EARTH MATERIALS Components of a Diverse Planet DEXTER PERKINS Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, Tue University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, USA KEVIN R. HENKE Retired, Center for Applied Energy Research, Tue University of Kentucky, Lexington, USA ADAM C. SIMON Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Tue University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA LANCE D. YARBROUGH Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, Tue University of Mississippi, Oxford, USA Press 'e] Taylor & Francis Group Soca Raton London New Yori< Leiden CRC Press ls an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an lnforma business A BALKEMA BOOK
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EARTH MATERIALS Components of a Diverse Planet
DEXTER PERKINS Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, Tue University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, USA
KEVIN R. HENKE Retired, Center for Applied Energy Research, Tue University of Kentucky, Lexington, USA
ADAM C. SIMON Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Tue University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA
LANCE D. YARBROUGH Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, Tue University of Mississippi, Oxford, USA
~CRC Press 'e] Taylor & Francis Group Soca Raton London New Yori< Leiden
CRC Press ls an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an lnforma business
A BALKEMA BOOK
Contents
Preface
About the Authors
Acknowledgments
Part 1 lntroduction to Earth
1 Tue Origin of the Elements and Earth 1.1 Orion 1.2 The big picture 1.3 The beginning
1.3.1 The big bang 1.3.2 Stellar evolution
1.4 Origin of the solar system 1.4.1 What makes up the solar system? 1.4.2 Solar nebula hypothesis 1.4.3 The planets 1.4.4 Dwarf planets 1.4.5 Asteroids and meteoroids 1.4.6 Classification and origin of meteorites 1.4.7 Comets
1.5 Evolution of the solar system 1.5.1 Planetesimals and formation of protoplanets 1.5.2 Differentiation of the terrestrial planets and the moon 1.5.3 Planetary atmospheres
1.6 What is Earth made of today? Questions for thought--chapter 1
2 Earth Systems and Cydes 2.1 A Sand County Almanac 2.2 The Earth system and my aquariutn
2.2.1 Earth from space 2.2.2 A simpler system
2.3 Systems and scientific investigations 2.3.1 Classification of systems 2.3.2 Earth's spheres 2.3.3 Broader views 2.3.4 System reservoirs and fluxes 2.3.5 Cycles
2.4 Rocks and the Rock Cycle 2.4.1 At Earth's surface 2.4.2 Lithification 2.4.3 Soil 2.4.4 Deeper in Earth
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3 3 5 8 8 9
10 10 11 11 13 13 14 15 15 15 16 17 18 20
21 21 22 22 23 23 24 25 27 27 28 30 31 32 32 32
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2.5 From continental drift to plate tectonics 2.5 .1 Continental drift: A hypothesis that led to the theory of plate tectonics 2.5.2 Development of the theory of plate tectonics
2.5.2.1 Mapping the ocean floor 2.5.2.2 Global seismicity 2.5.2.3 Global volcanism 2.5.2.4 Earth's magnetic field and paleomagnetism 2.5.2.5 Confirming evidence 2.5.2.6 Developing a theory
2.6 Tue theory of plate tectonics 2.6. l Dynamic Earth 2.6.2 Divergent plate boundaries: spreading zones
2.6.4 Transform plate boundaries 2.6.5 Hot spots 2.6.6 Orogenies 2.6. 7 Convection in the mande
2.7 Tue water cycle 2.8 Carbon and the carbon cycle
2.8.1 Isotopes of carbon 2.8.1.1 Carbon-14 2.8.1.2 Stahle carbon isotopes
