Early Ringing Stones in Scandinavia – Finds and Traditions, Questions and Problems __________________________________________________________________________ Reprinted from Studia

Cajsa S. Lund

Early Ringing Stones in Scandinavia – Finds and Traditions, Questions and Problems __________________________________________________________________________ Reprinted from Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis I (NEW SERIES) Edited by Gisa Jähnichen 2009 ▪ Verlag MV-Wissenschaft, Münster

Cajsa S. Lund Early Ringing Stones in Scandinavia – Finds and Traditions,

Questions and Problems There is much information from all over the world on certain rocks, stone blocks and stone slabs, multiple or single, as having been used as percussion instruments because of their metallic or ringing sound when struck. There is no agreed terminology for such percussion instruments. In this paper I will use “ringing stones” as an overall term.

The paper will deal with questions and problems regarding traditional ringing stones in Scandinavia, albeit with focus on Sweden. It will also constitute a preliminary part of a planned multidisciplinary collaboration project dealing with ringing stones in Sweden and Norway, initiated by my colleague Gjermund Kolltveit, Oslo and myself. In these countries, as in Scandinavia on the whole, traditional ringing stones are relatively unknown as a phenomenon to the general public, scholars, musicians, schools and children. One aim of the project is therefore to make known and bring to life for children as well as adults, scientists as well as laymen, ringing stones in Scandinavia on the basis of a documentation of them in sound, words and images. The project thus involves both research and mediation. Hopefully the present paper can also give a stimulus to systematic inventory, documentation and intensive studies in traditional ringing stones in other countries in Europe.

By way of introduction, I will say a few words about the research situation for ringing stones in other parts of the world.

1 About ringing stones in a global perspective

Description. Any unanimous description or definition for ringing stones does not yet exist. Here I will quote M.Catherine Fagg who in a compendium in 1997 about “rock gongs” (her terminology) define them as “[…] naturally situated and naturally tuned rocks, boulders, exfoliations, stalactites and stalagmites which resonate when struck and show evidence of human use as idiophones […]. They seem to be of any shape or size; some may have been repositioned slightly and very occasionally stone wedges have been added. Several different notes can usually be obtained from a single boulder […] and resulting from percussion an abraded area may show on the edge of a rock; alternatively hollows or ‘cup marks’ are formed.”1

1 Fagg, M.Catherine (1997): Rock Music. Oxford, Pitt Rivers Museum, University of

Oxford: 2.

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Figure 1. Lithophone from Northern Togo, Africa. After: Rault 2000: 216.

Figure 2. Lithophone found at Ndut Lieng Krak, Vietnam.The longest stone slab is 102 cm. Photo: Musée de l’Homme, Paris.

Figure 3. A lithophone from England’s Lake District, made in the 19th century from locally found stone slabs by Joseph Richardson, here together with his three sons. Photo: Wikipedia.

Figure 4. A “rock gong” in Nigeria. Two Ron men are drumming on the rock while others sing. Photo: Bernard Fagg 1955. (After Fagg 1997,ii.)

Designation. As said above, there is neither any agreed terminology for ringing stones. Thus there is a disparate flow of designations. Examples in specialist literature in English are: Rock gong, Ringing rock, Bell rock, Gong rock, Rock drum, Resonant rock, Rock chimes, Percussion boulder, Resonant boulder, Percussion plate, Ringing slab, Resonant stone, Singing stone, Sonorous stone, Sounding stone, Musical stone, Lithophone, and Lithophonic drum. A common designation in German seems to be Klangsteine, and in French Pierre sonore. In Swedish the common term is Klangsten.

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The New Grove Dictionary of Music2 has the word Lithophone as the main entrance for various percussion instruments of stone. It is the same with The Oxford Companion to Musical Instruments: “Lithophone (from Gk. lithos, ‘stone’). A term for percussion instruments using slabs of stone, marble, etc.”3 Also Jeremy Montagu uses the term Lithophones as an overall heading for percussion instruments of stone, including “rock gongs”, however with a certain organological reservation. Percussion boulders are somewhat misleadingly called “rock gongs”, he says, “…misleading only because they bear no resemblance to the disc of bronze that we normally call a gong.”4 Cornelia Kleinitz, in her comprehensive study from 2008 on rock gongs in Sudan, has a similar reservation as Montagu: ”While the term ‘rock gong’ does not accurately describe these percussion idiophones from a musicological point of view, it seems to be the most widely understood term describing such features, and it is also used here.”5

