Echoes of Freedom: The Saint Domingue Revolution and its Effect on the African American Community in Philadelphia. Sherri Cummings Mellon Scholars Intern Library Company of Philadelphia June 2014
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Echoes of Freedom:
The Saint Domingue Revolution and its Effect on the
African American Community in Philadelphia.
Sherri CummingsMellon Scholars Intern
Library Company of PhiladelphiaJune 2014
Cummings 2
AngryflamesengulfedCapFrançais,theformercapitalofFrance’scolonialcrown,as
red-hottensionsreachedincendiaryheightsonJune20,1793.Royalistswhosewealthdepended
uponthelaborofenslavedAfricansandtheirdescendantsfoughtagainstrepublicanswhowere
determinedtoupholdtheenlightenedideologyoutlinedinthe“DeclarationoftheRightsofMan”
thatwaspassedbytheNationalAssemblyinParisonAugust26,1789.1Thegens de couleur,
freeBlackandmixedracemen,manyfatheredbywealthyFrenchplanters,battledforthesame
libertiesaswhiteFrenchmenwhiletheenslavedfoughteveryone;resistingtheinstitutionthat
subjectedthemtoalifeofbondage.ThewesternportionoftheislandofHispaniolawasvolatile
andviolent.2Fearingfortheirlives,whiteplanters,merchantsandartisansracedtoshipsin
theburningcity’sharborthatwouldcarrythemawayfromthehorrorsofSaintDomingue.
Amonthlater,avesselcarryingsevenhundredandfiftywhiteSt.Dominguanrefugees,and
theirslaves,dockedinPhiladelphia—thecityofbrotherlylove.Theirarrivalreceiveda
mixedreceptionthatstirredconflictbetweenpoliticalfactionsoftheyoungAmericannation
andcausedsocialdividestoescalatebetweenPhiladelphia’sBlackandwhitecitizenry.
Duringthelatterpartoftheeighteenthcentury,Philadelphiahadoneofthelargest
growingcommunitiesoffreeBlacksintheNorth,manywhowererecentlymanumitteddue
1 JeremyPopkin,A Short History of the French Revolution(UpperSaddleRiver:PrenticeHall:2000)36-392 TheislandofHispaniolawas“discovered”byChristopherColumbusin1492.Thefollowingyear,Spanishcolonizationoftheislandbeganwiththearrivalofsome2000menfromSpain.Bytheearly1500s,theSpanishbegantoimportAfricansfortheirlaborafterindigenouspopulationsweredecimatedbydiseaseandviolence.SpanishinterestintheislandbegantowanewiththediscoveryofsilverinMexicoandSouthAmerica.Hence,Hispaniolabecamealayoverforpiratesandmerchantsduringthelate1550s.ThisallowedforotherEuropeangroups,specificallytheFrench,toestablishsettlementsonthenorthernandwesterncoastsoftheislandandin1665,KingLouisXIVofficiallyrecognizedtheFrenchcolonyontheislandandnameditSaintDomingue.BecauseofconflictsbetweenEuropeannations,SpainofficiallycededthewesternthirdoftheislandtoFrancein1697asoutlinedintheTreatyofRyswick.AfterwardsSaintDominguebecameknownasthe“PearloftheAntilles”prosperingofftheharvestingofsugarcanethatutilizedforcedAfricanlabortoincreaseprofits.AsenlightenmentideologysweptthroughFranceignitingthefiresoftheFrenchrevolutionin1789,thequestionsoflibertyandequalitybegantoreverberatethroughoutSaintDomingue.Thecolonybecameabattlegroundofracialandsocialconflictthateruptedinrevolutionin1791.See:DouglasR.Egerton,AllisonGames,The Atlantic World: A History, 1400-1888,(Wheeling:HarlanDavidson,2007),77-213andCarolynE.Fick,The Making of Haiti: The Saint Domingue Revolution from Below.Knoxville:UniversityofTennesseePress,1990.
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toPennsylvania’sGradualAbolitionActpassedin1780.3Championingabolitionandself-
determination,theyeagerlyawaitednewsabouttheBlackresistanceintheFrenchCaribbean
colony.TheeventsoftheSaintDominguerevolution,from1791to1804,aswellasother
globaloccurrencessuchastheabolishmentoftheBritishslavetradein1808,positionedBlack
Philadelphiansinatransnationalcontextastheyactivelyrespondedtoeventsoccurringinthe
Atlanticworld.ThispaperseekstoexaminetheagencyofAfricanAmericansinPhiladelphia—
theirselfdeterminationandtheresistancestruggles,thatwereinfluencedbytheSaintDomingue
RevolutionandothernationalandglobaleventsduetoPhiladelphia’suniquepositionasthe
capitalofthenewAmericanrepublicandanintegralpartoftheAtlanticcolonialeconomy.
AsconflictsescalatedinSaintDominguein1793,AbsalomJonesandRichard
Allen,twoofPhiladelphia’smostprominentBlackMethodistleaders,lookedforward
tothegroundbreakingofthefirstAfricanChurchofPhiladelphia.Fortwoyears
throughtheFreeAfricanSociety,theyworkeddiligentlytogatherdonationsfromthe
Blackcommunityandwhitesupporters.4Dr.BenjaminRush,afoundingfatherof
theUnitedStates,signeroftheDeclarationofIndependenceanddevoutabolitionist,
assistedinhelpingsecurefinancialpledgesfromPhiladelphia’swhiteelite.However,the
suddenarrivalofthewhiterefugeesfromSaintDominguecausedaripinthedelicate
fabricofsocialrelationsbetweenBlackandwhitePhiladelphians,dueinparttofear
andthebeliefheldbymanywhitesthatBlackswereunpreparedforfreedom.5
AmonthafterfleeingSt.Domingue,ashipcarryingapproximatelysevenhundred
3 EricaArmstrongDunbar,A Fragile Freedom: African American Women and Emancipation in the Antebellum City,(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2008),44 AbsalomJonesandRichardAllenfoundedtheFreeAfricanSocietyin1787.ItspurposewastoprovidemutualaidtorecentlyfreedBlackssothattheycouldcometogetherasacommunityandnurturestrongleaders. See:HistoricalSocietyofPennsylvania,TheFreeAfricanSociety,https://hsp.org/history-online/exhibits/richard-allen-apostle-of-freedom/the-free-african-society.5 EricaArmstrongDunbar,A Fragile Freedom,28
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andfiftybattle-wearyandterrifiedwhiteFrenchSaintDominguans,andtheirslaves,
arrivedinPhiladelphia’sharbor.Empathizingwiththeplightofthewhitefugitives,many
wealthywhitePhiladelphiansrushedtotheiraid,renegingonthesupporttheypreviously
pledgedforthebuildingoftheAfricanChurchofPhiladelphia.Financialassistanceforthe
Frenchrefugeesalsopouredinfrombenefitperformancesandphilanthropists’solicitations.
AccordingtohistorianGaryNash,ittookBlackPhiladelphianstwoyearstoraise$3500
forthebuildingofachurch.6OnecanimaginethedisappointmenttheBlackcommunity
feltafterwatchingwhitePhiladelphiansraiseasmuchas$12,000injustafewdaysforthe
whiteSaintDominguanrefugees.Atthesametime,theUnitedStatesgovernmentprovided
instantaneousaidtothedisplacedwhiteémigrés.SecretaryofStateThomasJeffersonpleaded
withstatelegislatorstoassignagenerousamountoffundsfortheiruseandonDecember
2,1793,theThirdCongressoftheUnitedStatespassedanactprovidingfortherelieffor
theFrenchCaribbeanplanters,artisansandmerchants.Theactallowedfortheimmediate
releaseof$15,000fromtheUSTreasurytoaidtheSaintDominguanémigrésandserved
asafriendlypoliticalgestureofsupportbetweenFranceandtheUnitedStates.7Itbecame
apparenttomanyintheAfricanAmericancommunitythattheplightofwhites,eventhose
whowereforeignandactivelysupportedtheenslavementofpeopleofcolor,tookprecedent
overthepositiveambitionsofthosewhowereformerlyinbondageintheUnitedStates.
InAugust,amonthafterthearrivaloftherefugeesfromCapFrançais,yellowfever
sweptthroughPhiladelphiaandclaimedthelivesofanestimatedfivethousand
people.8WhitePhiladelphiansblamedthesweepingillnessonthenewlyarrived
6 GaryNash,Forging Freedom: The Formation of Philadelphia’s Black Community, 1720-1840. (Cambridge,HarvardUniversityPress,1988),121-1227 “ActProvidingfortheReliefofSuchoftheInhabitantsofSaintDomingoResidentwithintheUnitedStates.”December2,1793.ThirdCongressoftheUnitedStates,FirstSession.Philadelphia.LibraryCompany ofPhiladelphia.8 J.M.Powell,Bring Out Your Dead: The Great Plague of Yellow Fever In Philadelphia in 1793.
