Earth Science Classes Course Requirements, Syllabus, and Review Topics by unit.

Earth Science ClassesEarth Science Classes

Course Requirements, Syllabus, Course Requirements, Syllabus, and Review Topics by unitand Review Topics by unit

Contact InformationContact Information

I can be reached: by calling the I can be reached: by calling the school school (718) 463-3111(718) 463-3111

My email is My email is [email protected]@aol.com

My website address is My website address is www.TeachPhysics.comwww.TeachPhysics.com

My webpage on the school My webpage on the school website is: website is: www.QueensAcademyHS.comwww.QueensAcademyHS.com

Classroom RulesClassroom Rules

Be on time for class – that means in Be on time for class – that means in your seat when the bell ringsyour seat when the bell rings

Be prepared for class with writing Be prepared for class with writing materials – pen and papermaterials – pen and paper

No hats or do-rags in classNo hats or do-rags in class No electronics in class including cell No electronics in class including cell

phonesphones Be respectful of othersBe respectful of others Absolutely no food in classAbsolutely no food in class

What is needed for this What is needed for this class?class? A pen or pencil and a notebook A pen or pencil and a notebook

everyday. everyday. A copy of the Earth Science A copy of the Earth Science

reference tables (supplied)reference tables (supplied) These are available in languages These are available in languages

besides English – just askbesides English – just ask A binder to hold handouts, class A binder to hold handouts, class

work and home works. work and home works. You will also need an inexpensive You will also need an inexpensive

calculator capable of basic arithmetic calculator capable of basic arithmetic for homework assignments. for homework assignments.

Grades in Earth ScienceGrades in Earth Science

35% 35% Exams, quizzes, Exams, quizzes,

mid-terms and finalsmid-terms and finals 35% 35% Class participationClass participation 10% 10% HomeworkHomework 20%20% Laboratory ActivitiesLaboratory Activities

Grading policiesGrading policies

Rubrics show student performance Rubrics show student performance levels.levels.

To inform students of the expectations I To inform students of the expectations I have for them, and to make grading more have for them, and to make grading more objective, I use rubrics extensively in objective, I use rubrics extensively in determining grades. This lets students see determining grades. This lets students see precisely what areas of a task they were precisely what areas of a task they were successful on, and which areas need successful on, and which areas need improvement. Rubrics are passed out to improvement. Rubrics are passed out to students before assignments so they know students before assignments so they know what is expected of them when they are what is expected of them when they are given the task. given the task.

Tests are worth 35%Tests are worth 35%

These include quizzes, open book and take-home These include quizzes, open book and take-home tests, and full-period exams, including the mid-term tests, and full-period exams, including the mid-term and final. Generally, to keep the values of these and final. Generally, to keep the values of these assessments proportional to their length and assessments proportional to their length and importance, I make each question worth 1 point. In importance, I make each question worth 1 point. In this way a short quiz with 10 questions is worth half this way a short quiz with 10 questions is worth half as much as a test with 20 questions. Full-period as much as a test with 20 questions. Full-period exams have some questions that require a more exams have some questions that require a more lengthy answer than a multiple-choice question and lengthy answer than a multiple-choice question and may have be worth two or three points while the may have be worth two or three points while the entire exam is worth 40-50 points. To increase the entire exam is worth 40-50 points. To increase the significance of the mid-term and final, these are significance of the mid-term and final, these are worth 100 points each. Make-up tests are worth worth 100 points each. Make-up tests are worth only partial credit unless the student presented a only partial credit unless the student presented a valid excuse for the absence. Make-up tests are valid excuse for the absence. Make-up tests are worth 65% of the original test value.worth 65% of the original test value.

Full-Period examsFull-Period exams

A full-period test is administered A full-period test is administered every 3 weeks.every 3 weeks.

Tests are returned Tests are returned the next daythe next day and we will go over the exam and we will go over the exam during class.during class.

Tests are posted on the website Tests are posted on the website well in advance of the test date well in advance of the test date for you to preview.for you to preview.

Homework - 10%Homework - 10% of your grade. of your grade.

Homework values are calculated in a Homework values are calculated in a similar manner as tests with each similar manner as tests with each question being worth one point. In question being worth one point. In this way, more lengthy assignments this way, more lengthy assignments have a higher value. In some cases have a higher value. In some cases there are questions worth more than there are questions worth more than one point because they involve a one point because they involve a more lengthy answer, multiple parts, more lengthy answer, multiple parts, or a mathematical calculation.or a mathematical calculation.

Class participation is 35%Class participation is 35%

This grade comes from attendance, class work, and This grade comes from attendance, class work, and participation in discussions. An attendance credit is participation in discussions. An attendance credit is given to each student. Students receive three points given to each student. Students receive three points for coming to class on-time each day. This is for coming to class on-time each day. This is reduced to one point if they enter the classroom reduced to one point if they enter the classroom after the bell rings, and zero points if they come in after the bell rings, and zero points if they come in more than 20 minutes late. Students who present a more than 20 minutes late. Students who present a valid excuse for their absence receive the three valid excuse for their absence receive the three points for the day. Class work consists of reading points for the day. Class work consists of reading and writing, and answering questions from the text, and writing, and answering questions from the text, review book and worksheets. These are worth one review book and worksheets. These are worth one point per question. Students who actively participate point per question. Students who actively participate in class discussions are given additional points.in class discussions are given additional points.

Laboratory exercises- 20%Laboratory exercises- 20%

Lab exercises are graded on a pass-fail Lab exercises are graded on a pass-fail basis and are worth either ten points or basis and are worth either ten points or zero points. Incomplete labs are worth 0; zero points. Incomplete labs are worth 0; labs must be complete to earn credit. labs must be complete to earn credit. Make-up labs are worth only partial credit. Make-up labs are worth only partial credit. If the missing lab is made up during the If the missing lab is made up during the marking period in which we performed it, marking period in which we performed it, the value is eight points. In the following the value is eight points. In the following marking period it is worth seven points, marking period it is worth seven points, afterwards, only six points. Students have afterwards, only six points. Students have to achieve a lab average of 65% and to achieve a lab average of 65% and complete no less than 600 minutes of complete no less than 600 minutes of hands-on laboratory exercises to pass lab. hands-on laboratory exercises to pass lab.

What is Earth Science?What is Earth Science?

AstronomyAstronomy During this portion of the course, we will During this portion of the course, we will

learn about our solar system, the Milky learn about our solar system, the Milky Way galaxy, stars, planets, moons, Way galaxy, stars, planets, moons, comets and asteroids. We will also talk comets and asteroids. We will also talk about the beginning of the universe, an about the beginning of the universe, an event referred to as the big bang. We event referred to as the big bang. We will discuss methods of determining will discuss methods of determining where we are in the universe using a where we are in the universe using a coordinate system. This section also coordinate system. This section also includes how and why the Earth rotates includes how and why the Earth rotates on its axis, revolves around the sun in on its axis, revolves around the sun in its orbit, and the causes for the seasons. its orbit, and the causes for the seasons.

EnergyEnergy

The study of energy will include The study of energy will include electromagnetic, potential, kinetic, electromagnetic, potential, kinetic, and thermal energy. We will learn and thermal energy. We will learn the difference between temperature the difference between temperature and heat energy, and how energy is and heat energy, and how energy is transferred and transformed. We will transferred and transformed. We will also discuss changes of state for also discuss changes of state for matter, and how energy is involved.matter, and how energy is involved.

The Earth’s 2 sources of energy- The Earth’s 2 sources of energy- internal and external will be internal and external will be discussed.discussed.

MeteorologyMeteorology

Meteorology includes factors that are Meteorology includes factors that are related to weather and climate. related to weather and climate. Some of these include temperature, Some of these include temperature, moisture, pressure, wind and moisture, pressure, wind and precipitation. We will discuss precipitation. We will discuss weather patterns and their causes, weather patterns and their causes, global warming, and long term global warming, and long term weather patterns known as climate. weather patterns known as climate. We will learn how meteorologists are We will learn how meteorologists are able to predict and forecast the able to predict and forecast the weather. This section also includes weather. This section also includes the water cycle.the water cycle.

GeologyGeology

Geology covers the different types of Geology covers the different types of rocks-minerals, sedimentary, igneous and rocks-minerals, sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic. Geology explains the metamorphic. Geology explains the processes that create and wear down processes that create and wear down rocks. This section of the course will also rocks. This section of the course will also cover earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes cover earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes and plate tectonics. We will learn some of and plate tectonics. We will learn some of the characteristics of rocks and minerals, the characteristics of rocks and minerals, and identification techniques. The last and identification techniques. The last section of geology deals with ways of section of geology deals with ways of determining the age of the Earth using determining the age of the Earth using fossils, radioactive isotopes, and a brief fossils, radioactive isotopes, and a brief examination of the Earth's 4.6 billion year examination of the Earth's 4.6 billion year history.history.

Reviewing Earth scienceReviewing Earth science

To help students review for To help students review for classroom tests and the classroom tests and the Regents exams, I post the Regents exams, I post the actual tests online. Review actual tests online. Review sheets are also used.sheets are also used. Vocabulary and concepts are Vocabulary and concepts are

presented.presented. The following slides contain a The following slides contain a

copy of these review sheets.copy of these review sheets.

Topic 1- Introduction to Earth's Topic 1- Introduction to Earth's Changing EnvironmentChanging Environment UniverseUniverse-All matter, time, energy and space that exists.-All matter, time, energy and space that exists. ObservationObservation-The perception of some aspect of the environment made -The perception of some aspect of the environment made

with one or more of the human senses-sight, hearing, touch, taste, or with one or more of the human senses-sight, hearing, touch, taste, or smellsmell

InstrumentInstrument- A human-made device that extends the human senses - A human-made device that extends the human senses beyond their normal limits. instruments increase the range of observations beyond their normal limits. instruments increase the range of observations e.g. microscope, telescope, and quantify (give a quantity to) an e.g. microscope, telescope, and quantify (give a quantity to) an observation. Example it is not a small amount of water, it is 37ml of water.observation. Example it is not a small amount of water, it is 37ml of water.

Inference-Inference- An inference is an interpretation of an observation. A mental An inference is an interpretation of an observation. A mental process that proposes causes, conclusions or explanations for what has process that proposes causes, conclusions or explanations for what has been observed. An inference cannot be tested. It is based on our been observed. An inference cannot be tested. It is based on our observation and also our observation and also our past experiences.past experiences.

Prediction-Prediction- A type of inference about the conditions and behavior of the A type of inference about the conditions and behavior of the environment in the future. Predictions can be tested even though they environment in the future. Predictions can be tested even though they may not be – they must have the ability to be tested to be a predictionmay not be – they must have the ability to be tested to be a prediction

ClassificationClassification- A group of similar observations and inferences, a - A group of similar observations and inferences, a taxonomy. Example- Birds – flightless birds – flightless, aquatic birds- taxonomy. Example- Birds – flightless birds – flightless, aquatic birds- from general to specific. from general to specific.

Measurement-Measurement- A means of expressing an observation with greater A means of expressing an observation with greater accuracy or precision. Measurements include units. Basic units in the SI accuracy or precision. Measurements include units. Basic units in the SI system include the meter for length, the kilogram for mass, and the system include the meter for length, the kilogram for mass, and the second for time.second for time.

Accuracy-Accuracy- How close a measurement comes to a true or accepted value. How close a measurement comes to a true or accepted value. Example: You measure the force of gravity to be 9.6 m/s^2, since the Example: You measure the force of gravity to be 9.6 m/s^2, since the accepted value is 9.806, your percent deviation is only 2%. You are 98% accepted value is 9.806, your percent deviation is only 2%. You are 98% accurate.accurate.

Precision-Precision-The ability to repeat a measurement and obtain nearly the The ability to repeat a measurement and obtain nearly the same results each time. This may depend on the calibration of the same results each time. This may depend on the calibration of the measuring instruments. Example: You measure the force of gravity 3 measuring instruments. Example: You measure the force of gravity 3 times and get 8.9, 9.4 and 10.6 m/s^2. These readings are not precise-times and get 8.9, 9.4 and 10.6 m/s^2. These readings are not precise-none are close to each other. Another time you take 3 measurements none are close to each other. Another time you take 3 measurements and get 9.2, 9.1, and 9.3. These readings are not accurate, but they are and get 9.2, 9.1, and 9.3. These readings are not accurate, but they are precise. Lastly, you make 3 measurements and get 9.6, 9.8, and 9.7. precise. Lastly, you make 3 measurements and get 9.6, 9.8, and 9.7. These readings are both accurate and precise.These readings are both accurate and precise.

Mass-Mass- The amount of matter in an object, the number and size of its The amount of matter in an object, the number and size of its atoms. The more atoms and the larger the atoms, the more mass. Mass atoms. The more atoms and the larger the atoms, the more mass. Mass does not vary by location as weight does. Example: A student has a does not vary by location as weight does. Example: A student has a mass of 65kg. That is the mass of the student on Earth or the moon. Themass of 65kg. That is the mass of the student on Earth or the moon. The weightweight of the student on the moon would be 1/6 his/her weight on earth. of the student on the moon would be 1/6 his/her weight on earth. Weight is the effect of gravity on a given mass.Weight is the effect of gravity on a given mass.

Volume-Volume- The amount of space that an object occupies is its volume. The amount of space that an object occupies is its volume. rectangular objects we multiply length, width and height. Irregular shaped rectangular objects we multiply length, width and height. Irregular shaped objects – we use the water displacement method with a graduated objects – we use the water displacement method with a graduated cylinder.cylinder.

Percent deviation-Percent deviation- No measurement is perfect, they contain some error. No measurement is perfect, they contain some error. Percent deviation is the difference from the accepted value divided by the Percent deviation is the difference from the accepted value divided by the accepted value multiplied by 100. Example: You measure the mass of an accepted value multiplied by 100. Example: You measure the mass of an object with an accepted mass of 125gm, but you get 127.5gm. The object with an accepted mass of 125gm, but you get 127.5gm. The percent deviation. is: [(127.5gm-125gm) / 125gm] *100= percent deviation. is: [(127.5gm-125gm) / 125gm] *100= [2.5gm/125gm]*100=2% Find the formula on the front cover of the [2.5gm/125gm]*100=2% Find the formula on the front cover of the reference tables.reference tables.

Density- Density- The concentration of matter in an object and the ratio of the The concentration of matter in an object and the ratio of the object’s mass to its volume. High mass with low volume equals high object’s mass to its volume. High mass with low volume equals high density. Low mass or high volume equals low density. Mass/ volume = density. Low mass or high volume equals low density. Mass/ volume = density units are kg/cubic meters. Formula on the density units are kg/cubic meters. Formula on the ESRTESRT

Density is constant for objects made of a uniform material – no matter Density is constant for objects made of a uniform material – no matter what size piece you have. density is how things will sort themselves out – what size piece you have. density is how things will sort themselves out – always with the most dense object on the bottom and the least dense on always with the most dense object on the bottom and the least dense on top. Density is responsible for layering and motion.top. Density is responsible for layering and motion.

Rate of change-Rate of change- How much a measurable aspect changes over time is How much a measurable aspect changes over time is the rate of change. Example: It is 60 degrees out when you wake up. the rate of change. Example: It is 60 degrees out when you wake up. Two hours later, it is 70 degrees. The rate of change is 70degrees-60 Two hours later, it is 70 degrees. The rate of change is 70degrees-60 degrees) / 2 hours or 5 degrees per hour. Formula on the degrees) / 2 hours or 5 degrees per hour. Formula on the ESRTESRT

Cyclic change-Cyclic change- Changes that occur with a regular or predictable cycle. Changes that occur with a regular or predictable cycle. Ex. tides, night and day, the seasons, full moons, and many more.Ex. tides, night and day, the seasons, full moons, and many more.

