Ecological Solid Waste Management Act

c a n o p y I N T E R N A T I O N A L

Volume 26 No. 4 July - August 2000 ISSN-0115-0960

Published by the Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources

All articles are incumbent to the current period.

What’s inside . . .

KASAMA: A success story on mangrove

rehabilitation 2

Why the need for selected planting stocks for tree planting 3

Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc.: A soil-borne plant pathogen 4

Current practices on medicinal plants in the Philippines 5

Silviculture in watershed management 6

Earthwatch 9

Mangroves: Source of food and medicine 12

Off the Press December 2002

Editorial

Ecological Solid Waste Management Act

W ith the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000, or Republic Act 9003, a priority concern of the nation’s lawmakers, floods in the metropolis and other urban centers in the country brought about by the

onset of the rainy season may soon be a thing of the past. Floods are only one of the consequences of improper disposal of garbage. That the garbage problem in Metro Manila and in most urban areas is getting out of hand cannot be overemphasized. Metro Manila alone generates 6,000 t of garbage daily. Of this, only about 4,400 t is collected and properly disposed of while the rest remain uncollected and continue to litter the streets, clogging esteros and river tributaries. Some are simply dumped in vacant lots. The government has put in place a waste management system that will address the problem posed by tons of garbage generated every day. Thus, the Solid Waste Management Act intends to successfully reduce the amount of garbage while putting up an efficient recycling-based management system in the country. This means getting garbage off the streets, canals and esteros. The first line of defense in the war against wastes is reducing garbage starting at the household level and by segregating biodegradable from nonbiodegradable wastes. With urbanization, economic development and population growth come additional wastes which contribute to organic pollution and worsen flooding. Hand in hand with legislation of solid waste management would be more investment on more people participation where people decide to manage their trash by themselves, following certain guidelines. Community residents could launch a “Zero Waste for Progress” campaign using the common method of segregation. They, later, would sell reusable materials to junk shops and use the biodegradables as compost for community gardens. Republic Act No. 9003 must not only be verbalized, but internalized and actualized with the end thereof, preserving and protecting the environment, and pointing out the importance of bettering the quality of life of Filipinos.

KASAMA: A success story On mangrove rehabilitation Calixto E. Yao and Medelyn M. Quadra

T he contract on mangrove reforestation project in 1990-1993 under a loan from the Asian

Development Bank (ADB) was criticized for its low survival rate due to inappropriate planting site, lack of technology, mismanagement and unrealistic targets. However, there were some success stories of LGU contracts. One was that of the local government unit of Kalibo which subcontracted a reforestation project to the Kalibo Save Mangrove Association (KASAMA), a people’s organization (PO). Assisting KASAMA was the United Service and Welfare Assistance Group (USWAG) Development Foundation, a nongovernement organization (NGO). This articale discusses the strategies on plantation establishment and the excellent growth of bakauan-babae (Rhizophora mucronata), and the social and ecological impact of the project. Presented also in this article is the experience of the KASAMA in the comanagement of the project with the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC) in raising mudcrab and shrimps within the two-year-old bakauan plantation under the mangrove-friendly aquaculture (MFA) project, or aquasilviculture. The project site The 70-ha plantation is located near the villages of New and Old Buswang, about 2.5 km east of Kalibo, the capital town of Aklan. Aklan is one of the four provinces of Panay Island in Region VI (Western Visayas). The plantation area was formerly a mudflat with sparse second growth of bungalon (Avicennia marina) and bakauan-lalake (Rhizophora apiculata). The substrate was a deep mud with few seashells and fishes. Birds and other wildlife species were also few due to the absence of dense natural growth. Frequent floods scoured the shoreline, uprooting some coconut trees. Climate. The site is categorized under Climatic Type I, with two pronounced seasons: dry from January to April;

And wet for the rest of the year. Salinity. The prevailing salinity in the plantation was much lower than that in the Kalibo Proper because the plantation was near the river deltas of Soot and Aklan, which discharged huge volume of freshwater from wide watershed catchment. Five other major rivers also contributed to the low salinity of the area. The plantation The initial 50-ha plantation in Kalibo, Aklan was established in 1990 under the contract reforestation project of the DENR, funded by a loan from the ADB. This project was patterned after the community-based contract reforestation (CBCR) scheme of the Central Visayas Regional Project, a World Bank-assistec project. The CBCR had a tenurial component called the Woodlot Lease Agreement which was adopted by the DENR as Forest Land Management Agreement (FLMA). The FLMA was awarded to the community after the plantation had been completed in three years (with 80% survival rate) to ensure protection and proper management. The plantation would eventually be harvested with the government getting a 30% share of the proceeds. The 50-ha plantation was turned over the DENR in 1993. Subsequently, KASAMA was issued with the FLMA in 1994, probably the first FLMA-mangrove plantation in the country. Growth performance. The nine-year-old plantation consisting of 45 ha of bakauan-babae (Rhizophora mucronata) with few bakauan-lalaki (R. apiculata) and 5 ha of nipa (Nypa fruticans) plantation had 97% survival rate after three years at 1.5 m x 1.5 m spacing. The average diameter was 5 cm and the height, 5 m which were very high compared to those in other good sites with only 3 cm average diameter and 3 m total height. The fast growth was attributed to a wide spacing of 1.5 m x 1.5 m as compared to the DENR standard of 1 m x 1 m. But aside from good growth, the bakauan-

babae plantation exhibited multiple stems of almost equal diameters, averaging 3 stems/tree with an average diameter of 4-5 cm. This means a doubling or tripling in poles/wood production of multiple-stem trees as compared to single-stem trees. Ordinarily, trees with multiple stems have smaller diameter than the adjacent trees with single stems. However, in this case, the diameter size of the trees was almost the same. About 85% of the trees had multiple stems. Interestingly, growth of fork was observed to be about 50 cm from the ground. The three-year-old bakauan-babae plantation in Calape, Bohol, with 1 m x 1 m spacing had an average height of 3 m, but no forking. Forking might have started at the fourth or fifth year in plantation with wider spacing. Additional plantation. The strong resolve of KASAMA to make the plantation a complete success had earned the support of local government officials who allotted an amount from the countryside development fund to develop an additional 7 ha of mangrove plantation. This was followed with an additional 50 ha of plantation under a contract with the DENR. The residents opposed the establishment of the new plantation because it would obstruct the banca passage and create pollution from

page 8

2 CANOPY International July - August 2000

July - August 2000 CANOPY International 3

Why the need for selected planting stocks for tree planting Aida B. Lapis, Eduardo B. Principe and Norma R. Pablo