2.8.2 Carbon in water 2.8.3 Carbon in sediments, soils, and rocks 2.8.4 Carbon in biological organisms 2.8.5 Carbon in the atmosphere
2.8.5.l Carbon dioxide 2.8.5.2 Methane 2.8.5.3 Global climate change
Questions for thought-chapter 2
Part II Fundamental Earth Materials
3 Minerals 3.1 Zeolites 3.2 Minerals defined 3.3 Importance of minerals 3.4 Studying minerals from the past to present 3.5 Elements, minerals, and rocks 3.6 Mineral formation
3.6.4 Mineraloids 3.6.5 Natural and synthetic minerals 3.6.6 Biominerals
3.7 Common elements and the most common minerals 3.8 Mineral compositions
3.8.1 Solid solutions and mineral series 3.8.2 Limited solid solutions 3.8.3 Mineral varieties 3.8.4 Mineral groups
3.9 Mineral stability 3.10 Mineral classification 3.11 Mineral properties and identification
3.11.1 Crystal shape 3.11.2 Mineral appearance
3.11.2.1 Luster 3.11.2.2 Diaphaneity 3.11.2.3 Color 3.11.2.4 Streak 3.11.2.5 Luminescence 3.11.2.6 Play of colors
3.11.3 Strength and breaking of minerals 3.11.3.1 Tenacity 3.11.3.2 Fracture, cleavage, and parting 3.11.3.3 Hardness
3.11.4 Density and specific gravity 3.11.5 Magnetism of minerals 3.11.6 Electrical properties 3.11.7 Reaction to dilute hydrochloric acid 3.11.8 Other properties
Questions for thought--chapter 3
4 Mineral Crystals 4.1 Cuevo de los Cristales 4.2 Crystallography and crystal chemistry 4.3 Tue process of crystallization 4.4 lonic crystals
4.4.1 lonic size 4.4.2 Closest packi~g 4.4.3 Exceptions to closest packing 4.4.4 Coordination number 4.4.5 Pauling's rules
4.4.5.1 Rule 1: the radius ratio principle 4.4.5.2 Rule 2: bond strength 4.4.5.3 Rules 3 and 4: sharing of anions 4.4.5.4 Rule 5: the principle of parsimony
4.5 Silicate minerals 4.6 Elemental substitutions in mineral crystals
4.6.1 Simple substitutions and coupled substitutions 4.6.2 Limited and complete solid solutions
4. 7 The arrangement of atoms in crystalline solids 4.7.1 Unit cells, atoms, and symmetry in two dimensions
4.7.1.1 Point symmetry 4. 7 .1.2 Translational symmetry
4.7.2 Unit cells and symmetry in three dimensions 4.7.2.l Unit cells 4.7.2.2 Symmetry in three dimensions 4.7.2.3 Symmetry of unit cells 4.7.2.4 Symmetry of atomic arrangements and the symmetry of crystals 4.7.2.5 Crystal shapes and symmetry
Questions for thought-chapter 4
5 lgneous Petrology and the Nature of Magmas 5.1 Volcanism in Yellowstone National Park 5.2 lgneous petrology
5.3 Magma compositions 5.3.1 Similarities 5.3.2 Differences
5.4 Magma sources 5.4.1 Where melting occurs 5.4.2 The lithosphere and the asthenosphere 5.4.3 Why melting occurs 5.4.4 Decompression melting 5.4.5 Flux melting
5.5 Magma movement 5.5.1 Buoyancy 5.5.2 Magma chambers and cooling
5.6 Different kinds of rocks 5.7 Melting of minerals and rocks
5.7.1 Congruent and incongruent melting 5.7.2 Liquidus and solidus temperatures 5.7.3 Bowen's reaction series
5.8 The importance of partial melting and partial crystallization 5.8.1 lncomplete melting 5.8.2 Equilibrium or not? 5.8.3 Fractional melting 5.8.4 Fractional crystallization 5.8.5 Other processes explaining variations in magma composition 5.8.6 Parental magmas and differentiation
5.9 The most common occurrences of melts of different compositions 5.9.1 Ultrama.fic magmas 5.9.2 Ma.fic magmas 5.9.3 lntermediate magmas 5. 9 .4 Felsic magmas
5 .10 A closer look at magma chemistry 5 .10.1 Major and minor elements 5.10.2 Incompatible and compatible elements 5.10.3 Rare earth elements