Natural hazard-Natural hazard- A non-human situation that may threaten life. Ex: A non-human situation that may threaten life. Ex: Asteroids, blizzards, earthquakes, floods, tsunamis, hurricanes, Asteroids, blizzards, earthquakes, floods, tsunamis, hurricanes, thunderstorms, tornados, and volcanoes. thunderstorms, tornados, and volcanoes.

Interface-Interface- A boundary between 2 regions with different properties. A boundary between 2 regions with different properties. Example At the beach where the shore meets the water is the land-water Example At the beach where the shore meets the water is the land-water interface.interface.

Dynamic equilibriumDynamic equilibrium- The balancing of opposing forces. Example: The - The balancing of opposing forces. Example: The level of Lake Erie remains nearly constant, it is in dynamic equilibrium level of Lake Erie remains nearly constant, it is in dynamic equilibrium because the water that flows out into the Niagara River is replaced by because the water that flows out into the Niagara River is replaced by water that flows into it from the Detroit River.water that flows into it from the Detroit River.

Natural resources-Natural resources-Materials and energy sources found in the Materials and energy sources found in the environment. Many natural resources especially fossil fuels (coal, oil and environment. Many natural resources especially fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) are considered non-renewable. They will renew themselves, it just gas) are considered non-renewable. They will renew themselves, it just takes hundreds of millions of years!takes hundreds of millions of years!

Pollution- Pollution- A concentration of any substance or energy that adversely A concentration of any substance or energy that adversely affects humans and the environment. Example: An electric plant affects humans and the environment. Example: An electric plant discharges water that it uses for cooling. The increased temperature of discharges water that it uses for cooling. The increased temperature of the water around the plant kills fish and plant life around the plant.the water around the plant kills fish and plant life around the plant.

Amount of errorAmount of error – The difference between your measurement and the – The difference between your measurement and the accepted value, always a positive number (absolute value), contains units. accepted value, always a positive number (absolute value), contains units. Example I measure 78 cm but the actual length is 80 cm. the amount of Example I measure 78 cm but the actual length is 80 cm. the amount of error is 2 cm.error is 2 cm.

Scientific notationScientific notation – a way of expressing numbers without writing a lot of – a way of expressing numbers without writing a lot of zeros. the zeros are replaced with a times 10 to some power, the power is zeros. the zeros are replaced with a times 10 to some power, the power is how many zeros were replaced. Example 78,000 – 7.8 x 104 In scientific how many zeros were replaced. Example 78,000 – 7.8 x 104 In scientific notation, only a single digit is ever written on the left side of the decimal notation, only a single digit is ever written on the left side of the decimal place.place.

Average or meanAverage or mean – a number which is between the highest and lowest – a number which is between the highest and lowest number in a list. Found by adding up the numbers in the list and dividing number in a list. Found by adding up the numbers in the list and dividing by how many numbers are in the list.by how many numbers are in the list.

Graphing-Graphing- dependent variable, the thing that changes as the experiment dependent variable, the thing that changes as the experiment progresses always goes on the y-axis. Independent variable, always on progresses always goes on the y-axis. Independent variable, always on the x-axis. Graphs include ALL of the following: a title, a label on each the x-axis. Graphs include ALL of the following: a title, a label on each axis including units (Note: the units axis including units (Note: the units are notare not the label), a layout that is the label), a layout that is linear and uses 90% of the graph paper (not bunched up in a corner or linear and uses 90% of the graph paper (not bunched up in a corner or running off the paper), a line-of-best-fit that shows the trend of the data running off the paper), a line-of-best-fit that shows the trend of the data (not necessarily a connect the dots line)(not necessarily a connect the dots line)

Topic 2-Measuring EarthTopic 2-Measuring Earth

Atmosphere-Atmosphere- The layer of gasses that surrounds Earth above the oceans The layer of gasses that surrounds Earth above the oceans and land. Contains for sub-layers. from the ground going up: troposphere, and land. Contains for sub-layers. from the ground going up: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. The ozone layer is in the stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. The ozone layer is in the stratosphere and protects life on Earth from harmful UV radiation. As stratosphere and protects life on Earth from harmful UV radiation. As altitude increases in the atmosphere, temperature both increases and altitude increases in the atmosphere, temperature both increases and decreases as various layers either absorb radiation or do not absorb decreases as various layers either absorb radiation or do not absorb radiation. Most of the atmosphere (78%) is composed of nitrogen gas, radiation. Most of the atmosphere (78%) is composed of nitrogen gas, not not oxygen.oxygen.

Coordinate system-Coordinate system- A system for determining the coordinates of a point. A system for determining the coordinates of a point. Maps use latitude and longitude to accomplish this.Maps use latitude and longitude to accomplish this.

Contour lines-Contour lines- These are isolines that connect points of These are isolines that connect points of equal elevationequal elevation.. Contour interval Contour interval – the vertical distance between contour lines on a – the vertical distance between contour lines on a

topographic map.topographic map. Crust-Crust- The upper portion or top layer of the lithosphere. The upper portion or top layer of the lithosphere. Degrees – Degrees – parts of a circle. a complete circle has 360 degrees. Degrees parts of a circle. a complete circle has 360 degrees. Degrees

are broken into 60 smaller parts called minutes and minutes each contain are broken into 60 smaller parts called minutes and minutes each contain 60 equal parts called seconds. Thus a latitude or longitude may be written 60 equal parts called seconds. Thus a latitude or longitude may be written as 45° 31’ 58” indicating 45 degrees, 31 minutes, 58 seconds.as 45° 31’ 58” indicating 45 degrees, 31 minutes, 58 seconds.

Earth’s interior-Earth’s interior- Everything between Earth’s crust and the center of the Everything between Earth’s crust and the center of the earth. From the center of the Earth to the crust these layers are: inner earth. From the center of the Earth to the crust these layers are: inner core, outer core, stiffer mantle, asthenosphere( plastic mantle), core, outer core, stiffer mantle, asthenosphere( plastic mantle), lithosphere and crust.lithosphere and crust.

Elevation-Elevation- The vertical distance or height above sea The vertical distance or height above sea level. This is shown with different colors on a relief map level. This is shown with different colors on a relief map and with contour lines on a topographic map.and with contour lines on a topographic map.

Equator-Equator- The halfway point between the north and south The halfway point between the north and south poles. The reference point for measuring latitude; has a poles. The reference point for measuring latitude; has a latitude of 0°latitude of 0°

Field-Field- Any region of space that has some measurable Any region of space that has some measurable value of a given quantity at every point. Example: value of a given quantity at every point. Example: Magnetic or gravitational fields.Magnetic or gravitational fields.

Gradient-Gradient- The rate of change from place to place within a The rate of change from place to place within a field. The closer the isolines the higher the gradient, the field. The closer the isolines the higher the gradient, the faster or the faster or the steepersteeper the change. Examples: Close the change. Examples: Close isobars indicate strong changes in pressure, thus windy isobars indicate strong changes in pressure, thus windy conditions; close contour lines indicate dramatic changes conditions; close contour lines indicate dramatic changes in elevation, thus steep terrain.in elevation, thus steep terrain.

Hydrosphere-Hydrosphere- The layer of liquid water between the The layer of liquid water between the atmosphere and the Earth’s interior. Most of the atmosphere and the Earth’s interior. Most of the hydrosphere (66%) is composed of hydrogen, hence the hydrosphere (66%) is composed of hydrogen, hence the name.name.

Isolines-Isolines- Lines that connect equal points of field values. Lines that connect equal points of field values. Examples: Isotherms connect points of equal Examples: Isotherms connect points of equal temperature; Isobars connect points of equal pressure.temperature; Isobars connect points of equal pressure.

Latitude-Latitude- The angular distance north or south of the equator. A The angular distance north or south of the equator. A number between 0 (at the equator) and 90 (at the poles). Divides number between 0 (at the equator) and 90 (at the poles). Divides the Earth into a northern and southern hemisphere. Latitude the Earth into a northern and southern hemisphere. Latitude always includes an N or S to indicate the hemisphere. The always includes an N or S to indicate the hemisphere. The hemisphere can be determined on a map by checking to see in hemisphere can be determined on a map by checking to see in which direction the latitude increases. If latitude numbers which direction the latitude increases. If latitude numbers increase going to the north, it is a map of the northern increase going to the north, it is a map of the northern hemisphere. If numbers increase to the south- it is in the hemisphere. If numbers increase to the south- it is in the southern hemisphere. If your latitude is increasing, you are southern hemisphere. If your latitude is increasing, you are moving away from the equator and towards either pole.moving away from the equator and towards either pole.

Lithosphere-Lithosphere- The layer of rock that forms the solid outer shell of The layer of rock that forms the solid outer shell of the Earth’s interior.the Earth’s interior.

Longitude-Longitude- An angular distance east or west of the prime An angular distance east or west of the prime meridian. A number between 0-180. Always includes a meridian. A number between 0-180. Always includes a designation E or W to indicate the hemisphere. The hemisphere designation E or W to indicate the hemisphere. The hemisphere can be determined by checking to see in which direction the can be determined by checking to see in which direction the numbers are increasing. Whichever way longitude increases numbers are increasing. Whichever way longitude increases indicates the hemisphere the map is depicting.indicates the hemisphere the map is depicting.

Meridian (of longitude) -Meridian (of longitude) - A semi-circle on the surface of the A semi-circle on the surface of the Earth that connects the north and south poles. All meridians are Earth that connects the north and south poles. All meridians are the same length and run from pole to pole.the same length and run from pole to pole.

Model-Model- A model is a way of representing the properties of an A model is a way of representing the properties of an object or system. Example: a globe.object or system. Example: a globe.

Pauses-Pauses- The boundaries or interfaces of Earth’s atmosphere. The boundaries or interfaces of Earth’s atmosphere.

Prime meridian-Prime meridian- A reference or starting A reference or starting point to measure angular distance east or point to measure angular distance east or west. The prime meridian passes through west. The prime meridian passes through Greenwich, England because the English Greenwich, England because the English were the first navigators to establish the were the first navigators to establish the coordinate system. The prime meridian has coordinate system. The prime meridian has a longitude of 0°a longitude of 0°

Profile-Profile- The side view of an area’s The side view of an area’s landscape; a cut-a-way viewlandscape; a cut-a-way view

ScaleScale – A relation between distance on a – A relation between distance on a map and distance in the real world. Shown map and distance in the real world. Shown as a ratio, or a statement ( 1 inch equals 40 as a ratio, or a statement ( 1 inch equals 40 miles) or a s a graphic line that indicates miles) or a s a graphic line that indicates the distances.the distances.

Topographic map-Topographic map- A model or contour A model or contour map that indicates changes in elevation of map that indicates changes in elevation of the Earth’s surface.the Earth’s surface.

Topic 3-Earth in the Universe Topic 3-Earth in the Universe

Celestial ObjectCelestial Object-Any object outside Earth’s atmosphere-Any object outside Earth’s atmosphere UniverseUniverse-All time, matter, energy and space-All time, matter, energy and space The Big Bang TheoryThe Big Bang Theory-The theory that the universe started about 13 billion years ago -The theory that the universe started about 13 billion years ago

with an incredible explosion of all matter and energy from an infinitesimally small point.with an incredible explosion of all matter and energy from an infinitesimally small point. Doppler EffectDoppler Effect- The effect of wavelengths to be stretched longer when an object is - The effect of wavelengths to be stretched longer when an object is

traveling away from you, and compressed when the object is traveling towards you. traveling away from you, and compressed when the object is traveling towards you. With light the expansion (longer wavelengths) appear red, and the compression () With light the expansion (longer wavelengths) appear red, and the compression () shorter wavelength) appear blueshorter wavelength) appear blue

Red ShiftRed Shift- The stretching of wavelengths of light as objects travel away from a viewer- The stretching of wavelengths of light as objects travel away from a viewer GalaxyGalaxy-A collection of hundreds of billions of stars and gas and dust clouds in one -A collection of hundreds of billions of stars and gas and dust clouds in one

region of space.region of space. Milky Way GalaxyMilky Way Galaxy-The spiral-shaped galaxy to which our solar system belongs.-The spiral-shaped galaxy to which our solar system belongs. StarStar- a large ball of hydrogen and helium gas that produces energy through nuclear - a large ball of hydrogen and helium gas that produces energy through nuclear

fusion.fusion. Nuclear FusionNuclear Fusion-The process of combining protons and neutrons to form larger nuclei -The process of combining protons and neutrons to form larger nuclei

and release energy.and release energy. LuminosityLuminosity- How bright a star would be compared to the sun if it was at the same - How bright a star would be compared to the sun if it was at the same

distance as the sun. distance as the sun. Solar SystemSolar System-A collection of nine planets, 141 moons*, various asteroids, meteoroids, -A collection of nine planets, 141 moons*, various asteroids, meteoroids,

comets and dust that all orbit the suncomets and dust that all orbit the sun * As of September 2004* As of September 2004 AsteroidAsteroid- A solid, rocky, usually metallic body that orbits the sun. Asteroids have - A solid, rocky, usually metallic body that orbits the sun. Asteroids have

various shapes and are smaller than planets. Most orbit in a belt between Mars and various shapes and are smaller than planets. Most orbit in a belt between Mars and Jupiter.Jupiter.

Moon- Moon- The only natural satellite of the EarthThe only natural satellite of the Earth CometComet- A mostly solid object with ice and water which - A mostly solid object with ice and water which

evaporates as it approaches the sun leaving long and highly evaporates as it approaches the sun leaving long and highly visible tails. Most comets are in long, highly elliptical orbits and visible tails. Most comets are in long, highly elliptical orbits and take many years to complete one orbit of the sun.take many years to complete one orbit of the sun.

MeteorsMeteors (Meteorites) - Small solid, rocky fragments that may (Meteorites) - Small solid, rocky fragments that may enter the atmosphere. Meteors burn up, meteorites strike the enter the atmosphere. Meteors burn up, meteorites strike the earth.earth.

Impact CraterImpact Crater- The crater left from an impact from an asteroid, - The crater left from an impact from an asteroid, comet or large meteoritecomet or large meteorite

Impact Event- Impact Event- The collision of an asteroid, comet or other The collision of an asteroid, comet or other celestial object with another celestial object.celestial object with another celestial object.

Terrestrial PlanetsTerrestrial Planets- Small diameter, high density rocky worlds - Small diameter, high density rocky worlds closest to the sun.closest to the sun.

Jovian PlanetsJovian Planets- The gas giants-low in density, high mass due to - The gas giants-low in density, high mass due to large size, large diameters.large size, large diameters.

RotationRotation- the spin on an imaginary axis that runs through the - the spin on an imaginary axis that runs through the center of a planet.center of a planet.

RevolutionRevolution- The orbit of a celestial object around the sun.- The orbit of a celestial object around the sun. EllipseEllipse- A conic section shaped like an oval with tow points - A conic section shaped like an oval with tow points

called foci. Bodies in the solar system orbit the sun in elliptical called foci. Bodies in the solar system orbit the sun in elliptical orbits with the sun at one of the 2 focus pointsorbits with the sun at one of the 2 focus points

FociFoci (focus) - The fixed points in an ellipse. (focus) - The fixed points in an ellipse. The sum of the distance between any point The sum of the distance between any point on the ellipse and the 2 foci is a constant. on the ellipse and the 2 foci is a constant.