I n a sustainable forest management, afforestation and reforestation remain to be an invaluable approach

to meet the goals of a steady production of wood, protection of environment and continuous derivation of intangible returns, i.e., ecological, aesthetic and sociocultural benefits for the present and future generations. Though the Philippine forestry development programs revolved around the premise of ensuring the maintenance of the country’s forest vegetation, the past efforts had not been that aggressive and they lacked scientific basis to meet the targets of effective forestation programs. Planting of trees has been essential in restoring watersheds and in rehabilitating degraded and denuded areas. Equally important is the development of production forests to meet the country’s wood demands, a major concern of the forestry sector. Even the inadequately stocked forests need the planting of trees through assisted natural regeneration. It is anticipated that a very large amount of improved seeds and propagules is needed to accomplish forestation programs and to develop large-scale plantations. Some problems in reforestation The slow pace of reforestation was attributed to the low survival of the outplanted planting stocks, which, in turn, was due to low quality of seeds and the inferior quality of planting stocks used in most plantations. Generally, the seeds were gathered from any seed sources without considering the phenotypic traits, or the genetic makeup, of the mother trees. Other factors that contributed to the failure of reforestation: poor species selection vis-à-vis site condition; absence of species trial; nonobservance of seed quality testing; and lack of relevant technology. The laxity in following the DENR guidelines on the establishment of forest plantation and management is still another factor related to the failure of reforestation programs in the country.

Poor genetic and physiological quality of planting materials is a major factor to the substandard performance of outplanted seedlings, aggravated by adverse site conditions in degraded areas. On the other hand, the traditional practice of seed procurement for a massive tree planting program is done through local suppliers. Seeds are commonly collected anywhere, resulting in wide variations in survival and growth performance in the field. Usually, seedlots are a mixture of collections from different mother trees of unknown origins. The worst thing is that the genetic quality, or even the phenotypic characteristics, are unknown. Initiatives undertaken To ensure the initial availability of quality seeds for planting stock production, seed sources of various forest species were identified and delineated by the Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, in collaboration with the Forest Management Bureau. Seed production areas are important to have an immediate and assured seed supply from selected phenotypically superior stands. They offer high-quality trees for tree improvement programs. It is, however, an interim measure to provide high quality and great quantities of seeds for immediate need of current reforestation programs. On the other hand, seeds may be provided by forest plantations that have been properly

identified, documented and managed as seed sources. There were 23 species found in 33 locations. Documentation includes information on the original seed sources, age and extent of the plantations, which are vital in tree breeding program. Tree breeding program Any massive tree planting or greening program underscores the urgent need of producing high-quality planting stocks. By using good planting materials, better survival in the nursery and in the field is guaranteed. In addition, overhead cost for replanting can be minimized. Therefore, an intensive search for the best phenotype found in natural stands and established plantations is essential. In addition, phenotypic selection is a fundamental starting point for a tree breeding scheme, which is a long-term strategy for the development of superior seeds and planting stocks. Tree breeding or tree improvement is the basic approach to improve the quality of seeds. The objectives of tree breeding include genetic improvement and cultivation of phenotypically selected plants; improvement of genetic base of species with desired characteristics suitable for specific areas and end product; and assurance of the availability of materials needed for diverse forestry operations. In tree improvement, the important approaches are provenance trials and seed and clonal orchard establishment, among other things. To carry out tree improvement activities, asexual propagation should be undertaken for a rapid and massive

page 10


Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc.: A soil-borne plant pathogen Concepcion M. Palaypayon

S clerotium rolfsii Sacc. is one of the soil-borne plant pathogens affecting many dicotyledonous

crops and several monocotyledonous species. Its distribution is worldwide, having been reported in the tropical, subtropical and temperate countries. This plant pathogen was first discovered on tomato by Rolfs in 1892 (Punja, 1985). Since then there has been a continuous research regarding the disease. Yet, despite many research endeavors, this pathogen continues to plague growers and cause considerable losses. Control efforts have often met with limited success, due to the pathogen’s extensive host range, prolific growth and ability to produce large numbers of sclerotia that may persist in the soil for several years. Furthermore, control measures effective for a particular crop, or area, may not be adaptable elsewhere due to regulatory or economic constraints. The fungus Sclerotium rolfsii belongs to imperfect basidiomycetes and is often referred to as Mycelia sterilia since it does not produce conidia. It is entirely devoid of spores of any kind, and is existing exclusively by means of sclerotia, and its vegetative hyphae called the mycelium. The sclerotia are formed laterally from main hyphal strands (Willets, 1972). They consist of a compact mass of sterile mycelium that is pearl white, fine woolly when young and becoming smooth creamy white, chestnut brown to shiny dark chocolate brown at maturity. They vary in sizes, ranging from 0.5 to 3.0 mm in diameter. Their sizes also depend upon the condition and the kind of substrate upon which the fungus is grown. Mycelia, on the other hand, are well-developed. On culture media or hosts, they appear cottony white or creamy white. They spread out radially in fan-shaped fashion, in arborescent or mat form. Under the microscope, the hyphal strands of the mycelium are hyaline, smooth or slightly granular, septate, sparingly branched with age.

Range of pathogenicity Sclerotium rolfsii affects a wide variety of plant species. The fungus has been found to attack seedlings, roots, stems, pods and fruits of susceptible plants. It has also been found to be infecting seedlings of species previously known to be positively susceptible to infection and to a large number of other species. According to Mejia (1953) and Lapis (1995), the following are the tree species upon which the fungus proved to be pathogenic: molave (Vitex parviflora Juss.); narra (Pterocarpus indicus Willd. forma indicus); mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King); agoho (Casuarina equisetifolia L.); botong (Barringtonia asiatica [L.] Kurz); supa (Sindora supa Merr.); talisai (Terminalia catappa L.) cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.); gubas (Endospermum peltatum Merr.); and Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica). These species proved to be susceptible to the disease called Sclerotium root rot. On the othre hand, severe damage of mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) seedlings caused by Sclerotium sp. and Sclerotium delphini Welch was reported by De Guzman and Eusebio (1975) and Roldan (1941). These pathogens seem to be the same causes of Sclerotium root rot. Furthermore, it was reported that severe damage of mahogany seedlings in Cebu was caused by Corticium rolfsii (Kobayashi, 1986). Symptoms Seedlings are invaded usually on the root and basal stem. The diseased seedlings unexpectedly wilt. Sclerotia are produced on the soil surface around the wilted seedlings and on the stem of the diseased seedlings. They are light brown to shiny brown, globular and 0.5-1.0 mm in diameter. They are also recognized by their white and thin mycelial strands on the surface of root and basal stem of the wilted seedlings (Kobayashi, 1986). Quiñones and Zamora (1987), on the other hand, pointed out that the most important symptoms of the disease include necrosis of the root system; yellowing, browning and wilting of the leaves; and, eventually, death of the affected seedlings.