Must we really classify the ringing stones according to the Hornbostel/Sachs’ system (1914) and/or systems based on this, I would like to refer to the encyclopedia Musical Instruments of the World6, where Percussion idiophones (they are also called Struck idiophones) are subdivided into several groups, among them the sub group “Gongs: metal percussion disks”7 and the sub group “Lithophones: sets of sonorous stones”8. Thus, to this sub group Lithophones belong, e.g. the well-known ancient Chinese L-shaped stone slabs of different thickness hung in a frame, the traditional African lithophone from Northern Togo, consisting of stone slabs of various sizes lying on the ground (Figure 1), the famous Vietnamese Neolithic (?) lithophones (Figure 2) and the latter-day lithophones from England’s Lake District, made in the 18th-19th century from locally found stone slabs (Figure 3).9 Also the naturally-made so-

2 The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (Grove Music Online.) (2006).

Oxford. 3 The Oxford Companion to Musical Instruments (2000): Oxford, Oxford University

Press: 191. 4 Montagu, Jeremy (2007): Origins and Development of Musical Instruments. Lanham,

Scarecrow Press: 7. 5 Kleinitz, Cornelia (2008): Soundscapes of the Nubian Nile Valley. “Rock Music” in the

Fourth Cataract Region (Sudan). Orient-Archäologie Band 22: Studien zur Musikarchäologie, VI (eds. A.A.Both / R.Eichmann / E.Hickmann / L.-C.Koch), Rahden / Westf., Verlag Marie Leidorf: 131.

6 Musical Instruments of the World. An Illustrated Encyclopedia (1976): Diagram Visual Information Ltd, Paddington Press Ltd: 90-91.

7 Musical Instruments of the World. An Illustrated Encyclopedia (1976): Diagram Visual Information Ltd, Paddington Press Ltd: 106.

8 Ibid.121. 9 Ibid.121; See also e.g. Trần Văn Khê (1967): Musique du Viet-Nam. Les traditions musicales,

Paris, Buchet/Chastel; Blades, James (1974): Percussion Instruments and Their History. London, Faber and Faber Ltd: 81-84, 89-92; Archaeologia musicalis 1/88, special number on Lithophones

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called “organ sanctuaries” in European Palaeolithic caves are usually called Lithophones, that is, the stalagmites and stalactites themselves are supposed to have been struck as instruments.10 Stone blocks/stone slabs (single or multiple) in situ, however, are not to be found in the Hornbostel/Sachs system and will thereby be termed at will in organological contexts. It is of interest to compare with André Schaeffner’s classification system.11

1. 2 About international research, past and present

A pioneer. Bernard Fagg (1915-1987), Director of the Federal Department of Antiquities, Nigeria, and then Curator at Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford, was the first to introduce “rock gongs” to the anthropological society (1956) having discovered several of them in Nigeria, of which many were associated with rock paintings and painted caves. Hammered depressions provided evidence for having been used for sound production. Several rock gongs were subsequently discovered in Africa, also recently in use.12 (Figure 4.) Fagg says: “It is somewhat surprising that these rock gongs have escaped serious notice for so long. It is still premature to speculate on their origin, but it is possible

(1988): Papers by P.Yule and M.Bemmann (Lithophones from Orissa, Indien), Ngô Đông Hải (The Vietnamese Lithophone), and Ellen Hickmannn (Lithophones from Ecuador). Celle, Study Group on Music Archaeology of the ICTM, Moeck Verlag; Fagg, M.Catherine (1994): What is a Lithophone – and What Is a Rock Gong? The Galpin Society Journal, Vol.47 (March 1994): 154-155; Rault, Lucie (2000): Instruments de musique du monde. Paris, Éditions de La Martinière: 197, 216; Blench, Roger (2006): From Vietnamese Lithophones to Balinese Gamelans: A History of Tuned Percussion in the Indo-Pacific Region. Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin 26: pp. 48-61..

10 E.g. Dams, Lya (1984): Preliminary Findings at the “Organ” Sanctuary in the Cave of Nerja, Malaga, Spain. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 3: 1-14; Dams, Lya (1985): Palaeolithic Lithophones: Descriptions and Comparisons. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 4: 31-46; Reznikoff, Iégor (1987): Sur la dimension sonores des grottes à peintures du paléolithique. Comtes rendus de l’Académie des sciences, Paris, tome 304, série II: 153-156; tome 305, série II: 307-310; Reznikoff, Iégor, and Dauvois, Michel (1988): La dimension sonore des grottes ornées. Paris, Bulletin de la Société préhistorique française, 85.8: 238-246; Dauvois and Boutillon 1990; Dauvois, Michel (1994): Les témoins sonores paléolithiques. La pluridisciplinarité en archéologie musicale: 4 International Meeting of the ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology, Saint- Germain-en-Laye,1990. Paris,

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Maison des sciences de l’homme, Vol.1 :153-206. Dauvois, Michel, and Boutillon, Xavier (1999): Grottes et Lithophones. Acoustique et instruments anciens: 215-23.; Rault, Lucie (2000): Instruments de musique du monde. Paris, Éditions de La Martinière: 24-25.