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FrenchfromtheCaribbean,notunderstandingthatthefeverwascausedbythebiteof
amosquito.NativePhiladelphianandQuaker,ElizabethSandwithDrinkerrecorded
herobservationsoftheepidemicinherdiaryandonAugust23,1793noted,
Afeverprevailsinthecity,particularlyinWaterSt.betweenRaceandArchSts.ofyemalignantkind;numbershavediedofit.Somesayitwasoccasionedbydamagedcoffeeandfish,whichwasstoredatWm.Smiths,otherssayitwasimportedinavesselfromCapeFrancois,whichlayatourwharforatyewharfbackofourstore...‘Tisanalarmingandserioustime.9
WealthywhitePhiladelphians,includingPresidentGeorgeWashingtonwhoresidedinthecity,
soughtrefugeinthePennsylvaniacountrysidewhilemanypoorwhites,withnoplacetogo,
fellvictimtothefeverishscourge.DespitewarningsfromtheCollegeofPhysicians,cautioning
peopleaboutinteractionwiththosewhowereinfected,Dr.BenjaminRushandMathew
Carey,alocalpublisher,pleadedwiththeAfricanAmericancommunityforassistancewith
thesickanddying.Dr.Rush,andotherphysicians,believedBlackswereimmunetoyellow
feverbasingtheirtheoriesontheobservancesofDr.JohnLining,aSouthCarolinaphysician
whoobserved,duringayellowfeveroutbreakinCharlestonin1748,thatsomeAfricans
appearedtohaveimmunitytotheillness.10However,oneofthefactorsthatRushandCarey
didnottakeintoaccountwasthegeographicalproximityoftheAfricanAmericancommunity
totheepicenteroftheepidemic.BecausemanyBlackPhiladelphianslivedontheoutskirts
ofthecityawayfromtheharbor(andstagnantwaterthatwasabreedinggroundforthe
(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1993)Introduction9 Extracts from the Journal of Elizabeth Drinker, From 1759-1807,ed.byHenryD.Biddle.(Philadelphia:J.B.LippincottCompany,1889),18910 In1748,Dr.JohnLiningofSouthCarolinaobservedtheyellowfeverillnessthathitCharlestonjustastheweatherturnedwarm.InhislettertoDr.RobertWhyttattheUniversityofEdinburgh,Liningwrote,“ThereissomethingverysingularintheconstitutionofNegroeswhichrendersthemnotliabletothisfever;forthoughmanyoftheseweremuchexposedasthenursesoftheinfection,YetIneverknewoneinstanceofthisfeveramongthem.”In1750,Dr.JohnKearsleyalsowroteabouttheoutbreakofyellowfeverinPhiladelphiain1750.See:DoctorJohnLining,ADescriptionoftheYellowFeverwhichPrevailedatCharleston,inSouthCarolina,intheYear1748,(Philadelphia:1799),7.DanielJ.Boorstin,The Americans: The Colonial Experience,(NewYork:RandomHouse,1958),238.GaryNash,Forging Freedom,104-105.
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lethalmosquitoes),theywerenotgreatlyaffectedbythedeadlydisease.Nevertheless,church
elders,AbsalomJonesandRichardAllen,believedtheassistanceofBlackPhiladelphians
duringthecity’shealthcrisiswouldprovetheirworth,intheeyesofthewhitecommunity.11
AfricanAmericansworkedasnurses,attendedtothedeadandduggraves…andapproximately
twohundreddisprovedDr.Rush’stheoryofimmunitywiththelossoftheirlives.
Ashorttimelater,MathewCareypublishedthepamphlet,A Short Account of the
Malignant Fever which Prevailed in Philadelphia in 1793,chroniclingtheyellowfever
epidemicinthecity.Withoutgivingspecifics,CareyaccusedAfricanAmericansofextorting
thesickandpillagingthehomesofwhitesduringthecrisis.AccordingtoCarey:
“Thegreatdemandfornursesaffordedanopportunityforimposition,whicheagerlyseizedbysomeofthevilestBlacks.Theyextortedtwo,three,fourandevenfivedollarsanightforattendance,whichwouldhavebeenpaidbyasingledollar.Somewereevendetectedinplunderingthehomesofthesick.”12
Jones,AllenandtheBlackcommunitywereoutraged.Theytookprideintheirrespectability
andgoodintentionsthroughouttheepidemicandhopedtheirassistanceduringPhiladelphia’s
healthcrisiswouldprovetheirworth,towhites,asrespectablecitizens.However,Carey’s
widelycirculatedandpopularpamphletdidjusttheopposite,paintingBlacksinthecityas
thieving,anduntrustworthypreyinguponthesickandthusincreasingwhitefearandprejudice.
TorefuteCarey’sdamagingaccusations,theinfuriatedreligiousleadersmadeapivotal
decision.Usingprintmedia,JonesandAllenpublished1794 Protest: A Narrative of the
Proceedings of the Black People During the Late Awful Calamity in Philadelphia in the year
1793 and a Refutation of Some Censures, Thrown Upon Them in Some Late Publications.
11 RichardS.Newman,Freedoms Prophet: Bishop Richard Allen, the AME Church and the Black Founding Fathers.(NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress,2008),8812 MathewCarey,A Short Account of the Malignant Fever which Prevailed in Philadelphia in the Year 1793.(Philadelphia,1793),81
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HistorianRichNewman,inhisbookaboutthelifeofBishopRichardAllen,highlightsthe
enragedtonerunningthroughthepamphlet.13JonesandAllenfelttheneedtoaddressCarey’s
remarksbecausethe“injusticetotheircolor”demandedit.14Furthermore,bypublishingthe
pamphlet,inadditiontousingthepulpit,JonesandAllenclaimedamodern,respectable,non-
violentspacetoconferissuesthatwererelevanttotheAfricanAmericancommunity.Their
actionsdemonstratedtheyweremorethancapableofdebatingimportantsocialandcivic
concernsinademocraticfashionthatdisplayedtheirliteraryprowesswhilealsodefyingthe
negativestereotypeofbeinguneducated,whichwascommonlyassignedtopeopleofcolor.
Despiteencouragingeducation,religion,abolitionandsocialandcivicengagement,
strivingtofinda‘respectablespace’withinthecityofPhiladelphiaprovedtobeadaunting
taskforfreeandrecentlymanumittedBlacksattheendoftheeighteenthcentury.However,
resoluteintheirbeliefoffreedom,equalityandcitizenshipforpeopleofcolor,andinspired
bythefightforliberationandself-determinationofBlackSaintDominguansintheCaribbean,
manyintheAfricanAmericancommunitytookupthecauseforabolitionfortheirBlack
Frenchbrothersandsistersinthecapitaloftheyoungrepublic.WhenwhiteFrenchSaint
DominguanssoughtrefugeinPhiladelphia,theybroughtwiththemsomeeighthundredslaves.
Accordingtopassengerlists,theBlackSaintDominguanswhotraveledwiththeirwhite
Frenchmastersweremostlychildren,youngadultsandwomen;fragmentsofslavefamilies.