EccentricityEccentricity- how oval or circular the - how oval or circular the ellipse is. Eccentricity equals the distance ellipse is. Eccentricity equals the distance between the foci divided by the length of between the foci divided by the length of the major axis. Eccentricity must be the major axis. Eccentricity must be between 0 and 1. O is a perfect circle, 1 is between 0 and 1. O is a perfect circle, 1 is highly elliptical.highly elliptical.

InertiaInertia-The resistance to change in motion -The resistance to change in motion that any object has. Inertia is directly that any object has. Inertia is directly proportional to mass.proportional to mass.

GravitationGravitation- The force of attraction - The force of attraction between any two objects. Gravity id directly between any two objects. Gravity id directly proportional to the masses of the objects proportional to the masses of the objects and inversely proportional to the square of and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.the distance between them.

Topic 4 -Motions of the earth, Topic 4 -Motions of the earth, Moon and Sun Moon and Sun Axis (of rotation)-Axis (of rotation)-Imaginary axis which planets Imaginary axis which planets

rotate about.rotate about. ConstellationConstellation-A group of stars that form a pattern -A group of stars that form a pattern

and mark a region of the galaxy.and mark a region of the galaxy. Coriolis EffectCoriolis Effect- The effect of fluids to turn to the - The effect of fluids to turn to the

right in the northern hemisphere and the left in the right in the northern hemisphere and the left in the southern hemispheresouthern hemisphere

EclipseEclipse- When a celestial object comes into the - When a celestial object comes into the shadow of another celestial object it is called an shadow of another celestial object it is called an eclipse.eclipse.

Foucault PendulumFoucault Pendulum-a freely swinging pendulum. -a freely swinging pendulum. Due to inertia it swings in the same direction as the Due to inertia it swings in the same direction as the earth turns. The pendulum earth turns. The pendulum appearsappears to turn but the to turn but the earth is turning. Provides evidence of earth’s earth is turning. Provides evidence of earth’s rotation.rotation.

Geocentric ModelGeocentric Model- Earth at the center of - Earth at the center of the solar system/ universethe solar system/ universe

Heliocentric ModelHeliocentric Model-The sun at the center -The sun at the center of the solar systemof the solar system

Local timeLocal time-time based on earth’s rotation -time based on earth’s rotation and the position of the sunand the position of the sun

PhasesPhases (of the moon)-The varying (of the moon)-The varying amounts of the lighted portion of the moonamounts of the lighted portion of the moon

TidesTides-Cyclic rise and fall of ocean’s (and -Cyclic rise and fall of ocean’s (and some large lakes) due to earth’s rotation some large lakes) due to earth’s rotation and the gravitational effect of the moon.and the gravitational effect of the moon.

Time ZonesTime Zones-A way to solve the problem of -A way to solve the problem of local times being different everywhere.local times being different everywhere.

Topic 5-Energy in Earth's Topic 5-Energy in Earth's ProcessesProcesses Barrier interactions – Barrier interactions – When energy interacts with something in When energy interacts with something in

the environment, the energy may be reflected, absorbed or the environment, the energy may be reflected, absorbed or transmitted through the substance, but it is always conserved. transmitted through the substance, but it is always conserved.

CalorieCalorie- A unit of energy most usually associated with food. The - A unit of energy most usually associated with food. The quantity of heat required to raise one gram of water one degree quantity of heat required to raise one gram of water one degree Celsius.Celsius.

CondensationCondensation- The changing of a gas to a liquid, requires the - The changing of a gas to a liquid, requires the gas to release heat energy.gas to release heat energy.

ConductionConduction-The transfer of heat energy between objects that -The transfer of heat energy between objects that are in are in direct contact.direct contact.

ConvectionConvection- The transfer of heat energy by the - The transfer of heat energy by the circulation of circulation of fluidsfluids. Fluids include anything that can flow, . Fluids include anything that can flow, not just liquidsnot just liquids. . Hotter fluids have lower densities and rise, while cooler fluids Hotter fluids have lower densities and rise, while cooler fluids have higher densities and sink. Convection is the primary method have higher densities and sink. Convection is the primary method for heat distribution in the mantle, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and for heat distribution in the mantle, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and sun’s interior. These circulating fluids form convection currents, sun’s interior. These circulating fluids form convection currents, also called convection cells.also called convection cells.

CrystallizationCrystallization- The process of changing a liquid to a solid with - The process of changing a liquid to a solid with a specific arrangement pattern of the atoms or molecules; they a specific arrangement pattern of the atoms or molecules; they form crystals. Requires a release of energy.form crystals. Requires a release of energy.

Electromagnetic energyElectromagnetic energy- - (EM)(EM) -A type of energy that is -A type of energy that is radiated in the form of electromagnetic waves. They are radiated in the form of electromagnetic waves. They are distinguished from each other by their wavelengths. In distinguished from each other by their wavelengths. In order of increasing wavelength, they are: radio waves, order of increasing wavelength, they are: radio waves, microwaves, infrared (heat), visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays microwaves, infrared (heat), visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays and gamma rays. Waves transmit energy, so the closer and gamma rays. Waves transmit energy, so the closer the waves (shorter wavelength) the more intense is the the waves (shorter wavelength) the more intense is the radiation.radiation.

Electromagnetic spectrumElectromagnetic spectrum-The spectrum of all -The spectrum of all electromagnetic waves. Listed in the electromagnetic waves. Listed in the ESRTESRT in order of in order of increasing wavelength.increasing wavelength.

EnergyEnergy- The ability to do work. There are many forms of - The ability to do work. There are many forms of energy, and in any interaction energy is always energy, and in any interaction energy is always conserved. It cannot be created or destroyed, but it can conserved. It cannot be created or destroyed, but it can change form. Most energy ends up as heat energy, a form change form. Most energy ends up as heat energy, a form of energy pollution.of energy pollution.

Heat energyHeat energy-Infrared EM energy, which travels from -Infrared EM energy, which travels from areas of higher temperature to areas of lower areas of higher temperature to areas of lower temperature.temperature.

Kinetic energyKinetic energy – The energy of any moving object. faster – The energy of any moving object. faster speed equals more kinetic energy.speed equals more kinetic energy.

Mechanical energyMechanical energy- The energy of an object not related - The energy of an object not related to atoms and molecules. Mechanical energy is the sum of to atoms and molecules. Mechanical energy is the sum of potential and kinetic energy. potential and kinetic energy.

MeltMelt – The process of changing a solid to a liquid – The process of changing a solid to a liquid by the absorption of energy.by the absorption of energy.

Nuclear decayNuclear decay- The process of an unstable - The process of an unstable nucleus breaking apart and releasing sub-atomic nucleus breaking apart and releasing sub-atomic particles and energy.particles and energy.

Potential energyPotential energy – The energy from position. A – The energy from position. A roller coaster at the top of a hill has a great deal of roller coaster at the top of a hill has a great deal of potential energy. as it coasts down the track the potential energy. as it coasts down the track the potential energy is changed to kinetic energy potential energy is changed to kinetic energy (speed) and heat energy through friction.(speed) and heat energy through friction.

RadiationRadiation- The transfer of heat energy through the - The transfer of heat energy through the EM spectrum, usually refers to the infrared portion. EM spectrum, usually refers to the infrared portion.

Refraction – Refraction – The bending of light waves as they The bending of light waves as they travel from one material to another material with a travel from one material to another material with a different density.different density.

SolidificationSolidification- The process of changing a liquid to - The process of changing a liquid to a solid, (freezing) requires a release of energy.a solid, (freezing) requires a release of energy.

Specific heatSpecific heat-The quantity of heat required to raise -The quantity of heat required to raise one gram of a particular substance one degree one gram of a particular substance one degree Celsius.Celsius.

SublimationSublimation – The term that refers to either a change – The term that refers to either a change from a gas to a solid (frost) (requires energy to be from a gas to a solid (frost) (requires energy to be released) or the change from a solid to a gas (requires released) or the change from a solid to a gas (requires energy to be absorbed).energy to be absorbed).

Surface characteristicsSurface characteristics – Determines what will happen – Determines what will happen when energy interacts. Light colors increase reflection when energy interacts. Light colors increase reflection and decrease absorption, while dark colors are good and decrease absorption, while dark colors are good absorbers. Texture also affects how the energy is absorbers. Texture also affects how the energy is reflected or absorbed.reflected or absorbed.

TemperatureTemperature- The measure of the average kinetic energy - The measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance. of the particles in a substance.

TextureTexture- The roughness or smoothness of a surface. - The roughness or smoothness of a surface. Texture affects the amount of EM radiation absorbed or Texture affects the amount of EM radiation absorbed or reflected. Smooth textures are better at reflection than reflected. Smooth textures are better at reflection than absorption, while rough textures are better at absorption absorption, while rough textures are better at absorption than at reflection.than at reflection.

VaporizationVaporization-The changing of a liquid to a gas; requires -The changing of a liquid to a gas; requires the liquid to absorb energy. Also referred to as the liquid to absorb energy. Also referred to as evaporation.evaporation.

Wavelength-Wavelength- The length of one wave from crest to crest. The length of one wave from crest to crest. As wavelengths increase, the amount of energy being As wavelengths increase, the amount of energy being transported decreases. When waves are close together transported decreases. When waves are close together (short wavelengths) more energy is being transmitted.(short wavelengths) more energy is being transmitted.

Topic 6- Insolation and the Topic 6- Insolation and the SeasonsSeasons Angle of incidenceAngle of incidence-The incoming angle of the sun’s rays -The incoming angle of the sun’s rays

(insolation). The higher the angle, the greater the intensity (insolation). The higher the angle, the greater the intensity of the radiation. Low angles, such as at sunrise and of the radiation. Low angles, such as at sunrise and sunset spread the radiation over a much larger surface sunset spread the radiation over a much larger surface area, and so its intensity is much less. The amount of area, and so its intensity is much less. The amount of radiation you are receiving can be determined by looking radiation you are receiving can be determined by looking at the size of your shadow. A small shadow equals a high at the size of your shadow. A small shadow equals a high intensity, a long shadow equals a low intensity. The angle intensity, a long shadow equals a low intensity. The angle of incidence varies with: 1) the time of day- its greatest at of incidence varies with: 1) the time of day- its greatest at solar noon, 2) latitude – its greatest in the tropics, and 3) solar noon, 2) latitude – its greatest in the tropics, and 3) seasons – its greatest in the summer.seasons – its greatest in the summer.

DeforestationDeforestation-The process of cutting entire forests down -The process of cutting entire forests down to clear land for human uses. This process alters the to clear land for human uses. This process alters the balance of nature, influences global warming and balance of nature, influences global warming and increases the extinction of species.increases the extinction of species.

EquinoxEquinox – The first day of spring and fall is called an – The first day of spring and fall is called an equinox. It means the Earth experiences equal periods of equinox. It means the Earth experiences equal periods of day and night (12 hours). These days are March 21 and day and night (12 hours). These days are March 21 and September 21.September 21.

El NiñoEl Niño- A warming event in the Pacific - A warming event in the Pacific Ocean surface temperatures which disrupt Ocean surface temperatures which disrupt weather on a global scale producing major weather on a global scale producing major storms and hurricanes.storms and hurricanes.

Global warmingGlobal warming-The process of raising -The process of raising the temperature of the Earth by trapping the temperature of the Earth by trapping large quantities of greenhouse gasses in large quantities of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere, primarily through burning the atmosphere, primarily through burning fossil fuels. fossil fuels.

Greenhouse gassesGreenhouse gasses-Gasses that absorb -Gasses that absorb large quantities of infrared radiation and large quantities of infrared radiation and trap the heat in the atmosphere are called trap the heat in the atmosphere are called greenhouse gasses. These gases are greenhouse gasses. These gases are primarily carbon dioxide, water vapor, and primarily carbon dioxide, water vapor, and methane. methane.

Heat budgetHeat budget-The dynamic equilibrium between the total amount -The dynamic equilibrium between the total amount of heat that an object receives and the amount that it radiates. of heat that an object receives and the amount that it radiates.

Ice agesIce ages-A shift in the heat budget which results in more energy -A shift in the heat budget which results in more energy being released than absorbed.being released than absorbed.

InsolationInsolation- INcoming SOLar radiATION is IN-SOL-ATION. - INcoming SOLar radiATION is IN-SOL-ATION. Radiation from the sun.Radiation from the sun.

Land and Water heating differences – Land and Water heating differences – Land always heats up Land always heats up faster and cools down faster than water does. This is because of faster and cools down faster than water does. This is because of 4 factors: 4 factors: 1)1) Water has a very high specific heat- it takes a great Water has a very high specific heat- it takes a great deal of energy to change its temperature, deal of energy to change its temperature, 2)2) change of state – change of state – water can change from a liquid to a gas, land does not change water can change from a liquid to a gas, land does not change states. Energy that is used to change the state of matter is not states. Energy that is used to change the state of matter is not available to raise its temperature. This energy becomes latent available to raise its temperature. This energy becomes latent heat, a form of potential energy. heat, a form of potential energy. 3)3) transparency – water is very transparency – water is very transparent to radiation, land is not at all transparent to radiation. transparent to radiation, land is not at all transparent to radiation. When light travels to the bottom of a body of water, it is heating When light travels to the bottom of a body of water, it is heating up all of that water. The land stops the light at its surface and up all of that water. The land stops the light at its surface and heats up much more quickly. heats up much more quickly. 4)4) Convection currents distribute Convection currents distribute heat in the water. Land is not fluid and has no convection heat in the water. Land is not fluid and has no convection currents so all the heat remains at the land surface, while it is currents so all the heat remains at the land surface, while it is distributed throughout the water.distributed throughout the water.

OzoneOzone- A type of oxygen in which three molecule of oxygen join - A type of oxygen in which three molecule of oxygen join together. The ozone layer exists in the upper atmosphere together. The ozone layer exists in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere) and is vital to absorption of damaging ultraviolet (stratosphere) and is vital to absorption of damaging ultraviolet radiation, which causes skin cancer.radiation, which causes skin cancer.

SeasonsSeasons – A change of weather that primarily affects the mid – A change of weather that primarily affects the mid latitudes (23½°- 66½°) Latitudes less than 23°are mostly warm latitudes (23½°- 66½°) Latitudes less than 23°are mostly warm all year round, while latitudes near the poles (above 66°) are all year round, while latitudes near the poles (above 66°) are mostly cold all year. The change of seasons is mostly cold all year. The change of seasons is caused by three caused by three factors. factors. 1) The Earth’s tilted axis at 23½°, 2) the fact the Earth 1) The Earth’s tilted axis at 23½°, 2) the fact the Earth revolves around the sun once a year, and 3) parallelism the revolves around the sun once a year, and 3) parallelism the Earth’s axis always points in the same direction in space. The Earth’s axis always points in the same direction in space. The Earth’s orbit around the sun is not a perfect circle, it is an oval Earth’s orbit around the sun is not a perfect circle, it is an oval shape called an ellipse. At certain times of the year the Earth is shape called an ellipse. At certain times of the year the Earth is closer to or farther from the sun, but closer to or farther from the sun, but THE CHANGING THE CHANGING DISTANCE DOES NOT CAUSE SEASONS!DISTANCE DOES NOT CAUSE SEASONS! In the northern In the northern hemisphere, we are closest to the sun in winter, and farthest hemisphere, we are closest to the sun in winter, and farthest away in summer. The northern and southern hemispheres away in summer. The northern and southern hemispheres experience the opposite seasons. When we are having winter experience the opposite seasons. When we are having winter they are having summer, and vice-versa. they are having summer, and vice-versa.