11 Schaeffner, André (1936/1968): Origine des instruments de musique. Mouton, Johnson Reprint Corporation: 374.

12 Fagg, Bernard (1956): The Discovery of Multiple Rock Gongs in Nigeria. Man 56: 17-18; Fagg, Bernard (1957): The Cave Paintings and Rock Gongs of Birnin Kudu. Proceedings of the 3rd Pan-African Congress on Prehistory, Livingstone 1955: London: 306-312.

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they came into current use with the introduction of blacksmithing, for most African smiths use anvils of solid rock. It is equally possible that they may eventually prove to stretch back into the remotest antiquity and to have been among men’s earliest musical instruments, for the men who depended for life itself on their ability to fashion implements by flaking must have been conscious of the musical quality of stone.”13

Surveys. After the first discoveries of ringing stones in situ in Africa in the 1950s, documentation has been carried on worldwide about them. Bernard Fagg’s wife, M. Catherine Fagg, continued her husband’s work and her world-wide surveys of ringing stones were published in 1997 in the compendium “Rock music”.14 In this she has references to ringing stones from all over Africa but also from India, Asia, North America, South America, Australia, Oceania, and Europe.15 (Figure 5.) About use and function. We know from studies of traditional rock gongs recently performed, e.g. in the African continent, that they were used in both ritual contexts (such as rainmaking, fertility, initiation and circumcision) and in non-ritual contexts (signalling, entertainment singing and dancing).16

Present-day research. Studies and research about ringing stones are in recent years increasingly problem-oriented. The focus is still on Africa17, but also on,

13 according to Blades, James (1974): Percussion Instruments and Their History. London, Faber

and Faber Ltd: 82. 14 Fagg, M.Catherine (1997): Rock Music. Oxford, Pitt Rivers Museum, University of Oxford. 15 See also e.g. Álvarez, Rosario, and Siemens, Lothar (1988): The lithophonic use of large natural

rocks in the prehistoric Canary Islands. The Archaeology of Early Music Cultures: Third International Meeting of the ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology (eds. E.Hickmann and D.W.Hughes), Bonn, Verlag für systematische Musikwissenschaft GmbH: 1-10; Henschen-Nyman, Olle (1988): Cup-marked sounding stones in Sweden.The Archaeology of Early Music Cultures: Third International Meeting of the ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology (eds. E.Hickmann and D.W.Hughes), Bonn, Verlag für systematische Musikwissenschaft GmbH: 11-16; Lauhakangas, R. (1999): A lithophonic Drum in Lake Onega. Adoranten: Scandinavian Society of Prehistoric Art: 42-43; Purser, John (2000): The Sounds of Ancient Scotland. Music Archaeology of Early Metal Ages: Studien zur Musikarchäologe, II (eds. E.Hickmann / I.Laufs / R.Eichmann), Rahden/Westf, Verlag Marie Leidorf: 325-331; Waller, Steven J. (2002): Rock Art Acoustics in the Past, Present, and Future. International Rock Art Congress Proceedings 2: 11-20; Boivin, Nicole (2004): Rock Art and Rock Music: Petroglyphs of the South Indian Neolithic. Antiquity 78: 38-53; Waller 2009 http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/9461/. Waller’s home page includes e.g. a list of hundreds of rock art sites with known sound reflection and/or unusual acoustic properties.

16 Kleinitz, Cornelia (2008): Soundscapes of the Nubian Nile Valley. “Rock Music” in the Fourth Cataract Region (Sudan). Orient-Archäologie Band 22: Studien zur Musikarchäologie, VI (eds. A.A.Both/R.Eichmann/E.Hickmann/L.-C.Koch), Rahden/Westf., Verlag Marie Leidorf: 131.

17 Kleinitz, Cornelia (2008): Soundscapes of the Nubian Nile Valley. “Rock Music” in the Fourth Cataract Region (Sudan). Orient-Archäologie Band 22: Studien zur Musikarchäologie, VI (eds. A.A.Both/R.Eichmann/E.Hickmann/L.-C.Koch), Rahden/Westf., Verlag Marie Leidorf.

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e.g., India18. In addition exhaustive research has been devoted to the natural lithophones in painted Palaeolithic caves in Europe.19

Figure 5a. A view of the “Ringing Rocks Park”, Bucks County in Pennsylvania, USA. Within this park is a field of ringing boulders, about 7-8 acres in size.Visitors to the park enjoy climbing over the boulders. Many come with a hammer to bang on the rocks and others find small loose rocks to strike the boulders. Photo: David Hanauer.

Figure 5b. Only a fraction of the “Ringing Rocks” actually ring. The others, when struck, make just a dull clunking noise as one would normally expect when rocks are struck.”Why some rocks ring and other don't is also a mystery”, says David Hanauer. “Some have thought that the rocks need to be loose so they can vibrate, but many of the rocks which ring are firmly wedged between other boulders.” Photo: David Hanauer. http://www.davidhanauer.com/ buckscounty/ringingrocks/. (April 15, 2009.)