HistoriansGaryNash,SusanBransonandLesliePatricksuggestthattheseslaveswere
domesticswhohadadegreeofloyaltytotheirowners.Althoughthisseemslikely,itisnot
knowniftheenslavedBlackSaintDominguanscametoPhiladelphiaoftheirownfreewill.15
13 RichardS.Newman,Freedoms Prophet: Bishop Richard Allen, the AME Church and the Black Founding Fathers.(NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress,2008),9514 Ibid.15 See:GaryNash,“ReverberationsofHaitiintheAmericanNorth:BlackSaintDominguansinPhiladelphia.”Pennsylvania History.Vol.65,ExplorationsinEarlyAmericanCulture,1998.44-73andSusanBransonandLesliePatrick,“ÉtrangersdansunPaysÉtrange:Saint-DominganRefugeesofColorinPhiladelphia,”
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Nevertheless,theabolitionistcausesofthesonsanddaughtersofAfricainthe
northernUnitedStateswerenotsingularorlocalized.Activelyrespondingtotheevents
oftheSaintDomingueRevolutionplacedtheBlackcommunityinPhiladelphiainaglobal
perspective.Additionally,whentheFrenchslavesfirstencounteredPhiladelphia’sAfrican
Americancommunity,theyenteredintoaspacewherepeopleofcolorstrivedforliteracy
andeducationwithsocialmoressteepedinaMethodisttradition.Manyformerlyenslaved
BlackmenandwomeninthecityhadworkedforGerman,Dutch,SpanishandFrenchslave
ownersandthereforewerebilingualormultilingual.Languagemayhavebeenabarrier
forsomeofthechildreninbondagetotheFrenchémigrésbecausetheywerestilltrying
toadjusttoalifeofservitudehavingrecentlyarrivedfromtheWestAfricancoast.16
Astheyellowfevercrisesbegantowaneinthefallof1793,BlackSaintDominguans
andBlackPhiladelphiansworkedtogethertodraftalettertotheNationalConventionin
Paris.Theletter,Les Citoyens de Couleur de Philadelphie a l’Assemble Nationalpraised
Sothonax’sdecreeofAugust29,1793forabolishingslaveryinthenorthernprovince
oftheformerFrenchcolony,theregionfromwhichmanyBlackSaintDominguansin
Philadelphiahailed.17However,theirjoywasshortlivedbecausemanyofthewhiteFrench
émigrésrefusedtoabidebythelawsoftheirformerhomelandandmothercountry.
SincethearrivalofenslavedBlacks,fromSaintDomingue,inPhiladelphia,their
whiteFrenchmasterscontinuouslycircumventedthelawsthatgrantedthemfreedom.
ThePennsylvaniaGradualAbolitionAct,passedonMarch1,1780,wasthefirstpieceof
in The Impact of the Haitian Revolution in the Atlantic World.(Columbia:UniversityofSouthCarolinaPress,2001)193-20816 GaryNash,”ReverberationsofHaiti,”53.17 Ibid,.65.FormoreonLégerSonthonaxandhisroleintheSaintDomingueRevolutionsee:DavidBarryGasparandDavidPatrickGeggus,ed.A Turbulent Time: The French Revolution and the Greater Caribbean. (BloomingtonandIndiana:IndianaUniversityPress,1997)andCarolineE.Fick,The Making of Haiti: The Saint Domingue Revolution from Below.(Knoxville,UniversityofTennesseePress)1990.
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legislationapprovedinanorthernstatetoaddresstheabolitionofslavery.Theactceased
theimportationofslavesintoPennsylvaniaandrequiredslaveholderstoannuallyregister
theirslaveswiththeircounty.Unregisteredslaveswereautomaticallymanumitted.18Section
tenofthePennsylvaniaGradualAbolitionAct,guaranteedthefreedomofanyslave,
broughtintothestatebyanownerestablishingresidencywithinsixmonthsfromthedate
ofarrival.However,thereweremanyloopholesintheactthatallowedtheFrenchwhite
slaveownerstoskirtthelawandcontinuethemalicioussystemtheirlivelihooddepended
upon.19BecauseoftheassistanceoftheAfricanAmericancommunity,SaintDominguan
slaveswerewellawareofPennsylvania’ssix-monthstipulationwithinthegradualabolition
lawandactivelysoughttheaidofthePennsylvaniaAbolitionistSociety(PAS).20
WhenrecentlyfreedmenandwomenarrivedinPhiladelphia,thePAScopiedtheir
preciousfreedompapersinordertoprotectthem,andtheperson,fromre-enslavement,
especiallyafterthepassageoftheFugitiveSlaveActinFebruary1793.Thelegislation,
signedbyGeorgeWashington,authorizedlocalgovernments,inboth“free”and“slave”
states,tocaptureandreturnrunawayslavestotheirownersandcalledforpenaltiestoanyone
aidinganescapedslave.ThePASextendedthepracticeofcopyingone’sfreedompapers
toBlackSaintDominguanslaveswhentheyreachedtheendofthesix-monthresidency
period,whichmadethemfree.TheBlackcommunityandthePASalsoassistedtheFrench
18 EricaArmstrongDunbar,A Fragile Freedom,28-2919 YaleLawSchool,TheAvalonProject.Pennsylvania-AnActfortheGradualAbolitionofSlavery,1780.http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/pennst01.asp20 ThePennsylvaniaAbolitionistSocietywasfirstestablishedastheSocietyfortheReliefofFreeNegroesUnlawfullyHeldinBondage.In1775attheRisingSunTaverninPhiladelphia,agroupofQuakermengatheredtodiscusstheabolitionofslavery.AmongthemwasnotablePhiladelphian,AnthonyBenezetwhoworkedtirelesslyfortheabolishmentofslaveryandestablishedafreeschoolforBlacksforBlacksin1773.Later,othermembersoftheorganizationwouldcometoincludeDr.BenjaminRushandBenjaminFranklin,aswellasmembersoftheAfricanAmericancommunityincludingabolitionistRobertPurvis,theson-in-lawofprominentbusinessman,JamesForten.See:RichardNewman,“ThePASandAmericanAbolitionism:ACenturyofActivismfromtheAmericanRevolutionaryEratotheCivilWar,”TheHistoricalSocietyofPennsylvaniaandGeorgeS.Brookes,Friend Anthony Benezet,(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1937)
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slavesincourtproceedingsagainstSaintDominguanslaveownerswhoinsistedupon
keepingtheirslavesinbondage.Inonesuchcasein1797,Pennsylvaniamagistrates,with
theassistanceofthePAS,heldtwoFrenchfemaleslavesinprisontoprotecttheirfreedom.
Theexecutorsoftheirdeceasedslavemaster’sestateattemptedtoremovethewomenfrom
Pennsylvaniainordertobesold.Authoritiesbelievedtheenslavedwomenhadbeenin
residenceforaperiodlongerthansixmonthsandwerethereforeentitledtotheirfreedom.
BlackSaintDominguansinPhiladelphiaalsoutilizedthePAStocontestthelaws
ofindenture.Often,FrenchCaribbeanslavemastersgambledwiththelawsofindentured
servitudetoensurethelaborandcommoditizationoftheirslaves,attimessellingthe
indenturesofmanumittedmen,womenandchildrentorecoupfinanciallosses.21Ironically,
thelawsgoverningtheindenturesofBlackchildrenderivedfromtheGradualAbolition
Actof1780.Twoyearsbeforethepassingofthelegislation,GeorgeBryan,anIrish
immigrant,proposedabillthatwouldemancipatethechildrenborntoslavesafteraperiod
ofservitude;eighteenyearsforfemalesandtwenty-oneyearsformales.Thisproposalwas
changedinOctober1779,extendingtheperiodchildrenspentindenturedtotwenty-eight
years.22Inaseparatecase,amotherenlistedthehelpofthePAStorescuehereight-year-
oldsonwhenheremployer,LouisTousard,indenturedheryoungson,Azor,fortwenty-
eightyearsandintendedtotakehimtoBaltimorepossiblytobesold.23ThePASargued
inthePennsylvaniaSupremeCourtfortheamendmentofthelawsgoverningindentures
forBlacksandpetitionedforwhitePhiladelphianstoequalizethepracticeofindentures
regardlessofrace.Manywhitescomplied;however,thePASlostitscase.Asaresult,
AfricanAmericanandBlackSaintDominguanchildren,whowereindentured
21 GaryNash,”ReverberationsofHaiti,”6322 EricaArmstrongDunbar,A Fragile Freedom,2923 GaryNash,”ReverberationsofHaiti,”63
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bytheirwhitemasters,wouldnotseefreedomuntilthe1820s.24
NotallBlacksescapingtheviolenceofSaintDomingueandarrivinginPhiladelphia
in1793wereenslaved.Aboutonehundredgens de couleur,freepeopleofcolorfromthe
FrenchWestIndies,chosethenortherncityastheirnewhomewhentheyfledtherevolution.
LikeAfricanAmericans,theyoftenclashedwithIrishimmigrantsoveremploymentprospects
sincebothimmigrantandmigrantgroups,suchasrecentlymanumittedorescapedAfrican
AmericansfromtheSouth,soughttodefinetheireconomicandsocialspaceintheirnewurban
environment.Nevertheless,manygens de couleurmanagedtodowell,emulatingotheraffluent
AfricanAmericans,liketheesteemedsailmaker,JamesForten.Somebecameprosperous
hairdressers,barbers,seamstresses,laundressesandfruiterers.HistorianGaryNashattributes
thesuccessofthegens de couleurtotheirfamiliaritywithurbanlifesincemanycamefrom
CapFrançaisandPort-au-Prince.25AnumberwereformerdomesticworkersforwealthyFrench
plantersandmerchantsandacquiredsomesortofliteracysincetheyweresparedthegrueling
hardshipoffieldwork.SuchwasthenarrativeofSaintDominguancatererPeterAugustinewho
learnedhistradefromRobertBogle,aprominentAfricanAmericancatererandentrepreneur.