Disease control strategies Effective control measures for this soil-inhabiting fungus appear difficult. Lapis (1995) identified some of the recommended controls as follows: • Apply seed protectants (Thiram or

0.1-3.0% weight of seeds, Delsene MX at 2.5 g/kg of seeds) and sterilize soil to reduce losses.

• Keep the soil well-drained. If noly clay loam soil is available, add fine sand or decomposed organic matter to improve drainage.

• Sow seeds thinly to allow enough evaporation of soil moisture when seeds germinate.

• Regulate watering, enough only to ensure good germination and growth.

• When infected seedlings appear, remove them at once and burn them.

Kobayashi (1986) also cited PCNB (pentachloronitrobenzene), to be the most effective in suppressing the spread of the disease. According to him, an emulsion of PCNB (500-1,000 times) should be drenched to the contaminated seedbed at 3L/sq m. The dust of PCNB is also applicable to the nursery bed after removing the diseased seedlings. The dust (10-20 g/sq m) should be mixed well with soil. Concluding note Sclerotium rolfsii which induces rood and crown rot (southern blight) and damping-off of many plants, is a pathogen for which assessments of initial pathogen population density might be useful. It produces sclerotia, usually 0.5 to 3.0 mm in diameter, which are detectable in soil by sieving it through a series of screens and separating the sclerotia from the soil. Viability of sclerotia can be determined by allowing them to germinate on the soil surface. Alternatively, moist soil incubated in shallow trays stimulates growth and subsequent detection f mycelia from viable sclerotia. Major research effort has been made on the biological and cultural control of the page 11

Current practices on medicinal plants in the Philippines Celso P. Diaz and Aurora S. Jose

H erbal medicine is a plant-derived material with therapeutic or health benefits, containing either

raw or processed ingredients from one or more plants. Three kinds of herbal medicines are available in the Philippines, namely: (1) raw plant materials, which are fresh or dry materials marketed in whole or in small pieces; (2) processed plant materials, which are treated according to traditional procedures to improve the safety and efficacy of medicinal preparations; and (3) medicinal herbal products, which are finised and labeled pharmaceutical products in dosage forms containing one or more powdered plant materials, extracts, purified extracts, or isolated materials in combination with active substances of defined plants not considered herbal medicine.

According to published literature, no less than 13,000 medicinal plants abound in the Philippine rain forests based on the earliest taxonomic studies and botanical inventories up to the recent documentation of plant uses as herbal medicines. Studies on medicinal plants The National Integrated Research Program on Medicinal Plants (NIRPROMP) initiated a nationwide survey to document the practices of herbal healers, or “herbolarios”, and the plants they were using. Interviewed were 1,207 “herbolarios” from 766 barangays/villages in 12 regions of the country. One thousand six hundred eighty-seven plants based on common names were found being used. From this information, the investigators were able to prioritize the promising medicinal plants for

page 9

scientific research. Likewise, they developed/identified the following areas of research: integration of studies in various disciplines such as survey, identification, propagation and establishment of a gene bank of indigenous medicinal plants; pharmacological/toxicological studies to screen the adverse effects of plants on human subjects; pharmaceutical investigations to determine the dosage formulation and shelf life; and mutagenicity tests to determine the effects of plant drugs on the genetic makeup of living cells. From these initiatives, the integrated program came out with a list of 78 medicinal plants with established therapeutic values. In 1995, the DOH passed Circular No. 168-A, a list of medicinal plants that would serve as alternative, safe and effective medicines in the health care delivery systems. Recent advances on the use of medicinal plants The government has recently adopted a two-way approach in the use of medicinal plants: the use of herbal tablets and that of traditional preparations like decoction and tea. Among the herbal products now available in the market (Table 1), lagundi (Vitex negundo); sambong (Blumea balsamifera); and ampalaya (Momordica charantia) have the highest demand, indicating that most Filipinos have respiratory diseases, hypertension and diabetes. Promotion, extension and advocacy In the Philippines, the Center for International Trade Expositions and Missions, which is the export promotion agency of the Department of Trade and Industry, has been conducting annual trade fairs and exhibits on organic, herbal and natural products in cooperation with government agencies and the private sector. On the other hand, the Philippine Institute of Traditional and Alternative Health Care, through its Social Enterprise Development Unit, has been

Medinal Plants Uses

• Lagundi (Vitex nedundo)

Remedy for cough and asthma.

• Ampalaya (Momordica charantia L.)

Remedy for fever, cough, headache, diarrhea, burns, skin diseases and intestinal parasitism; good as blood tonic.

• Banaba (Lagerstroemia speciosa L.)

Remedy for kidney and gall bladder problems, stomach disorder, diarrhea; cleanses urinary system; lowers blood sugar; and slims down the body.

• Sambong (Blumea balsamifera L.) DC

Anti-urolithiasis and diuretic.

• Yerba Buena (Mentha cordifolia Opiz)

Relieves headaches, colds and influenza. The fresh leaves are excellent inhalant to ease nasal congestion.

• Alagaw (Premna odorata Blanco)

A decoction of the leaves is used as an aromatic bath. An infusion of the leaves mixed with sugar and Citrus microcarpa (kalamansi) juice can be taken for cough and colds.

• Sampaloc (Tamarindus indica)

A decoction of the leaves is used as treatment for fever and cough. The bark in powder form is used to remedy indigestion and abdominal pain.

• Bayabas (Psidium guajava)

The unripe fruit is used to control diarrhea. A decoction of the unripe fruit is used to wash wounds and ulcers. The leaves are used as poultice for rheumatism.

• Luya (Zingiber officinale Rosc)

The pounded leaves, when heated, are spread on a piece of cloth and applied on bruises. The leaves, in tea form, can relieve pain of muscles and joints.