SolsticeSolstice – The first day of winter and the first day of summer is – The first day of winter and the first day of summer is called a solstice. On these days either the north pole or the south called a solstice. On these days either the north pole or the south pole is pointed most directly at the sun. The polar regions (above pole is pointed most directly at the sun. The polar regions (above 66½° latitude experience either 3 months of daylight ( the sun 66½° latitude experience either 3 months of daylight ( the sun never sets) during the summer, or 3 months of night (the sun never sets) during the summer, or 3 months of night (the sun never rises) during winter. never rises) during winter.

SunspotSunspot- A darker region of the sun’s surface where the - A darker region of the sun’s surface where the temperature is lower than the surrounding areas. Caused by temperature is lower than the surrounding areas. Caused by magnetic storms on the sun’s surface and releases massive magnetic storms on the sun’s surface and releases massive amounts of solar particles (solar storms)amounts of solar particles (solar storms)

TranspirationTranspiration- The process by which living organisms (plants - The process by which living organisms (plants and animals) release water vapor into the atmosphere.and animals) release water vapor into the atmosphere.

Factors affecting the amount of insolationFactors affecting the amount of insolation an area receives:an area receives: 1.1. Angle of incidenceAngle of incidence When the angle of incidence is closest to When the angle of incidence is closest to 90° the insolation intensity is the greatest90° the insolation intensity is the greatest.. By day-By day- The angle of incidence is greater at noon than any other time of the day.The angle of incidence is greater at noon than any other time of the day. The angle of incidence is the lowest at sunrise and sunset.The angle of incidence is the lowest at sunrise and sunset. By season-By season-

The angle of incidence is the greatest in the summer and the lowest in The angle of incidence is the greatest in the summer and the lowest in the winter.the winter.

For NYS, about 72° in summer at noon and 25° in winter at noonFor NYS, about 72° in summer at noon and 25° in winter at noon 2.2. Cloud cover Cloud cover When the sky is When the sky is mostly cloudymostly cloudy, there is , there is more insolation reflected back into space.more insolation reflected back into space. When skies are clear, more insolation reaches the surface.When skies are clear, more insolation reaches the surface. 3.3. Earth's shape and latitudeEarth's shape and latitude

Because the Earth is a sphere, the Because the Earth is a sphere, the latitudes receiving the greatest insolationlatitudes receiving the greatest insolation are are those those closest to the equator.closest to the equator. Polar regions receive the least amount of insolation Polar regions receive the least amount of insolation because the angle of incidence is lowest at these latitudes. The size of your shadow is because the angle of incidence is lowest at these latitudes. The size of your shadow is an indicator of the intensity of insolation.an indicator of the intensity of insolation.

Small shadow = high intensity.Small shadow = high intensity. Large/long shadow Large/long shadow = low intensity= low intensity

4.4. Variation in duration of insolationVariation in duration of insolation Because of the Because of the Earth's tilted axisEarth's tilted axis, latitudes experiencing summer not only receive a , latitudes experiencing summer not only receive a

higher angle of incident higher angle of incident insolationinsolation, but a , but a longer durationlonger duration as well. 15 hours. Latitudes as well. 15 hours. Latitudes experiencing experiencing winterwinter receive the receive the shortest duration of insolationshortest duration of insolation., about 9 hours., about 9 hours

5. 5. Time delay in maximum and minimum temperatures.Time delay in maximum and minimum temperatures. Because Because water has such a high specific heatwater has such a high specific heat and covers so much of and covers so much of

the surface of Earth, the seasonal high and low temperatures lag behind the surface of Earth, the seasonal high and low temperatures lag behind the seasonal peak of insolation by about a month.the seasonal peak of insolation by about a month.

Water is absorbing or releasing its stored heat (latent heat)Water is absorbing or releasing its stored heat (latent heat) The The highest temperatures of the summer occur in July/Augusthighest temperatures of the summer occur in July/August even even

though the longest day is June 21. The though the longest day is June 21. The coldest temperatures usually coldest temperatures usually occur in January/Februaryoccur in January/February even though the shortest day is December even though the shortest day is December 21. The 21. The same time delay occurs on a daily basissame time delay occurs on a daily basis--

While the angle of incidence is highest at noon, the hottest time of the day While the angle of incidence is highest at noon, the hottest time of the day is usually late in the afternoon. The coolest part of the day is usually right is usually late in the afternoon. The coolest part of the day is usually right around sunrise, and is after sunrise on many days.around sunrise, and is after sunrise on many days.

6.6. Long term changes in climateLong term changes in climate These are a result of changes in the amount of insolation absorbed or These are a result of changes in the amount of insolation absorbed or

emitted- called the heat budget. Earth's heat budget has shifted in the emitted- called the heat budget. Earth's heat budget has shifted in the past. There have been periods of ice ages and warm periods. El Nino and past. There have been periods of ice ages and warm periods. El Nino and la Nina-between every 2-10 years-not well understood by scientists. la Nina-between every 2-10 years-not well understood by scientists. Global warming-some scientists believe it is caused by the massive Global warming-some scientists believe it is caused by the massive burning of fossil fuels, others disagree. The role of sunspot activity and burning of fossil fuels, others disagree. The role of sunspot activity and solar cycles effects on Earth's climate is also not well understood. The solar cycles effects on Earth's climate is also not well understood. The slight change of the tilt of Earth's axis (precession) and eccentricity of the slight change of the tilt of Earth's axis (precession) and eccentricity of the elliptical orbit are additional factors not well understood. Volcanic elliptical orbit are additional factors not well understood. Volcanic eruptions also affect the amount of insolation received-ash clouds block eruptions also affect the amount of insolation received-ash clouds block sun from reaching the surface.sun from reaching the surface.

7. Color and texture – light colors reflect, dark colors absorb. Rough 7. Color and texture – light colors reflect, dark colors absorb. Rough surfaces absorb, smooth surfaces reflect.surfaces absorb, smooth surfaces reflect.

Topic 7-Weather Topic 7-Weather

Air mass-Air mass- A large body of air in the troposphere with similar A large body of air in the troposphere with similar characteristicscharacteristics

Air pressure gradient-Air pressure gradient- The difference in air pressure over a The difference in air pressure over a given distance. Close isobars indicate high pressure gradient and given distance. Close isobars indicate high pressure gradient and windy conditions.windy conditions.

Anemometer-Anemometer- An instrument used to measure wind speed. An instrument used to measure wind speed. Atmospheric, barometric, or air pressure-Atmospheric, barometric, or air pressure- The pressure of the The pressure of the

air in a given location. Standard pressure of 1 atmosphere equals air in a given location. Standard pressure of 1 atmosphere equals 1 bar, or 14.7 lbs. /sq. in. or 29.92” of mercury, or 33’ of water.1 bar, or 14.7 lbs. /sq. in. or 29.92” of mercury, or 33’ of water.

Atmospheric transparency- Atmospheric transparency- How transparent the atmosphere is How transparent the atmosphere is to insolation. Less transparent, due to high cloud cover or to insolation. Less transparent, due to high cloud cover or pollution, means more sunlight is reflected or absorbed, and less pollution, means more sunlight is reflected or absorbed, and less reaches the ground.reaches the ground.

Barometer-Barometer- An instrument used to measure air pressure. An instrument used to measure air pressure. Cloud cover-Cloud cover- TheThe fraction of the sky that is covered by clouds. fraction of the sky that is covered by clouds. Cold front-Cold front- Boundary of an advancing cold air mass. The Boundary of an advancing cold air mass. The

heavier, underlying cold air pushes forward like a wedge.heavier, underlying cold air pushes forward like a wedge. Cyclone-Cyclone- LowLow pressure storms pressure storms

Cyclonic storm-Cyclonic storm- LowLow pressure storms in mid- pressure storms in mid-latitudes, and Indian Ocean; also called hurricanes latitudes, and Indian Ocean; also called hurricanes in the Atlantic, and typhoons in the Pacific.in the Atlantic, and typhoons in the Pacific.

Dew point-Dew point- TheThe temperature at which relative temperature at which relative humidity reaches 100%.humidity reaches 100%.

Front-Front- WhereWhere two air masses of different two air masses of different characteristics meet.characteristics meet.

Humidity-Humidity- Amount of water vapor in the Amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. warm air can hold more vapor than atmosphere. warm air can hold more vapor than cold air can.cold air can.

Isobar-Isobar- Isolines of equal pressure are isobars. Isolines of equal pressure are isobars. Jet stream-Jet stream- Bands of easterly moving air at the top Bands of easterly moving air at the top

of the troposphere blowing 200 MPH or more.of the troposphere blowing 200 MPH or more. Monsoons-Monsoons- Regular and severe weather changes Regular and severe weather changes

caused by shifting winds. caused by shifting winds. Occluded front-Occluded front- Boundary of opposing wedges of Boundary of opposing wedges of

cold air masses formed when a cold front forces cold air masses formed when a cold front forces warm air up, off the ground.warm air up, off the ground.

Planetary wind belts-Planetary wind belts- Winds moving in Winds moving in predominantly one direction. They are due to winds predominantly one direction. They are due to winds blowing from high pressure to low pressure areas blowing from high pressure to low pressure areas and the spin of the Earth (Coriolis Effect).and the spin of the Earth (Coriolis Effect).

Polar front-Polar front- An ever changing boundary in mid- An ever changing boundary in mid-latitudes between cold air masses from the poles latitudes between cold air masses from the poles and warm air masses from the equator.and warm air masses from the equator.

PrecipitationPrecipitation- The falling of liquid or solid water - The falling of liquid or solid water from clouds.from clouds.

Probability-Probability- Chance of occurrence of certain types Chance of occurrence of certain types of weather. These are predictions based on weather of weather. These are predictions based on weather models, and past performance.models, and past performance.

Psychrometer-Psychrometer- An instrument used to measure An instrument used to measure relative humidity. (A wet-bulb and dry-bulb relative humidity. (A wet-bulb and dry-bulb thermometers and a table)thermometers and a table)

Radar-Radar- Reflected electro-magnetic energy that is Reflected electro-magnetic energy that is used to give a 3-dimensional view of weather. used to give a 3-dimensional view of weather. Acronym for Acronym for RARAdio dio DDetection etection AAnd nd RRanginganging

Relative humidity-Relative humidity- The ratio of the amount of water The ratio of the amount of water vapor in the air to the maximum amount that could vapor in the air to the maximum amount that could be dissolved in the air.be dissolved in the air.

Stationary front-Stationary front- Two masses of air with different Two masses of air with different characteristics that remain in the same position.characteristics that remain in the same position.

Station model- Station model- Symbols and a circle used to Symbols and a circle used to indicate weather variables for a specific site.indicate weather variables for a specific site.

Troposphere-Troposphere- The part of the earth’s atmosphere The part of the earth’s atmosphere directly above the surface. Most weather occurs in directly above the surface. Most weather occurs in the troposphere.the troposphere.

Visibility-Visibility- How far you can see along Earth’s How far you can see along Earth’s surface in miles.surface in miles.

Warm front-Warm front- Boundary of an advancing warm air Boundary of an advancing warm air mass. Because colder air is heavier, warm air is mass. Because colder air is heavier, warm air is forced to rise as it advances.forced to rise as it advances.

Water vapor-Water vapor- Gaseous water in the atmosphere. Gaseous water in the atmosphere. Weather variables-Weather variables- temperature, pressure, wind, temperature, pressure, wind,

moisture, cloud cover, precipitation, and storms.moisture, cloud cover, precipitation, and storms.

Topic 8 -Water and Climate Topic 8 -Water and Climate

CapillarityCapillarity-The attractive force between water molecules that -The attractive force between water molecules that can oppose the force of gravity. Capillarity is greater when the can oppose the force of gravity. Capillarity is greater when the tube diameter is smaller.tube diameter is smaller.

ClimateClimate-The weather conditions at a location over a long period -The weather conditions at a location over a long period of timeof time

Ground waterGround water-The sub-surface water stored below the water -The sub-surface water stored below the water table is ground water. 2/3 of all non-frozen freshwater on earth is table is ground water. 2/3 of all non-frozen freshwater on earth is ground water.ground water.

Hydrologic cycleHydrologic cycle- See water cycle- See water cycle InfiltrateInfiltrate-As water slowly moves through open spaces in the -As water slowly moves through open spaces in the

ground it is said to infiltrate the groundground it is said to infiltrate the ground PermeabilityPermeability- The ability of a material to allow fluids to pass - The ability of a material to allow fluids to pass

through is its permeability. The permeability rate is the speed at through is its permeability. The permeability rate is the speed at which fluids can infiltrate the ground.which fluids can infiltrate the ground.

PorosityPorosity- The amount of open space between particles of dirt - The amount of open space between particles of dirt and sediment is the porosity of the soil.and sediment is the porosity of the soil.

Prevailing windsPrevailing winds- The direction from which the wind usually - The direction from which the wind usually blows at a given locationblows at a given location

RunoffRunoff-As precipitation flows over the surface of the earth back -As precipitation flows over the surface of the earth back towards the oceans it is described as runoff.towards the oceans it is described as runoff.

SeepSeep-The process of water infiltrating the ground-The process of water infiltrating the ground SortedSorted- Sediments are said to be sorted when they are - Sediments are said to be sorted when they are

close in size to one another.close in size to one another. Stream dischargeStream discharge- The volume of water that a stream - The volume of water that a stream

discharges over a given period of time is the stream discharges over a given period of time is the stream discharge.discharge.

Unsorted-Unsorted- When sediments are mixed sizes they are said When sediments are mixed sizes they are said to be unsorted. Usually from glacial deposition.to be unsorted. Usually from glacial deposition.

UrbanizationUrbanization- The development of large areas, including - The development of large areas, including road building, parking lots and buildings. Urbanization road building, parking lots and buildings. Urbanization decreases infiltration and increases runoff.decreases infiltration and increases runoff.

Water cycleWater cycle- A model used to show the movement and - A model used to show the movement and phase changes of water at or near Earth’s surface.phase changes of water at or near Earth’s surface.

Water retentionWater retention- Precipitation can be stored or retained - Precipitation can be stored or retained on the land as ice or snow, or on the leaves of plants and on the land as ice or snow, or on the leaves of plants and treestrees

Water tableWater table- The interface between the area of saturation - The interface between the area of saturation and zone or aeration is the water table. Ground water is at and zone or aeration is the water table. Ground water is at and below the water table.and below the water table.

Topic 9 - Weathering and Topic 9 - Weathering and Erosion Erosion AbrasionAbrasion-Rocks scraping against other rocks primarily through -Rocks scraping against other rocks primarily through

glacial erosion produces abrasions. Abrasion has the effect or glacial erosion produces abrasions. Abrasion has the effect or rounding sharp pieces of rock.rounding sharp pieces of rock.

Breaking waveBreaking wave-When a wave reaches shallow water it is unable -When a wave reaches shallow water it is unable to support its height and “breaks” in a forward rush of water.to support its height and “breaks” in a forward rush of water.

Chemical weatheringChemical weathering-This occurs when carbon dioxide or sulfur -This occurs when carbon dioxide or sulfur dioxide dissolve in water and then dissolve rocks. Plant roots dioxide dissolve in water and then dissolve rocks. Plant roots may also secrete mild acids that contribute to chemical may also secrete mild acids that contribute to chemical weathering.weathering.

DeltaDelta-A delta is a depositional feature formed by deposition of -A delta is a depositional feature formed by deposition of sediments carried by a stream over a long period oft time. sediments carried by a stream over a long period oft time.