Figure 6. The “Sangelstainen”, a ringing stone at Lärbro on Gotland, Sweden. Width ca 200 cm, height ca 90 cm. This stone is mentioned in legend and in popular tradition as an ancient heathen altar or sacrificial stone. There is also a story about the Christian King Olof who in 1038 was on Gotland trying to Christianize the pagan people there by

18 E.g. Boivin, Nicole (2004): Rock Art and Rock Music: Petroglyphs of the South Indian Neolithic.

Antiquity 78: 38-53. 19 See footnote 10.

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fighting out a battle against them. Before the fight he knelt on the Sangelstainen and prayed. His pray was that strong that cup marks were made where he had placed his knees and elbows. Photo: Arne Philip (See also Figure 12.)

Figure 7. Drawing (anonymous) of the “Ballerstenen”, Västergötland, Sweden (the Swedish word baller can be translated with noice). This ringing stone has numerous cup marks. In popular belief it was supposed to have been used as a sacrificial altar during heathen times. Width ca 180-210 cm, height ca 90 cm.

Figure 8. Ringing stone at Håga, near Uppsala, Sweden, found in a Bronze-age cultic house. This stone was probably a part of the wall. Width 170 cm, height 60 cm. Drawing: Svante Fischer. (After Sandberg 2001,22.) Over the last few years, research from archaeoacoustic perspectives has been intensified, and the same goes for the relationship between rock art and acoustics. As we know, several ringing stones are situated close to rock paintings and rock engravings. Other current fields of research are methods and problems for sound recordings and experimental play, documentation, contextual and functional analyses.20

20 E.g. Ouzman, Sven (2001): Seeing is Deceiving: Rock Art and the Non-Visual. World

Archaeology, Vol 33, No. II, London: 237-256; Rainbird, Paul (2002): Making Sense of Petroglyphs: The Sound of Rock Art. Inscribed Landscapes: Marking and Making Place (eds. B.David and M.Wilson), Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press: 93-103; Reznikoff, Iégor (2002): Prehistoric Paintings, Sounds and Rocks. Orient-Archäologie Band 10: Studien zur Musikarchäologie, III (eds. E.Hickmann/A.D.Kilmer/R.Eichmann), Rahden/Westf, Verlag Marie Leidorf: 39-56. Reznikoff, Iégor (2006): The Evidence of the Use of Sound Resonance from Paleolithic to Medieval Times. Archaeoacoustics (eds. C.Scarre and G.Lawson), Cambridge: 77-84; Waller, Steven J. (2002): Rock Art Acoustics in the Past, Present, and Future. International Rock Art Congress Proceedings 2:11-20; Waller, Steven J. (2006): Intentionality of Rock-Art Placement Deduced from Acoustical Measurements. Archaeoacoustics (eds. C.Scarre and G.Lawson), Cambridge: pp.31-40; Boivin, Nicole (2004): Rock Art and Rock Music: Petroglyphs of the South Indian Neolithic. Antiquity 78: 38-53; Hultman, Maja (2007): Ljud I landskapet. Akustikarkeologi och öländska klangstenar. Magisteruppsats, Uppsala universitet, Institutionen för Arkeologi och Antik Historia; Kleinitz, Cornelia (2008): Soundscapes of the

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1. 3 Ringing stones in modern art and music

Another kind of ringing stones are those that are used in modern music and art and come in countless forms, designs and sizes in large parts of the world. They are sculpted and used for, e.g., modern serious music and to accompany ballet and other forms of dance, in interactive installations, for experimental sound art, sound sculptures, happenings, workshops, pedagogical purposes, etc. These modern ringing stones often make up both percussion and stage sets, i.e. they are important visually as well as aurally. One of the many examples of these is the six huge ringing stones made from various rock materials that were produced by the instrument builder and sculptor Arthur Schneiter in Switzerland, and that were used during the Messiaen festival in Stockholm in 2008. The largest stone is 245 cm wide, 280 cm high, 70 cm in depth and weighs c. 600 kg.21 It is of course no easy task to transport such mobile ringing stones from one playing locality to another!

2 Traditional ringing stones in Scandinavia

By traditional ringing stone I mean here the following:

- A ringing stone that is located at a spot in its original surroundings in nature, that is in situ (Figure 6) and/or has demonstrably some time or other been moved from its original spot to another place and/or has demonstrably existed but is now missing.

- Various ethnological sources (written sources, chronicles, oral information, etc.) substantiate that the stone/slab has been used as a sound tool in a folk tradition.

- Cup marks, a non-figurative rock-carving motif, are usually carved in the stone/slab. Humans have thus worked it on in Prehistory, which indicates that they most likely also utilised the stone as a sound tool. (Figure 7.)