Augustineestablishedhiscateringbusinessin1816servingPhiladelphia’swell-to-doandwas
influentialinmakingthecitythecenterforAmericancatering.26Yet,despitetheentrepreneurial
advancementsofAfricanAmericansandSaintDominguansinPhiladelphia,theywerestill
seenassecondclasscitizensgovernedbythefearsandprejudicesofthoseinpower.
Bythelateeighteenthcentury,Philadelphiacouldbedefinedasaverycosmopolitan
citywithconservativemoresandfinanciallinksacrosstheAtlantic.However,manywhites
inthecityharboredprejudicesandfearstowardsBlacks.Severalwhitesfeltfreedomforthe
24 GaryNash,JeanSoderland,Freedom by Degrees.(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1991),177-178.25 Ibid,,6026 JulietE.Walker,The History of Black Business in America: Capitalism, Race, Entrepreneurship, Volume 1 to 1865,(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2007),134.
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sonsanddaughtersofAfricalivinginthecitywouldleadtoindolence,violenceandcrime.
NewsofBlacksassertingtheirrightsforlibertyandequalityinSaintDominguefurther
exasperatedthesespeculativebiases.SinceAmerica’swarforindependenceandtheFrench
Revolution,therehadbeenaconsiderableFrenchpresenceinthecityofbrotherlylove.The
actionsandattitudesoftheFrenchrefugeesfromSaintDomingueshockedmanyconservatives
whowereaccustomedtoParisian(European)refinementasopposedtotheineleganceofthe
creolesfromtheWestIndies.27TheinfluxofSaintDominguanrefugees,beginningasearly
as1791,introducedmanyPhiladelphianstosightsof“Mestizoladies”escortedbyFrench
whitegentlemendressedinWestIndiesfashionandoftherichestmaterial.ManywhiteSaint
Dominguanswereaccompaniedinthestreetsbytheirslaves,“coalBlacknegressesinflowing
whitedressesandturbansofmuchoirdemadras.”MuchtothechagrinofwhitePhiladelphians,
someoftheseFrenchwomenofcolorwerebelievedtobecourtesanscateringtoAmerican
andFrenchmen.28LiketheircounterpartsinParis,aswellasotherEuropeancities,creoles
andtheirwayoflifewerefrowneduponandrelegatedtoalowerrungonthesocialladder.
CoupledwiththeircontemptfortheFrenchCaribbeanimmigrants,manywhite
PhiladelphiansfearedtherevolutioninSaintDominguewouldincitetheBlackcommunity
tobecomerebelliousandperhapsviolent.ThefearofBlackassertivenessseemsironic
consideringtherealitiesofAfricanAmericanlifeinthecity.LeadersintheBlackcommunity
frequentlytriedtocalmwhitefearsbypromotingacultureofrespectabilityachievedthrough
educationandreligion.BlackPhiladelphiansbuilttwochurches,(theAfricanEpiscopal
27 Thetermcreole,inthisinstance,referstowhitesbornintheFrenchWestIndies.Manyofthemweresmallplanters,merchantsandartisansinSaintDomingueandmadeupthemajorityofthewhiteFrenchCaribbeanimmigrantswhoarrivedinPhiladelphiain1793.InFrenchWestIndiansocialclasshierarchy,theywerealsoknownasthepetite blancsandoccupiedthesocialhierarchalspacebelowthegrand blancs,plantersfromFrance,andabovethe gens de couleur,freepeopleofcolor.28 JohnFanningWatson,Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the olden time: Volume 1,(Philadelphia:EdwinS.Stuart.1899),181
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ChurchofSt.ThomasheadedbyAbsalomJones,andtheAfricanMethodistEpiscopal
ChurchheadedbyRichardAllen),openedBlackschools,establishedbusinessesand
foundedanumberofmutualaidassociations.Inadditiontoworkingtogetherwithintheir
communities,BlackPhiladelphianswereveryawareofglobalevents,whichinturninspired
theirownstrugglesforself-determination,equalityandabolition.Theseaccomplishments,
thoughvaluedbyBlacksandlaudedbysomewhites,beliedacommunitythatwas
growingresentfulasitsmembers’livesstraddledpreciousfreedom,astheyknewit,which
includedthedangerofbeingre-enslavedbecauseofopportunisticslavespeculators.29
TopushCongresstorespondtothekidnappingoffreemenandwomen,Absalom
JonesandRichardAllenpresentedCongresswithPetition of the People of Colour, Freemen
within the City and Suburbs of Philadelphia.Thepetition,writtenin1799,expressedgratitude
forbeingsparedthehorrorsandviolencesomanyBlacksweresubjectedto,includingbeing
kidnapped,takenbelowtheMasonDixonLineand(re)enslavedregardlessofhavingbeen
bornfreeormanumitted.BlackPhiladelphianscouldnotignorethesufferingoftheless
fortunate.Therequest,signedbyseventy-threeAfricanAmericanmenurgedCongressto
acttopreventthe“kidnappingofthoseofourbrethrenthatarefree.”30RepresentativeJohn
RutledgeJr.ofSouthCarolinawasenraged,believingthatAfricanAmericans“alreadyhad
toomuchofthisnewfangledFrenchphilosophyoflibertyandequality.”31HarrisonGrayOtis
fromMassachusettswasequallyoutragedstatingsuchrequestsfromAfricanAmericansshould
29 TheFugitiveSlaveActof1793madeitlegalforslaveownerstocrossstatelinestoreclaimmenandwomenwhoescapedalifeofbondage.AnillicitpracticeofkidnappingBlackmen,womenandchildrenandsellingthemintoslaveryalsodevelopedasaresultofpassingthislaw.In1808,BishopRichardAllenwouldcomefacetofacewithaslavespeculatorintendedoncapturinghimandtakinghimsouth.Theman,accompaniedbyanofficerinsistedthatAllanwasarunawayslave,afactthatwasuntruesincemanyinthecommunitycouldattesttoAllen’sresidencyinthecityformorethantwentyyears.Inturn,Allensuedthespeculatorforfalseaccusationandperjury.Source:TourofMotherBethelA.M.E.Church,Philadelphia,PA.June2014.Seealso:“MotherBethelA.M.EChurch”,www.ushistory.org30 JulieWinch,AGentlemanofColor:TheLifeofJamesForten,(NewYork:OxfordUniversity Press.2002),15331 Ibid.
Cummings 14
notbeencouraged.Manygovernmentofficialsfeltpetitions,liketheonepresentedbyJones
andAllen,couldteachBlacksthe“artofassemblyanddebating”andwouldspreadacross
thenation.32TherewerealsosomewhobelievedBlackswerenotcapableofindependent
thoughtandtheiractionswereinfluencedbythePennsylvaniaAbolitionistSociety(PAS),
whichhadbeenpetitioningcongressforyearschampioningitsownabolitionistagenda.33
Althoughthepetitionhaditsdetractors,therewerethoseinCongresswhosupported
it.GeorgeThacherofMassachusettsabhorredthepracticeofslaveryandfeltthatintime
itwouldpoliticallydestroytheUnitedStates.ProminentAfricanAmericanbusinessman,
JamesForten,wroteaneloquentletter,expressinghisgratitudetoThacherforhissupport.