• Takip-kuhol (Centelia asiatica)

Has antiaging and rejuvenating properties. It is observed to hasten the healing of the wound and has demonstrated anti-ulcer properties. A decoction of the leaves is a good diuretic.

Table 1. Some of the traditional medicinal plants available in the market are known and used as alternative medicine.

Source: Department of Health (DOH), 1994.



A bout 15.9 million hectares, or 53% of the land area of the country, is classified forestland.

Of this, the actual forest cover in 1998 was 5.4 million hectares, or 18% of the land area. Apparently, 124 proclaimed watershed reservations cover 1.4 million hectares. These watersheds supply the major water needs of several irrigation systems, hydroelectric dams and domestic and industrial water systems. Among the most important watersheds are the Pantabangan-Carranglan Watershed Reserve in Luzon (84,500 ha); the Muleta-Manupali Watershed Forest Reserve in the Visayas (61,500 ha); and the Lake Lanao Watershed Reservation in Mindanao (180,460 ha), an aggregate of 326,460 ha (FMB-DENR, 1998). Aside from the proclaimed watershed reservations, millions of hectares of watersheds have become both unproductive and unstable due to various degrees and types of degradation and land abuse. Human activities such as illegal logging; widespread slash-and-burn cultivation; poor management of pasturelands; and the indiscriminate cutting of trees for firewood have accelerated soil erosion, flooding, drought, loss of soil nutrients and conversion of forest areas into grasslands. Silviculture and watershed management Silviculture has been defined as the art of producing and tending a forest. It is also defined as the theory and practice of controlling forest establishment, composition and growth (Smith, 1962). Silviculture aims to create and maintain a type of forest that will best fulfill the objective of the owner. Thus, if the intent is timber production, then only suitable tree species should be planted for such purpose. Watershed management, on the other hand, plays a vital role in economic development and in the enhancement of the environment. Watersheds encompass the uplands (forestland, rangeland and agroforestland). These are vital sources of water, soil, timber, forage, wildlife and even recreational provisions and other goods and services (Jasmin, 1984). Sheng (1968) defined watershed management as the protection,

conservation and development of water resources in the upstream regions. He added that watershed management aims to: maintain or increase water quantity; improve or maintain water quality; regulate the timing of streamflow; reduce flood damage; and minimize erosion and sediment hazards. Problems related to watershed management Watersheds have varying conditions and problems attendant upon management. Here are the most common problems identified to date: • Rampant slash-and-burn cultivation in

the uplands About 56.7% of the Philippine land surface with a slope greater than 18% accelerates erosion, as soil movement increases geometrically with every increase in slope degree. This is particularly evident in areas planted with grains and those with open crops. Studies reveal that planting the hillsides with corn, which is a common crop of the shifting cultivators or kaingineros, hastens erosion. The excessive soil depletion in cultivated slopes could rapidly turn the land into submarginal areas and make reforestation difficult. As a remedy, the agroforestry concept, which is essentially the integration of agricultural crops with forest trees in forestlands, has been introduced. However, the appropriate agroforestry scheme for a given land condition has to be known yet.

• Illegal logging Ungoverned logging creates wide openings in the forest and exposes the soil to erosion. The soil is compacted resulting in low infiltration rates, high surface runoff of flood peaks and gully formation. Often, the efforts of illegal loggers are stronger than those of the government; and so these loggers get their loot. • Excessive grazing Overgrazing of land depletes the vegetative cover that protects the soil. It compacts the soil, reducing the infiltration rate and the waterholding capacity of the soil. This also increases the incidence of surface runoff and erosion during heavy rainfall, and contributes to flash floods and sediment accumulation in streams and reservoirs. Because of high sedimentation and of excessive floodwaters coming from overgrazed rangelands, many pasture lease agreements within watersheds of important dams have been cancelled. With proper range management, grazing can be made compatible with the principles of soil and water conservation. • Forest and grass fires Burning of forests and grazing of lands further erode the soil. Severe burning alters the surface soil and increases its erodibility. It also aggravates flood peaks and low flows since the organic matters which increase soil aggregation and the

Photograph by Antonio Daño

page 7

Silviculture… from page 6 waterholding capacity are eliminated. The area of forestland burned annually represents the greatest portion of the total forests that have been damaged. This problem is greatly influenced by social behavior. • Improper construction and

maintenance of forest roads/highways

Poor construction and improper maintenance of roads/highways have undoubtedly caused high siltation in rivers and reservoirs. Large areas of exposed soil during road construction are subject to heavy rains that wash away tremendous volumes of debris into the streams. This contributes to the downstream sedimentation and flooding. Exposed condition of roadsides and the lack of proper drainage are institutional problems. Proper drainage are institutional problems. Proper road development and strict implementation of laws are needed to make road contractors adopt sound road management measures. Relationship of silviculture and watershed management The relationship between silviculture and watershed management is primordially important. Interception of precipitation by dense, untreated forests can significantly reduce the water yield of an area. On the other hand, excessive drastic treatment may induce erosion or soil compaction, which, in turn, can reduce the capacity of forest soil to store water. Thus, during dry season, water shortage is experienced in major reservoirs. This causes low hydroelectric power generation; reduces crop production in irrigated lands; and considerably affects the industries and immediate communities. Catastrophic floods recur during the rainy season in many floodplains of the country, resulting in tremendous losses in life, infrastructure and agriculture. The damage done by erosion to the forest soil can also cause irreparable reductions in the growing capacity of forestlands. Silviculture is crucial in silvicultural systems and operations because it considers the prevailing socieconomic and biophysical conditions in a particular watershed. The proposed system must be acceptable, attainable, affordable, cost effective and with quick return. These conditions must be met however