2. 1 Finds and traditions – provisional list

In the present situation I have listed thirty-nine ringing stones in Sweden and two in Norway. (Figures 8-11). The Swedish stones are from the counties of Skåne (1), Blekinge (1), Öland (11), Gotland (7), Västergötland (1), Bohuslän (10), Östergötland (1), Södermanland (1), Uppland (3), Medelpad (1),

Nubian Nile Valley. “Rock Music” in the Fourth Cataract Region (Sudan). Orient-Archäologie Band 22: Studien zur Musikarchäologie, VI (eds. A.A.Both/R.Eichmann/E.Hickmann/L.-C.Koch), Rahden/Westf., Verlag Marie Leidorf; see also Waller 2009 http://www. geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/9461/.

21 See http://www.arthurschneiter.ch, (April 15, 2009).

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Härjedalen (1) and Ångermanland (1).The two Norwegian ringing stones are situated in the counties of Buskerud and Oppland, respectively. This provisional list is based upon information in a selection of ethnological and archaeological sources.22 Denmark does also belong to Scandinavia. In this paper, however, I have had to limit myself geographically when it comes to all the Nordic countries.23 Thus neither Denmark nor Iceland and Finland have been included. It should be mentioned that traditional ringing stones are registered in Finland24 and they exist, too, on Iceland and in Denmark.25

Most of the altogether forty-one ringing stones listed here have cup marks. They have thus been worked on by humans in Prehistory and therefore constitute archaeological finds, to be precise, so-called prehistoric remains. Several of the stones are blocked up on one or more smaller stones. Cup-marked and blocked-up ringing stones are commented upon in general in the paragraph 3 below. The contexts of the ringing stones are not given or discussed in this paper.

22 Lovén, Nils [Nicolovius] (1847): Folklifwet i Skytts härad i Skåne wid början af detta

århundrade. Barndomsminnen. Utgifne af Nicolovius. Lund, C.W.K.Gleerups förlag: 93-97; Linné, Carl von [Linnaeus] (1928): Carl Linnaei Wästgötaresa, Förättad år 1746. Uppsala: 80; Hammelin, Axel (1957): ”Klingande stenen“ i Humlamåla – en offersten. Blekingeboken, 35/1957, Karlskrona, Blekinge Musei- och Hembygdsförbunds förlag: 77-78; Kalm, Per (1960): Per Kalms Västgöta och Bohuslänska resa, Förättad År 1742. Stockholm: 154; Henschen-Nyman, Olle (1988): Cup-marked sounding stones in Sweden.The Archaeology of Early Music Cultures: Third International Meeting of the ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology (eds. E.Hickmann and D.W.Hughes), Bonn, Verlag für systematische Musikwissenschaft GmbH: pp.11-16; Löchen, Leif (2000): Klangstein. Fra skorofele til salmodikon. Nord-Gudbrandsdal Folkemusikkarkiv: 55-57; Sandberg, Therese (2001): Hågasteenen och andra klangstenar – rituella ljudverktyg? CD-uppsats, Uppsala universitet, Institutionen för Arkeologi och Antik Historia:14-19; Victor, Helena (2002): Med graven som granne: om bronsålderns kulthus. (The Grave as a Neibour: On Bronze Age Ritual Houses). AUN 30, Uppsala, Uppsala universitet; Hultman, Maja (2005): Utan sammanhang? En kontextualisering av bronsålderns klangstenar i Mellansverige. C-uppsats, Uppsala universitet, Institutionen för Arkeologi och Antik Historia.Hultman, Maja (2007): Ljud I landskapet. Akustikarkeologi och öländska klangstenar. Magisteruppsats, Uppsala universitet, Institutionen för Arkeologi och Antik Historia.

23 By Scandinavia I mean here Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. The Nordic countries (Norden) are Denmark (including the Faeroe Islands), Finland (including Åland), Iceland, Norway and Sweden.

24 E.g. Tuovinen, Tapani (1988): Klingande sten, uppradad sten – två maritima fornlämningar i Nagu och Korpo skärgård. Baskerilinja: Unto Salo 60 vuotta:111–119; Ablova, A. (2003): Ringing Stones: The Interpretation of Archaeological Musical Monuments. Musical Semiotics Revisited, Approaches to Musical Semiotics 4 (ed. by Eero Tarasti), Acta Semiotica Fennica XV, Helsinki.

25 Personal information (Páll Steingrimsson); see also Sandberg, Therese (2001): Hågasteenen och andra klangstenar – rituella ljudverktyg? CD-uppsats, Uppsala universitet, Institutionen för Arkeologi och Antik Historia: 19-21.

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According to both ethnological records and legend, early written texts and still living informants the ringing stones once had a certain role in popular belief. A common belief was that gold or silver was hidden inside the stones or under them and this caused the ringing sound.26. There is also a story that a small girl accompanied her songs and psalms by striking a ringing stone.27 The traditional names of the ringing stones are usually onomatopoeic, such as Syngjar-steinen and Dønnsteinen in Norway, and in Sweden, for example, Ballerstenen (Figure 7), Klongesten, Sangelstainen (Figure 6), Klocksten, Sångstenen, and Klingastenen.

