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JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY AND ETHNOMEDICINE
Ju et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013,
9:28http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/28RESEARCH Open
AccessEating from the wild: diversity of wild edibleplants used by
Tibetans in Shangri-la region,Yunnan, ChinaYan Ju1, Jingxian Zhuo2,
Bo Liu1 and Chunlin Long1,3*Abstract
Background: Locally harvested wild edible plants (WEPs) provide
food as well as cash income for indigenouspeople and are of great
importance in ensuring global food security. Some also play a
significant role inmaintaining the productivity and stability of
traditional agro-ecosystems. Shangri-la region of Yunnan Province,
SWChina, is regarded as a biodiversity hotspot. People living there
have accumulated traditional knowledge aboutplants. However, with
economic development, WEPs are threatened and the associated
traditional knowledge is indanger of being lost. Therefore,
ethnobotanical surveys were conducted throughout this area to
investigate anddocument the wild edible plants traditionally used
by local Tibetan people.
Methods: Twenty-nine villages were selected to carry out the
field investigations. Information was collected usingdirect
observation, semi-structured interviews, individual discussions,
key informant interviews, focus groupdiscussions, questionnaires
and participatory rural appraisal (PRA).
Results: Information about 168 wild edible plant species in 116
genera of 62 families was recorded and specimenswere collected.
Most species were edible greens (80 species) or fruits (78). These
WEPs are sources for local people,especially those living in remote
rural areas, to obtain mineral elements and vitamins. More than
half of the species(70%) have multiple use(s) besides food value.
Some are crop wild relatives that could be used for
cropimprovement. Several also have potential values for further
commercial exploitation. However, the utilization ofWEPs and
related knowledge are eroding rapidly, especially in the areas with
convenient transportation andbooming tourism.
Conclusion: Wild food plants species are abundant and diverse in
Shangri-la region. They provide food andnutrients to local people
and could also be a source of cash income. However, both WEPs and
their associatedindigenous knowledge are facing various threats.
Thus, conservation and sustainable utilization of these plants
inthis area are of the utmost importance. Documentation of these
species may provide basic information forconservation, possibly
further exploitation, and will preserve local traditional
knowledge.
Keywords: Wild edible plants, Traditional knowledge,
Biodiversity, Ethnobotany, Shangri-la region* Correspondence:
[email protected] of Life and Environmental Sciences,
Minzu University of China,Beijing 100081, PR China3Kunming
Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming650201, PR
ChinaFull list of author information is available at the end of the
article
2013 Ju et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open
Access article distributed under the terms of the CreativeCommons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, andreproduction in
any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
mailto:[email protected]://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0
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Ju et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013, 9:28
Page 2 of 22http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/28BackgroundWild
edible plants (WEPs) refer to species that areharvested or
collected from their wild natural habitatsand used as food for
human consumption [1-3]. Theyprovide staple food for indigenous
people, serve as sup-plementary food for non-indigenous people and
are oneof the primary sources of cash income for poor commu-nities
[4-6]. WEPs play an important role in ensuringfood security and
improve the nutrition in the diets ofmany people in developing
countries [1,5]. They are po-tential sources of species for
domestication and providevaluable genetic traits for developing new
crops throughbreeding and selection [7,8].Although domesticated
plants are the main source of
food and income for people in rural areas, they are notable to
meet the annual food requirements [9-11]. Thus,the collection and
consumption of wild edible plants hasbeen a way of life to
supplement dietary requirementsfor many rural populations
throughout the world [5,12].However, due to social change and
acculturation pro-cesses, indigenous knowledge (or traditional
knowledge)about the use of wild edible species is declining and
evenvanishing with modernization and increasing contactswith
western lifestyles [13]. Meanwhile, the loss of trad-itional
knowledge has also been recognized as one of themajor factors that
have negative effects on the conserva-tion of biological diversity
[14]. Thus, it is becomingurgent to document and revitalize
traditional knowledgeof WEPs to preserve genetic and cultural
diversity[12,15,16]. China is renowned for its wide use of
wildharvested resources in the human diet, and many studieshave
focused on wild edible plants [17-28]. These ethno-botanical
surveys not only play an important role in con-serving traditional
knowledge associated with WEPs, butalso contribute to nutritional
analysis of the most widelyused species [1,13]. Nutritional
analyses may provide sig-nificant information for the utilization
of those speciesthat have the best nutritional values, thus helping
tomaintain dietary diversity and improve local food secur-ity
[1,2,15].Diqing Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of Yunnan
Province, commonly known as the Shangri-la region, be-longs to
the world-famous area called Three Parallel Riv-ers (Nujiang River,
Lancang River and Jinsha River). It isthe core of the eastern
Himalayas and is regarded as abiodiversity hotspot [29]. Because of
its complex topog-raphy and high diversity of climates, abundant
plant andanimal species are distributed in this area [30,31].
Al-though Tibetans account for about 32.36% of the totalpopulation
of the whole prefecture and have a relativelywell-preserved and
distinct cultural identity, there arealso Lisu, Han, Naxi, Yi as
well as Bai populations,among whom mutual cultural influences have
existed fora long time [30,31]. Furthermore, the diet of
localTibetan people differs somewhat from that of Tibetansin Xizang
Autonomous Region. People living in theTibetan Plateau have a
limited range of food choices.The staple traditional diet includes
Tsampa (made fromhull-less barley), yak meat, mutton, buttered tea,
sweettea, barley wine and yogurt [32]. They seldom eat ve-getables
or fruits. On the other hand, because plantresources in Diqing
Prefecture are more plentiful, andlocal Tibetans are influenced by
other nationalities,they not only cultivate various crops, but also
collectwild edible plants as supplementary food. These WEPsprovide
various microelements, and are also an import-ant feature of local
agrobiodiversity in which Tibetanshave traditionally lived.
However, the ecology of DiqingTibetan Autonomous Prefecture is very
fragile, andagrobiodiversity is being rapidly lost due to many
naturaland human caused factors [33-35]. Many precious
plantresources that may have potential for future
sustainabledevelopment are vanishing before they have been
discov-ered. The reduction of plant diversity also leads to
theextinction of the associated indigenous knowledge [36].Thus,
documentation and evaluation of edible plantsand relevant local
knowledge is urgently needed. Thiswork may guide proper
conservation and sustainableutilization of those wild food plants
and related indigen-ous knowledge.Although there are several
ethnobotanical studies
concerning wild food plants used by ethnic minorities,such as
Mongolians [18,19], Miao in Hunan Province[21] and various ethnic
groups in Yunnan Province[5,17,26-28], to our knowledge,
information on WEPs ofthe Shangri-la region used by Tibetans has
not previouslybeen documented. In order to fill this gap,
ethnobotanicalsurveys were conducted throughout the prefecture.
Scien-tific and local names, plant parts used, modes of
prepar-ation, seasonality patterns in collection and use,
andcommercialization possibilities of the WEPs are presentedin this
paper.