impractical or impossible they may seem to be. According to Blanche (1975), any silvicultural system is sound theoretically; but it could be damaging when it is abused. On the other hand, Jaafar (1984) stated that silvicultural and management practices applied to the forests may, in one way or another, affect the watershed properties. One of the traditional but most widely used means of treating watershed to increase streamflow is cutting. This may be in the form of thinning/pruning, or logging. Thinning is essential in achieving most of the objectives of watershed management because it represents the primary means by which forest stands can be controlled and altered during their development. It increases the runoff of forested watersheds mainly by the temporary opening of the crown canopy, reducing the interception of precipitation. More water, henceforth, reaches the soil, and less is lost during direct evaporation. Activities in watershed management Watershed management activities can either be vegetative or structural measure. In vegetative measures, the primary activity is reforestation/afforestation, a principal responsibility of the government. However, forest concessionaires are also required by law to reforest areas they have harvested (Alvarez, 1985). An example of vegetative measure that has been successful is agroforestry. Agroforestry approaches have been promoted, including the modified taungya system, tree farming, family approach, strip planting of trees and agronomic crops, mixed tree gardens and living fences (Generalao, 1983; Peñafiel, 1984 as cited by Veracion, 1983). Structural measures for watreshed rehabilitation, on the other hand, include bench terraces, check dams, gully plugs, riprap channels, reservoirs and gabions (Alvarez, 1985). Most often, these are installed or established on economically-important sites such as roadsides, bridge approaches, farming gullies and those subjected to sloping cultivation. Normally, vegetative and structural activities are installed during the rehabilitation of watersheds. But most often, the vegetative measure is more practical than the structural because it

cost less. In addition, the presence of vegetation in watersheds increases land productivity and protects the soil from erosion. Vegetation also infuences interception, evapotranspiration, infiltration, percolation, streamflow and the like. These processes, in turn, affect the quality, quantity and distribution of water. Selection of species is a key factor in watershed management, particularly in watershed rehabilitation. It should be based on the current knowledge about the species. The species should be: fast-growing; with deep and widespread root system; evergreen; with dense crown and wide leaf area; able to produce high litterfall; able to withstand adverse conditions; easy to establish; resistant to pests and diseases; easy to propagate; nitrogen-fixing; and fire-resistant. The species selected are usually in combinations. That is, different trees, shrubs, grasses, etc. Silvicultural systems in watershed management Silvicultural system is a planned program of silvicultural treatment during the whole life of a stand. It includes not only the reproduction cuttings but also the intermediate cuttings. Some silvicultural operations such as cutting, thinning, selective logging, reforestation, forest protection and rehabilitation are resorted to in watershed areas. Such operations may have varied effects. The silvicultural system to be employed should be based on the species, area, objectives, requirements, among other things. Concluding note Watersheds are, indeed, valuable because they supply water for domestic, agricultural and industrial needs. If properly managed, watersheds can be used to spur development, enhance hydrophysical stability and promote a healthy environment. On the contrary, misuse of watersheds may bring about accelerated surface runoff, soil erosion, river/reservoir siltation, flash flood, drought, loss of soil nutrients and even loss of lives, which will eventually result in greater socioeconomic dislocation and severe environmental catastrophe. With such adverse effects of watershed denudation, it is high time that we did page 11



KASAMA… from page 2 entrapped garbage. With that, the plantation was transferred to another site, except for the 13 ha established in New Buswang. The contractor The original contractor of the project was the municipality of Kalibo under the leadership of the then mayor, Allen Quimpo (who became a congressman in 1993). Later, the project was subcontracted to interested residents at 1-2 ha/household for P4,000/ha and at P110/m for the maintenance. The subcontractors consisting of 30 members from two barangays (Old and New Buswang) were organized by the USWAG Development Foundation to form KASAMA so as to ensure the sustainability of the project. For the first three years, USWAG provided KASAMA with trainings on capability building, community organization and value formation and also a premembership seminar for the cooperative. USWAG also provided loans for the members of KASAMA since payment from the DENR did not regularly come on time. The DENR, on the other hand, provided KASAMA with technical assistance on mangrove rehabilitation. The project became a model of a successful LGU-DENR-NGO partnership in assisting a people’s organization. While most of the contractors would hire laborers with compensation way below the minimum standard rate, the LGU assigned 30 families to a specific area (1.62 ha/farmer) to establish and maintain a plantation. This gave the planters a sense of ownership which is the essence of CBCR/FLMA. The success of the scheme had spurred a strong camaraderie among family members and among the community residents, especially during planting and maintenance, where the whole family would work together from dusk till dawn. The FLMA/CBFMA FLMA is granted for contracted plantations in the uplands, except those in critical watersheds and protected areas. However, this does not hold true for mangrove plantations because of Republic Act (RA) 7161 which bans the cutting of mangroves. This was probably the reason many mangrove plantations were not awarded with FLMA. KASAMA, nevertheless, was very fortunate. Its

FLMA was converted into the Community-Based Forest Management Agreement (CBFMA) which had been a precondition to harvest plantation as per DAO 10 - 1998. The CBFMA is the tenurial instrument under the community-based forest management. This is the DENR’s new paradigm in forest management that shifts focus from the concept of regulation to that of people empowerment. The Galing Pook Award For the exceptional success of the project, both technically and administratively, the LGU-Kalibo was recognized one of the Galing Pook awardees for 1995 (Lujan, 1995). The annual contest sponsored by the Department of Interior and Local Government and the Asian Institute of Management has been a continuing search for excellence in local governance among the LGUs. Ecological impact Aside from wood production, the plantation had apparent environmental impact, and this should be properly documented for better public appreciation. Eventually, this would encourage the establishment of more mangrove plantations in other areas. Here are some of the benefits of the bakauan plantation: • Increase in mudcrab/shrimp catch. There has been an increase in the catch of mudcrabs, shrimps and seashells, including tiger prawns that command high market price. The number of families dependent on mudcrab trappings has considerably increased to 20 with an average catch of half kilo/tracker. • Stabilization and protection of shoreline. The original muddy substrate of the riverbank had been established with firm sand, while the shoreline accumulated accretion from the sea, making the shoreline ideal for picnic and recreation. The 70-ha plantation had also been an effective protection from strong waves and winds, while the natural growth along riverbanks served as good buffer against flash floods. • Dense natural regeneration. As the accretion expanded, so did the mangroves. About 10 ha of the riverbanks has been covered by pagatpat (Sonneratia caseolaris) and bungalon (Avicennia marina). There used to be a 20 m of open space between the