ErosionErosion-The transportation of sediments through running water, -The transportation of sediments through running water, glacial ice, wind, waves, and mass movements is the process of glacial ice, wind, waves, and mass movements is the process of erosion. Erosion almost always moves particles to lower erosion. Erosion almost always moves particles to lower elevations, wind is the exception. elevations, wind is the exception.

Finger LakesFinger Lakes-These are long narrow lakes in U-shaped valleys, -These are long narrow lakes in U-shaped valleys, left behind as glaciers melt. They are usually dammed at one end left behind as glaciers melt. They are usually dammed at one end with a pile of loose debris.with a pile of loose debris.

Flood plainFlood plain-During times of floods when a stream overflows its -During times of floods when a stream overflows its banks it may flow out onto a wider valley and deposit sediments banks it may flow out onto a wider valley and deposit sediments in the flood plain.in the flood plain.

Glacial grooveGlacial groove-The gouges left behind by a glacier are -The gouges left behind by a glacier are glacial grooves.glacial grooves.

GlacierGlacier-A naturally formed mass of ice which -A naturally formed mass of ice which accumulates over long periods of time. Glaciers can form accumulates over long periods of time. Glaciers can form in mountains and move down a valley, (valley glacier) or in mountains and move down a valley, (valley glacier) or cover entire continents (Greenland, Antarctica). These are cover entire continents (Greenland, Antarctica). These are continental glaciers. continental glaciers.

Mass movementMass movement- Rock slides, mud or debris flows, - Rock slides, mud or debris flows, creep and slump are examples of mass movements. The creep and slump are examples of mass movements. The primary force causing mass movements is gravity.primary force causing mass movements is gravity.

MeanderMeander-A physical feature carved by a river. Meanders -A physical feature carved by a river. Meanders are snake like bends and curves in a river or stream.are snake like bends and curves in a river or stream. `̀

Physical weatheringPhysical weathering- Frost action, freeze-thaw cycles, - Frost action, freeze-thaw cycles, plant root growth, and abrupt temperature changes can plant root growth, and abrupt temperature changes can cause rocks to crack and breakdown into smaller pieces.cause rocks to crack and breakdown into smaller pieces.

SandbarSandbar-In the zone of breaking waves, sediments -In the zone of breaking waves, sediments deposited can form a barrier parallel to the shore called a deposited can form a barrier parallel to the shore called a sandbar.sandbar.

SandblastingSandblasting-This occurs when winds pick up sediments -This occurs when winds pick up sediments and blow them against rocks causing abrasion. and blow them against rocks causing abrasion.

SedimentsSediments- Particles of rock which have been - Particles of rock which have been broken down into small pieces by the process of broken down into small pieces by the process of weathering.weathering.

StreamStream-When running water is confined to a narrow -When running water is confined to a narrow channel a stream is formed.channel a stream is formed.

Stream channel shapeStream channel shape- The shape of the bedrock - The shape of the bedrock or loose materials that confine a stream is the or loose materials that confine a stream is the stream channel shape. stream channel shape.

TributaryTributary- A smaller stream that joins a larger - A smaller stream that joins a larger stream is a tributary.stream is a tributary.

U-shaped valleyU-shaped valley-The shape of a valley carved by -The shape of a valley carved by glaciers, the sides are cut away by the ice leaving glaciers, the sides are cut away by the ice leaving the U shape.the U shape.

V-shaped valleyV-shaped valley-The shape of a valley carved by a -The shape of a valley carved by a stream or river is V-shaped because the stream stream or river is V-shaped because the stream cuts deeper over time.cuts deeper over time.

WatershedWatershed-The area of land drained by a stream or -The area of land drained by a stream or series of streams is a watershed.series of streams is a watershed.

WeatheringWeathering-The chemical and physical breakdown -The chemical and physical breakdown of rocks at or near Earth’s surface.of rocks at or near Earth’s surface.

Topic 10-Deposition Topic 10-Deposition

Barrier IslandBarrier Island-An island created by the deposition -An island created by the deposition of sand offshore, and held in place by growing of sand offshore, and held in place by growing vegetation.vegetation.

DepositionDeposition-The process by which sediments are -The process by which sediments are released, settled from, or dropped by an erosional released, settled from, or dropped by an erosional system.system.

DrumlinDrumlin-Streamlined, oval shaped moraines that -Streamlined, oval shaped moraines that look like an inverted spoon.look like an inverted spoon.

Kettle LakeKettle Lake-A lake formed by the depression due to -A lake formed by the depression due to the weight of a glacier and the melting of the ice.the weight of a glacier and the melting of the ice.

MoraineMoraine-The unsorted sheets or piles deposited on -The unsorted sheets or piles deposited on the sides or at the end of a glacier.the sides or at the end of a glacier.

Outwash PlainOutwash Plain- The running water that moves - The running water that moves away from the terminus of a glacier may move out away from the terminus of a glacier may move out in a fan-shaped pattern that is called an outwash in a fan-shaped pattern that is called an outwash plain.plain.

Sand duneSand dune-A large pile of sand deposited -A large pile of sand deposited by wind. Sand dunes have a steep gradient by wind. Sand dunes have a steep gradient on the windward side (side facing the on the windward side (side facing the wind), and a gradual slope on the leeward wind), and a gradual slope on the leeward side (side facing away from the wind.) This side (side facing away from the wind.) This feature of sand dunes can be used to feature of sand dunes can be used to determine the direction from which the determine the direction from which the wind blows. Sand dunes migrate as sand wind blows. Sand dunes migrate as sand on the windward side is blown around to on the windward side is blown around to the leeward side.the leeward side.

Sorted sedimentsSorted sediments-Sediments that are -Sediments that are similar in size and shape, usually deposited similar in size and shape, usually deposited by running water or wind.by running water or wind.

Unsorted sediments-Unsorted sediments-Sediments that are Sediments that are very different in size and shape, usually the very different in size and shape, usually the result of glacial deposition or mass result of glacial deposition or mass movements.movements.

Topic 11- Earth’s Materials Topic 11- Earth’s Materials

Bioclastic sedimentary rocksBioclastic sedimentary rocks-Rocks that were formed from -Rocks that were formed from living organisms, such as shells forming calcium carbonate living organisms, such as shells forming calcium carbonate limestone rocks.limestone rocks.

Chemical sedimentary rocksChemical sedimentary rocks-Rocks formed from the chemical -Rocks formed from the chemical precipitation of dissolved chemicals, usually salts.precipitation of dissolved chemicals, usually salts.

Clastic sedimentary rocksClastic sedimentary rocks-Rocks that are largely composed of -Rocks that are largely composed of solid sediments such as sand in sandstone.solid sediments such as sand in sandstone.

CleavageCleavage-The tendency of a rock to break along lines of weaker -The tendency of a rock to break along lines of weaker atomic bonds forming smooth planes, and specific angles is its atomic bonds forming smooth planes, and specific angles is its cleavage. cleavage.

Contact metamorphismContact metamorphism- The metamorphism that occurs when - The metamorphism that occurs when older rocks come into direct contact with hot magma.older rocks come into direct contact with hot magma.

Crystal shapeCrystal shape-The outward geometric shape of a mineral is -The outward geometric shape of a mineral is determined by the crystal shape.determined by the crystal shape.

Crystal structureCrystal structure-The specific arrangement of atoms in a -The specific arrangement of atoms in a material.material.

Extrusive igneous rocksExtrusive igneous rocks-Igneous rocks that form on the surface -Igneous rocks that form on the surface of the Earth- exposed to the atmosphere.of the Earth- exposed to the atmosphere.

FoliationFoliation-Large mineral crystals often in layers.-Large mineral crystals often in layers.

FossilFossil-Evidence of former life preserved in rock.-Evidence of former life preserved in rock. FractureFracture-If a material lacks specific lines of weaker -If a material lacks specific lines of weaker

atomic bonds, it will break with uneven surfaces. This is atomic bonds, it will break with uneven surfaces. This is called fracture.called fracture.

HardnessHardness-The resistance a rock offers to being scratched -The resistance a rock offers to being scratched is its hardness. A rock that can scratch another is harder is its hardness. A rock that can scratch another is harder than the rock that was scratched.than the rock that was scratched.

Igneous rocksIgneous rocks- Rocks formed when liquid magma or lava - Rocks formed when liquid magma or lava cools and hardens.cools and hardens.

InorganicInorganic-Not composed of anything that is or was alive.-Not composed of anything that is or was alive. Intrusive igneous rocksIntrusive igneous rocks-Igneous rocks that form -Igneous rocks that form

beneath the Earth’s surface.beneath the Earth’s surface. LusterLuster-The shine from an unpolished rock, or the way it -The shine from an unpolished rock, or the way it

reflects light is its lusterreflects light is its luster MagmaMagma-Liquid rock beneath Earth’s surface- not exposed -Liquid rock beneath Earth’s surface- not exposed

to the atmosphere.to the atmosphere. Metamorphic rocksMetamorphic rocks-Rocks that have been changed -Rocks that have been changed

under temperature and pressure from sedimentary or under temperature and pressure from sedimentary or igneous rocks.igneous rocks.

MetamorphismMetamorphism-The process through heat and pressure -The process through heat and pressure of changing a rocks composition and mineral structure. of changing a rocks composition and mineral structure.

Mineral-Mineral- A naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solid, A naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solid, with a definite chemical compositionwith a definite chemical composition

Mineral crystalMineral crystal-Individual grains of minerals.-Individual grains of minerals. Mineral resourcesMineral resources-Earth’s resources including minerals, -Earth’s resources including minerals,

rocks and fossil fuels.rocks and fossil fuels. OrganicOrganic-Refers to anything that is or was alive. -Refers to anything that is or was alive.

Generally, organic materials are carbon based. Generally, organic materials are carbon based. Precipitation of mineralsPrecipitation of minerals-The result of evaporation, -The result of evaporation,

saturation with dissolved minerals, or changes in saturation with dissolved minerals, or changes in temperature.temperature.

Regional metamorphismRegional metamorphism-Metamorphism that occurs in a -Metamorphism that occurs in a large area or region.large area or region.

Rock cycleRock cycle- A model used to show the various stages of - A model used to show the various stages of rocks from sedimentary to metamorphic or igneous.rocks from sedimentary to metamorphic or igneous.

Sedimentary rocksSedimentary rocks-Rocks that form from an -Rocks that form from an accumulation of sediments.accumulation of sediments.

StreakStreak-The color of finely crushed residue or powder of -The color of finely crushed residue or powder of the mineralthe mineral

TextureTexture-The size, shape and arrangement of the -The size, shape and arrangement of the materials in a rock are its texture.materials in a rock are its texture.

Topic 12- Earth’s dynamic Topic 12- Earth’s dynamic crust and Interior crust and Interior AsthenosphereAsthenosphere-A portion of the upper mantle just below -A portion of the upper mantle just below

the crust. This is a plastic layer that the plates move the crust. This is a plastic layer that the plates move around on.around on.

Continental crustContinental crust-Crust at the continents-thicker than -Crust at the continents-thicker than oceanic crust. Primarily composed of less dense granite.oceanic crust. Primarily composed of less dense granite.

Convergent plate boundaryConvergent plate boundary-A boundary where two -A boundary where two plates move together in a head-on collision. These cause plates move together in a head-on collision. These cause mountain building if both plates are continental, and mountain building if both plates are continental, and subduction if one plate is oceanic.subduction if one plate is oceanic.

CrustCrust-The top part of the lithosphere.-The top part of the lithosphere. Divergent plate boundaryDivergent plate boundary-A boundary where two plates -A boundary where two plates

are moving apart from one another.are moving apart from one another. EarthquakeEarthquake-A natural, rapid vibration of the lithosphere. -A natural, rapid vibration of the lithosphere.

Usually caused by plate motions.Usually caused by plate motions. EpicenteEpicenter-The location on the surface of the land or water r-The location on the surface of the land or water

directly above the location where an earthquake directly above the location where an earthquake originated.originated.

FaultedFaulted-Rock layers that are offset from the position in -Rock layers that are offset from the position in which they formed. Faulting can be vertical or horizontal.which they formed. Faulting can be vertical or horizontal.

FoldedFolded- Rock layers that are bent or tilted.- Rock layers that are bent or tilted. Hot spotHot spot-A place where the crust is especially thin. There -A place where the crust is especially thin. There

may be geothermal or volcanic activity associated with hot may be geothermal or volcanic activity associated with hot spots. spots.

Inner coreInner core-The central core of the earth, composed of -The central core of the earth, composed of solid iron and nickel.solid iron and nickel.

Island arcIsland arc-A region of islands created by volcanoes from -A region of islands created by volcanoes from a hot spot.a hot spot.

LithosphereLithosphere-The layer of rock that forms the outer layer -The layer of rock that forms the outer layer of Earth’s shell at the top of Earth’s interior is the of Earth’s shell at the top of Earth’s interior is the lithosphere.lithosphere.

MantleMantle-The thickest part of earth’s interior, located below -The thickest part of earth’s interior, located below the lithosphere. The mantle contains 80% of earth’s the lithosphere. The mantle contains 80% of earth’s volume and is separated from the crust by a layer called volume and is separated from the crust by a layer called the Moho.the Moho.

Mid-ocean ridgeMid-ocean ridge-A region where plates diverge and new -A region where plates diverge and new oceanic crust is formed.oceanic crust is formed.

MohoMoho-A thin layer that separates the crust from the -A thin layer that separates the crust from the mantle.mantle.

Oceanic crustOceanic crust-Thinner crust portions beneath the -Thinner crust portions beneath the oceans; primarily composed of higher density oceans; primarily composed of higher density basalt.basalt.

Ocean trenchOcean trench-In regions of subduction, trenches -In regions of subduction, trenches are formed which are the deepest regions of earth’s are formed which are the deepest regions of earth’s oceans.oceans.

Original horizontalityOriginal horizontality- The concept that sediments - The concept that sediments and lava flows occur originally in horizontal layers.and lava flows occur originally in horizontal layers.

Outer core-Outer core-The fluid portion of earth’s core, mostly The fluid portion of earth’s core, mostly liquid iron and nickelliquid iron and nickel

Plate tectonic theoryPlate tectonic theory-The theory that the plates -The theory that the plates move around at the surface of the Earth. move around at the surface of the Earth.

P-wavesP-waves-The primary earthquake wave. P-waves -The primary earthquake wave. P-waves cause particle vibration in the direction the wave cause particle vibration in the direction the wave travels. (Longitudinal waves)travels. (Longitudinal waves)

SubductionSubduction-The process of a more dense plate -The process of a more dense plate sinking beneath a less dense plate. sinking beneath a less dense plate.

S-waves-S-waves-Secondary waves cause particle vibration Secondary waves cause particle vibration at right angles to the direction of wave propagation. at right angles to the direction of wave propagation. (Transverse waves).(Transverse waves).

Seismic wavesSeismic waves-The release of energy during an -The release of energy during an earthquake is recorded as a seismic wave. earthquake is recorded as a seismic wave.

Tectonic platesTectonic plates-Lithospheric plates, Plates, - sections of -Lithospheric plates, Plates, - sections of crust are divided into oceanic and continental plates.crust are divided into oceanic and continental plates.

Transform plate boundaryTransform plate boundary-The boundary between two -The boundary between two plates that are sliding past each other.plates that are sliding past each other.

TsunamiTsunami-A wave generated by an earthquake. Tsunamis -A wave generated by an earthquake. Tsunamis can be extremely large and cause extreme property can be extremely large and cause extreme property damage and loss of life.damage and loss of life.

UplifUplift-The force that lifts portions of the crust to higher t-The force that lifts portions of the crust to higher elevation. Uplift is usually caused by a build up of magma elevation. Uplift is usually caused by a build up of magma below the surface or by plates colliding.below the surface or by plates colliding.