MethodsStudy areaThe study was carried out in Diqing Tibetan
AutonomousPrefecture, northwest Yunnan, situated in the south of
theQinghai-Tibet Plateau of the eastern Himalayas, at thejunction
of Yunnan, Tibet and Sichuan Provinces (be-tween 9835-10019 E and
2652-2916 N) (Figure 1).Three counties, Shangri-la, Deqin and Weixi
are adminis-tered by the prefecture, with a total area of 23,870
squarekilometers and a population of about 400,000. The terrainis
higher in the north and lower in the south. The lowestaltitude,
1,480 m is at the junction of the Biyu andLancang Rivers in Weixi
County, and the highest altitude,6,740 m is Kawagebo Peak of the
Meili Snow Mountains.The climate of Diqing is divided into five
zones: 1)
-
Figure 1 Location of the area covered in an investigation into
the wild edible plants used by Tibetans in the Shangri-la
region,Yunnan, China.
Ju et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013, 9:28
Page 3 of 22http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/28northern
subtropical and warm temperate (below2500 m); 2) temperate
(25003000 m); 3) cold tem-perate (30004000 m); 4) frigid (40005000
m); and5) glacier (above 5000 m). Abundant plant resources
aredistributed in this area because of its unique
geographicallocation and climate diversity [31].
Field survey and data collectionPrior to our field work,
relevant literature was consultedto obtain information on the
topography, climate, andlocal culture of Diqing Prefecture, this
was helpful inchoosing the specific study sites [31]. Field studies
werecarried out during three visits in March, July and Au-gust,
2012. After considering the terrain and climatecondition, 29
villages belonging to three counties (8 inShangri-la, 3 in Weixi
and 18 in Deqin) and located inhigh mountains as well as lower
river valleys were ran-domly selected to carry out ethnobotanical
investigation(Table 1). Two-hundred and eighty-two randomly
se-lected households (eight to ten people per village)
weresurveyed. Ethnobotanical data were collected throughdifferent
interview methods (participatory rural appraisal(PRA), direct
observation, semi-structured interviews,key informant interviews,
individual discussions, focusgroup discussions and questionnaires)
[37-40].During our survey, the local Tibetan pronunciations,
parts used, collection period and preparation methodsplants were
recorded. Because local Tibetan pronuncia-tions differ from the
formal Tibetan pronunciation ofXizang Autonomous Region, and the
names of somespecies were even pronounced the same as in
MandarinChinese, we recorded the names phonetically exactly asthey
were spoken to us. Most Tibetans in Diqing Prefec-ture, especially
the official workers, students and traderscan speak basic Mandarin,
therefore our interviews werein Mandarin and did not use
interpreters.
-
Table 1 Villages surveyed in investigations of wild edible
plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region, YunnanProvince,
China
No. Name of village Latitude (north) Longitude (east)
Altitude(m)
1 Laza Village, Shangri-la County 274539.6 994022.8 3320
2 Jiefang Village, Shangri-la County 275146.8 994156.4 3280
3 Nishi Village, Shangri-la County 274721.8 994059.5 3290
4 Kaisong Village, Shangri-la County 275349.6 993821.5 3270
5 Dala Village, Shangri-la County 273112 995736 3370
6 Xiaozhongdian Village, Shangri-la County 273412 994759
3260
7 Xingfu Village, Shangri-la County 28827.6 992558.8 2230
8 Nixi Village, Shangri-la County 2841.2 992934.8 3170
9 Laohao Village, Weixi County 271054.1 991720.4 2260
10 Gongyuan Village, Weixi County 272150.35 99511.45 1690
11 Biluo Village, Weixi County 272522.8 99158.8 2630
12 Feilaisi Village, Deqin County 282631.2 985244.4 3390
13 Wunongding Village, Deqin County 282656.4 985446.8 3530
14 Mingyong Village, Deqin County 28288.4 984742 2270
15 Adunzi Village, Deqin County 282913.6 985438.9 3290
16 Gusong Village, Deqin County 282937.7 985410.1 3590
17 Adong Village, Deqin County 284546.8 983914.4 2690
18 Hongpo Village, Deqin County 28172.4 985418 2810
19 Guonian Village, Deqin County 281716.71 985149.61 2130
20 Jiulongding Village, Deqin County 282042 985313.2 2570
21 Sinong Village, Deqin County 28299.18 984733.42 2320
22 Badong Village, Deqin County 275739.6 98540 2240
23 Cizhong Village, Deqin County 280116.44 985416.14 1970
24 Gongka Village, Deqin County 283527.6 985212 3080
25 Jiunong Village, Deqin County 284328.77 98414.76 3160
26 Luwa Village, Deqin County 284030 984138.4 2290
27 Xiaruo Village, Deqin County 27483.77 99185.11 2040
28 Tuoding Village, Deqin County 274610.9 992537.2 1940
29 Benzilan Village, Deqin County 281436.83 99187.43 2150
Ju et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013, 9:28
Page 4 of 22http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/28Specimens were
examined and identified by the authorsand other taxonomists and
will be deposited in theHerbarium of the Minzu University of China
(Beijing).
Results and discussionWild food plant diversity and frequently
utilized speciesThe study area is floristically rich and has a
large num-ber of useful WEP species. The 168 species
documentedTable 2 Taxonomic distribution of wild edible plants used
by
Plant group Number of species
Angiosperm 153
Gymnosperm 4
Pteridophyte 4
Algae 2
Lichen 5
Total 168include angiosperms (153 spp.), gymnosperms (4),
pteri-dophytes (4), algae (2) and lichens (5) (Table 2), of
which41.1% are endemic to China and 11.9% endemic tonorthwestern
Yunnan Province. Details of utilization aregiven in Table 3 (plants
mentioned only by one informantare not documented in this list).
The average number ofspecies mentioned per informant is around ca.
8 species.Plants belonging to 62 families and 116 genera
areTibetans in Shangri-la region, Yunnan Province, China
Number of genera Number of families
101 47
4 4
4 4
2 2
5 5
116 62
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la
region, Yunnan Province, China
Latin name Local name Family name Distribution Parts used Local
use (edible only) Collectionperiod Additional local use(s)
Frequency
Actinidia arguta(Siebold et Zucc.)Planch. ex Miq.
Zhemenkoubu ActinidiaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits ripe fruits eaten fresh. Aug-SeptWhole plants used as
hedgeplants.
***
Actinidia pilosula(Finet et
Gagnep.) Stapfex Hand.-Mazz.
Zhemenkoubu ActinidiaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits ripe fruits eaten fresh. Aug-SeptWhole plants used as
hedgeplants.
**
Actinidia venosaRehder
Zhemenkoubu ActinidiaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits ripe fruits eaten fresh. Aug-SeptWhole plants used as
hedgeplants.
**
Adenophorakhasiana (Hook. f.et Thomson)
Collett et Hemsl.
Zheibamiedu CampanulaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Roots stewed with meat and eaten as tonic. Jul-Sept
Flowers and stems used forweisang. Aerial parts used asfodder.
Roots used to treatcough and clearing heat.
***
Alectoria sulcataNyl.
Shuhua UsneaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Whole plant stir-fried Jul-Sep *
Allium hookeriThwaites var.muliense Airy-
Shaw
Rijiucai LiliaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Aerial parts stir-fried or added to soups May-Aug ***
Allium ovalifoliumHand.-Mazz.
Rijiucai LiliaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Aerial parts stir-fried or added to soups May-Aug *****
Allium trifurcatum(F. T. Wang et T.Tang) J. M. Xu
Rijiucai LiliaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Aerial parts stir-fried or added to soups May-Aug ****
Amaranthuscaudatus L.