plantation and the riverbanks in January 1999. More than a year later, the open space became densely vegetated, indicating high nutrient content of the site. • Increase in the number of wildlife. When the vegetation had become dense the species of wild ducks and some migrating ducks returned to the area. • Increase in detritus production. Production of detritus increased from 6 to 8 t litterfall production/year/ha (ADB, 1992). The whole plantation (70 ha), plus the newly-established natural stand of 10 ha, must now be producing 560 t of precious detritus at an average of 7 t/ha. Socioeconomic impact The experience on mangrove plantation is a good example of how a government project could have a significant impact on the communities. Such plantation, if properly managed, could generate funds for a people’s organization. With such funds, livelihood projects like piña weaving, cooperative store, lending business, fish trading could be established. • Tenurial instrument. FLMA was granted only to KASAMA members who had viable projects. However, before KASAMA could reap the benefits of FLMA, it had to apply first for a CBFMA, which would allow the members to harvest the mangrove plantation. Like FLMA, CBFMA is good for 25 years; it is renewable for another 25 years thereafter. CBFMA, however, is more advantageous to a people’s organization than the FLMA because the community would receive greater share (75%) than the government would (25%). Under FLMA, DENR gets 30%. In addition, half of the 25% government (DENR) share goes back to the community as trust fund. • Better income for PO. For P5/pole (net) and 4,444 hills/ha at a spacing of 1.5 m x 1.5 m, the PO could gross 22,220/ha. But since there were 3 poles/hill, a hectare grossed P66,666. For 45 ha (the 5-ha nipa plantation has been a steady source of income since 1995), the PO got nearly P3 million. Based on the abovecited sharing scheme, the PO easily netted about P2.2 million, representing 75% of the share. page 10


Medicinal plants… from page 5 engaged in technology transfer for livelihood projects in the countryside, particularly on the preparation of herbal decoction, syrup and ointment for primary health care. Furthermore, it has undertaken promotional and advocacy activities through the trimedia and the local government units. Information, education and communication materials have been developed and the local people have been participating in exhibits/seminars/conventions/conferences, both national and international. To ensure a sustainable supply of medicinal plants, the Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau is implementing an R & D entitled, “Pilot project on the integration of medicinal

plants as agroforestry crops in selected upland areas of the Philippines”. Its main objective is to propagate forest species as potential source of herbal products. This can contribute to poverty alleviation by growing medicinal crops as an alternative livelihood, particularly among upland farmers and indigenous groups. The project also aims to increase awareness and recognition of the value of medicinal plants, leading towards better efforts for the conservation of forests and biodiversity. ERDB conducted a marketing study on the herbal products available in the local drugstores. The information was gathered from 33 drugstores/pharmacies in urban towns in Southern Tagalog region, Philippines. Results revealed that herbal products had lower prices and were more affordable as compared with other commercial medicines.

Problems and issues Medicinal plant and product industry in the Philippines is not as advanced as in other countries. One reason for this is the lack of highly trained scientists and researchers, resulting in slow production. Also, the country lacks the necessary phytochemical facilities and laboratory instruments to test indigenous sources of drugs. This inadequacy slows down experimental efforts and makes the country a vulnerable target of foreign pharmaceutical companies. However, despite the absence of superior technology to manufacture local medicinal plants, the technologies generated by NIRPROMP have proved that indigenous knowledge can be used to make safe, effective and affordable page 11

Earthwatch

Praxedes L. Silvoza

T oday, nations would be scrambling for a commodity more precious than the crude oil -

“water”. The Asian Development Bank warns that as the population continues to surge in most parts of the world, the threat of “water wars” between countries vying for the dwindling freshwater supplies would become a reality. The demand for freshwater increased sixfold between 1990 and 1995, twice the rate of population growth.

***** Of the world’s reefs, 58% is threatened by human activities; of the coral reefs in Southeast Asia, 80% is at a higher risk.

***** Fish and othre forms of aquatic life are highly dependent upon the environment where they thrive: changes in the environment can devastate the aquatic life therein. Whether in the freshwater or in the sea, fish is at the receiving end of all kinds of human activity.

***** Overuse and abuse of nitrogen fertilizer will contaminate surface water and will leach into the groudwater, causing grave environmental problems. This

encourages the growth of toxin- and taint-producing algae in freshwater, and algal blooms in marine waters.

***** High concentrations of nitrate in drinking water have serious health consequences (most of which are strongly linked to gastric cancer) to humans and farm animals.

***** With regard to biodiversity, it was reported that Africa has some of the most species-rich areas in the world, ranging from the Guinean forest to the Western Indian Ocean islands to South Africa and to Namibia.

***** Namibia in Africa is the world’s richest desert, where 40% of its more than 4,800 plant species is unique and found nowhere else in the world.

***** In Africa, 126 animal species are recorded to have been extinct, while 2,018 are threatened. On the other hand, more than 120 plant species have been considered extinct, while 1,717 species are threatened.

It was reported that Asia emits more sulfur dioxide than North America and Europe combined.

***** The Food and Agriculture Organization global figures on forest cover reported that in 1995, there were 3.5 billion hectares of forests remaining, including natural forests and forest plantations. About 55% of the world’s forests was located in developing countries; only about 3% was forest plantations.

***** Rivers drain millions of square kilometers of rain forests and contain hundreds of fish species. Deforestation, which causes rivers to be polluted with sediments, is killing these fishes.

***** Asia’s rivers are responsible for over 60% of the sediment flows damaging the world’s oceans and destroying such ecosystem.

***** Today, fishing is the largest extractive use of wildlife in the world. In 2000, worldwide production of fish, crustaceans and molluscs reached 129.3 million tons. More than 75% of that amount was used for direct human consumption.

The compiler is Librarian II of the ERDB.


KASAMA… from page 8 Moreover, P374,999 (or half of the 25%) went to the community trust fund. The PO was also expected to earn at least P666,600 from the additional 20 ha. This means a windfall of over P3 million. The CBFM scheme had been an effective approach in solving poverty in coastal communities. Ecotourism With the luxuriant growth of the plantation and the exceptional strategies of the LGU in tapping the NGO and the residents in planting bakauan, many groups have visited the area, especially after the LGU won the Galing Pook Award in 1995. The plantation offers a great opportunity for an ecological destination, since Kalibo has been widely known for its Ati-Atihan Festival. A new challenge for the LGU, however, is the promotion of the bakauan plantation and the culturing of mudcrabs. Mangrove-friendly aquaculture (MFA) Aside from the plantation, KASAMA was also engaged in a mangrove-friendly aquaculture in cooperation with the Aquaculture Department of the SEAFDEC. The MFA Project was a research trial on shrimp, mudcrab, grouper and mixture of the species under a two-year-old bakauan plantation. The initial result was promising. The project has been frequently visited by developers, policymakers and international aquaculturists for possible replication in their respective areas. The MFA is expected to boost shrimp/mudcrab production without necessarily destroying the mangroves. Relevant issues Despite the success of KASAMA, some