Volcanic eruptionVolcanic eruption-The release of gasses, steam, ash, -The release of gasses, steam, ash, pyroclasts, and molten rock (lava) is an eruption.pyroclasts, and molten rock (lava) is an eruption.

VolcanoVolcano-A mountain formed from extrusive igneous -A mountain formed from extrusive igneous rocks.rocks.

Young mountainsYoung mountains-Created by convergent plates colliding -Created by convergent plates colliding and forcing the lithosphere to be uplifted.and forcing the lithosphere to be uplifted.

Topic 13 - Interpreting Topic 13 - Interpreting Geologic HistoryGeologic History Geologic age - Geologic age - the age of the Earth is so immense that its age the age of the Earth is so immense that its age

is referred to as geologic time. If the age of the Earth was is referred to as geologic time. If the age of the Earth was represented with a stack of paper sheets, and each sheet of represented with a stack of paper sheets, and each sheet of paper represented 2000 years, the stack of paper would have to paper represented 2000 years, the stack of paper would have to be about 750 feet high to represent the Earth.be about 750 feet high to represent the Earth.

The geologic rock record is very much like a bunch of 1000 piece The geologic rock record is very much like a bunch of 1000 piece jigsaw puzzles. All over the world, at every location there is the jigsaw puzzles. All over the world, at every location there is the same puzzle. The problem is, that no where is there a puzzle same puzzle. The problem is, that no where is there a puzzle with all 1000 pieces in the box. Some puzzles are missing 50-with all 1000 pieces in the box. Some puzzles are missing 50-100 pieces and others are missing several hundred pieces. No 100 pieces and others are missing several hundred pieces. No complete puzzle can be completed, but because all the puzzles complete puzzle can be completed, but because all the puzzles make the same picture, we can get an idea what is missing at make the same picture, we can get an idea what is missing at our location by seeing another puzzle that is not missing those our location by seeing another puzzle that is not missing those pieces. This process of filling in the missing pieces is called pieces. This process of filling in the missing pieces is called correlation. The pieces are missing due to erosion. It is erosion correlation. The pieces are missing due to erosion. It is erosion that removes puzzle pieces from the rock record. These missing that removes puzzle pieces from the rock record. These missing sections are called unconformities.sections are called unconformities.

Absolute ageAbsolute age-The absolute age of a rock in years, usually a -The absolute age of a rock in years, usually a range like 410-425 million years. Determined with radioactive range like 410-425 million years. Determined with radioactive dating.dating.

Carbon-14 datingCarbon-14 dating- The process of using Carbon-14, an - The process of using Carbon-14, an isotope of carbon, for absolute dating. The use depends isotope of carbon, for absolute dating. The use depends on knowing the original amount of Carbon-14 present and on knowing the original amount of Carbon-14 present and the amount of the decay product. the amount of the decay product.

CorrelationCorrelation-Correlation is the process of showing that -Correlation is the process of showing that rocks from different places are the same or similar in age. rocks from different places are the same or similar in age. This process fills in the missing pieces of the geologic This process fills in the missing pieces of the geologic rock record using among other techniques- index fossils.rock record using among other techniques- index fossils.

ExtrusionExtrusion-When igneous rock flows out onto the surface -When igneous rock flows out onto the surface and solidifies, it forms an extrusion.and solidifies, it forms an extrusion.

FaultsFaults- a break between rock layers. Faults are always - a break between rock layers. Faults are always younger than the rocks they cut across.younger than the rocks they cut across.

FossilFossil-The remains of former life, preserved as rocks. -The remains of former life, preserved as rocks. Almost all fossils are found in sedimentary rocks. Igneous Almost all fossils are found in sedimentary rocks. Igneous and metamorphic rock processes destroy fossils. and metamorphic rock processes destroy fossils.

Geologic time scaleGeologic time scale-Divisions of the geologic time based -Divisions of the geologic time based on on changing fossil evidencechanging fossil evidence. The divisions are, from . The divisions are, from longest to shortest, eons, eras, periods, and epochs. longest to shortest, eons, eras, periods, and epochs. Much of the information regarding these time units is in Much of the information regarding these time units is in your reference tables.your reference tables.

Half-lifeHalf-life-The time required for half of a radioactive sample -The time required for half of a radioactive sample to decay is its half-life. By knowing the half-life of an to decay is its half-life. By knowing the half-life of an isotope and the fractions that are decayed and still isotope and the fractions that are decayed and still radioactive, we can determine the age of a rock or artifact. radioactive, we can determine the age of a rock or artifact. Because we need a reasonable fraction to look at, this Because we need a reasonable fraction to look at, this techniques works best when at least 1 half-life has gone techniques works best when at least 1 half-life has gone by (not too much still radioactive) and no more than 6 by (not too much still radioactive) and no more than 6 half-life's have gone by (too much decayed).half-life's have gone by (too much decayed).

InclusionInclusion- When a piece of older rock is encased in a - When a piece of older rock is encased in a younger rock, it is an inclusion. Inclusions form as magma younger rock, it is an inclusion. Inclusions form as magma pushes through older rock and is not hot enough to melt pushes through older rock and is not hot enough to melt the older rock. It may completely surround the older rock the older rock. It may completely surround the older rock forming an inclusion. Inclusions are always older than the forming an inclusion. Inclusions are always older than the rock that surrounds them.rock that surrounds them.

Index fossilIndex fossil-Index fossils are used in correlation. To be -Index fossils are used in correlation. To be an index fossil, 2 conditions must be met. First, the fossil an index fossil, 2 conditions must be met. First, the fossil must have must have lived over a wide geographic arealived over a wide geographic area so that its so that its remains have a large horizontal distribution. Second, the remains have a large horizontal distribution. Second, the life form life form must have lived for a relatively short period must have lived for a relatively short period of geologic time before it went extinct.of geologic time before it went extinct. If it lives for a If it lives for a long time period and can be found in many different rock long time period and can be found in many different rock layers it is not useful in correlating bedrock.layers it is not useful in correlating bedrock.

IntrusionIntrusion- When magma squeezes into existing rocks and - When magma squeezes into existing rocks and crystallizes underground it forms an intrusion. Intrusions are crystallizes underground it forms an intrusion. Intrusions are younger than any rock they cut through. Intrusions will cause younger than any rock they cut through. Intrusions will cause contact metamorphism. If we see an intrusion covered by a rock contact metamorphism. If we see an intrusion covered by a rock layer that does not show contact metamorphism – we know that layer that does not show contact metamorphism – we know that the rock layer formed after the intrusion. If we see contact the rock layer formed after the intrusion. If we see contact metamorphism on the rock layer above the intrusion, it tells us metamorphism on the rock layer above the intrusion, it tells us that the rock layer was there when the intrusion occurred.that the rock layer was there when the intrusion occurred.

IsotopeIsotope-A variety of an element with a different number of -A variety of an element with a different number of protons than the most common variety of that element is an protons than the most common variety of that element is an isotope. It must have the same number of protons- change the isotope. It must have the same number of protons- change the number of protons and you change elements.number of protons and you change elements.

Organic evolution theoryOrganic evolution theory-The theory that life forms change -The theory that life forms change over time.over time.

OutgassingOutgassing- The process of gasses seeping out of Earth's - The process of gasses seeping out of Earth's interior.interior.

Principle of original horizontalityPrinciple of original horizontality – A fancy way to say that – A fancy way to say that sedimentary rocks form in horizontal layers. If the rocks we are sedimentary rocks form in horizontal layers. If the rocks we are looking at are no longer flat, then the tilting or folding (tectonic looking at are no longer flat, then the tilting or folding (tectonic forces) happened since they were formed.forces) happened since they were formed.

Principle of superpositionPrinciple of superposition- The idea that the bottom layer of a - The idea that the bottom layer of a series of rock layers is the oldest, and that younger layers are on series of rock layers is the oldest, and that younger layers are on top of the older layers. New sedimentary rocks form on top of top of the older layers. New sedimentary rocks form on top of older sedimentary rocks.older sedimentary rocks.

Radioactive dating-Radioactive dating-The process of using the half life of a The process of using the half life of a radioactive isotope and the ratio between the existing amount radioactive isotope and the ratio between the existing amount and the original amount to date rocks in an absolute manner.and the original amount to date rocks in an absolute manner.

Radioactive decayRadioactive decay-The process of an element’s nucleus -The process of an element’s nucleus breaking apart and releasing particles and energy is radioactive breaking apart and releasing particles and energy is radioactive decay. This breaking apart is called fission.decay. This breaking apart is called fission.

Radioactive decay fractionsRadioactive decay fractions – These are the fractions – These are the fractions geologists use to determine absolute age. There are always 2 geologists use to determine absolute age. There are always 2 fractions which will add up to the whole (1) The first is the fraction fractions which will add up to the whole (1) The first is the fraction that is still radioactive (parents). This fraction is cut in half each that is still radioactive (parents). This fraction is cut in half each time 1 half-life goes by. It always has a 1 for its numerator and its time 1 half-life goes by. It always has a 1 for its numerator and its denominator continually doubles. The other is the fraction that denominator continually doubles. The other is the fraction that has decayed (daughters). This fraction always has the same has decayed (daughters). This fraction always has the same denominator as the corresponding parent, and its numerator is denominator as the corresponding parent, and its numerator is the denominator minus 1. Example: after 3 half life's- Parents the denominator minus 1. Example: after 3 half life's- Parents equal ½equal ½ ¼¼ 1/81/8

daughters equal ½ daughters equal ½ ¾¾ 7/87/8 The 1/8 and the 7/8 add up to the whole (1)The 1/8 and the 7/8 add up to the whole (1) Parents approach 0 but will never reach it while daughters Parents approach 0 but will never reach it while daughters

approach 100% without ever reaching it.approach 100% without ever reaching it. Radioactive isotopes continue to decay forever! Nothing affects Radioactive isotopes continue to decay forever! Nothing affects

their decay- not temperature, pressure, size or age of the their decay- not temperature, pressure, size or age of the sample!sample!

UnconformityUnconformity- A buried, erosional surface of rock, - A buried, erosional surface of rock, in which older rock layers are missing from the in which older rock layers are missing from the geologic record. Without an atmosphere and geologic record. Without an atmosphere and weather a planet would not have any weather a planet would not have any unconformities.unconformities.

Uranium-238Uranium-238- An important radioactive isotope of - An important radioactive isotope of uranium which helps scientists to date rocks. Half-uranium which helps scientists to date rocks. Half-life and disintegration are on the front cover of the life and disintegration are on the front cover of the reference table.reference table.

Volcanic ashVolcanic ash- The dust and particles expelled by - The dust and particles expelled by volcanoes during eruptions is volcanic ash. These volcanoes during eruptions is volcanic ash. These serve as specific age markers in the glacial and serve as specific age markers in the glacial and geologic records. The glacial ice can be dated geologic records. The glacial ice can be dated absolutely by examining the lines in ice cores. absolutely by examining the lines in ice cores. Every volcano emits a composition of dust and ash Every volcano emits a composition of dust and ash that is unique – like a volcanic fingerprint. These are that is unique – like a volcanic fingerprint. These are extremely useful markers in the rock record that extremely useful markers in the rock record that assist the correlation process. Impact events assist the correlation process. Impact events (asteroid collisions) produce the same effect.(asteroid collisions) produce the same effect.

Topic 14 - Landscape Topic 14 - Landscape Development and Environmental Development and Environmental Change Change EscarpmentEscarpment-Cliffs that form where rocks of different hardness -Cliffs that form where rocks of different hardness

erode at different rates.erode at different rates. LandscapeLandscape- Landscape or topography are the features of the - Landscape or topography are the features of the

surface on top of the lithosphere. surface on top of the lithosphere. Landscape regionLandscape region- The characteristics of a region including - The characteristics of a region including

bedrock structures, elevation, stream drainage patterns, and soil bedrock structures, elevation, stream drainage patterns, and soil characteristics. characteristics.

MountainMountain- An area of high elevations compared to the - An area of high elevations compared to the surrounding area. Usually includes areas of steep gradients, and surrounding area. Usually includes areas of steep gradients, and many changes in slope.many changes in slope.

PlainPlain-Usually composed of sedimentary rock layers in a -Usually composed of sedimentary rock layers in a horizontal structure at lower elevations.horizontal structure at lower elevations.

PlateauPlateau-An area of high elevation with a horizontal structure.-An area of high elevation with a horizontal structure. RidgesRidges-Formed from more resistant rock layers, usually in long, -Formed from more resistant rock layers, usually in long,

narrow bands called ridges.narrow bands called ridges. Stream drainage patternStream drainage pattern-The shape of a stream in an area as -The shape of a stream in an area as

viewed from overhead.viewed from overhead. Uplifting forcesUplifting forces-The forces that originate deep within the Earth. -The forces that originate deep within the Earth.

They include volcanoes, earthquakes and plate tectonic forces.They include volcanoes, earthquakes and plate tectonic forces.

New York State Earth Science New York State Earth Science Core Curriculum and Performance Core Curriculum and Performance IndicatorsIndicators The core curriculum is based on The core curriculum is based on

5 key ideas under Standard IV-5 key ideas under Standard IV-Science.Science.

Performance indicators describe Performance indicators describe what New York State Earth what New York State Earth Science students will know and Science students will know and understand after completing a understand after completing a course of study in the subject.course of study in the subject.

Learning Standards for Mathematics, Science, and Learning Standards for Mathematics, Science, and Technology: Commencement Level.Technology: Commencement Level.

Standard 1Standard 1: : Students will use mathematical analysis, Students will use mathematical analysis, scientific inquiry, and engineering design, as appropriate, scientific inquiry, and engineering design, as appropriate, to pose questions, seek answers, and develop solutions.to pose questions, seek answers, and develop solutions.

Standard 2Standard 2: : Students will access, generate, process, and Students will access, generate, process, and transfer information using appropriate technologies.transfer information using appropriate technologies.

Standard 3Standard 3: : Students will understand mathematics and Students will understand mathematics and become mathematically confident by communicating and become mathematically confident by communicating and reasoning mathematically, by applying mathematics in reasoning mathematically, by applying mathematics in real-world settings, and by solving problems through the real-world settings, and by solving problems through the integrated study of number systems, geometry, algebra, integrated study of number systems, geometry, algebra, data analysis, probability, and trigonometry.data analysis, probability, and trigonometry.

Standard 4Standard 4: : Students will understand and apply scientific Students will understand and apply scientific concepts, principles, and theories pertaining to the concepts, principles, and theories pertaining to the physical setting and living environment and recognize the physical setting and living environment and recognize the historical development of ideas in science.historical development of ideas in science.

Standard 5Standard 5: : Students will apply technological knowledge Students will apply technological knowledge and skills to design, construct, use, and evaluate products and skills to design, construct, use, and evaluate products and systems to satisfy human and environmental needs.and systems to satisfy human and environmental needs.

Standard 6Standard 6: : Students will understand the relationships Students will understand the relationships and common themes that connect mathematics, science, and common themes that connect mathematics, science, and technology and apply the themes to these and other and technology and apply the themes to these and other areas of learning.areas of learning.

Standard 7Standard 7: : Students will apply the knowledge and Students will apply the knowledge and thinking skills of mathematics, science, and technology to thinking skills of mathematics, science, and technology to address real-life problems and make informed decisions.address real-life problems and make informed decisions.

The 5 Key Ideas in Science – The 5 Key Ideas in Science – The Physical settingThe Physical setting 1. The Earth and celestial phenomena can be 1. The Earth and celestial phenomena can be

described by principles of relative motion and described by principles of relative motion and perspective.perspective.