Nottobediscouraged,onJanuary28,1800,anumberofAfricanAmericanspresented
CongresswithaproposalthatcalledforthetaxationofAfricanAmericanssothatslaves
inPennsylvaniacouldbeemancipated.34ManyinCongresswereintrigued.Whitecitizens
wouldnotbetaxedandmanyslaveownerswouldwelcometheideaofcompensated
emancipationsincetheywouldbepaidforthelossoftheir“property”andlaborsupply.They
quicklydraftedabillthatwouldemancipateallthoseenslavedinthestate.Frustratingly,
thebillfailedwhenitreachedtheSenate.Whilethelegislationwasanoblegestureinthe
32 Ibid.33 Inhisarticle“PhiladelphianotPhilanthropolis”,historianJamesDunhighlightssomeofthereasonsbehindCongress’cautiousattitudetowardsthePennsylvaniaAbolitionistSociety.OneofthereasonsstemsfromanincidentregardingSaintDomingue.In1788,BenjaminGiroud,amemberofLesAmisdesNoirs,anabolitionistsocietyinParis,approachedthePASwithaplanforSaintDomingue.GiroudproposedthatmembersofthePASpurchaselandontheislandandusethepropertiestoprovideex-slaveswith“theexampleoftheirvirtues.”Additionally,abolitionistLéger-FélicitéSonthonaxadmiredthewayPhiladelphiamanagedthegradualemancipationofmenandwomeninbondageandsawachancetoestablisharelationshipwiththeAmericanabolitionistgroup.AlthoughthePASthoughttheplaninteresting,theyrefusedGiroud’srequestofprintingtheFrenchdecreeofemancipationinoneofPhiladelphia’snewspapersandhence,theplanwasdismissed.Giroud’spictureofuniversallibertyandcitizenship,regardlessofrace,inSaintDomingueformedastarkcontrasttoPennsylvania’srealities.Theopportunityforlife,libertyandhappinesscrumbledforthousandsofAfricanAmericansduetothePAS’inabilitytounderstandtheuniversalstruggletoendslavery.See:JamesAlexanderDun,“PhiladelphianotPhilanthropolis:theLimitsofPennsylvaniaAntislaveryintheEraoftheHaitianRevolution.”Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography,Vol.135,No.1(January2011)73-102.34 JulieWinch,A Gentleman of Color,155
Cummings 15
nameoftheirenslavedcounterparts,theveryideaofitcreatedanimositybetweentheBlack
communityandthePAS.Passingabilltopayoffslaveholdersunderminedtheeffortsof
thePAS.Incontrast,BlacksinPhiladelphiafelttheiragendaforachievingemancipation
differedgreatlyfromthatofthePAS,whichwasnotasassertiveasBlackPhiladelphians
thoughtitshouldhavebeen.Ultimately,thefailureofthiseffortmeantthatmen,women
andchildreninbondagewouldremainenslaveduntildeath,manumissionorescape.It
wouldtakePennsylvaniaanotherforty-sevenyearstoabolishslaveryalltogether.
Attheturnofthenineteenthcentury,violenceandhostilityincreasedtowardsBlacks
inthecityofbrotherlylove,especiallyasnewsofGabrielProsser’sunsuccessfulrebellionin
Richmond,VirginiaspreadthroughouttheeasternseaboardandtensionsbetweentheUnited
StatesandFrancebegantoescalate.35RumorsofFrenchBlackssailingupanddownthe
DelawareRiverwaitingtodockandinciteviolencesentwhitePhiladelphiansintoapanic
andincidencesofBlackassertivenesswereattributedtotheinfluenceoftheSaintDomingue
revolutionandtheBlacksfightingresolutelyfortheirrighttolibertyandequality.Furthermore,
by1801thecitywasinastateofeconomicuncertaintysinceThomasJeffersonimposedan
embargoagainsttheBlackrepubliccripplingthecity’seconomythatwasdependentontrade.
AsToussaintL’OuverturefoughtagainsttheBritishwho,intheirconflictwithFrance,
soughttogaincontrolofSaintDomingueandre-establishslaveryontheisland,Governor
35 Inhiswork,Gabriel’s Rebellion:The Virginia Slave Conspiracies of 1800 and 1802,DouglasEgertonanalyzesthelifeofGabriel,aliterateBlacksmithwhoselaborwashiredoutbyhisownerThomasProsser.EgertonbelievesGabrielwasaBlackJacobin,likeToussaintL’Ouverture,whowasintentondestroyingthewhitemerchantclassofVirginia,manywhohadinfluentialtiestothegovernmentandwhosewealthwasgeneratedbythesweatofothers,bothBlackandwhite.PartofGabriel’sschemeinvolvedexploitingtheescalatingconflictbetweentheUnitedStatesandFrancethatdividedwhiteelitesalongpartisanlines.Indoingso,heandotherenslavedmenwouldjointhesidethatwouldgrantslavestheirnaturalrights—verymuchlikethemenofcolorwhofoughtonthesideoftheBritishduringtheAmericanRevolution.AccordingtoEgerton,Gabriel’splanfailedduetolackofinformation.Gabrielneverconsideredwhiteplantertobeamonghis“enemies”.Insteadhehopedthecommonalityoflabor(planters,artisansandcraftsmen)woulduniteBlackandwhitealikeinthestruggleforlibertyandeconomicrights,especiallyinlightofthegrowingpoliticaldivisionandimpendingwarwithFrance.See:DouglasEgerton,Gabriel’s Rebellion: The Virginia Slave Conspiracies of 1800 and 1802,(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1993)
Cummings 16
ThomasMifflinprohibitedthelandingof“anyFrenchnegroes”inPhiladelphia.Heeven
solicitedthehelpofPresidentJohnAdamstohaltthelandingofFrenchBlacksinadjacent
statesandsoughttopreventtheirwhitemastersfromenteringPennsylvania.Mifflin,as
wellasothersinthegovernment,feltthattheJacobinradicalismoftheFrenchrevolution
combinedwiththedeterminationoftheBlackSaintDominguanswouldinfectBlacksinthe
northandsouth.Despitetheseeffortstodiscouragetheirenthusiasm,BlacksinPhiladelphia
couldnot,anddidnot,ignorethegloriousmomentslaveryendedinSaintDomingue.
ThenewrepublicofHaitideclareditsstatusasanindependentandslaveryfreenationon
January1,1804.Fouryearslater,theBritishabolishedthetradeinslavesfromAfrica.Church
eldersinPhiladelphiabegandeliveringannualThanksgivingsermonsonNewYear’sDayto
commemoratethetwopivotalevents.JanuaryfirstbecametheAfricanAmericanequivalent
oftheFourthofJulywithplannedaffairsandcelebrationstoexpressthediasporicconnection
betweenPhiladelphia’sBlackcommunityandthenewBlackrepublicintheCaribbean.Theday
alsoservedtoremindwhitesthatBlacksweredeclaringadayofcelebrationforissuesthathad
relevanceintheirlives,likefreedom,self-determinationandcitizenship,sincetheprivilegesof
theDeclarationofIndependencedidnotextendtothem.OnJulyfourthofthatsameyear,several
hundredBlackPhiladelphiansgatheredinSouthwark,asouthernpartofthecitywheremany
Blacksresided,andcelebratedtheindependenceofHaiti,completewithmilitaryformations
andelectedofficers.InhisworkexploringfestivecultureintheearlyAmericanrepublic,Simon
P.NewmanexplainsthatBlacksinthenorthrespondedtothesystematicexclusionfromwhite
politicalculturebyfashioningtheirownalternativepoliticalfestivals,whichoftencontained
theirprofoundinterestintheradicalpossibilitiesoftheFrenchandHaitianrevolutions.36Black
36 SimonP.Newman,Parades and the Politics of the Street: Festive culture in the Early American Republic.(Philadelphia,UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1997),160
Cummings 17
Philadelphianswereproud,andthefervortheyfeltfortheirbrethrenintheCaribbeanwould
continuetofueltheirownliberationandself-determinationstrugglesinthenortherncity.