2. 2 Dating

A cup mark, the type of rock carving found on most ringing stones, is a cup-formed depression that has been knocked or ground into mountain slabs and boulders. It is as a rule 3-10 cm in diameter and up to 5 cm in depth and the most common rock-carving motif in Sweden. (Figures 7-8.) The cup marks are thought to date from such an extended period of time as that between the late Stone Age and the late Iron Age. If we let the cup marks constitute the criterion for dating the ringing stones it will be a broad dating. The Swedish archaeologist Maja Hultman, in her studies on ringing stones, argues with good reasons that they should probably be dated to chiefly the Bronze Age (1800-500 B.C.), which does not preclude that they have been used later as well as earlier in Prehistory.28

Nota bene: Here I would like to stress that our oldest ancestors, the hunter-gatherers, like e.g. our Iron Age ancestors, had access to the ”timeless” ringing stones. Why should they not have used these sound tools?29 Why only people in the Bronze Age? But people in the Bronze Age obviously decided to carve cup marks in them, for some reasons. An interesting question, too, in this context, is whether prehistoric ship tumuli and stone circles were possibly used in their time also as percussion instruments.

26 See e.g. Henschen-Nyman, Olle (1988): Cup-marked sounding stones in Sweden.The

Archaeology of Early Music Cultures: Third International Meeting of the ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology (eds. E.Hickmann and D.W.Hughes), Bonn, Verlag für systematische Musikwissenschaft GmbH: pp.11-16; Sandberg, Therese (2001): Hågasteenen och andra klangstenar – rituella ljudverktyg? CD-uppsats, Uppsala universitet, Institutionen för Arkeologi och Antik Historia: 31-32.

27 Hammelin, Axel (1957): ”Klingande stenen“ i Humlamåla – en offersten. Blekingeboken, 35/1957, Karlskrona, Blekinge Musei- och Hembygdsförbunds förlag:77.

28 Hultman, Maja (2007): Ljud I landskapet. Akustikarkeologi och öländska klangstenar. Magisteruppsats, Uppsala universitet, Institutionen för Arkeologi och Antik Historia.10-11.

29 Cf. Bernard Fagg, in paragraph 1.2 above, who has a similar remark.

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Figure 9. Ringing stone at Anga on Gotland, Sweden. Width ca 60 cm, height ca 40 cm; Figure 10. Ringing stone at Fole on Gotland, Sweden, known as the “Gyllenstainen” (the golden stone), This stone was split in two halves in the 19th century by people who believed that it contained gold and that this precious metal caused the ringing sound. Width ca. 200 cm, height ca. 85 cm.

Figure 11. Ringing stone on Fårö, Gotland, Sweden. Width ca 110 cm; Figure 12. The “Sangelstainen” (on top to the left) is situated close to similar stones, but these do not ring when struck. All photos of this page: Arne Philip. (Se also Figure 6.)

2. 3 Geological and physical aspects

Why are some stones “sonorous”, i.e. sound metallic and can thus be called ringing stones, while similar stones seem to be mute? The so-called Sangelstainen on the island of Gotland, Sweden, for example, is situated close to two similar stones, but these do not “ring” when struck. (Figure 12.) I have taken up this question now and then with geologists but they have so far not been able to give a substantial explanation from their point of view. A geological examination in 1990 of a couple of ringing stones on the island of Öland, Sweden, yielded the following answer: “They consist of very compact granite that was transported to Öland with the Last Great Ice. The prerequisite

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for the stone to sound is that there are no cracks in it. The more compact and fine-grained the stone, the more sound is in it. Even stones of diabase can be ringing stones.”30 Maja Hultman states in her work 2007: “We do not know in the present situation what the special sound qualities are due to. The stones do not consist of a special species of rock or the like, but it is a matter of ordinary gneiss or granite.”31 Dr. Peter Holmes, however, has examined the physical aspects of the phenomenon and has written a detailed and interesting report, explaining how compression waves are travelling through a rock and are coming out at the rock’s surface as a sound wave.32

2. 4 Previous research in Scandinavia

Ringing stones in Scandinavia were for a long time a neglected field of research. Ringing stones on the island of Gotland were discussed at a music-archaeological conference in Hannover in 1987.33 In various music-archaeological surveys I have myself since 1984 briefly touched upon ringing stones in Sweden – in each case to draw the attention of both experts and laymen to the existence of this type of sound tool.34 The Sangelstainen on Gotland was recorded in1984 for the phonogram “The Sounds of Prehistoric Scandinavia”, to my knowledge the only documentation of its kind thus far.35 (Figures 6, and 12).