Yani AmaranthaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or added to soups Jun-Jul Aerial parts used as
fodder. ***
Amaranthushypochondriacus
L.Yani Amaranthaceae
Shangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or added to soups Jun-Jul Aerial parts used as
fodder. ***
Amygdalus mira(Koehne) Ricker
Yemaotao;Kamu
RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh. Jul-AugSeeds used to relieve a coughand cure
injuries.
***
Anemone rivularisBuch.-Ham. ex
DC.Huzhangcao Ranunculaceae Weixi Roots stewed with meat and
eaten as tonic Jun-Sept
Roots used to treat bronchitis.Whole plant used
asornamental.
*
Aralia caesiaHand.-Mazz.
Shutoucai Araliaceae Shangri-laYoungleaves andleaf buds
stir-fried or eaten fresh Apr-May ****
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la
region, Yunnan Province, China (Continued)
Aralia chinensis L. Gege AraliaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngleaves andleaf buds
stir-fried or eaten fresh Apr-May Bark used for weisang
*****
Arctium lappa L. Baomujicigen AsteraceaeShangri-la,Weixi
andDeqin
Roots stewed with meat and eaten as tonic. Jun-AugFruits, leaves
and roots used torelieve fever, and treat measles,dysentery and
gastropathy.
***
Arisaemaerubescens (Wall.)
SchottReduo Araceae
Shangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngleaves
stir-fried Jun-JulTubers used to relieve coughand treat
hemoptysis andpneumonia.
**
Aristolochiadelavayi Franch.
Ricaoko Aristolochiaceae Shangri-laWholeplants
stir-fried and used as spice Aug-SeptWhole plants used
asstomachic tonic.
***
Armeniaca mumeSiebold
Kangjue RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh. AugUsed as rootstock forArmeniaca
vulgaris.
*
Arundinaria faberiRendle
Sunzi PoaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
New shoots boiled or stir-fried Jul-AugAerial parts used as
fodder andto make bamboo wares.
*****
Berberis amoenaDunn
Qiesi BerberidaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngstems,leaves andfruits
eaten fresh May-SepWhole plants used as fenceand hedge
plants.
***
Berberisjamesiana Forrestet W. W. Sm.
Qiesi BerberidaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngstems,leaves andfruits
eaten fresh May-SepWhole plants used as fenceand hedge
plants.
***
Berberis pruinosaFranch.
Qiesi BerberidaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngstems,leaves andfruits
eaten fresh May-SepWhole plants used as fenceand hedge
plants.
***
Berberis weisiensisC. Y. Wu ex S. Y.
BaoQiesi Berberidaceae
Shangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngstems,leaves andfruits
eaten fresh May-SepWhole plants used as fenceand hedge
plants.
**
Berchemia hirtellaTsai et K. M. Feng
Zhila Rhamnaceae Deqin Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sep **
Berchemia hirtellaTsai et K. M. Feng
Zhila Rhamnaceae DeqinYoungleaves
used for making tea Apr-Jun **
Berchemia sinicaC. K. Schneid.
Zhila Rhamnaceae Deqin Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sep **
Berchemia sinicaC. K. Schneid.
Zhila Rhamnaceae DeqinYoungleaves
used for making tea Apr-Jun **
Boehmeriapenduliflora
Wedd. ex LongSejia Urticaceae Deqin
Youngstems andleaves
boiled or stir-fried Jun-Jul *
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la
region, Yunnan Province, China (Continued)
Boehmeriatricuspis (Hance)
MakinoSejia Urticaceae Deqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul *
Broussonetiapapyrifera (L.)L'Hr. ex Vent.
MoraceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Sep-OctLeaves used as fodder. Barkused for
papermaking.
*
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.)Medik.
Zijisuona BrassicaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Aerial part stir-fried May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder.
**
CardamineyunnanensisFranch.
Lijisuona BrassicaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Aerial part stir-fried May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder.
**
Cephalotaxusfortunei Hook.
var. alpina H. L. LiMiyou Cephalotaxaceae Weixi, Deqin Seeds
eaten fresh or stir-fried Sep-Oct
Plants used as fuel-wood.Seeds used to expel parasite.
*
Cerasusconadenia
(Koehne) T. T. Yuet C. L. Li
Xumumiedu RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-AugFlowers and leaves used forweisang
***
Cerasustomentosa
(Thunb.) Wall.Nuosi Rosaceae
Shangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Sept **
Chaenomelesspeciosa (Sweet)
NakaiSuomugua Rosaceae
Shangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruitsstewed with meat as spice and used to prepare
localwine
Sept-Oct ***
Chenopodiumalbum L.
Hui ChenopodiaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul Aerial parts used as fodder. ***
Cinnamomumglanduliferum(Wall.) Meisner
Xiangzhangzi LauraceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits stir-fried and used as spices Aug-SeptFruits used to
treatstomachache.
*
Cirsiumjaponicum
(Thunb.) Fisch. exDC.
Baimaci AsteraceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Roots stewed with meat and eaten as tonic Jun-AugYoung stems and
leaves usedas fodder.
***
Codonopsispilosula (Franch.)
Nannf. var.handeliana(Nannf.) L. T.
Shen
Dangshen CampanulaceaeDeqin andWeixi
Roots stewed with meat and eaten as tonic Jul-SeptAerial parts
used as fodder.Roots used to invigorate thespleen.
***
Coriarianepalensis Wall.
Masen Coriariaceae Weixi Fruits eaten fresh May-Jun *
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la
region, Yunnan Province, China (Continued)
Cornus capitataWall.
Jisuo; Jisuziguo CornaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptFruits, stems and leaves usedas
veterinary medicine.
***
Cornusmacrophylla Wall.
Dengtaishu CornaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil. Aug-Sept Plants used as
fuel-wood. **
Cornus schindleriWangerin
Saisaizi CornaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
seeds used for making vegetable oil Aug-Sept Plants used as
fuel-wood. **
Cornus ulotrichaC. K. Schneid. et
WangerinDengtaishu Cornaceae
Shangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
seeds used for making vegetable oil Aug-Sept Plants used as
fuel-wood. *
Corylus chinensisFranch.
Jilizi BetulaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making pastries Sept-OctWood used for
construction orfurniture.
**
Corylusyunnanensis
(Franch.) CamusShanbaiguo Betulaceae
Shangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making pastries Sept-OctWoods used for
constructionor furniture.
*
Cotinus coggygriaScop. var.
glaucophylla C. Y.Wu
Jiade Anacardiaceae Shangri-laYoungleaves
boiled or stir-fried May-JunWhole plants used asornamental.
*
Crataeguschungtienensis W.
W. Sm.Lubu Rosaceae
Weixi andShangri-la
Fruits eaten fresh SeptWhole plants used as fenceand hedge
plants.
***
Crataegus oresbiaW. W. Sm.
Lubu RosaceaeWeixi andShangri-la
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptWhole plants used as fenceand hedge
plants.
***
Cynanchumforrestii Schltr.
Babeda AsclepiadaceaeDeqin andWeixi
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-OctRoots stewed with meat andeaten to
treat rheumatism.
*
Davidiainvolucrata Baill.var. vilmoriniana(Dode) Wangerin
Labizi Nyssaceae Weixi Fruits eaten fresh Sept-OctWhole plant
used asornamental.
*
Debregeasiaorientalis C. J.