Beingrelegatedtosecond-classcitizenshiptookitstollonmanyBlacksin
Philadelphia;hence,emigrationoutoftheUnitedStatesbegantobeseenastheonly
solutionfortherealizationoftheirliberationdreams.BecauseoftheworkofWilliam
Thornton,membersoftheFreeAfricanSocietywerewellawareofthepushforthe
resettlementofpeopleofcolorinWestAfrica.Inhisaddress,“TotheBlackInhabitants
ofPennsylvania,”ThorntonexpoundedontheidealsoftheEnglishanditsfreesettlement
ofBlacksinSierraLeone.AfricanAmericansinBoston,ProvidenceandNewporthappily
entertainedtheideaofemigrationtoSierraLeone,however,aftermuchdebate,menof
theFreeAfricanSocietyinPhiladelphiadecidedemigrationtothecontinentwasnot
forthem.37
ThroughitsNewEnglandagents,theAfricanInstitution,anEnglishcorporation
consistingofabolitionists,clergymenandbusinessmenthatassumedtheaffairsoftheWest
AfricansettlementafterthefailuresoftheSierraLeoneCompany,solicitedthehelpofBlack
seacaptain,andQuaker,PaulCuffee.Cuffee,thesonofaWestAfrican(Asante)fatherand
NativeAmericanmother,wasborninCuttyhunkIsland,Massachusettsin1759.Attheageof
fourteen,afterthedeathofhisfather,Cuffeetooktothesea,travelingtotheWestIndiesand
37 WilliamThornton,thesonofawealthy,Quaker,sugarplantationownerinTortolawasoneofthemainarchitectsbehindtheresettlementoffreeBlackstoSierraLeone.AsayoungmaninEngland,hebecamefamiliarwiththeabolitionismofGranvilleSharpethroughfellowCaribbeanbornQuaker,JohnLettsomandviewedthecolonyasasafehavenforhisshareofslavesonhisfamilyplantationinTortola(hewasonlypartowner).Afterheemancipatedthem,hewantedthemtohavesomewheretosettlewithoutthefearofbeingre-enslavedandwheretheycouldbeself-sufficient.In1787,ThorntonsettledinPhiladelphiaandhecontinuedtochampiontheidealofBlackresettlementinSierraLeonewiththeencouragementofSamuelAdams,ThomasJeffersonandJamesMadison.Thatsameyear,withthehelpoftheBritishgovernment,some200BlackswereresettledontheWestAfricancoast.ItisbelievedtheywereremnantsofAmericanslaves,loyalistswhofoughtonthesideoftheBritishduringtheAmericanRevolution.See:JulieWinch.A Gentleman of Color,178,LamontD.Thomas,Paul Cuffee Black Entrepreneur and Pan Africanist (UrbanaandChicago:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1988),74andGallardHunt,“WilliamThorntonandNegroColonization,”American Antiquarian Society,(April,1921)40-43
Cummings 18
seeingtheatrocitiesofsugarplantationslaveryfirsthand.DuringtheAmericanRevolution,
hewascapturedbytheBritishandimprisonedfornotfightingasaloyalist.Afterhisrelease,
hereturnedtohisfamily’sfarm,butrefusedtopaytaxessincepeopleofcolordidnothave
equalrepresentationingovernmentandBlackmencouldnotvote.38Despitehisstrugglefor
equalityandabolitiononland,Cuffeereturnedandprosperedatsea.AsnewsofthefreeBlack
colonyinWestAfricabegantocirculateintheUnitedStates,Cuffeecametotheconclusion
thatemigrationtoSierraLeonewasaviableoptionforBlackstorealizetheirdreamsofliberty
andequality.In1809,whenhejoinedtheresettlementefforttoSierraLeone,hesolicitedthe
helpofhisgoodfriend,JamesForten,torecruitBlackPhiladelphiansforemigration.Two
couples,AntoineandElizabethServanceandSamuelandBarberyWilsonwereamonga
smallgroupwillingtomoveabroad.Bothmenwereeagertoreturntothelandoftheirbirth.
ServancewasbornandcapturedinSenegalandsoldtoaslaveownerinSaintDomingue.
Toescapetheviolenceoftherevolution,hestowedawayonashipandfoundhimselfin
Philadelphiain1790.WilsonwasbornintheCongoandhadmadeaprosperouslifeforhimself
inPhiladelphia.39CuffeeandFortenfeltthetwomenwereexcellentcandidatesforemigration
becauseoftheirfamiliaritywithWestAfrica.OnDecember27,1810,asmallPhiladelphia
contingent,ledbyCuffee,leftthecityofbrotherlylovetobeginlifeanewinSierraLeone.
NewsofPaulCuffeeandthesettlementoffreeBlacksinSierraLeonewasnotedin
AmericannewspapersandspreadasfarasLexington,Kentucky.40RobertFinley,aNewJersey
native,educatorandlater,presidentoftheUniversityofGeorgia(hediedthreemonthsafter
takingthepost)wasastaunchsupporterofBlackemigration.In1815,hecontactedPaul
CuffeeinquiringabouthisexpeditionstoWestAfricaandregionsthatwouldbe“desirable”
38 LamontD.Smith,Paul Cuffe Black Entrepreneur and Pan Africanist,32-3539 JulieWinch,A Gentleman of Color,18540 HenryNobleSherwood.“TheFormationoftheAmericanColonizationSociety”,Journal of Negro History.(Vol.2,No.3,July1917),218
Cummings 19
forsettlementforfreeBlackAmericans.ThefollowingyearonDecembertwenty-first,Finley
alongwithAmericanlegislators,andbusinessmen,severalwhowhereslaveowners,metat
theDavisHotelinWashingtonD.C.,todiscussthegrowing“negroproblem”intheUnited
States.AddressinganaudiencethatincludedJamesMonroe,AndrewJacksonandFrancis
ScottKey,HenryClay,theobduraterepresentativefromKentucky,madeitknownthat
themeetingwasnottoconsideremancipationforthoseinbondage,oranysubjectdealing
withtheabolitionofslavery.Thepurposeofthemeetingwastoexactanexpedientsolution
toremovefreeBlacksfromAmericansocietybecausetheywerehavinga“demoralizing
influenceon(whites)civilinstitutions,”inpartduetotheeffectoftheSaintDomingue
RevolutionandthenewrepublicofHaiti.41Therewerealsosome,mostlyfromthenorthern
states,whobelieveditwasAmerica’smoralobligationtoreturntheBlackpopulation
backtoAfrica.42Asthemeetingconcluded,theAmericanSocietyforColonizingtheFree
PeopleofColoroftheUnitedStates,laterknownastheAmericanColonizationSociety,
wasbornwithBushrodWashington,GeorgeWashington’snephew,electedaspresident.
BlacksinPhiladelphiawerealarmedattheprospectofafederallysupported
emigrationgroupandinJanuary1817.LedbyseveralBlackleadersincluding
JamesForten,RussellParrott,AbsalomJones,RichardAllen,RobertDouglassand
JohnGloucester,threethousandmenofcolorgatheredatBethelChurchinprotestto
addresstheracistmotivationsoftheACS.Themembersofthemeetingdeclared,
“Whereasourancestors(notofchoice)werethefirstsuccessfulcultivatorsofthewilds
41 Ibid.42 TheideaofcreatingafreeBlacksettlementintheUS,beyondtheRockyMountains,thoughentertained,wasthoughttobeimpracticaltotheoverallcauseforresettlement.ItwasbelievedacolonyoffreeBlacksintheUnitedStateswouldpotentiallyuniteBlacksandNativeAmericansinacommoncauseandprovideasafehavenforrunawayslaves.Hence,acolonyinAfricaseemedliketheperfectsolution,inadditiontootherracializedtheoriesliketheclimateofWestAfricabeingbettersuitedforpeopleofcolor.See:CharlesI.Foster.“TheColonizationofFreeNegroes,inLiberia,1816-1835.”The Journal of Negro History,Vol38,No.1,January1953,41-66,ArchibaldAlexander.A History of Colonization on the Western Coast of Africa(Philadelphia:WSMartien,1849)77-82
Cummings 20
ofAmerica,wetheirdescendantsfeelourselvesentitledtoparticipateintheblessingsofherluxuriantsoil,whichtheirbloodandsweatmanured,andthatanymeasureorsystemofmeasures,havingatendencytobanishusfromherbosom,wouldnotonlybecruel,butindirectviolationofthoseprinciples,whichhavebeentheboastofthisrepublic.”43
Inshort,theywerenotgoinganywhere.However,therewerestillsomeBlackswhochose
toleavetheirlivesvoidofnaturalrightsbehind,attheexpenseoftheACS.Withthehelpof
missionaryagents,thecolonyofLiberiacametofruitionontheWestAfricancoastandin1820;
theElizabethsetsailfortheAmericansettlementwitheightyAfricanAmericansonboard.
Bythe1820stheBritishcolonyofSierraLeonewasindirecircumstancesdue
toconflictswithindigenousgroupsintheregionandaseriesoffinancialfailures.Tothe
southintheAmericancolonyofLiberia,theAmericanColonizationSociety,despitethe
distrustofmanyBlacksinPhiladelphia,wasbusywithitseffortstransportingfreepeople
ofcolortotheWestAfricancoast,mainlyfromthesouthernUnitedStates.ToofferBlack
PhiladelphianstheopportunitytoemigratewithoutbeingtiedtotheAmericanColonization
Society,JamesForten,andotherAfricanAmericanleaders,lookedtothenewrepublicof
Haiti.Afterspeakingatlengthwithsailors,merchantsandpeoplewhohadlivedthere,Forten
felttheislandnationwasthebestchoiceforBlackPhiladelphianstoresettle.Thepushfor
emigrationheightenedasthecommunityanditsleaderslinkedtheabolitionofslaveryand
obtainingfullrightsintheUnitedStatestothesuccessoftheSaintDomingueRevolution.
Asanewnation,Haitiasserteditsstanceconcerningissuesofrights,freedom,citizenship
andsovereignty,insistingthatitwasacriticalandnecessaryvoiceintheinternationalarena.