7.6 From magma to rock 222 7.7 Naming volcanic rocks 224
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7.7.1 Identifying rocks in the field 7.7.2 IUGS dassification
7.7.2.1 IUGS system for naming feldspathic effusive rocks 7.7.2.2 Tue TAS alternative 7.7.2.3 IUGS system for naming pyrodastic rocks
Questions for thought--chapter 7
8 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks 8.1 Sedimentation during the formation of the Appalachian Mountains 8.2 Sediment and sedimentary environments 8.3 Products of weathering and erosion
8.3.1 Different kinds of sediments 8.3.2 Clastic sediments
8.3.2.1 Mineralogical composition and grain size 8.3.2.2 Clast shapes 8.3.2.3 Sediment texture and maturity
8.4 Transportation and deposition of dastic sediment 8.4.1 Transportation by flowing water 8.4.2 Deposition by flowing water
8.4.2.1 Alluvium 8.4.2.2 Features of river deposits 8.4.2.3 Alluvial fans
8.4.3 Transportation by wind 8.4.4 Deposition by wind
8.4.4.1 Sand Dunes 8.4.4.2 Dust and loess
8.4.5 Sediment transportation by glaciers and glacial sediments 8.4.5.1 Continental ice sheets and alpine glaciers 8.4.5.2 Glacial drift 8.4.5.3 Till 8.4.5.4 Stratified drift
8.4.6 Mass movements by gravity 8.5 Diagenesis and lithification 8.6 Sedimentary layers and structures
9 Stratigraphy 9 .1 Rocks of the Grand Canyon 9 .2 Formations, groups, and members 9.3 Stratigraphy
9 .3.1 Nieholas Steno's contributions 9.3.1.1 Tue principle of original horiwntality 9 .3.1.2 Tue law of superposition 9.3.1.3 Tue principle of lateral continuity 9 .3.1.4 Tue Principle of Crosscutting Relationships 9.3.1.5 Tue principle of indusions
9.3.2 William Smith's contributions 9.4 lnterpreting the environment of deposition 9.5 Rock lithology
9.5.1 Lithologie variation 9.5.2 Different kinds of stratigraphy 9.5.3 Lithostratigraphy
11 Weathering and Solls 11.1 Mesopotamia 11.2 Weathering
11.2.1 Definition of weathering 11.2.2 Physical weathering
11.2.2.1 Ice and salt wedging 11.2.2.2 Thermal expansion and contraction 11.2.2.3 Unloading 11.2.2.4 Abrasion by wind 11.2.2.5 Abrasion at shorelines 11.2.2.6 Abrasion by Ice
11.2.3 Chemical weathering 11.2.3.1 Spheroidal weathering 11.2.3.2 Hydrolysis, oxidation, and hydration 11.2.3.3 Dissolution
11.2.5 Weathering products and rates 344 11.2.5. l Weathering rates of minerals 344 11.2.5.2 Weathering rates of rocks 346
11.3 Soil 346 11.3. l Earth's critical zone and soil 346 11.3.2 Tue importance and nature of soil 347 11.3.3 Soll profiles 348 11.3.4 Soils and agriculture 349 11.3.5 Pedogenesis (Soil formation) 351
11.3.5.1 Parent material 352 11.3.5.2 Climate 353 11.3.5.3 Topography 354 11.3.5.4 Organisms 355 11.3.5.5 Time 355
11.3.6 Characteristics of soils 356 11.3.6.1 Color 357 11.3.6.2 Temperature 357 11.3.6.3 Texture 357 11.3.6.4 Structure 358 11.3.6.5 Consistency 359 11.3.6.6 Water content and pore space 359
11.3.7 Soil classification and naming 360 11.3.8 Soil degradation 361
12 Water and the Hydrosphere 365 12.l Tue Salton Sea 365 12.2 Water on Earch 367 12.3 Tue water cycle 371 12.4 Tue ocean systems 373 12.5 Freshwater systems 376
13.8 Igneous ore deposits 420 13.8.1 Porphyry deposits 420 13.8.2 Magmatic sulfide deposits and other cumulates 421
13.9 Other kinds of ore deposits 422 13.9.1 Volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits 422 13.9.2 Mississippi valley type deposits 423
