animals (earthworms, snails, vultures, etc.).vultures, etc.).

e.e. Decomposers: break down organic Decomposers: break down organic matter and matter and return nutrients to the earth return nutrients to the earth (bacteria and fungi).(bacteria and fungi).

EcologyEcologyIVIV Feeding Relationships (Energy Flow)Feeding Relationships (Energy Flow)

A.A. Energy flows through an ecosystem in Energy flows through an ecosystem in one one direction from the sun to direction from the sun to autotrophs (producers) autotrophs (producers) to heterotrophs to heterotrophs (consumers)(consumers)

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B.B. Food Chain: A series of steps by which energy Food Chain: A series of steps by which energy stored in producers is passed on to consumers stored in producers is passed on to consumers by by eating or eating or being eaten.being eaten.

Plants Deer Mountain lion

C.C. Food Web: A complex network of food chains in an Food Web: A complex network of food chains in an ecosystem.ecosystem.

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VV Ecological PyramidEcological PyramidA.A. Energy PyramidEnergy Pyramid

1.1. A diagram that shows the relative A diagram that shows the relative amounts of amounts of energy contained in each trophic energy contained in each trophic level of a food level of a food chain or web.chain or web.

2.2. Producers are able to keep about 50% of Producers are able to keep about 50% of the the energy they get from the sun.energy they get from the sun.

3.3. Each succeeding level of the energy Each succeeding level of the energy pyramid pyramid (herbivores, carnivores) transfers (herbivores, carnivores) transfers only 10% of only 10% of the available energy in that the available energy in that trophic level.trophic level.

B.B. Biomass Pyramid: Shows the total amount of living Biomass Pyramid: Shows the total amount of living tissue in each trophic level tissue in each trophic level

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VIVI Cycles of MatterCycles of MatterA.A. The Water CycleThe Water Cycle

1.1. EvaporationEvaporation2.2. Transpiration: evaporation of water Transpiration: evaporation of water

through the through the leaves.leaves.3.3. Condensation: cooling of water in the Condensation: cooling of water in the

upper upper atmosphereatmosphere4.4. PrecipitationPrecipitation5.5. RunoffRunoff6.6. Seepage into the ground and root uptakeSeepage into the ground and root uptake..

EcologyEcologyB.B. Carbon CycleCarbon Cycle

1.1. Photosynthesis absorbs carbon dioxide Photosynthesis absorbs carbon dioxide from the from the atmosphere to make glucose and atmosphere to make glucose and release oxygen.release oxygen.

2.2. Animals breathe in oxygen and release Animals breathe in oxygen and release carbon carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.dioxide into the atmosphere.

3.3. Carbon dioxide is also released into the Carbon dioxide is also released into the atmosphere from volcanic eruptions and atmosphere from volcanic eruptions and

waste waste products of industry.products of industry.

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Bacteria

EcologyC.C. Nitrogen CycleNitrogen Cycle

1.1. Nitrogen is important to all organisms Nitrogen is important to all organisms because it because it is used to make proteins.is used to make proteins.

2.2. Most of the Earth’s nitrogen is in the form of Most of the Earth’s nitrogen is in the form of nitrogen gas that makes up 78% of our nitrogen gas that makes up 78% of our

atmosphere. atmosphere. Most organisms cannot use nitrogen in Most organisms cannot use nitrogen in this form.this form.

3.3. Nitrogen fixation: The conversion nitrogen Nitrogen fixation: The conversion nitrogen gas into gas into ammonia by bacteria on the roots of ammonia by bacteria on the roots of legumes and in legumes and in soils (decomposers)soils (decomposers)

4.4. Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia into Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia into nitrates or nitrates or nitrites that can be absorbed by plants.nitrites that can be absorbed by plants.

5.5. Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates into Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates into nitrogen nitrogen gas.gas.

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D.D. Phosphorus cyclePhosphorus cycle1.1. Phosphorus is necessary for the Phosphorus is necessary for the

production of production of ATP, DNA and RNA.ATP, DNA and RNA.2.2. It is found in rock, soil minerals and in It is found in rock, soil minerals and in

ocean ocean sediments.sediments.3.3. Phosphorus is absorbed by plants from the Phosphorus is absorbed by plants from the

soil soil and passed on from producer to consumer and passed on from producer to consumer in the in the food chain.food chain.