Students:Students: • • explain complex phenomena, such as tides, explain complex phenomena, such as tides,

variations in day length, solar insolation, apparent variations in day length, solar insolation, apparent motion of the planets, and annual traverse of the motion of the planets, and annual traverse of the constellations.constellations.

• • describe current theories about the origin of the describe current theories about the origin of the universe and solar system.universe and solar system.

This is evident, for example, when students:This is evident, for example, when students: create models, drawings, or demonstrations to create models, drawings, or demonstrations to

explain changes in day length, solar insolation, and explain changes in day length, solar insolation, and the apparent motion of planets.the apparent motion of planets.

2. Many of the phenomena we observe on Earth 2. Many of the phenomena we observe on Earth involve interactions among components of air, involve interactions among components of air, water, and land.water, and land.

Students:Students: • • use the concepts of density and heat energy to use the concepts of density and heat energy to

explain observations of weather patterns, seasonal explain observations of weather patterns, seasonal changes, and the movements of the Earth’s plates.changes, and the movements of the Earth’s plates.

• • explain how incoming solar radiations, ocean explain how incoming solar radiations, ocean currents, and land masses affect weather and currents, and land masses affect weather and climate.climate.

This is evident, for example, when students:This is evident, for example, when students: use diagrams of ocean currents at different latitudes use diagrams of ocean currents at different latitudes

to develop explanations for the patterns present.to develop explanations for the patterns present.

3. Matter is made up of particles whose 3. Matter is made up of particles whose properties determine the observable properties determine the observable characteristics of matter and its reactivity.characteristics of matter and its reactivity.

Students:Students: • • explain the properties of materials in terms of the explain the properties of materials in terms of the

arrangement and properties of the atoms that arrangement and properties of the atoms that compose them.compose them.

• • use atomic and molecular models to explain use atomic and molecular models to explain common chemical reactions.common chemical reactions.

• • apply the principle of conservation of mass to apply the principle of conservation of mass to chemical reactions.chemical reactions.

• • use kinetic molecular theory to explain rates of use kinetic molecular theory to explain rates of reactions and the relationships among temperature, reactions and the relationships among temperature, pressure, and volume of a substance.pressure, and volume of a substance.

This is evident, for example, when students:This is evident, for example, when students:

use the atomic theory of elements to justify their use the atomic theory of elements to justify their choice of an element for use as a lighter than air choice of an element for use as a lighter than air gas for a launch vehicle.gas for a launch vehicle.

represent common chemical reactions using three-represent common chemical reactions using three-dimensional models of the molecules involved.dimensional models of the molecules involved.

discuss and explain a variety of everyday discuss and explain a variety of everyday phenomena involving rates of chemical reactions, in phenomena involving rates of chemical reactions, in terms of the kinetic molecular theory (e.g., use of terms of the kinetic molecular theory (e.g., use of refrigeration to keep food from spoiling, ripening of refrigeration to keep food from spoiling, ripening of fruit in a bowl, use of kindling wood to start a fire, fruit in a bowl, use of kindling wood to start a fire, different types of flames that come from a Bunsen different types of flames that come from a Bunsen burner).burner).

4. Energy exists in many forms, and when these 4. Energy exists in many forms, and when these forms change energy is conserved.forms change energy is conserved.

Students:Students: • • observe and describe transmission of various observe and describe transmission of various

forms of energy.forms of energy. • • explain heat in terms of kinetic molecular theory.explain heat in terms of kinetic molecular theory. • • explain variations in wavelength and frequency in explain variations in wavelength and frequency in

terms of the source of the vibrations that produce terms of the source of the vibrations that produce them, e.g., molecules, electrons, and nuclear them, e.g., molecules, electrons, and nuclear particles.particles.

• • explain the uses and hazards of radioactivity.explain the uses and hazards of radioactivity. This is evident, for example, when students:This is evident, for example, when students: demonstrate through drawings, models, and demonstrate through drawings, models, and

diagrams how the potential energy that exists in the diagrams how the potential energy that exists in the chemical bonds of fossil fuels can be converted to chemical bonds of fossil fuels can be converted to electrical energy in a power plant (potential energy, electrical energy in a power plant (potential energy, heat energy, mechanical energy, electrical energy).heat energy, mechanical energy, electrical energy).

investigate the sources of radioactive emissions in investigate the sources of radioactive emissions in their environment and the dangers and benefits their environment and the dangers and benefits they pose for humans.they pose for humans.

5. Energy and matter interact through forces 5. Energy and matter interact through forces that result in changes in motion.that result in changes in motion.

Students:Students: • • explain and predict different patterns of motion of explain and predict different patterns of motion of

objects (e.g., linear and angular motion, velocity objects (e.g., linear and angular motion, velocity and acceleration, momentum and inertia).and acceleration, momentum and inertia).

• • explain chemical bonding in terms of the motion of explain chemical bonding in terms of the motion of electrons.electrons.

• • compare energy relationships within an atom’s compare energy relationships within an atom’s nucleus to those outside the nucleus.nucleus to those outside the nucleus.

This is evident, for example, when students:This is evident, for example, when students: construct drawings, models, and diagrams construct drawings, models, and diagrams

representing several different types of chemical representing several different types of chemical bonds to demonstrate the basis of the bond, the bonds to demonstrate the basis of the bond, the strength of the bond, and the type of electrical strength of the bond, and the type of electrical attraction that exists.attraction that exists.

Core Curriculum Performance Core Curriculum Performance IndicatorsIndicators PERFORMANCE INDICATOR 1.1PERFORMANCE INDICATOR 1.1 Explain complex phenomena, such as tides, variations in Explain complex phenomena, such as tides, variations in

day length, solar insolation, apparent motion of the day length, solar insolation, apparent motion of the planets, and annual traverse of the constellations.planets, and annual traverse of the constellations.

1.1a Most objects in the solar system are in regular and 1.1a Most objects in the solar system are in regular and predictable motion.predictable motion.

These motions explain such phenomena as the day, the These motions explain such phenomena as the day, the year, seasons, phases of the moon, eclipses, and tides.year, seasons, phases of the moon, eclipses, and tides.

Gravity influences the motions of celestial objects. The Gravity influences the motions of celestial objects. The force of gravity between two objects in the universe force of gravity between two objects in the universe depends on their masses and the distance between them.depends on their masses and the distance between them.

1.1b Nine planets move around the Sun in nearly circular 1.1b Nine planets move around the Sun in nearly circular orbits. orbits.

The orbit of each planet is an ellipse with the Sun located The orbit of each planet is an ellipse with the Sun located at one of the foci. at one of the foci.

Earth is orbited by one moon and many artificial satellites.Earth is orbited by one moon and many artificial satellites. 1.1c Earth’s coordinate system of latitude and longitude, 1.1c Earth’s coordinate system of latitude and longitude,

with the equator and prime meridian as reference lines, is with the equator and prime meridian as reference lines, is based upon Earth’s rotation and our observation of the based upon Earth’s rotation and our observation of the Sun and stars.Sun and stars.

1.1d Earth rotates on an imaginary axis at a rate of 15 1.1d Earth rotates on an imaginary axis at a rate of 15 degrees per hour. To people on Earth, this turning of the degrees per hour. To people on Earth, this turning of the planet makes it seem as though the Sun, the moon, and planet makes it seem as though the Sun, the moon, and the stars are moving around Earth once a day. Rotation the stars are moving around Earth once a day. Rotation provides a basis for our system of local time; meridians of provides a basis for our system of local time; meridians of longitude are the basis for time zones.longitude are the basis for time zones.

1.1e The Foucault pendulum and the Coriolis effect 1.1e The Foucault pendulum and the Coriolis effect provide evidence of Earth’s rotation.provide evidence of Earth’s rotation.

1.1f Earth’s changing position with regard to the Sun and 1.1f Earth’s changing position with regard to the Sun and the moon has noticeable effects.the moon has noticeable effects.

Earth revolves around the Sun with its rotational axis tilted Earth revolves around the Sun with its rotational axis tilted at 23.5 degrees to a line perpendicular to the plane of its at 23.5 degrees to a line perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, with the North Pole aligned with Polaris. orbit, with the North Pole aligned with Polaris.

During Earth’s one-year period of revolution, the tilt of its During Earth’s one-year period of revolution, the tilt of its axis results in changes in the angle of incidence of the axis results in changes in the angle of incidence of the Sun’s rays at a given latitude; these changes cause Sun’s rays at a given latitude; these changes cause variation in the heating of the surface. This produces variation in the heating of the surface. This produces seasonal variation in weather.seasonal variation in weather.

1.1g Seasonal changes in the apparent positions of 1.1g Seasonal changes in the apparent positions of constellations provide evidence of Earth’s revolution.constellations provide evidence of Earth’s revolution.

1.1h The Sun’s apparent path through the sky varies with 1.1h The Sun’s apparent path through the sky varies with latitude and season.latitude and season.

1.1i Approximately 70 percent of Earth’s surface is 1.1i Approximately 70 percent of Earth’s surface is covered by a relatively thin layer of water, which responds covered by a relatively thin layer of water, which responds to the gravitational attraction of the moon and the Sun to the gravitational attraction of the moon and the Sun with a daily cycle of high and low tides.with a daily cycle of high and low tides.

PERFORMANCE INDICATOR 1.2PERFORMANCE INDICATOR 1.2Describe current theories about the origin of Describe current theories about the origin of the universe and solar system.the universe and solar system.

1.2a The universe is vast and estimated to be over ten 1.2a The universe is vast and estimated to be over ten billion years old. The current theory is that the billion years old. The current theory is that the universe was created from an explosion called the Big universe was created from an explosion called the Big Bang. Evidence for this theory includes:Bang. Evidence for this theory includes:

cosmic background radiationcosmic background radiation a red-shift (the Doppler effect) in the light from very a red-shift (the Doppler effect) in the light from very

distant galaxies.distant galaxies.

1.2b Stars form when gravity causes clouds of molecules 1.2b Stars form when gravity causes clouds of molecules to contract until nuclear fusion of light elements to contract until nuclear fusion of light elements into into heavier ones occurs. Fusion releases great amounts of heavier ones occurs. Fusion releases great amounts of energy over millions of years.energy over millions of years.

The stars differ from each other in size, temperature, and The stars differ from each other in size, temperature, and age.age.

Our Sun is a medium-sized star within a spiral galaxy of Our Sun is a medium-sized star within a spiral galaxy of stars known as the Milky Way. Our galaxy contains stars known as the Milky Way. Our galaxy contains billions of stars, and the universe contains billions of such billions of stars, and the universe contains billions of such galaxies.galaxies.

1.2c Our solar system formed about five billion years ago 1.2c Our solar system formed about five billion years ago from a giant cloud of gas and debris. Gravity from a giant cloud of gas and debris. Gravity caused caused Earth and the other planets to become layered according Earth and the other planets to become layered according to density differences in their to density differences in their materials.materials.

The characteristics of the planets of the solar system are The characteristics of the planets of the solar system are affected by each planet’s location in relationship to the affected by each planet’s location in relationship to the Sun.Sun.

The terrestrial planets are small, rocky, and dense. The The terrestrial planets are small, rocky, and dense. The Jovian planets are large, gaseous, and of low density.Jovian planets are large, gaseous, and of low density.

1.2d Asteroids, comets, and meteors are components of 1.2d Asteroids, comets, and meteors are components of our solar system.our solar system.

Impact events have been correlated with mass extinction Impact events have been correlated with mass extinction and global climatic change.and global climatic change.

Impact craters can be identified in Earth’s crust.Impact craters can be identified in Earth’s crust.

1.2e Earth’s early atmosphere formed as a result of the 1.2e Earth’s early atmosphere formed as a result of the outgassing of water vapor, carbon dioxide, outgassing of water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, nitrogen, and lesser amounts of other gases from its interior. and lesser amounts of other gases from its interior.

1.2f Earth’s oceans formed as a result of precipitation 1.2f Earth’s oceans formed as a result of precipitation over millions of years. The presence of an early over millions of years. The presence of an early ocean is indicated by sedimentary rocks of marine origin, ocean is indicated by sedimentary rocks of marine origin, dating back about four billion years.dating back about four billion years.

1.2g Earth has continuously been recycling water since 1.2g Earth has continuously been recycling water since the outgassing of water early in its history. This constant the outgassing of water early in its history. This constant recirculation of water at and near Earth’s surface is recirculation of water at and near Earth’s surface is described by the hydrologic (water) cycle.described by the hydrologic (water) cycle.

Water is returned from the atmosphere to Earth’s surface Water is returned from the atmosphere to Earth’s surface by precipitation. Water returns to the atmosphere by by precipitation. Water returns to the atmosphere by evaporation or transpiration from plants. A portion of the evaporation or transpiration from plants. A portion of the precipitation becomes runoff over the land or infiltrates precipitation becomes runoff over the land or infiltrates into the ground to become stored in the soil or into the ground to become stored in the soil or groundwater below the water table. Soil capillarity groundwater below the water table. Soil capillarity influences these processes. influences these processes.

The amount of precipitation that seeps into the ground or The amount of precipitation that seeps into the ground or runs off is influenced by climate, slope of the land, soil, runs off is influenced by climate, slope of the land, soil, rock type, vegetation, land use, and degree of saturation.rock type, vegetation, land use, and degree of saturation.

Porosity, permeability, and water retention affect runoff Porosity, permeability, and water retention affect runoff and infiltration.and infiltration.

1.2h 1.2h The evolution of life caused dramatic changes in The evolution of life caused dramatic changes in the composition of Earth’s atmosphere. Free the composition of Earth’s atmosphere. Free oxygen did oxygen did not form in the atmosphere until oxygen-producing not form in the atmosphere until oxygen-producing organisms evolved.organisms evolved.

1.2i The pattern of evolution of life-forms on Earth is at 1.2i The pattern of evolution of life-forms on Earth is at least partially preserved in the rock record.least partially preserved in the rock record.

Fossil evidence indicates that a wide variety of life-forms Fossil evidence indicates that a wide variety of life-forms has existed in the past and that most of these forms have has existed in the past and that most of these forms have become extinct.become extinct.

Human existence has been very brief compared to the Human existence has been very brief compared to the expanse of geologic time.expanse of geologic time.

1.2j Geologic history can be reconstructed by observing 1.2j Geologic history can be reconstructed by observing sequences of rock types and fossils to correlate sequences of rock types and fossils to correlate bedrock at various locations.bedrock at various locations.

The characteristics of rocks indicate the processes by The characteristics of rocks indicate the processes by which they formed and the environments in which these which they formed and the environments in which these processes took place.processes took place.

Fossils preserved in rocks provide information about past Fossils preserved in rocks provide information about past environmental conditions.environmental conditions.

Geologists have divided Earth history into time units Geologists have divided Earth history into time units based upon the fossil record.based upon the fossil record.

Age relationships among bodies of rocks can be Age relationships among bodies of rocks can be determined using principles of original horizontality, determined using principles of original horizontality, superposition, inclusions, cross-cutting relationships, superposition, inclusions, cross-cutting relationships, contact metamorphism, and unconformities. The contact metamorphism, and unconformities. The presence of volcanic ash layers, index fossils, and presence of volcanic ash layers, index fossils, and meteoritic debris can provide additional information.meteoritic debris can provide additional information.

The regular rate of nuclear decay (half-life time period) of The regular rate of nuclear decay (half-life time period) of radioactive isotopes allows geologists to determine the radioactive isotopes allows geologists to determine the absolute age of materials found in some rocks.absolute age of materials found in some rocks.