It was not until the decade of the 2000´s that intensive research on ringing stones was done in Sweden, all works at the Department of Archaeology at

30 Personal information (Jan Bergström). See also Lundgren, Kurt (1990): Klongestenar.

Förhistoriska rytminstrument på Öland. The Swedish newspaper Ölandsbladet, September 29, Borgholm: 6-7.

31 Hultman, Maja (2007): Ljud I landskapet. Akustikarkeologi och öländska klangstenar. Magisteruppsats, Uppsala universitet, Institutionen för Arkeologi och Antik Historia: 10.

32 Personal information by Dr. Peter Holmes, March 28, 2009, formerly a teacher at Middlesex University in London.

33 Henschen-Nyman, Olle (1988): Cup-marked sounding stones in Sweden.The Archaeology of Early Music Cultures: Third International Meeting of the ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology (eds. E.Hickmann and D.W.Hughes), Bonn, Verlag für systematische Musikwissenschaft GmbH: 11-16.

34 Lund, Cajsa S. (1984): Fornnordiska klanger/The Sounds of Prehistoric Scandinavia. LP med texthäfte/booklet. EMI, No.MS101, Stockholm, Musica Sveicae:17; Lund, Cajsa S.(1991): Fornnordiska klanger/The Sounds of Prehistoric Scandinavia. CD including a booklet. No. MSCD101, Stockholm, Musica Sveciae. (Previous LP release: MS101, 1984): 47; Lund, Cajsa S. (1994): Forntiden. Musiken i Sverige, Vol.I (eds. L.Jonsson, A.-M.Nilsson, G.Andersson), Stockholm, Fischer & Co: 36; Lund, Cajsa S. (2008): Prehistoric Soundscapes in Scandinavia. Sounds of History, Publications from Listening Lund – Sound Environment Centre at Lund University: 25.

35 Cajsa S.(1991): Fornnordiska klanger/The Sounds of Prehistoric Scandinavia. CD including a booklet. No. MSCD101, Stockholm, Musica Sveciae: track 17.

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Uppsala University.36 Especially one of these essays, by Maja Hultman, has in several ways a pioneering approach owing to her innovative documentation, as well as her contextual and practical/experimental archaeoacoustic analyses.37 Gjermund Kolltveit has begun studies on ringing stones in Norway, taking his point of departure in Leif Löchen´s documentations in Nord-Gudbrandsdal.38

As is evident from what was said above, studies and research on ringing stones in Scandinavia have up to now been done mainly by archaeologists and music archaeologists. By music archaeologist I mean here that the person has studied the two sciences of archaeology and musicology, i.e. one is both a general archaeologist and a musicologist (the latter specialising primarily in ethnomusicology and organology). Remarkably enough, ringing stones are not - as far as I know - mentioned in any specialist literature on folk musical instruments or sound tools in Scandinavia. And that literature includes even the monumental series “Handbuch der europäischen Volksmusikinstru-mente”39 and “Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis”40, which have been given a Swedish connection through Ernst Emsheimer. On the other hand, the Music Museum in Stockholm, in its systematic catalogue compiled some time ago by Emsheimer, has the entry Klangstenar (Ringing stones). He has made excerpts here from various sources, including Linnaeus, with information about three ringing stones in Sweden. It may be permitted to pause a moment and remember with respect that grand old man of ethnomusicology and organology, who was also my mentor throughout the years.

3 Which sounds did prehistoric man produce on the ringing stones, for whom were they intended, when did he do it, why, how, how far? Some questions and problems

Unintentional sounds. Carving and hewing on stone slabs and stone blocks are processes rich in sound. Did man listen to these sounds that ineluctably accompanied his activities? And did he sometimes reinforced and structured these “unintentional” work sounds in order to facilitate the coordination of the

36 Sandberg 2001; Hultman, Maja (2005): Utan sammanhang? En kontextualisering av bronsålderns

klangstenar i Mellansverige. C-uppsats, Uppsala universitet, Institutionen för Arkeologi och Antik Historia.Hultman, Maja (2007): Ljud I landskapet. Akustikarkeologi och öländska klangstenar. Magisteruppsats, Uppsala universitet, Institutionen för Arkeologi och Antik Historia.

37 ibid. 38 Kolltveit, Gjermund (2008): The Problem of Ethnocentricity in Music Archaeology, with special

emphasis on music-archaeological work with lithophones in Norway. Paper read at the symposium of the International Study Group on Music Archaeology, Berlin, September 9-13, 2008. Under publication; Löchen, Leif (2000): Klangstein. Fra skorofele til salmodikon. Nord-Gudbrandsdal Folkemusikkarkiv: 55.

39 First volume was published in 1967. 40 First volume was published in 1969.

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collective manufacturing of rock carvings, and/or maybe also reinforced the sounds by measured calls and songs?