AccordingtohistorianAdaFerrer,BlacksintheUnitedStatesunderstoodHaiti’sposition
onAtlanticworldaffairsandasaresultoftheSaintDominguerevolution,Haitialteredthe
43 “AVoicefromPhiladelphia.January,1817,”inWilliamLloydGarrison,Thoughts on African Colonization: Or an Impartial Exhibition of the Doctrines, Principles and Purposes of the American Colonization Society (Boston,1831).LibraryCompanyofPhiladelphia.
Cummings 21
possibilityoffreedom,intheAtlanticworld,throughthelawsandpoliciesitenacted.44In1816,
thepresidentofthesouthernregionofHaiti,AlexandrePétion,amendedthe1806Haitian
Constitution(alsoknownasPétion’sConstitution)toincludeArticle44,whichstates:
“AllAfricansandIndiansandthedescendantsoftheirblood,borninthecoloniesorinforeigncountries,whocometoresideintherepublicwillberecognizedasHaitians,butwillenjoytherightsofcitizenshiponlyafteroneyearofresidence.”45
AmericanandEuropeanlegislatorsfeltArticle44posedathreattointernationalandtradepolicy
andprivateerswerewarnednottosailtooclosetothesoutherncoastsofHaitiwithhumancargo
forfearofPétionfreeingtheenslavedmenwomenandchildrenonboardintheinterest
offreedom.46
PétionwasalsoveryawareofthemotivesoftheACSandtheireffortstoresettle
freeBlacksinLiberia.Throughhissecretarygeneral,JosephBalthazarInginac,Pétion
invitedBlackAmericanstoresettleinHaitiasawaytoescapetheinjusticestheyfaced
intheUnitedStates.InalettertoNewYorkpublisherJamesTredwellonNovember21,
1817,andpublishedin1818inTheConstitutionoftheRepublicofHayti,Inginacwrote:
“OpentotheireyestheConstitutionofourRepublicandletthemseeinits44thArticleafraternalhandopenedtotheirdistresses.Sincetheyareatthisdayre-fusedthetitleofmembersoftheAmericanUnion,letthemcomeamongus,inacountryfirmlyorganized,andenjoytherightsofCitizensofHayti,ofhappinessandpeace:lastly,letthemcomeandshowtowhitementhatthereexistscolouredandBlackmenwhocanraiseafearlessfrontsecuredfrominsultandinjury.”47
CopiesofPétion’s1816constitutionandArticle44werewidelyprintedinHaitian
44 AdaFerrer,“Haiti,FreeSoilandAntislaveryintheRevolutionaryAtlantic”,American Historical Review,February2012.4245 Ibid.,4346 AlthoughAlexandrePétionandHenriChristophewerecommittedtoanationwherelegalslaveryandEuropeancolonialismwouldneverexistagain,thetwomencouldnotagreeontheleadershipofthenewrepublic.In1807,thenationwasdividedintwo.Thenorthernpartofthecountry,ruledbyHenriChristophe,containedlargesugarplantationsandbecamemilitarizedanddependentonthelaboroffarmerslaves.Thesouthernregion,governedbyPétion,wasorganizedasarepublicwithlargeestatesdividedupandsold.Despitethedivision,thedifferencesbetweenthetworegionswerenotabsolute.47 JosephInginactoJamesTredwell,November21,1817,inThe Constitution of Hayti,(NewYork:1818),5
Cummings 22
newspapersthatcircumnavigatedtheglobewithBlacksailorsactingasconduitsof
informationenticingBlackstosettleinthenewBlackrepublicintheCaribbean.
TwoyearsbeforeJamesTredwell’spublication,PrinceSaunders,attheurgingofhis
friendPaulCuffee,wassenttotheBlackrepublictodiscussprospectsofemigrationwith
thenation’snorthernruler,HenriChristophe.48Saunders,borninLebanon,Connecticut,was
educatedattheMoorsCharitySchoolatDartmouthandtaughtattheAfricanFreeSchool
inColchester,Connecticut.UpontheadviceofJohnWheelock,thepresidentofDartmouth,
SaunderswenttoteachinBoston’sAfricanFreeSchoolin1808andin1811,hebecame
secretaryoftheAfricanMasonicLodgewhilesimultaneouslyestablishingtheBelleLettres
Society,aninterracialliterarygroup.WhileinBoston,SaundersbefriendedThomasPaul,
thefounderofAmerica’sBlackBaptistChurch.Thetwobecameleadingfiguresadvocating
forBlackemigrationtoAfricatoescapetheracialdiscriminationoftheUnitedStates.At
theinsistenceofabolitionistWilliamWilberforceandhissoontobefather-in-law,Paul
Cuffee,SaunderssailedtoHaititodiscussprospectsofAfricanAmericanemigrationwith
HenriChristophe.Aspartofhisnationalagenda,Christopheproclaimededucationashis
“deepestambition”modelingthenorthernregion’seducationalsystemaftertheBritish
academicmodelallthewhilehopingtodiscreditthenotionofBlackinferiority.49
DuringhisinitialmeetingwithChristopheinFebruary1816,Saunderswaswell
receivedandimpressedtheleaderwithhis“strikingfeatures,urbanemannerandexcellent
education.”50ChristophenamedSaundershisofficialcourier,travelingonbehalfoftheHaitian
48 BorninGrenadain1767,asayoungmanChristopheworkedasasailorandfoughtagainsttheBritishintheAmericanRevolution,afact,historianJulieWinchsuggests,mayhaveendearedtherulertoBlacksinthe UnitedStates.49 EarlLeslieGriggsandCliffordH.Prator.Henry Christophe and Thomas Clarkson, A Correspondence.(Berkley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1952)38-6250 ArthurO.White.“PrinceSaunders:AnInstanceofSocialMobilityAmongAntebellumNewEnglandBlacks.”Journal of Negro History,(Vol60,No.4October1975)528
Cummings 23
ruler.WhenhereturnedtotheUS,SaunderspublishedTheHaytianPapers,aresoundingreview
ofHenriChristophe’sdecreesthatpraisedtherulerofthenorthandhisaccomplishments.
In1818,SaundersspentsometimeinPhiladelphiabecomingalayreaderfor
St.ThomasEpiscopalChurch.Thatsameyear,JamesFortenandRussellParrott,along
withothers,foundedthePennsylvaniaAugustineSocietyfortheEducationofPeople
ofColor.ThemencalledonSaunderstomakethefoundersaddress.Saundersseized
themomenttopromoteemigrationtoHaiti,praisingthenation,alongwiththeNorthern
UnitedStates,forthepromotionofuniversaleducation.Hiswell-receivedaddressignited
thesparkofpossibilityforBlackPhiladelphianswantingtoemigratetoHaiti.51
WithlettersfromBlackPhiladelphianswishingtoresettleinHaitiinhand,Saunders
returnedtotheislandinAugust1820.However,theailingHenriChristophe,whosuffered
adebilitatingstroke,couldnotmeetwithhim.Saunderswaited,andonOctoberfifth,
ChristophefinancedSaundersplantotransportBlackPhiladelphianstoHaiti.AsSaunders
wasabouttoleavetheisland,revolteruptedwithJeanPierreBoyer,Pétion’ssuccessor,
leadingthechargeandoverthrowingtheailingruler.SaundersandthedreamofAmerican
resettlementseemedtodiewhenChristophefiredasilverbulletendinghisownlife.
Likethecharismaticleadersbeforehim,JeanPierreBoyeralsohadloftydreamsfor
Haiti.ThesonofawhiteFrenchmerchantandanenslavedAfricanwomanfromtheCongo,
BoyerwasborninPort-au-PrinceandsenttoFrancetobeeducatedasayouth.Attheageof
sixteen,hejoinedtheFrenchRepublicanArmyandquicklyrosethroughtheranks.Withintwo
yearshebecameabattalioncommanderandlaterjoinedSonthonax’scampaignfightingfor
therightsofthegens de couleurinSaintDomingue.In1793,theBritishinvadedtheisland
51 See:PrinceSaunders:“AnAddressDeliveredatBethelChurch,Philadelphiaonthe30thofSeptember1818beforethePennsylvaniaAugustineSocietyfortheEducationofPeopleofColor.”HistoricalSocietyofPennsylvania
Cummings 24
andBoyerfledtoJacmel,however,whenToussaintL’OvertureandhisBlackforcesturnedon
thegens de couleur,Boyerfledtheisland.TheshipheescapedonwascapturedbytheUnited
StatesandtakentoRhodeIsland.Althoughhistimetherewasshort,BoyeradmiredtheQuakers
fortheircharitablespirit,though;heneverforgottheprejudiceshesufferedbecauseofthe
colorofhisskin.AfterthedeathofAlexandrePétion,Boyerintendedtopeacefullyrejointhe
northernandsouthernregions,unitingHaitiasonenation.Inanefforttoestablishcivilityin
thegovernment,heappointedPrinceSaundersasAttorneyGeneralbecauseofhisexpertise
withHaitianlaw.HealsoeagerlyrevisitedplansforAfricanAmericanresettlementinHaiti.