ChenJiaojia Urticaceae
Shangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to make local wine Jun-AugRoots used
to treat rheumatoidarthritis and broken bones.
*
Decaisnea insignis(Griff.) Hook. f. et
ThomsonXianli Lardizabalaceae
Shangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to make local wine Jul-AugRoots and
fruits used toclearing heat.
***
DioscoreamelanophymaPrain et Burkill
Huangshayue Dioscoreaceae Weixi Tubers boiled or stir-fried
Jun-Jul Aerial parts used as fodder. **
Diospyros lotus L. Tazhi EbenaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Sept-Oct ***
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la
region, Yunnan Province, China (Continued)
Duchesnea indica(Andrews) Focke
Dihongpao RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jun-Jul *
Elaeagnusmultiflora Thunb.
Cibie ElaeagnaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jun-Jul **
Elaeagnusumbellata Thunb.
Yangnaiguo ElaeagnaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Aug **
EriobotryasalwinensisHand.-Mazz.
RosaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jun-Aug Plants used as fuel-wood. *
Eutremadeltoideum(Hook. f. et
Thomson) O. E.Schulz
Limo BrassicaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder. **
Eutremaheterophyllum (W.W. Sm.) H. Hara
Limo BrassicaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder. **
EutremahimalaicumHook. f. etThomson
Limo BrassicaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder. **
Fagopyrumdibotrys (D. Don)
H. HaraWanao Polygonaceae Deqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder. *
Fargesiamelanostachys(Hand.-Mazz.) T.
P. Yi
Sunzi PoaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
New shoots boiled or stir-fried May-AugAerial parts used as
fodder andto make bamboo wares.
*****
Ficus pumila L. Dongshili MoraceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making bean jelly Jul-Aug Leaves used as fodder.
*
Ficus sarmentosaBuch.-Ham. ex
Sm.dongshili Moraceae
Shangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making bean jelly Jul-Aug Leaves used as fodder.
*
Foeniculumvulgare Mill.
Asi ApiaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jul **
Fragariamoupinensis
(Franch.) CardotGasuo Rosaceae
Shangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh. Jun-Jul Whole plants used as fodder. **
Galinsogaparviflora Cav.
Nawabijia AsteraceaeDeqin andWeixi
Youngstems andleaves
boiled or stir-fried Jun-Aug Whole plants used as fodder. *
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la
region, Yunnan Province, China (Continued)
Ginkgo biloba L. Baiguo Ginkgoaceae Deqin, Weixi Seeds eaten
fresh or stir-fried Sep-Oct Seeds used to treat asthma. *
Gnaphaliumaffine D. Don
Qingmincai Asteraceae WeixiYoungleaves
grounded with sticky rice to make rice cake. Apr-MayLeaves used
to treat cuts andgun shot wounds.
*
Herminiumlanceum (Thunb.ex Sw.) Vuijk
Lianxiongde Orchidaceae Shangri-la Whole plant stewed with meat
and eaten as tonic. Aug-Sep Whole plant used as fodder. *
Hippophaerhamnoides L.
subsp.yunnanensis
Rousi
Xiju ElaeagnaceaeDeqin.Shangri-la
Fruits eaten fresh or used to make beverage and wine.
Aug-OctFruits used to treat cough andinvigorate the circulation
ofblood.
*****
Houttuyniacordata Thunb.
Zhergen SaururaceaeWeixi,Shangri-la
Leaves androots
eaten fresh or stir-fried Jun-Jul ***
Juglans regia L. Daiga JuglandaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Seedseaten fresh or stir-fried, and used for making
vegetableoil.
Aug-Sept Plants used as fuel-wood. ***
Kalopanaxseptemlobus
(Thunb.) Koidz.Cilaobao Araliaceae
Shangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jun **
Lethariellacladonioides (Nyl.)
KrogGangge Parmeliaceae Deqin Whole plant used for making tea,
wine and beverage Aug-Oct
Used to tranquilize mind andclearing heat.
*
Leycesteriaformosa Wall.
Sezha Caprifoliaceae Deqin Fruits eaten fresh. Aug-Oct *
Ligusticumdaucoides
(Franch.) Franch.Riqincai Apiaceae Shangri-la
Wholeplants
stir-fried or added to soups Apr-May Aerial parts used as
fodder. ****
Lindera kariensisW. W. Sm.
Rihujiao Lauraceae Weixi, Deqin Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept
**
Lindera nacusua(D. Don) Merr.
Rihujiao Lauraceae Weixi Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept **
Linderaobtusiloba Blumevar. heterophylla(Meisn.) H. P. Tsui
Rihujiao Lauraceae Weixi Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept *
Lindera reflexaHemsl.
Rihujiao Lauraceae Weixi Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept *
Lobaria sp. Qingwapi StictaceaeShangri-laand Weixi
Aerial part eaten fresh Jul-SeptWhole plant used to
treatdyspepsia.
*
Lycopus lucidusTurcz. ex Benth.
Ganluo Lamiaceae Shangri-laYoungstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried or used for making pickle Jul-Aug
**
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la
region, Yunnan Province, China (Continued)
MahoniaduclouxianaGagnep.
Jisa Berberidaceae Deqin Fruits eaten fresh. Aug-SepWhole plants
used as hedgeplants.
*
Maianthemumatropurpureum
(Franch.)LaFrankie
Zhuyecai;Nibai LiliaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngshoots andleaves
stir-fried or added to soups May-Jun Aerial parts used as
fodder. *****
Maianthemumforrestii (W. W.
Smith) LaFrankieZhuyecai;Nibai Liliaceae
Shangri-laand Weixi
Youngshoots andleaves
stir-fried or added to soups May-Jun Aerial parts used as
fodder. ****
Maianthemumhenryi (Baker)LaFrankie
Zhuyecai;Nibai LiliaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngshoots andleaves
stir-fried or added to soups May-Jun Aerial parts used as
fodder. ****
Maianthemumoleraceum (Baker)
LaFrankieZhuyecai;Nibai Liliaceae
Weixi,Shangri-la
Youngshoots andleaves
stir-fried or added to soups May-Jun Aerial parts used as
fodder. ***
Maianthemumpurpureum(Wallich)LaFrankie
Zhuyecai;Nibai LiliaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngshoots andleaves
stir-fried or added to soups May-Jun Aerial parts used as
fodder. *****
Maianthemumtatsienense(Franct.)LaFrankie
Zhuyecai;Nibai Liliaceae Shangri-laYoungshoots andleaves
stir-fried or added to soups May-Jun Aerial parts used as
fodder. ****
Malus rockiiRehder
Tangli RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh SeptPlants used as fuel-wood, androotstock
for Malus pumila.Whole plants used as fence.
***
Malus spectabilis(Ait.) Borkh.
Haitangguo RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptFruits decoction used to treatdark
urine.
**
Malva verticillataL.
Jiangba Malvaceae DeqinYoungstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-AugLeaves, stems and seeds usedas fodder. Whole
plant used asornamental.
*
Matteucciastruthiopteris (L.)
TadaroHuangguaxiang Onocleaceae
Shangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Immaturefronds
eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jun ****
Medicagolupulina L.
Mocuo FabaceaeDeqin,Shangri-la
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried Jun-JulLeaves, stems, flowers andseeds
used as fodder.
*
Megacarpaeadelavayi Franch.