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EcologyEcologyVII Nutrient Limitation

A. Primary productivity: The rate at which organic matter is created in an ecosystem.

B. Limiting nutrient: A nutrient that is scarce or cycles slowly and controls the primary

productivity of an ecosystem.C. Algal bloom: An immediate increase in

the amount of algae in an aquatic environment as a result of a large input of a limiting nutrient.

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VIIIVIII Role of ClimateRole of ClimateA.A. Climate: The average, year-after-year, Climate: The average, year-after-year,

conditions of temperature and rainfall conditions of temperature and rainfall in a in a particular region. Weather is the day-particular region. Weather is the day-to-day to-day conditions in an area.conditions in an area.

B.B. The greenhouse effect: A situation in The greenhouse effect: A situation in which which carbon dioxide, methane, water carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor and vapor and other gases trap heat energy and other gases trap heat energy and maintain maintain the Earth’s temperature.the Earth’s temperature.

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C.C. The effect of latitude on climateThe effect of latitude on climate1.1. Distance from the equator (latitude) Distance from the equator (latitude)

and and the tilt of the Earth on its axis result the tilt of the Earth on its axis result in in three main climate zones three main climate zones

a)a) Polar zone Polar zone b)b) Temperate Temperate zonezone

c)c) Tropical zoneTropical zone

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IXIX Elements of an EcosystemElements of an EcosystemA.A. Biotic factors: All the living Biotic factors: All the living

organisms in organisms in an ecosysteman ecosystemB.B. Abiotic factors: All the non-living Abiotic factors: All the non-living

things things in an in an ecosystemecosystem1.1. TemperatureTemperature2.2. RainfallRainfall3.3. SoilSoil4.4. Atmospheric gasesAtmospheric gases5.5. SunlightSunlight

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C.C. Habitat: The place where an organism lives Habitat: The place where an organism lives (address) which includes the biotic and abiotic (address) which includes the biotic and abiotic

factors.factors.D.D. Niche: The full range of physical and biologicalNiche: The full range of physical and biological conditions in which an organism lives and theconditions in which an organism lives and the way in which it uses those conditionsway in which it uses those conditions (occupation).(occupation).

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EcologyEcologyE.E. Community InteractionsCommunity Interactions

1.1. Competitive exclusion principle: Competitive exclusion principle: No two No two species can occupy the same species can occupy the same niche at the niche at the same time. Competition same time. Competition between species between species determines who determines who will occupy the niche.will occupy the niche.

2.2. Predation: One organism captures Predation: One organism captures and and feeds off another organism.feeds off another organism.

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3.3. Symbiosis: Any relationship in which two species Symbiosis: Any relationship in which two species live closely together.live closely together.a.a. Mutualism (+,+): Both species benefit from the Mutualism (+,+): Both species benefit from the

relationship. relationship. Example: flower provides nectar for insects Example: flower provides nectar for insects

and the and the insects help the flowers to reproduce.insects help the flowers to reproduce.b.b. Commensalism (+, 0): One organism benefits Commensalism (+, 0): One organism benefits

and the and the other is neither benefited nor harmed. other is neither benefited nor harmed. Example: Example: Barnacles on the skin of whales. Barnacles on the skin of whales. Barnacles are able to Barnacles are able to get food as water passes get food as water passes over the swimming whale.over the swimming whale.

c.c. Parasitism (+, - ): One organism benefits and Parasitism (+, - ): One organism benefits and the the other are harmed. other are harmed.

Example: Pinworms in a human.Example: Pinworms in a human.

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F.F. Ecological Succession: The series ofEcological Succession: The series ofpredictable changes that occur in an predictable changes that occur in an

ecosystem over time.ecosystem over time.1.1. Primary succession: Succession that occurs Primary succession: Succession that occurs

on surfaces where no soil ever existed on surfaces where no soil ever existed (reforestation on a mountain after a volcanic (reforestation on a mountain after a volcanic eruption). A pioneer organism is the first eruption). A pioneer organism is the first

organism to appear in the area.organism to appear in the area.2.2. Secondary succession: A disturbance Secondary succession: A disturbance changes the existing community without changes the existing community without

removing the soil (clearing a forest).removing the soil (clearing a forest).

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G. Land Biomes1. Tropical rain forest

a. Abiotic factors: Hot and wet year round, thin poor soil

b. Dominant plants: Broad leaf evergreen trees (climax organism), ferns & orchids. Canopy covering & an under story of small trees.

c. Dominant wildlife: Herbivores (sloth's, tapirs), predators (jaguars, piranhas).