WillingtoestablisharelationshipwiththeUnitedStates,Boyerextendedawarmwelcometo
menandwomenofcolorpossessingallmannerofskillsandexpertise,offeringfreepassage,
Haitiancitizenship,andthreeacresoflandtomakethenotionofresettlingmoreappealing.
BishopRichardAllenwasamongthoseinPhiladelphiawhoheavilypromoted
emigrationtoHaiti.Heenvisionedmissionstationsinthecountryspreadingthedoctrineof
theAMEchurch.Alongwitheighteenothermen,includingJamesForten,Allenformedthe
HaytienEmigrationSocietyofPhiladelphiaandin1824,thepamphlet,Information for the
Free People of Colour, Who are Inclined to Emigrate to Hayti,wasquicklyproduced,printed
anddistributed.52ThenewsofHaitianresettlementspreadasfarnorthasBoston,asfarsouth
asBaltimoreandasfarwestasIndiana.Between800and1300AfricanAmericansleftthe
oppressionoftheUnitedStatesforthedreamofabetterlifeinHaiti.AnumberofBlack
PhiladelphiansjoinedtheexodustotheCaribbeanincludingBelfastBurton,arespectedhealer
andleaderintheAfricanAmericancommunity,JohnSommerset,anoystermanandmember
oftheHaytienEmigrationSocietyandCharlesVandine,JamesForten’sbrother-in-law,who
settledinPort-auPrince.In1830,RobertDouglasJr.,thesonofGraceandRobertDouglas
52 GaryNash,ForgingFreedom,244
Cummings 25
whowereabolitionistsandfriendsoftheFortens’,alsotraveledtoHaitispendinghistime
traversingthecountry,paintingandmeetingpeople.PrinceSaunders,asAttorneyGeneral,
settledintheislandnationlivingouthisdaysinPort-au-Princeuntilhisdeathin1839.53
ForsomeAfricanAmericans,Haitiwasnotasidyllicastheyhopeditwouldbe.
ManysoldtheirparcelsoflandandmovedtoCapHaitianorPort-au-Prince.Historian
JulieWinchpointsoutthatclasshierarchiesstillexistedinHaitidespitetheshackles
ofslaverybeingbroken.54Hence,manyAfricanAmericansettlerswererelegatedto
themassesoftheruralpoor.Somechosetoreturnhometothefamiliarprejudicesand
oppressionoftheUnitedStatesratherthanliveinalandwheretheywerepoverty-stricken
yetfree.Nevertheless,theirtasteoffreedomfedtheabolitionistfirethatblazedinthe
northerncityastheycontinuedtofightfortheirrightsandliberties,whilereveringthe
menandwomenwhoachievedtheirdreamsoffreedominthenewBlackrepublic.
WhendiscussingpeopleofcolorintheAtlanticWorld,thereisatendency
forsomescholarstoplaceAfricansandtheirdescendantsinbubbles,victimizedby
thoseinpowerandoblivioustoworldevents.However,whenlookingattheeffect
oftheSaintDomingueRevolution,ononeofthelargestcommunitiesoffreeBlacks
intheUnitedStates,itisevidentthatBlacksintheformerFrenchcolonyofHaiti
andPhiladelphiawerewellawareofinternationaleventsandthecollectivestruggle
forliberty,andequalityoccurringintheCaribbeanandtheUnitedStates.
Inaletterwrittenin1774toNativeAmerican(Mohegan)ordainedPresbyterianminister
SamsonOccum,PhyllisWhealtleyprofessed,“Ineveryhumanbreast,Godhadimplanted
aPrinciplewhichwecallLoveofFreedom;itisimpatientofOppressionandpantsfor
53 ArthurO.White.“PrinceSaunders,”53554 JulieWinch,AGentlemanofColor,219
Cummings 26
Deliverance;andbytheleaveofourmodernEgyptians,Iwillassertthatthesameprinciplelives
inus.”AlthoughshewasdiscussingtheplightofBlacksduringtheAmericanRevolution,her
wordsalsoresonatedwithblacks,bothintheUnitedStatesandtheFrenchCaribbeancolonyof
SaintDomingue,whofoughtunwaveringlyforthatinnateprinciplesometwentyyearslater.55
Duringthelateeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturies,thecityofPhiladelphia
wasanintegralpartoftheAtlanticpoliticalandeconomiclandscape.Acosmopolitan
city,PhiladelphiawelcomedmanyEuropeansthatparadoxicallycreatedacommunity
offreeBlacks,manymanumittedthroughtheGradualAbolitionActof1780,whowere
multilingualandpromotedacultureofrespectabilitythrougheducationandreligion.
AsexpressedbyPhiladelphia’sresidenthistorianJohnFanningWatson,“[Philadelphia]
throngedwithpeopleofallshadesfromthecolonies,andthosefromoldFrance.”56Later,
thecitywouldalsobecomearefugeforFrenchCaribbeanémigrésfleeingtheviolence
ofSaintDomingue,addingtotheglobaldynamismofthecityofbrotherlylove.
BecauseofitspositionasthepoliticalcenteroftheyoungUnitedStates,Black
Philadelphianswerenotonlyknowledgeableaboutinternationalevents,theyresponded
accordinglybecomingconduitsofinformationfacilitatedbytheirrolesassailors,domestics,
communityleaders,educators,andentrepreneurs.HearingaboutBlackSaintDominguans
fightingfortheirnaturalrightsinFrance’sformercolonialjewelinspiredBlacksinPhiladelphia
tocontesttheinequalitiesandinjusticestheyfaced,inpartduetoracializedlegislationand
thefearsofwhiteswhofeltBlackswerenotreadyforfreedomandwereadverselyinfluenced
bytherevolutioninSaintDomingue.WhenenslavedandfreeblackFrenchmenandwomen
arrivedinPhiladelphia,theyjoinedforceswiththeAfricanAmericancommunity,inthequest
55 PhyllisWheatleytoSamsonOccuminaletterdatedFebruary11,1774concerningfreedomandthenaturalrightsofAfricanAmericans.See:“PhillisWheatley.”PhillisWheatley.http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/history/dfg/amrl/wheatley.htm.56 JohnFanningWatson,AnnalsofPhiladelphia,181
Cummings 27
forabolitionandequality,andmadetheirmarkonthecitythroughlanguage,religionand
enterprise.DailylifeinPhiladelphiawasprecariousformanyBlacks,especiallywiththe
passingoftheFugitiveSlaveActin1793,however,echoesofthetriumphofSaintDomingue
andtheabolishmentofthetradeinslavesfromAfricabytheBritishreverberatedthroughout
BlackPhiladelphia.Streetfestivals,self-declaredholidays,churchsermons,newspaper
articles,...andeventhenamingofchildren,wereinfluencedbythetriumphofHaitifor
manytookprideinToussaintL’Overtureandhisleadershipresultinginfreedomformany.
Bythebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,blacksinPhiladelphiawerebeginning
toseeemigrationasaviablesolutionforescapingtheinjusticesoftheUnitedStates.
However,theywerenotwillingtoworkwithafederallyfundedgroup,madeupofmostly
whiteslaveowners,whosecentralfocuswastoremovefreeblacksfromAmericansociety.
WiththeassistanceofBlackproponentsofemigration,likePaulCuffeeandPrince
SaundersandwiththeassistanceofBishopRichardAllenandJamesFortenworking
undertheauspicesoftheHaytienEmigrationSociety,BlacksinPhiladelphiahadaviable
solutionfortherealizationoflibertyandequalitythatgavethemtheopportunitytobegin
lifeanewinthenewBlackrepublicofHaiti,whichwelcomedthemwithopenarms.
BecauseofthatinnateprinciplecalledtheLoveofFreedom,thatblazed
throughSaintDomingue,BlacksinPhiladelphiaweremotivatedbythesparksofself-
determinationwhichinfluencedtheirownresistancestrugglesinthecityofbrotherlylove
andstrengthenedtheglobalconnectivitythatwasgroundedinresistanceandtheright
tolibertyandequalitywhereverthechildrenofAfricaandherdescendantsresided.
Cummings 28
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