Yuose BrassicaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder. **
Megacarpaeapolyandra Benth.
ex MaddenYuose Brassicaceae
Shangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder. **
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la
region, Yunnan Province, China (Continued)
Menthacanadensis L.
Qiubi LamiaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried Jun-Aug **
NostocsphaerioidesKtzing
Shuimuer Nostocaceae Shangri-la Whole plant eaten fresh or added
to soups Jun-JulWhole plant used to treatburns and scalds.
*
Metapanaxdelavayi (Franch.)J. Wen et Frodin
Araliaceae Deqin, WeixiYoungleaves
used for making tea Apr-MayWhole plants used as hedgeplants.
*
Ophioglossumreticulatum L.
Yimuyidun Ophioglossaceae Shangri-laImmaturefronds
stir-fried or added to soups Jul-AugWhole plants used to
treatimpotence and lumbago.
*
Opuntiamonacantha(Willd.) Haw.
Xianrenguo CactaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-SepTubers and fruits used asfodder. Whole
plants used asfence and hedge plants.
***
Oreorchis indica(Lindl.) Hook. f.
Xiabaji OrchidaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Pseudobulbs boiled or stir-fried Jun-AugWhole plants used as
fodder.Pseudobulbs used to stopbleeding and detumescence.
*
Osmundajaponica Thunb.
Shuijuecai Osmundaceae WeixiImmaturefronds
stir-fried May-Jun ***
Osteomelesschwerinae C. K.
Schneid.Sele Rosaceae
Shangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptLeaves and fruits used asfodder.
**
Panax japonicus(T. Nees) C. A.
Meyer var. major(Burkill) C. Y. Wuet K. M. Feng
Gedeqi Araliaceae Shangri-laYoungstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried May-JunWhole plants used as
fodder.Roots used to stop bleeding.
***
Panax japonicus(T. Nees) C. A.
Meyer var. major(Burkill) C. Y. Wuet K. M. Feng
Gedeqi Araliaceae Shangri-la Rhizomes stewed with meat and eaten
as tonic. Jul-AugWhole plants used as fodder.Rhizomes used to
stopbleeding.
***
Pentapanaxhenryi Harms
AraliaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried Apr-May **
Photiniaglomerata
Rehder et E. H.Wilson
Chongsi Rosaceae Deqin Fruits eaten fresh Sept *
Phyllanthusemblica L.
Ganlan Euphorbiaceae Shangri-la Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Sept
Barks used to extract tannin. ***
Phytolaccaacinosa Roxb.
Tuoqiong Phytolaccaceae DeqinYoungstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried Jul-AugRoots used to
promotediuresis.
*
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la
region, Yunnan Province, China (Continued)
PinelliapedatisectaSchott
Luoa Araceae DeqinYoungleaves
stir-fried Jun-JulCorms used to treat vomit andreduce
phlegm.
*
Pinus armandiiFranch.
Seitu; Songzi PinaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sept-Oct
Leaves and stems used forweisang. Needles used asfodder. Plants
used as fuel-wood.
**
Pistaciaweinmanniifolia J.Poiss. ex Franch.
Li Anacardiaceae Deqin Fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptLeaves and
stems used forweisang. Leaves and fruits usedas fodder.
****
Plantago asiaticaL.
Hamaye PlantaginaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Wholeplants
boiled or stir-fried Jun-AugLeaves, stems, flowers andseeds used
as fodder.
***
Plantago major L. Hamaye PlantaginaceaeShangri-la,Weixi
andDeqin
Wholeplants
boiled or stir-fried Jun-AugLeaves, stems, flowers andseeds used
as fodder.
***
Potentillaanserina L.
Chuomo RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Roots eaten fresh or boiled Jun-SeptLeaves, stems and fruits
usedas fodder. Roots used tocontrol leukorrhea flow.
***
Potentillacoriandrifolia D.Don var. dumosa
Franch.
Zumuyasha RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Roots eaten after boiling Jun-Sept Whole plants used as fodder.
*
Potentillaleuconota D. Don
Pagu RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Roots eaten after boiling Jun-Sept Whole plants used as fodder.
*
Prasiolasubareolata Skuja.
Shihuacai Prasiolaceae Shangri-laWholeplants
eaten fresh or added to soups Jun-Jul *
Prinsepia utilisRoyle
Qingciguo RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug ***
Pteridiumaquilinum (L.)Kuhn var.
latiusclum (Desv.)Underw. ex A.
Heller
Zhila PteridaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Immaturefronds
eaten fresh or stir-fried May-JulWhole plant used to
treatrheumatism or for clearingheat.
****
Pyracanthafortuneana
(Maxim.) H. L. LiSare Rosaceae
Shangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Sept-Oct *
Pyrus betulifoliaBunge
Reli RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Oct *
Pyrus calleryanaDecne.
Xialie RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Oct *
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la
region, Yunnan Province, China (Continued)
Pyrus pashiaBuch.-Ham. ex D.
DonSuilun Rosaceae
Shangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Oct **
Pyruspseudopashia T.
T. YuSuilun Rosaceae
Shangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept **
Ramalinafastigiata (Pers.)
Ach.Shuhua Ramalinaceae Whole plant Whole plant stir-fried
Jul-Sept *
Rheumlikiangense Sam.
Mojue PolygonaceaeShangri-laand Deqin
Youngleaves
eaten fresh Jun-AugRoots used to remove bloodstasis.
*
Ribes alpestreWall. ex Decne.
Suanmiguoguo SaxifragaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local wine Aug-SeptWhole
plants used as fenceand hedge plants.
***
Ribes moupinenseFranch.
Hiangshen SaxifragaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local wine Jul-OctLeaves,
stems and fruits usedfor weisang. Whole plants usedas fence and
hedge plants.
***
Ribes glacialeWall.
Niangxu SaxifragaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptLeaves and stems used forweisang.
Whole plants used asfence and hedge plants.
***
Rosa omeiensisRolfe
Xuwabala RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-SeptWhole plants used as fenceand
ornamental.
***
Rosa praelucensByhouwer
Xielermiedu Rosaceae Shangri-la Fruits eaten fresh
Sept-OctFlowers used for weisang.Whole plant used asornamental.
***
Rosa soulieanaCrp.
Xuwabala RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptWhole plants used as fenceand
ornamental.
**
Rubus assamensisFocke
Hongpai;Yongde
RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Whole plants used as fence. **
Rubus fockeanusKurz
Hongpai;Yongde
RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Whole plants used as fence. *
Rubus niveusThunb.
Hongpai;Yongde
RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Whole plants used as fence. **
Rubus pectinellusMaxim.
Jiaoxumu RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptLeaves and stems used forweisang.
Whole plants used asfence.
***
Rubuspentagonus Wall.
ex Focke
Hongpai;Yongde
RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Whole plants used as fence. **
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la
region, Yunnan Province, China (Continued)
RubuspolyodontusHand.-Mazz.
Hongpai;Yongde
RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Whole plants used as fence. *
Rubusrubrisetulosus
Cardot
Hongpai;Yongde
RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Whole plants used as fence. **
Rubus stansFocke
Hongpai;Yongde
RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Whole plants used as fence. **
Sageretia thea(Osbeck) M. C.
Johnst.Luozi Rhamnaceae Deqin Fruits eaten fresh Apr-May *
Sambucuschinensis Lindl.