2.2. Tropical Dry Forest - rainfall is seasonal rather Tropical Dry Forest - rainfall is seasonal rather than than year roundyear rounda.a. Abiotic factors: Warm year round with Abiotic factors: Warm year round with

wet and dry seasonswet and dry seasonsb.b. Dominant plants: Tall deciduous trees Dominant plants: Tall deciduous trees

(climax organism), orchids and aloes(climax organism), orchids and aloesc.c. Dominant wildlife: tigers, monkeys and Dominant wildlife: tigers, monkeys and

elephantselephantsd.d. Geographic distribution: Africa, South & Geographic distribution: Africa, South &

Central America, India and Mexico.Central America, India and Mexico.

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3. Tropical Savannaa. Abiotic factors: warm temperatures,

seasonal rainfall but not enough to support trees, compact soil.

b. Dominant plants: tall grasses (climax organism)

c. Dominant wildlife: lions, leopards, cheetahs, elephants, etc.

d. Geographic distribution: Africa, Australia

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4. Deserta. Abiotic factors: low precipitation and

variable temperaturesb. Dominant plants: cacti (climax organisms)

and occasional bushesc. Dominant wildlife: mountain lions, gray

foxes, deer, etc.

5.5. Temperate grasslandTemperate grasslanda.a. Abiotic factors: warm to hot summers, Abiotic factors: warm to hot summers,

cold cold winters, moderate seasonal precipitation winters, moderate seasonal precipitation & & fertile soil.fertile soil.

b.b. Dominant plant: lush perennial grasses Dominant plant: lush perennial grasses (climax organisms) and herbs. (climax organisms) and herbs.

c.c. Dominant wildlife: coyotes, badgers, Dominant wildlife: coyotes, badgers, bears bears and deerand deer

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6. Temperate Woodland and Shrubland a. Abiotic factors: hot dry summers, cool mild

winters and thin nutrient soil. b. Dominant plants: evergreen shrubs c. Dominant wildlife: coyotes, foxes, bear, deer,

rabbits d. Geographic distribution: West coast of North and

South America and Mediterranean basin.

7.7. Temperate ForestTemperate Foresta.a. Abiotic factors: cold to moderate winters, Abiotic factors: cold to moderate winters,

warm warm summers, fertile soil.summers, fertile soil.b.b. Dominant plants: broadleaf deciduous Dominant plants: broadleaf deciduous

trees trees (climax organism) and some pine trees(climax organism) and some pine treesc.c. Dominant wildlife: deer, black bear, Dominant wildlife: deer, black bear,

raccoonsraccoons

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8. Northwestern Coniferous Foresta. Abiotic factors: cold winters, cool mild

summers, abundant rainb. Dominant plants: Douglas fir, Sitka sprucec. Dominant wildlife: bear, elk and deer

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9. Boreal Forest (Taiga)a. Abiotic factors: long cold winters and short cool

summers, nutrient poor soils.b. Dominant plants: needle-leaf conifers (climax

organisms)c. Dominant wildlife: lynx, timber wolves, moosed. Geographic distribution: N. America, Asia and

N. Europe

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10.10. TundraTundraa.a. Abiotic factors: permafrost Abiotic factors: permafrost

(permanently (permanently frozen subsoil), low frozen subsoil), low precipitation, short soggy precipitation, short soggy summers, long, summers, long, cold, dark winters.cold, dark winters.

b.b. Dominant plants: mosses, lichens and Dominant plants: mosses, lichens and short short grassesgrasses

c.c. Dominant wildlife: foxes, caribou and Dominant wildlife: foxes, caribou and lemmingslemmings

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XX Aquatic EcosystemsAquatic EcosystemsA.A. Fresh Water EcosystemsFresh Water Ecosystems

1.1. Flowing-water ecosystems: Flowing-water ecosystems: rivers, rivers, streams, etc.streams, etc.

2.2. Standing-water ecosystem: lakes Standing-water ecosystem: lakes and and pondsponds

a)a) Plankton: tiny, free-floating Plankton: tiny, free-floating organisms, organisms, live in live in fresh & fresh & saltwater.saltwater.

b)b) Phytoplankton: single-celled Phytoplankton: single-celled algaealgae

c)c) Zooplankton: plankton are Zooplankton: plankton are animals that animals that feed on phytoplanktonfeed on phytoplankton

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3.3. Freshwater Wetlands: An ecosystem in which Freshwater Wetlands: An ecosystem in which water covers the soil at least part of the water covers the soil at least part of the

year.year.