Key Idea 2: Many of the phenomena that Key Idea 2: Many of the phenomena that we observe on Earth involve interactions we observe on Earth involve interactions among components of air, water, and land.among components of air, water, and land.

Earth may be considered a huge machine Earth may be considered a huge machine driven by two engines, one internal and driven by two engines, one internal and one external. These heat engines convert one external. These heat engines convert heat energy into mechanical energy. heat energy into mechanical energy.

PERFORMANCE INDICATOR 2.1PERFORMANCE INDICATOR 2.1Use the concepts of density and heat energy to explain Use the concepts of density and heat energy to explain observations of weather patterns, seasonal changes, observations of weather patterns, seasonal changes, and the movements of Earth’s plates.and the movements of Earth’s plates.

2.1a Earth systems have internal and external sources of 2.1a Earth systems have internal and external sources of energy, both of which create heat.energy, both of which create heat.

2.1b The transfer of heat energy within the atmosphere, 2.1b The transfer of heat energy within the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and Earth’s interior results in the the hydrosphere, and Earth’s interior results in the formation of regions of different densities. These density formation of regions of different densities. These density differences result in motion.differences result in motion.

2.1c Weather patterns become evident when weather 2.1c Weather patterns become evident when weather variables are observed, measured, and recorded. These variables are observed, measured, and recorded. These variables include air temperature, air pressure, moisture variables include air temperature, air pressure, moisture (relative humidity and dewpoint), precipitation (rain, snow, (relative humidity and dewpoint), precipitation (rain, snow, hail, sleet, etc.), wind speed and direction, and cloud hail, sleet, etc.), wind speed and direction, and cloud cover.cover.

2.1d Weather variables are measured using instruments 2.1d Weather variables are measured using instruments such as thermometers, barometers, psychrometers, such as thermometers, barometers, psychrometers, precipitation gauges, anemometers, and wind vanes.precipitation gauges, anemometers, and wind vanes.

2.1e Weather variables are interrelated.2.1e Weather variables are interrelated. For example: temperature and humidity affect air pressure For example: temperature and humidity affect air pressure

and probability of precipitationand probability of precipitation air pressure gradient controls wind velocityair pressure gradient controls wind velocity

2.1f Air temperature, dewpoint, cloud formation, and 2.1f Air temperature, dewpoint, cloud formation, and precipitation are affected by the expansion and precipitation are affected by the expansion and contraction of air due to vertical atmospheric movement.contraction of air due to vertical atmospheric movement.

2.1g Weather variables can be represented in a variety of 2.1g Weather variables can be represented in a variety of formats including radar and satellite images, weather formats including radar and satellite images, weather maps (including station models, isobars, and fronts), maps (including station models, isobars, and fronts), atmospheric cross-sections, and computer models.atmospheric cross-sections, and computer models.

2.1h Atmospheric moisture, temperature and pressure 2.1h Atmospheric moisture, temperature and pressure distributions; jet streams, wind; air masses and frontal distributions; jet streams, wind; air masses and frontal boundaries; and the movement of cyclonic systems and boundaries; and the movement of cyclonic systems and associated tornadoes, thunderstorms, and hurricanes associated tornadoes, thunderstorms, and hurricanes occur in observable patterns. Loss of property, personal occur in observable patterns. Loss of property, personal injury, and loss of life can be reduced by effective injury, and loss of life can be reduced by effective emergency preparedness.emergency preparedness.

2.1i Seasonal changes can be explained using concepts 2.1i Seasonal changes can be explained using concepts of density and heat energy. These changes include the of density and heat energy. These changes include the shifting of global temperature zones, the shifting of shifting of global temperature zones, the shifting of planetary wind and ocean current patterns, the planetary wind and ocean current patterns, the occurrence of monsoons, hurricanes, flooding, and severe occurrence of monsoons, hurricanes, flooding, and severe weather.weather.

2.1j Properties of Earth’s internal structure (crust, mantle, 2.1j Properties of Earth’s internal structure (crust, mantle, inner core, and outer core) can be inferred from the inner core, and outer core) can be inferred from the analysis of the behavior of seismic waves (including analysis of the behavior of seismic waves (including velocity and refraction).velocity and refraction).

Analysis of seismic waves allows the determination of the Analysis of seismic waves allows the determination of the location of earthquake epicenters, and the measurement location of earthquake epicenters, and the measurement of earthquake magnitude; this analysis leads to the of earthquake magnitude; this analysis leads to the inference that Earth’s interior is composed of layers that inference that Earth’s interior is composed of layers that differ in composition and states of matter.differ in composition and states of matter.

2.1k The outward transfer of Earth’s internal heat drives 2.1k The outward transfer of Earth’s internal heat drives convective circulation in the mantle that moves the convective circulation in the mantle that moves the lithospheric plates comprising Earth’s surface. lithospheric plates comprising Earth’s surface.

2.1l The lithosphere consists of separate plates that ride 2.1l The lithosphere consists of separate plates that ride on the more fluid asthenosphere and move slowly in on the more fluid asthenosphere and move slowly in relationship to one another, creating convergent, relationship to one another, creating convergent, divergent, and transform plate boundaries. These motions divergent, and transform plate boundaries. These motions indicate Earth is a dynamic geologic system.indicate Earth is a dynamic geologic system.

These plate boundaries are the sites of most These plate boundaries are the sites of most earthquakes, volcanoes, and young mountain ranges.earthquakes, volcanoes, and young mountain ranges.

Compared to continental crust, ocean crust is thinner and Compared to continental crust, ocean crust is thinner and denser. New ocean crust continues to form at mid-ocean denser. New ocean crust continues to form at mid-ocean ridges.ridges.

Earthquakes and volcanoes present geologic hazards to Earthquakes and volcanoes present geologic hazards to humans. Loss of property, personal injury, and loss of life humans. Loss of property, personal injury, and loss of life can be reduced by effective emergency preparedness.can be reduced by effective emergency preparedness.

2.1m Many processes of the rock cycle are consequences 2.1m Many processes of the rock cycle are consequences of plate dynamics. These include the production of of plate dynamics. These include the production of magma (and subsequent igneous rock formation and magma (and subsequent igneous rock formation and contact metamorphism) at both subduction and rifting contact metamorphism) at both subduction and rifting regions, regional metamorphism within subduction zones, regions, regional metamorphism within subduction zones, and the creation of major depositional basins through and the creation of major depositional basins through down-warping of the crust.down-warping of the crust.

2.1n Many of Earth’s surface features such as mid-ocean 2.1n Many of Earth’s surface features such as mid-ocean ridges/rifts, trenches/subduction zones/island arcs, ridges/rifts, trenches/subduction zones/island arcs, mountain ranges (folded, faulted, and volcanic), hot spots, mountain ranges (folded, faulted, and volcanic), hot spots, and the magnetic and age patterns in surface bedrock are and the magnetic and age patterns in surface bedrock are a consequence of forces associated with plate motion and a consequence of forces associated with plate motion and interaction.interaction.

2.1o Plate motions have resulted in global changes in 2.1o Plate motions have resulted in global changes in geography, climate, and the patterns of organic evolution.geography, climate, and the patterns of organic evolution.

2.1p Landforms are the result of the interaction of tectonic 2.1p Landforms are the result of the interaction of tectonic forces and the processes of weathering, erosion, and forces and the processes of weathering, erosion, and deposition.deposition.

2.1q Topographic maps represent landforms through the 2.1q Topographic maps represent landforms through the use of contour lines that are isolines connecting points of use of contour lines that are isolines connecting points of equal elevation. Gradients and profiles can be determined equal elevation. Gradients and profiles can be determined from changes in elevation over a given distance.from changes in elevation over a given distance.

2.1r Climate variations, structure, and characteristics of 2.1r Climate variations, structure, and characteristics of bedrock influence the development of landscape features bedrock influence the development of landscape features including mountains, plateaus, plains, valleys, ridges, including mountains, plateaus, plains, valleys, ridges, escarpments, and stream drainage patterns.escarpments, and stream drainage patterns.

2.1s Weathering is the physical and chemical breakdown 2.1s Weathering is the physical and chemical breakdown of rocks at or near Earth’s surface. Soils are the result of of rocks at or near Earth’s surface. Soils are the result of weathering and biological activity over long periods of weathering and biological activity over long periods of time.time.

2.1t Natural agents of erosion, generally driven by gravity, 2.1t Natural agents of erosion, generally driven by gravity, remove, transport, and deposit weathered rock particles. remove, transport, and deposit weathered rock particles. Each agent of erosion produces distinctive changes in the Each agent of erosion produces distinctive changes in the material that it transports and creates characteristic material that it transports and creates characteristic surface features and landscapes. In certain erosional surface features and landscapes. In certain erosional situations, loss of property, personal injury, and loss of life situations, loss of property, personal injury, and loss of life can be reduced by effective emergency preparedness. can be reduced by effective emergency preparedness.

2.1u The natural agents of erosion include:2.1u The natural agents of erosion include: Streams (running water): Streams (running water): Gradient, discharge, and Gradient, discharge, and

channel shape influence a stream’s velocity and the channel shape influence a stream’s velocity and the erosion and deposition of sediments. Sediments erosion and deposition of sediments. Sediments transported by streams tend to become rounded as a transported by streams tend to become rounded as a result of abrasion. Stream features include V-shaped result of abrasion. Stream features include V-shaped valleys, deltas, flood plains, and meanders. A watershed valleys, deltas, flood plains, and meanders. A watershed is the area drained by a stream and its tributaries.is the area drained by a stream and its tributaries.

Glaciers (moving ice): Glaciers (moving ice): Glacial erosional processes include Glacial erosional processes include the formation of U-shaped valleys, parallel scratches, and the formation of U-shaped valleys, parallel scratches, and grooves in bedrock. Glacial features include moraines, grooves in bedrock. Glacial features include moraines, drumlins, kettle lakes, finger lakes, and outwash plains.drumlins, kettle lakes, finger lakes, and outwash plains.

Wave Action: Wave Action: Erosion and deposition cause changes in Erosion and deposition cause changes in shoreline features, including beaches, sandbars, and shoreline features, including beaches, sandbars, and barrier islands. Wave action rounds sediments as a result barrier islands. Wave action rounds sediments as a result of abrasion. Waves approaching a shoreline move sand of abrasion. Waves approaching a shoreline move sand parallel to the shore within the zone of breaking waves. parallel to the shore within the zone of breaking waves.

Wind: Wind: Erosion of sediments by wind is most common in Erosion of sediments by wind is most common in arid climates and along shorelines. Wind-generated arid climates and along shorelines. Wind-generated features include dunes and sand-blasted bedrock.features include dunes and sand-blasted bedrock.

Mass Movement: Mass Movement: Earth materials move downslope under Earth materials move downslope under the influence of gravity. the influence of gravity.

2.1v Patterns of deposition result from a loss of energy 2.1v Patterns of deposition result from a loss of energy within the transporting system and are influenced by the within the transporting system and are influenced by the size, shape, and density of the transported particles. size, shape, and density of the transported particles. Sediment deposits may be sorted or unsorted.Sediment deposits may be sorted or unsorted.

2.1w Sediments of inorganic and organic origin often 2.1w Sediments of inorganic and organic origin often accumulate in depositional environments. Sedimentary accumulate in depositional environments. Sedimentary rocks form when sediments are compacted and/or rocks form when sediments are compacted and/or cemented after burial or as the result of chemical cemented after burial or as the result of chemical precipitation from seawater.precipitation from seawater.

PERFORMANCE INDICATOR 2.2PERFORMANCE INDICATOR 2.2 Explain how incoming solar radiation, ocean Explain how incoming solar radiation, ocean

currents, and land masses affect weather and currents, and land masses affect weather and climate.climate.

2.2a Insolation (solar radiation) heats Earth’s surface and 2.2a Insolation (solar radiation) heats Earth’s surface and atmosphere unequally due to variations in:atmosphere unequally due to variations in:

the intensity caused by differences in atmospheric the intensity caused by differences in atmospheric transparency and angle of incidence which vary with time transparency and angle of incidence which vary with time of day, latitude, and season.of day, latitude, and season.

2.2a continued 2.2a continued characteristics of the materials absorbing the characteristics of the materials absorbing the energy such as color, texture, transparency, state of matter, and energy such as color, texture, transparency, state of matter, and specific heatspecific heat

duration, which varies with seasons and latitude.duration, which varies with seasons and latitude.

2.2b The transfer of heat energy within the atmosphere, 2.2b The transfer of heat energy within the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and Earth’s surface occurs as the result the hydrosphere, and Earth’s surface occurs as the result of radiation, convection, and conduction.of radiation, convection, and conduction.

Heating of Earth’s surface and atmosphere by the Sun Heating of Earth’s surface and atmosphere by the Sun drives convection within the atmosphere and oceans, drives convection within the atmosphere and oceans, producing winds and ocean currents.producing winds and ocean currents.

2.2c A location’s climate is influenced by latitude, 2.2c A location’s climate is influenced by latitude, proximity to large bodies of water, ocean currents, proximity to large bodies of water, ocean currents, prevailing winds, vegetative cover, elevation, and prevailing winds, vegetative cover, elevation, and mountain ranges.mountain ranges.

2.2d Temperature and precipitation patterns are altered 2.2d Temperature and precipitation patterns are altered by:by:

natural events such as El Nino and volcanic eruptionsnatural events such as El Nino and volcanic eruptions human influences including deforestation, urbanization, human influences including deforestation, urbanization,

and the production of greenhouse gases such as carbon and the production of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane.dioxide and methane.

Key Idea 3:Key Idea 3:Matter is made up of particles whose properties Matter is made up of particles whose properties determine the observable characteristics of matter and determine the observable characteristics of matter and its reactivityits reactivity

PERFORMANCE INDICATOR 3.1PERFORMANCE INDICATOR 3.1 Explain the properties of materials in terms Explain the properties of materials in terms

of the arrangement and properties of the of the arrangement and properties of the atoms that compose them.atoms that compose them.

3.1a Minerals have physical properties determined by 3.1a Minerals have physical properties determined by their chemical composition andtheir chemical composition and

crystal structure.crystal structure. Minerals can be identified by well-defined physical and Minerals can be identified by well-defined physical and

chemical properties, such as cleavage, fracture, color, chemical properties, such as cleavage, fracture, color, density, hardness, streak, luster, crystal shape, and density, hardness, streak, luster, crystal shape, and reaction with acid.reaction with acid.

Chemical composition and physical properties determine Chemical composition and physical properties determine how minerals are used by humans.how minerals are used by humans.

3.1b Minerals are formed inorganically by the process of 3.1b Minerals are formed inorganically by the process of crystallization as a result of specific environmental crystallization as a result of specific environmental conditions. These include:conditions. These include:

cooling and solidification of magmacooling and solidification of magma precipitation from water caused by such processes as precipitation from water caused by such processes as

evaporation, chemical reactions, and temperature evaporation, chemical reactions, and temperature changeschanges

rearrangement of atoms in existing minerals subjected to rearrangement of atoms in existing minerals subjected to conditions of high temperature and pressure.conditions of high temperature and pressure.

3.1c Rocks are usually composed of one or more 3.1c Rocks are usually composed of one or more minerals.minerals.

Rocks are classified by their origin, mineral content, and Rocks are classified by their origin, mineral content, and texture.texture.

Conditions that existed when a rock formed can be Conditions that existed when a rock formed can be inferred from the rock’s mineral content and texture.inferred from the rock’s mineral content and texture.

The properties of rocks determine how they are used and The properties of rocks determine how they are used and also influence land usage by humans.also influence land usage by humans.