Debangqiongjie CaprifoliaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Sept Aerial parts used as fodder. ***
Schisandrarubriflora
(Franch.) Rehderet E. H. Wilson
Wuweizi SchisandraceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local wine Aug-OctFruits
used as antidiarrheic andfor invigorating kidney. Wholeplant used
as ornamental.
***
Sinopodophyllumhexandrum
(Royle) T. S. YingAgabule Berberidaceae
Shangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Sept
Roots, stems and leaves usedto clear heat. Seeds used tocure
antenatal pain and helpexpelling placenta. Whole plantused as
ornamental.
**
Spiranthessinensis (Pers.)
AmesXiaobaiji Orchidaceae Shangri-la Whole plant stewed with
meat and eaten as tonic Aug-Sept Whole plants used as fodder. *
Stachyskouyangensis(Vaniot) Dunnvar. franchetiana(H. Lv.) C. Y.
Wu
Riganlu LamiaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Tubers boiled or stir-fried Jun-Sept Whole plants used as
fodder. *
TaraxacummongolicumHand.-Mazz.
Yongma AsteraceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Wholeplants
boiled or stir-fried Jun-Aug Whole plants used as fodder.
***
Taxillus chinensis(DC.) Danser
Yawakeqi Loranthaceae Deqin Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Oct **
Taxillus thibetensis(Lecomte) Danser
Yawakeqi Loranthaceae Deqin Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Oct ***
Thamnoliavermicularis Ach.
Xiare ThamnoliaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Whole plant used for making tea, wine and beverage Aug-OctUsed
to tranquilize mind andclear heat.
*
Thlaspi arvense L. Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used
as fodder. **
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la
region, Yunnan Province, China (Continued)
Thlaspi arvense L. Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as
fodder. **
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch.
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle. May-Jun Aerial parts used
as fodder. **
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch.
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as
fodder. **
Tibetia himalaica(Baker) H. P. Tsui
FabaceaeDeqin,Shangri-la
Roots eaten fresh Jun-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder. *
Toona sinensis(Juss.) Roem.
MeliaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Leaf buds eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jun **
Torreya fargesiiFranch. var.
yunnanensis (C. Y.Cheng et L. K.Fu) N. Kang
Shasongguo TaxaceaeWeixi,Shangri-la
seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sept-OctLeaves and stems used
forweisang. Plants used as fuel-wood.
*
Toxicodendronsuccedaneum (L.)
KuntzeSi Anacardiaceae
Weixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted
from fruits touse in varnish and polish.
*
Toxicodendronvernicifluum(Stokes) F. A.
Barkley
Si AnacardiaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted
from fruits forusing in varnish and polish.
*
Triosteumhimalayanum
Wall.Sachi Caprifoliaceae Shangri-la Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept
Aerial parts used as fodder. *
Typhoniumdiversifolium Wall.
ex SchottBanxia Araceae Shangri-la
Youngleaves
used for making pickle Jul-Aug **
Urtica fissa E.Pritz.
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul **
Urtica mairei H.Lv.
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul **
ViburnumbetulifoliumBatalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
*
Viburnumkansuense Batalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
*
Vitis betulifoliaDiels et Gilg
Geng VitaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Oct Leaves used as fodder. **
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la
region, Yunnan Province, China (Continued)
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim.
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried Apr-May ****
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim.
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin
Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept *****
Frequency: ***** > 75% of respondents; **** > 50% of
respondents; *** > 1/4 of respondents; ** > 1/8 of
respondents; * < 1/8 of respondents, but at least 2
respondents.
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Ju et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013, 9:28
Page 18 of 22http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/28distributed
into different life forms, with herbs (43.5%)and shrubs (26.8%)
having the most species, similar to asurvey conducted in Yunnan
Province [17] and another inHunan Province [21]. The majority of
food plants belongto the Rosaceae (34 species), Liliaceae (9),
Brassicaceae(9), Araliaceae (6) and Berberidaceae (6). The
generarepresented by the highest number of species are Rubus(8
species), followed by Maianthemum (6), Berberis (4),Cornus (4),
Lindera (4) and Pyrus (4).The most frequently used parts are
fruits, young leaves
and stems (Figure 2). This result is similar to
otherinvestigations, such as a study of the Shuhi people in
theHengduan Mountains (southwest China) [24], studies
inXishuangbanna, southern Yunnan (China) [26,28] andsurveys among
Inner Mongolian herdsmen [18]. Thepreference for wild collected
leafy vegetables and fruitsover underground plant parts seems to be
commonamong diverse ethnic groups in China and the Himalayanarea,
and might be due to the ease of collecting aboveground parts [24].
Collection period varies from April toAugust (for young leaves and
stems) and July to October(for fruits and seeds). Most plant parts
are collected insummer and autumn (Table 3). These plants are often
driedin the sun after collection and stored (a very common
pre-serving technique [22]) until winter. Most uses are specificto
a particular plant part (such as young leaf, new shoot orripe
fruit), although in a few cases a single plant part hasdifferent
uses, e.g., seeds of Juglans regia are eaten fresh orused to make
vegetable oil. More than one plant part isused for about 7% of the
species. For example, youngleaves and stems of Panax japonicus var.
major are usedas a vegetable, while rhizomes are stewed with meat
andeaten as a tonic. Leaves of Thlaspi yunnanense are used asa
vegetable, while vegetable oil is made from the seeds.Figure 2 Use
frequency of wild edible plant parts of speciesused by Tibetans in
the Shangri-la region, Yunnan, China.Young leaves, stems and fruits
of Berberis amoena, B.jamesiana, B. pruinosa and B. eisiensis are
eaten fresh.Young stems and leaves of Zanthoxylum bungeanum
areboiled or stir-fried, and the fruits as a condiment. Fruits
ofBerchemia hirtella and B. sinica are eaten fresh and theyoung
leaves to make tea. In total, vegetable (41.9%) is themost used
category followed by fruit (40.8%) (Table 4).Ripe fruits are often
eaten fresh, green leafy vegetativeparts (e.g., young leaves and
stems) are usually boiled orstir-fried, less commonly they are
eaten fresh as salad oradded to soups. All these plants are used as
ingredientsfor the hot pot, since Tibetans in this region like hot
potvery much.These wild edible plants play an important role in
providing local Tibetans with various vital nutritionelements,
such as vitamins and minerals needed tomaintain health and promote
immunity against disease.For example, butter rice with ginseng
fruits is a famousand traditional Tibetan dish. Ginseng fruits are
theroots of Potentilla anserina, a perennial herb, and wasreported
to have low fat, high dietary fiber, all essentialamino acids,
various mineral elements and vitamins [41].Other wild vegetables
and fruits frequently used by localTibetans include Maianthemum
atropurpureum, Alliumovalifolium, Aralia chinensis, Hippophae
rhamnoides subsp.yunnanensis and Amygdalus mira, which are all
mentionedby nearly every respondent.