important issues had to be resolved to better the project Social issues • Conflicts of claims. Some adjacent lot owners have claimed a portion of the FLMA area because they believe that they had prior claim to the accretion. This issue has to be resolved by the DENR soon before it goes out of hand. • Skills upgrading and training. There has been a need to enhance the entrepreneurship capability of the organization as it is expected to handle bigger business in the near future. Topics on establishing a consumers’ store, credit financing, deep-sea fishing and mudcrab/shrimp culture would be beneficial to the organization. • Indiffreence among some residents. Apparently, some residents were indifferent towards the project and the KASAMA members. Several untoward incidents were reported, like the burning of a multipurpose building and the hurling of stones to KASAMA members and the DENR staff during ADB mission visits. The LGU should settle the issue soonest. • Immediate harvesting/thinning of plantation. This would hasten the return of investment and the community would have better financial security. Technical issue • Silvicultural practices. The plantation is overcrowded and hardly growing. An immediate thinning and pruning would lessen the intense competition for sunlight and nutrient. At a spacing of 1.5 m x 1.5 m, bakauan-babae could reach the closed canopy stage at year four, after which considerable competition would set in, substantially decreasing the annual growth rate. The stand is nine

years old, and the competition has intensified. The problem is further aggravated by trees (80%) with multiple stems. Recommendations The DENR should hasten the issuance of the CBFMA so that thinning/harvesting could be done immediately, and optimized growth could be achieved. The DENR/NRDC should also assist the PO in marketing the bakauan harvests. Experts should study the effects of stand density on mudcrab culture. Studies on thinning and on mudcrab culture could simultaneously be conducted to determine the optimum stand density for optimum mudcrab production. For complete data on the increase of the number of marine life in the mangroves, fish and mudcrab/shrimp catch should be monitored periodically. References Asian Development Bank. 1992. Mangrove forest: A

valuable but threatened Indo-Pacific resources. Agriculture Department Staff Paper No. 5.

Lujan, N. C. 1995. Aklan mangrove reforestation

project: A big success story. The Philippine Daily Inquirer. January 4.

The first author is Mangrove Specialist of the Coastal Resource Management Project, Cebu City; the second is Coastal Environment Coordinator of the Community Environment and Natural Resources Office, Kalibo, Aklan.

If I were a Brazilian without land or money of the means to feed my children, I would be burning the rain forest too.

Sting (Gordon Sumner) International Herald Tribune, 14 April 1989

Planting stocks… from page 3 production of clones of uniform characteristics, as morphologically shown by the selected individuals. The asexual method of reproduction is also necessary to easily conserve gene resources with elite characters. Concluding note Tree improvement research is supportive to the restoration of endangered species, germplasm conservation and the growth of biotechnology in the field of forestry.

The reintroduction of valuable species should be adopted to improve the native strains and, at the same time, broaden their genetic base. Along with the sustainable forest management of the DENR, the regreening, revegetation and establishment of forest plantations of the government, such as the Integrated Forest Management Agreement, Socialized Forest Management Agreement, Community-Based Forest Management and the like would be redirected to adopt the use of superior

quality seeds and to realize the benefit of the long-term goal of sufficiently meeting the future demand of wood in the country.

The first and third authors are Supervising Science Research Specialist and Science Research Specialist II, respectively, of the Grassland and Degraded Areas Ecosystems Research Division, ERDB and the second is Regional Technical Director for Research.


Medicinal plants… from page 9 medicines. On the other hand, there remains a limited supply of raw materials for the long-term production of medicinal products, as mentioned during a recent consultative meeting conducted by ERDB with the Philippine Chamber of Herbal Industry, Inc. Current interventions To fast track the development of medicinal products in the Philippines, the following interventions have been initiated/identified: • Continuous promotion and advocacy

on the use of traditional and alternative health care products, services and technology through the conduct of a massive information campaign on the clinical uses of

medicinal plants and herbal products; • Public awareness campaigns through

advertisements, seminars and state-of-the-art information materials on buying herbal products;

• Ensuring the availability of herbal products as alternatives to other drugs, or synthetic medicines;

• Advocacy for medical doctors to recommend and prescribe herbal medicines to their patients or clients, as complement or substitute to modern medicines;

• Production/manufacture of quality herbal medicines as certified by the Bureau of Food and Drugs;

• Continuous research and development on the efficacy and efficiency of herbal medicines;

• Upgrading of pharmaceutical plant facilities and equipment to conform

with the state-of-the-art in science and technology;

• Institute standardization for R & D through the preparation of official technical monographs on specific medicinal plants; and

• Formulation of strict regulations/guidelines on the registration and setting up of health standards for all herbal medicines.

References Department of Health. 1994. Technology status and

need assessment for herbal medicines. An executive summary. DOH, Manila.

The first author is Director of the ERDB and the second is Science Research Specialist II of the Forest Ecosystem Research Division, ERDB.

Sclerotium… from page 4 fungus. However, the mechanisms by which control is achieved following the application of Trichoderma spp., organic amendments and fertilizers are still not well-understood. Information gained in this area would help resolve discrepancies among results obtained by different reseachers in their control efforts. References De Guzman, E. D. and E. C. Eusebio. 1975. Root

rots of Swietenia macrophylla King seedlings. Pterocarpus 1:64-65.

Silviculture… from page 7 undertake appropriate and workable measures to protect the watersheds. Silviculture is apparently an important tool that can be utilized in the management of the remaining watershed in the country. References Alvarez, J. B. 1985. Watershed management

policies and conservation practices: The Philippines. Proceedings of the symposium on watershed management and conservation for production and protective uplands in the Asean Region. College, Laguna. pp. 43-48.

Blanche, C. A. 1975. The Philippine selective

logging from the standpoint of forest biology. Seminar paper presented August 25 in College, Laguna.

Forest Management Bureau-DENR. 1998.

Philippine forestry statistics. 233 pp.

Kobayashi, T. 1986. Manual for forest tree diseases

and their control measures in the Philippines. RP-Japan Forestry Development Project of the Pantabangan Area. 54 pp.

Lapis, E. B. 1995. Pests and diseases of forest

plantation trees in the Philippines: A guidebook. PCARRD-DOST-NFDO-CFPMR-DENR, Los Baños, Laguna. 166 pp.

Mejia, A. S. 1953. Sclerotium wilt of supa (Sindora

supa). Philippine Journal of Forestry 9:119-131.