13.10 Is mining necessary? 424 13.10.1 Resources in the future 424 13.10.2 Recycling of resources 425
Questions for thought--chapter 13 426
14 Energy Resources 429 14.1 Star wars 429
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14.2 Tue energy that we use 14.2. l Sources of energy
14.3 Fossil fuels 14.3.1 Crude oil 14.3.2 Origin of petroleum
14.3.2.1 Source rocks and migration 14.3.2.2 Petroleum reservoirs
14.3.3 Petroleum exploration and production 14.3.3.1 Drilling and recovery of oil and natural gas 14.3.3.2 Primary oil recovery 14.3.3.3 Secondary recovery 14.3.3.4 Enhanced oil recovery 14.3.3.5 Production from unconventional petroleum reservoirs
14.3.4 Tar sands oil 14.3.5 Coal 14.3.6 Origin and properties of peat and coal
14.3.6.1 Peat 14.3.6.2 Different kinds of coal 14.3.6.3 Low rank coal 14.3.6.4 Higher rank coal
14.3.7 Coal production 14.3.8 Coal mining
14.3.8.l Hazards associated with coal mining 14.3.8.2 Environmental problems associated with coal mining
14.3.9 Coal bed methane 14.4 Alternatives to fossil fuels
14.4.1 Nuclear electrical generation 14.4.2 Conventional nuclear power
14.4.2.1 Breeder reactors and fuel reprocessing 14.4.2.2 Uranium ore deposits 14.4.2.3 In situ uranium mining 14.4.2.4 What is the future for nuclear power?
14.4.3 Geothermal energy 14.4.3.1 Sources and uses of geothermal energy 14.4.3.2 Geothermal electricity 14.4.3.3 Geothermal heat pumps
14.4.4 Renewable sources of energy 14.4.4.1 Hydroelectric power 14.4.4.2 Ocean Power: Catch the Wave! 14.4.4.3 Wind energy 14.4.4.4 Solar energy
15 Soll Mechanics 15.1 The Leaning Tower of Pisa 15.2 Soil mechanics 15.3 Sediments, soils, and rocks 15.4 Consolidated and unconsolidated materials 15.5 Soil composition and index properties
15.5.3.1 The Wentworth scale 15.5.3.2 Krumbein phi scale
15.5.4 Grain size distribution in sediments and soils 15.5.4.1 Grain size analysis 15.5.4.2 Grain size distribution 15.5.4.3 Sorting and grading 15.5.4.4 Representative grain sizes 15.5.4.5 Hazen approximation 15.5.4.6 Coefficient of uniformity and coefficient of curvature
15.5.5 Soil phase relationships 15.5.5.1 Void ratio and porosity 15.5.5.2 Effective porosity 15.5.5.3 Saturation and water content
15.7 Soil strength 15.7.1 Stress 15.7.2 Pressure, stress, and depth 15.7.3 Soil compaction and consolidation 15.7.4 Shear strength 15.7.5 Effect of water on strength
Questions for thought-chapter 15
16 Rock Mechanics 16.1 Problems in Coeur d' Alene
16.1.1 Rock bursts 16.1.1.1 Strain bursts 16.1.1.2 Pillar bursts 16.1.1.3 Slip bursts 16.1.1.4 Hazards and engineering
16.2.1 Tue importance of stress 49S 16.2.2 Stress on rocks within Earth 496
16.3 Strain-rock deformation in response to stress 497 16.3.1 Different kinds of deformation 498 16.3.2 What determines brittle or ductile behavior? SOO 16.3.3 Different kinds of rock failure SOl
16.3.3.1 Constructing a Mohr's circle diagram S02 16.3.3.2 lnterpreting a Mohr's circle diagram S03 16.3.3.3 Failure criteria S03 16.3.3.4 Effective stress S04
16.4 On a larger scale SOS 16.4.1 Rock quality designation (RQD) S06 16.4.2 Tue geological strength index (GSI) S07
16.S Determining values for rock strength S08 16.S.1 Uniaxial compressive strength tests S08 16.S.2 Point-load tests SlO 16. S .3 Uniaxial tension strength tests S 10 16.S .4 Brazilian test S 10
16.S.4.1 Shear strength testing S 11 16.S.S Tue Schmidt hammer Sll 16.S.6 Triaxial rock testing Sl2 16.S.7 Durability tests S 12