Multiple uses of wild edible plantsIn addition to edible use,
71.4% of the reported wild edibleplants (120 species) have
additional uses (Tables 3 and 5).Such species are common in rural
areas and are importantto local people [12,42]. They not only
balance the nutri-tional value of starchy diets (compensating for
lack ofseveral vitamins, proteins and minerals), but may also
pro-vide pharmacologically active compounds. The multipleuses
attest to the importance of these plants for subsist-ence and as a
part of local cultural heritage [12]. Thirty-one species (18.5%)
are also used as medicine, most areherbs (19 species) or trees (6
species). These medicinalplants are used to treat gastropathy,
cough, fever, rheuma-tism, dysentery, fractures, dyspepsia,
hemoptysis, andTable 4 Specific edible uses of wild edible plants
used byTibetans in Shangri-la region, Yunnan, China
Specific use Number of plants
vegetable 80
fruit 78
wine 11
vegetable oil 9
spice 8
tea 5
Total 191
-
Table 5 Types of multiple uses for edible wild plantsutilized by
Tibetans in Shangri-la region, Yunnan, China
Kind of usage Number of species Percentage
Edible 168 100.0
Fodder 52 31.0
Medicinal 31 18.5
Fence 22 13.1
Ornamental 11 6.5
Weisanga 10 6.0
Fuel-wood 9 5.4
Construction 4 2.4aThe religious rite of burning offerings for
smoke, which plays an importantrole in local Tibetans daily
life.
Ju et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013, 9:28
Page 19 of 22http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/28asthma. For a
few species, the same part is not only usedas food, but is also
used for medicinal purposes. Forexample, the roots of Anemone
rivularis are stewed withmeat and eaten as tonic by local people,
and the decoctionof them are used to treat bronchitis.WEPs can
provide resources for future exploitation of
new health foods. As living standards improve, there is
aglobally increased demand for healthy and safe food [21].Compared
to conventional, cultivated vegetables, wildfood plants require
less care, are not affected by pesticidepollution, and are a rich
source of micronutrients.However destructive harvesting is a
significant con-
cern and in the present study this was documented tooccur in at
least 21 species used for medicine, the under-ground parts (root,
tuber and corm) of fourteen speciesand the whole plant of seven
species. This manner ofharvest may have a serious consequence from
both thesurvival of plants and from an ecological point of
view[43]. The conservation and sustainable utilization of spe-cies
with multiple uses should be taken into consideration.Fifty-two
species (31%) were used as fodder. For ex-
ample Potentilla coriandrifolia var. dumosa is regardedas
high-quality forage at high altitude (35004300 m).Further study of
its nutrient composition can be done inorder to understand the
rationale for its usage and de-velopment potential.Ten species have
cultural significance in a religious rite
named weisang, during which specific plants are burnedfor smoke.
These are Adenophora khasiana, Araliachinensis, Cerasus conadenia,
Pinus armandii, Pistaciaweinmanniifolia, Ribes moupinense, Ribes
glaciale, Rosapraelucens, Rubus pectinellus and Torreya fargesii
var.yunnanensis. This rite plays an important role in Tibetansdaily
life, and it is said that the fragrance in the smoke cannot only
make the mountain god pleased, but also wash dirtythings away from
people. Tibetans pray for good harvest,good fortune, happiness and
prosperity in this manner.Most preferred species and their
commercial potentialBesides food value, the recorded species
provide the possi-bility to supplement household income of rural
people withlimited cash income opportunities [44]. In our
survey,the most preferred plants (mentioned by more than 50%of
respondents) include Maianthemum, Allium, Aralia,Arundinaria
faberi, Fargesia melanostachys, Pteridiumaquilinum var. latiusclum,
Matteuccia struthiopteris,Zanthoxylum bungeanum, Ligusticum
daucoides, Hip-pophae rhamnoides subsp. yunnanensis and
Pistaciaweinmanniifolia. All these plants are collected from
re-mote mountains by local people and traded in localmarkets, which
provides the possibility to increase theincome of rural people with
low cash income.Maianthemum species (zhuyecai or bamboo-leaved
vegetable) are the most frequently mentioned wildvegetable. In
Diqing Prefecture, the leaves of six speciesare eaten (M.
atropurpureum, M. forrestii, M. henryi, M.oleraceum, M. purpureum
and M. tatsienense). They areadded to soups, stir-fried with bacon
or eaten raw assalad. Several studies have focused on the
nutritionalanalysis of zhuyecai and found they contained
higheramount of protein, essential amino acids, vitamin C
andmineral elements compared with some common vegeta-bles [45-47].
Although local people do not use them asmedicine, Maianthemum
species were reported for medi-cinal use since ancient times. For
instance, M. japonicaand M. henryi are employed to treat kidney
diseases,activate blood circulation and alleviate pain [44,48].
M.atropurpurea contains a variety of steroidal saponins
andnucleosides which may possess anti-tumor activities[49-51].
Three new steroidal saponins having cytotoxicproperties against
human cancer cells were isolated fromM. japonica [52]. Zhuyecai
also has commercial value. Inthe market the price varied from 12
CNY (Chinese yuan)to 40 CNY (ca. 1 USD= 6.5 CNY) per kilogram
(freshweight) from April to June, an important source of
cashincome. And in restaurants, one dish (prepared fromabout 500 g)
costs 1838 CNY during another season.Another renowned edible plant,
shutoucai, includes
two species, Aralia caesia and A. chinensis. Leaf budsand young
leaves are edible and are collected from Aprilto May. Researchers
have reported that the tendershoots of A. chinensis contain many
oleanolic acids andseven essential amino acids [53]. One local
company in-tends to exploit this wild vegetable
commercially.Hippophae rhamnoides subsp. yunnanensis, endemic tothe
Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, has both food and medicinalvalues. Its
fruits are eaten fresh or used to make beverageand wine, and also
used to treat cough and invigorate thecirculation of blood.In the
present study, we found that taste is the first
criterion for all types of food plants, in agreement withother
surveys [54]. However, taste itself is not strong
-
Ju et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013, 9:28
Page 20 of 22http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/28enough to
construct a reliable priority list for future con-servation,
domestication and exploitation. Further detailednutrition analysis
and phytochemical investigation shouldbe undertaken to
comprehensively evaluate food and medi-cinal value of these most
preferred plants, which couldprovide scientific and important
information.It is generally believed that local people are more
likely
to support and participate in conservation initiatives ifthey
can receive direct benefits from such efforts [55]. Ifmanaged
sustainably, these plants could be a goodmeans of income generation
for rural communities.Market surveys, value chain analyses and the
risk ofoverexploitation should be assessed thoroughly
[13,56].Maianthemum populations (zhuyecai) are becoming rarein
Shangri-la County although there were rich resources20 years ago.
Uprooting and harvesting the entire plantduring collection were
observed and identified as causesof decline for Sinopodophyllum
hexandrum, Aristolochiadelavayi, Megacarpaea delavayi and
Codonopsis pilosulavar. handeliana. Because few people in this area
areaware of sustainable harvesting, the conservation andproper
utilization of these species should be taught.
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and
cropproductionCrop wild relatives (CWRs) are species that are
closely re-lated to crops including crop progenitors. These wild
rela-tives of domesticated crops may provide genes havinghigher
resistance to adverse circumstance that could proveparticularly
important in response to global climate change,which will
undoubtedly alter the environmental conditionsunder which our crops
grow and dramatically impactagriculture [4,57,58]. CWRs are also of
great importance tomaintain the productivity and stability of
traditional agro-ecosystems [59,60]. Conservation of these species
ensuresthat diverse genetic resources are preserved and could
beused in the improvement of crops as a contribution to 21st
century food security [4,7,8]. The main options for
CWRsconservation are ex situ in gene banks and in situ in
thenatural or farmed environment [59,61,62]. It is widely
rec-ognized that in situ is necessary to conserve the full rangeof
genetic diversity inherent in and between plant popula-tions, with
ex situ techniques as a backup [58]. Taxon in-ventory is the
starting point for in situ conservation whichprovides the baseline
data critical for biodiversity assess-ment and monitoring [63].