Punja, Z. K. 1985. The biology, ecology and control

of Sclerotium rolfsii. Annual Review of Phytopathology. 23:97-127.

Quiñones, S. S. and R. A. Zamora. 1987. Forest

pests and diseases in Southeast Asia. BIOTROP Special Publication No. 26. pp. 43-65.

Roldan, E. F. 1941. Nursery wilt of mahogany

seedlings. Philippine Journal of Forestry 4(3):263-277.

Willets, H. J. 1972. The morphogenesis and possible

evolutionary origins of fungal sclerotia. Biology Review 47:515-536.

Generalao, M. L. 1983. The agroforestry research of

the Forest Research Institute. Proceedings of the agroforestry symposiom-workshop, PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines.

Jaafar, N. B. 1984. Watershed management as a

part of the ovreall forestry practice in Peninsula Malaysia: An overview. In Proc. workshop on standardization of guidelines for watershed management approaches and researches in the Asean Region. Asean-US Watershed Project, Chiang-Mai, Thailand. November 21-30.

Jasmin, B. B. 1984. Watershed management

problems, research status and priorities and instrumentation needs in the Philippines. Proceedings of the symposium on watershed management and conservation for the productive and protective uplands in the Asean Region, College, Laguna.

Sheng, T. C. 1968. Some watershed management

problems and approaches in Taiwan and Jamaica. Paper presented at the seminar on the development and use of Jamaica’s

water resources. Oracabessa, Jamaica.

September 13-15. Smith, D. M. 1962. The practice of silviculture. John

Wiley and Sons, Inc. 578 pp. Veracion, V. P. 1983. Hydro-meteorology of a

Benguet pine (Pinus kesiya) watershed with different stocking levels. Sylvatrop, Philippine Forestry Research Journal 8 (2, 3 & 4):79-97.

The author is Science Research Specialist II of the Forest Ecosystem Research Division, ERDB.

The author is Science Research Specialist II of the Forest Ecosystem Research Division, ERDB.

Mankind has probably done more damage to the earth in the 20th century than in all of previous human history.

Jacques Cousteau, 1910-1997


If you steal from one author, it’s plagiarism; if you steal from many, it’s research.

Wilson Mizner (1876-1933)

from Alva Johnston’s The Legendary Mizners (1953)

EDITORIAL BOARD

Celso P. Diaz

Executive Adviser

Bibiano P. Ranes Executive Editor

EDITORIAL STAFF

Gloria R. Diokno

Editor

Carlo B. Castillo Associate Editor

Liberato A. Bacod

Colorist

BUSINESS STAFF

Flora B. Palicpic Circulation Manager

Eduardo M. Tolentino Circulation Assistant

Canopy International is published bi-monthly by the Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau (ERDB) of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Republic of the Philippines. Canopy International seeks to promote the global communication and exchange of information on issues and developments affecting the equitable utilization of natural resources and sustainable management of the environment. Canopy International accepts contributions for publication but reserves the right to edit such contributions. Only unsolicited manuscripts accompanied by self-stamped and self-addressed envelope will be returned. Contributions must be accompanied with a brief curriculum vitae of the author(s). No contents of this publication may be reproduced, in part or in whole, without prior permission from the publisher, except for purposes of review and citation, provided a copy of such review or citation is sent to the publisher. Views expressed herein are of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect those of the publisher or editors. Canopy International was entered as second-class mail in College, Laguna, PHILIPPINES on 23 June 1975.

Mangroves: Source of food and medicine Alicia L. Lustica and Cecilia J. Jaspe

M angroves are a salt-tolerant forest ecosystem found in tropical and subtropical

regions of the world. Mangroves and tidal forests are relatively widespread all over the Philippines. They are the most protective systems in the intertidal accretive shore and constitute one of the most common types of ecosystems.

The potential of mangroves as a source of food and medicine remains untapped. The people living in coastal communities have rich traditional knowledge and extensive practice of using mangroves as part of their diet and for healing certain illnesses. Such knowledge and practice can be scientifically validated by experts, leading to further scientific investigation and discovery. Results could have a positive impact on recent efforts of finding alternative sources of food/feed and medicine from locally available plant sources.

The authors are Chief Science Research Specialist of the Ecosystems Research and Development Division and Science Research Specialist I of the Coastal Environment Program, respectively, of the DENR-Region VI.

Box 1. Some mangrove species used as food and medicine. • Lagolo (Acrostichum aureum) - The fruit can be eaten without cooking. Pounded

rhizomes are applied on wounds and boils. • Api-api (Avecennia alba and A. officinalis) - The young leaves can be eaten if cooked.

The bark can cure hemorrhage. The ointment from the seeds can prevent ulcers and measles.

• Bungalon (Avecennia marina) - The roots can be cooked for food. The leaves can be used for abscess of the skin.

• Tabigi (Xylocarpus granatum) - The fruit and leaves can ease constipation. • Buta-buta (Excoecaria agallocha) - The extract can cure ulcer and toothache.

(Caution: The sap can cause blindness if it gets into the eye.) The stems prevent the occurrence of pinworm and ascaris.

• Tigbau (Acanthus abracteatus) - The extract can promote hair growth to prevent baldness.

• Diliuario (Acanthus ilicifolius) - All parts can be used as analgesic: relieves swelling and controls leukemia. The fruit and roots are used for snakebites, hepatitis B and impotence. The water extract from the bark eases colds and cures skin allergies. The leaves can be used for rheumatism. The fruit (chopped) are boiled and used for cleansing contusions and snakebites (while the decoction can also be taken in).

• Pototan (Bruguiera sexangula) - The shoots and fruit are eaten as vegetables. The leaves can cure tumor.

• Tangal (Ceriops tagal) - The flowers are a good tea substitute. The bark can prevent hemorrhage and can be used as food preservative, astringent, substitute for quinine in producing antimalarial drug and a cure for hemorrhage.

• Bakauan-babae (Rhizopora mucronata) - The fruit is peeled and eaten; the lugs of the stem are made into wine. The bark, roots and fruit are good mosquito repellant, cure for leprosy, elephantiasis, asthma, fever, convulsion and sore throat. The leaves are a good tea substitute and can cure rheumatism.

• Bakauan-lalake (Rhizopora apiculata) - The bark is used by the vinegar industry as coloring. It is antidiarrheal and also used as astringent.

Ecological Solid Waste Management Act

Documents