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a)a) Bogs: depressions left by glaciers and Bogs: depressions left by glaciers and covered by moss.covered by moss.

b)b) Marshes: wetlands along rivers and contain cattails and rushes.

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c)c) Swamps: similar to a marsh except that a swamp Swamps: similar to a marsh except that a swamp contains trees.contains trees.

B. Estuaries: 1. Wetlands that form where rivers meet seas

2. Detritus: tiny pieces of organic material that provide for organisms at the base of an

estuaries food chain.

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C. Salt marshes: Temperate Zone estuaries dominated by salt-tolerant grasses.

D. Mangrove swamps: Coastal wetlands across tropical regions (Florida everglades).

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C. Marine Ecosystems1. Photic regions: where photosynthesis can take

place.2. Aphotic regions: below 200 meters where no light

can penetrate.3. Intertidal zone: low tide zone4. Coastal zone: from low tide area to the

continental shelf.5. Coral Reefs: coastal, tropical regions inhabited by

coral.6. Open ocean: from the continental shelf (500

meters out) to 11,000 meters in depth.7. Benthic zone: ocean floor

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XI Man’s Impact on the EnvironmentA. Renewable and Non-renewable Resources

1. Renewable resource: Resources that can be regenerated and replaced.

2. Non-renewable resource: Resources that cannot be replaced by natural processes.

3. Sustainable use: Using natural resources in a way that doesn’t deplete them.

4. Desertification: Turning once productive areas into deserts by a combination of farming, overgrazing and drought.

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5.5. Deforestation: loss of forests can cause soil erosion Deforestation: loss of forests can cause soil erosion when soil is exposed to heavy rains.when soil is exposed to heavy rains.

6.6. Aquaculture: The farming of aquatic organisms to Aquaculture: The farming of aquatic organisms to replace those that have become scarce.replace those that have become scarce.

7.7. Acid Rain: Burning fossil fuels releases nitrogen and Acid Rain: Burning fossil fuels releases nitrogen and sulfur compounds from smoke stacks into the sulfur compounds from smoke stacks into the atmosphere that combine with water vapor to atmosphere that combine with water vapor to

form form nitric and sulfuric acid or acid rainnitric and sulfuric acid or acid rain

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B.B. BiodiversityBiodiversity1.1. Biodiversity: The sum total of the genetically Biodiversity: The sum total of the genetically

based based variety of all organisms in the biosphere. variety of all organisms in the biosphere. 2.2. Ecosystem diversity: The variety of habitats, Ecosystem diversity: The variety of habitats,

communities and ecological processes in the living world.communities and ecological processes in the living world.3.3. Species Diversity: The number of different Species Diversity: The number of different

species in species in the biosphere.the biosphere.4.4. Genetic Diversity: The total of all the different Genetic Diversity: The total of all the different

genetic genetic information carried by organisms living information carried by organisms living on the Earth.on the Earth.

5.5. Benefits of biodiversity: foods, industrial Benefits of biodiversity: foods, industrial products and products and medicines.medicines.

Diversity quiz.notebook

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6.6. Threats to Biodiversity:Threats to Biodiversity:a)a) Altering habitatsAltering habitats: destroys species in them and : destroys species in them and

can can produce “biological islands” or habitat produce “biological islands” or habitat fragmentation fragmentation that is more vulnerable to changes.that is more vulnerable to changes.

b)b) Over-hunting:Over-hunting: harms food chains and webs harms food chains and websc)c) Introducing toxic compounds into food webs:Introducing toxic compounds into food webs:

causes causes biological magnificationbiological magnification. The concentration of . The concentration of harmful harmful substances increases in organisms at substances increases in organisms at higher trophic higher trophic levels in the food chain.levels in the food chain.

d)d) Introducing a foreign species into new Introducing a foreign species into new environmentsenvironments: : can result in the new species becoming can result in the new species becoming an invasive an invasive species. The invasive species will grow species. The invasive species will grow rapidly and rapidly and replace native replace native species because it has no species because it has no predators.predators.

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7. Conserving Biodiversitya) Using biological controls (predators) rather than

pesticides or herbicides to control pest populationsb) Plant and wildlife preserves prevent over hunting

and deforestation. c) Pass laws to prevent harmful effects on the environment.

d) Reduce the amount of chlorofluorohydrocarbons (CFC) into the atmosphere that destroys the ozone layer.

Reduction in the ozone layer causes increased exposure to UV light that can cause skin cancer.

e) Reduce the emission of “green house gases” like carbon dioxide that cause global warming.

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