Some of the wild relatives offruit, vegetable and spice crops
documented in this studyare species of Actinidia, Allium,
Amaranthus, Amygdalus,Arctium, Armeniaca, Capsella, Cerasus,
Crataegus,Dioscorea, Diospyros, Eriobotrya, Foeniculum,
Fragaria,Hippophae, Juglans, Malus, Mentha, Pyrus, Toona, Vitisand
Zanthoxylum. Take Amygdalus mira as an example.Due to its
advantageous traits, such as high adaptabilityand longevity,
resistance to disease and tolerance todrought and cold, it could be
a genetic resource for peachimprovement. Another case is Pyrus
betulifolia, which isusually used as stock to graft various pear
cultivars. It isdrought resistant, cold tolerant and long living,
making it agood candidate for providing useful genes to improve
thequality of pears. Young leaves of Allium ovalifolium couldbe
eaten as vegetables, and leaves are relatively larger thanthose of
other Chinese chives. Thus, it might be used as asource for
breeding new variety of chives. Two otherspecies, Rosa omeiensis
and R. praelucens have edible andornamental uses and exhibit high
cold tolerance. They mayprovide beneficial genes for future study
and exploitation indeveloping new crops.Issues of conservationWild
edible plant species are threatened by various naturalcauses and
human activities [4,34]. Extreme weathercaused by global climate
change, such as heavy snow andsevere droughts, has resulted in the
decrease and even lossof many wild food plant populations. Various
human ac-tivities such as land use change, habitat destruction,
over-harvesting and over-grazing, are major threats. In
recentyears, with the construction of roads, airports,
reservoirsand other infrastructure, wild habitats for edible
plantswere severely impacted. Unsustainable harvesting of foodplant
species with good market price also contributes to adecrease of
these plants.Threats are not only limited to wild food plants
them-
selves, the traditional knowledge associated with WEPs isalso
endangered. Therefore, systematic documentation ofindigenous
knowledge and biological resources is of greatsignificance [55,64].
Along with economic developmentand increasing income, only a few
people want to collectwild edible plants. The younger generation is
becomingless interested in them, thus causing the loss of
traditionalknowledge. In Shangri-la County tourism is booming
andlocal people eagerly want to serve as guides or drivers
intourist areas to pursue more money. With the conveni-ence of
transportation, residents can buy much morevegetables from the
markets than ever before and do notneed to collect wild species.
However, in more remoterural communities where transportation is
still inconveni-ent and people seldom go to the market,
indigenousknowledge about WEPs is relatively intact. In DeqinCounty
much land has been converted to grape cultivationto develop a wine
industry and agricultural chemicals areused frequently, causing the
decrease of various wild ed-ible species, and even cultivation of
the very importantspecies, hull-less barley, Hordeum vulgare, the
staple foodof Tibetan communities [65,66] is threatened. During
oursurvey we found that most people are reluctant to culti-vate
hull-less barley now because planting grapes canbring more cash
income.
-
Ju et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013, 9:28
Page 21 of
22http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/28ConclusionThis paper is
the first ethnobotanical study of wildfood plants used by local
Tibetans in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture. As plant resources
in thisarea are rather plentiful, and under the influence ofother
ethnic groups, local Tibetans not only cultivatevarious crops, but
also collect wild edible plants asfood. Our survey showed the
diversity of WEPs andrelated indigenous knowledge in this
area.Different parts of plants are used by local people, and
the most frequently used parts were fruits, young leavesand
stems. These plants have different specific food uses,with leafy
vegetable uses being most frequent, followedby fruit uses. WEPs
provide food and nutrients to localcommunities, such as essential
amino acids, various vita-mins and minerals which are needed to
keep healthyand enhance immunity against diseases and infections.If
properly harvested, WEPs could be the source of
cash income for local people with low cash incomebecause they
are enjoyed by local people very much andoften traded in markets.
Furthermore, with the increaseddemand for green, healthy and safe
food in modern soci-ety, wild food resources have attracted global
interest be-cause they are pollution-free and contain
numerousimportant micronutrients and pharmacologically
activesubstances. In order to properly utilize the wild food
re-sources, we have some suggestions: 1) properly exploitand
improve conservation and management of wild foodplants; 2) focus on
scientific research on wild food re-sources; 3) protect the natural
environment and habitatfor wild food plants.In addition to food
value, more than 50% of recorded
plants have medicinal, ornamental, and cultural andother uses
that are important in local Tibetan culture.Furthermore, some are
crop wild relatives and couldprovide useful genes for crop
improvement, which mayhave significant consequence on global food
security.However, along with the development of economy,
thesemulti-valued resources are threatened by human activitiesand
natural causes, and associated traditional knowledgeis eroding
rapidly. Therefore, sustainable management ofthese resources as
well as conserving biodiversity is of theutmost importance.In a
word, our ethnobotanical surveys provide data
and information basis for conservation and
sustainableutilization of local wild edible plants, and also
contributeto preserve cultural and genetic diversity in Diqing
TibetanAutonomous Prefecture.
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no
competing interests.
Authors contributionsCLL designed the study. YJ, BL and JXZ
performed the field survey. YJdrafted the manuscript, BL revised
the manuscript. CLL revised and finalizedthe manuscript. All
authors read and approved the final manuscript.AcknowledgementsWe
are thankful to the local people for their assistances in the
fieldinvestigations and for sharing their valuable knowledge. Dr.
Kendrick Marrfrom the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria,
BC, Canada, kindlyhelped to edit the English and provided
professional comments. We are verygrateful to his assistances.
Members of Ethnobotanical Laboratory at MinzuUniversity of China,
and Research Group of Ethnobotany at KunmingInstitute of Botany,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, participated in the fieldwork and
discussion. This research was funded by the National
ScienceFoundation of China (31161140345), the Ministry of Education
of China throughits 111 and 985 projects (B08044, MUC98506-01000101
& MUC985-9), and theAsian COPE Program of Japan Society for the
Promotion of Science (JSPS/AP/109080).
Author details1College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu
University of China,Beijing 100081, PR China. 2School of Agronomy
and Biotechnology, YunnanAgricultural University, Kunming 650201,
PR China. 3Kunming Institute ofBotany, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Kunming 650201, PR China.
Received: 23 January 2013 Accepted: 5 April 2013Published: 19
April 2013
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doi:10.1186/1746-4269-9-28Cite this article as: Ju et al.:
Eating from the wild: diversity of wildedible plants used by
Tibetans in Shangri-la region, Yunnan, China.Journal of
Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 9:28.
AbstractBackgroundMethodsResultsConclusion
BackgroundMethodsStudy areaField survey and data collection
Results and discussionWild food plant diversity and frequently
utilized speciesMultiple uses of wild edible plantsMost preferred
species and their commercial potentialCrop wild relatives for
genetic improvement and crop productionIssues of conservation
ConclusionCompeting interestsAuthors
contributionsAcknowledgementsAuthor detailsReferences
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