Cup marked ringing stones. Perhaps it was the case that cup marks were used to indicate that a stone block or a stone slab made a sound tool, that is a ringing stone, or they were signs to tell where the sounds were the “best”, for certain purposes. Was possibly any intrinsic value of a magical/ritual nature attributed to the sounds that were caused by the manufacturing processes, or to the fact that the stones were sonorous? Or did cup marks tell people that here is a ringing stone for signalling, please ring the “bell”? Interesting in this context is, that there are traditional ringing stones on Tasmania with circle-shaped incisions on the surface that were obviously made where the “best” sounds were produced.41 The cup marks´ relationship to the ringing stones is a much debated but still unsolved problem. The above-mentioned archaeologist Maja Hultman refers to stones that show no visible human influence but sound just as “good” as ringing stones furnished with cup marks.42

Nota bene about “good” or “non-good” sounds: Here I would like to stress that sound-producing devices themselves do not suffice as the sole basis for understanding their use and functions in Prehistory. For the sound of such a device depends not only on its construction but also equally upon what sort of playing technique was employed for it and how the performer grouped his sequences of sounds. This, in turn, depends on what he was striving for, which is connected with why he was producing sounds.

Also interesting to note is what Anthony Baines writes about African and Asian ringing stones: ”Not every ringing slab need necessarily win favour: in more than one instance, stones with a clear ringing note which would have pleased European taste were found to have less appeal for the indigenous folk; who preferred slabs with a low, muffled note comparable to the sound of a low-pitched xylophone bar.”43

Possible clues to the original functions of the cup marks. In Swedish popular belief cup marks are usually called in Swedish älvkvarnar (Älv, älva is = elf, and kvarn is = windmill). There are here a great many tales and legends, and even today there are transmitters of tradition still alive who can tell about how the cup marks were used in former times. This information from the transmitters can

41 Personal information (Perola Lind). See also Flood, Josephine (1997): Rock Art of the

dreamtime. Hong Kong, Angus&Robertson - An imprint of Harper Collins Publishers Australia: 238-239.

42 Hultman, Maja (2007): Ljud I landskapet. Akustikarkeologi och öländska klangstenar. Magisteruppsats, Uppsala universitet, Institutionen för Arkeologi och Antik Historia:10 and 56.

43 Baines, Anthony (1963): Musical Instruments Through the Ages (ed. A.Baines). London, Penguin Books: 30.

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be possible clues to the original functions of the cup marks. Here are some examples:

- They were bowls for offerings (of needles, blood, pig rinds, coins, butter, among other things) in connection with fertility and death cults (Figure 13).

- They were used for offerings to the elves in order to obtain a good harvest

- They were used to grind the bones of the dead after cremation in order to thereby increase the growing power of the soil.

- Men ejaculated their semen into them, i.e. a fertility rite

- They were symbolic sources – rain water gathered into the cavities was used for the treatment of warts, among other things.

- They were symbols of the earth goddess – the knocking-out of the cavities was to symbolise the union of the earth goddess with the god in heaven.

- Shamans of the Bronze Age made the cup marks and the stone/slab was a kind of “shaman drum”. 44

Figure 13. Offerings at the “Sangelstainen”, a fictive scene drawn by Ulla Sjöswärd. (See also Figures 6, and 12.); Figure 14. Blocked-up stones. Have such stones been blocked-up by prehistoric humans, or is the blocking-up natural? Drawing: Bo Westling (1995: 6.)

Blocked-up ringing stones. To mention in this context is also the fact that most – as far as I know – ringing stones are blocked up on one or more smaller stones. (Figures 14, 10-11). Have they been blocked up by prehistoric humans to deliberately reinforce the sound of the stone, i.e. an acoustic refinement, if it is actually true that the blocking-up leads to better resonance? How far does the blocking-up have to do at all with the ringing stone´s physical potential as a sound tool? Or is the blocking-up natural? That is, a result of the melting away and receding of the Last Great Ice. Heavy frozen-in boulders then sank down and were positioned on top of the layers of light sand and gravel with streaks

44 Norman 2009, http://web.comhem.se/kulturiuppland/skalgr.pdf (April 14, 2009)

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of larger and smaller stones.45 Maja Hultman does not discuss further the matter of blocked-up ringing stones. As I understand her, she does not consider this to have a decisive role for the sound potential of the ringing stones. She cites, among other things, experiments with a non-blocked-up ringing stone, which shows that this also rang “…with the most magnificent sound I have ever heard…”46

How did they do it? How did prehistoric man beat the ringing stones? To judge by ethnographic and anthropological knowledge they probably used smaller stones.47 This is also supported by the fact that in some instances percussion tools were found in the immediate vicinity of rock gongs, usually small stones or pebbles.48 This does not exclude the possibility that also wooden beaters, or metal and bone beaters, were used. Maybe the stones were scraped, too, by means of any smaller object, or even by pure hand.49

Sounds by whom, for whom, and how far? Who performed the ringing stones and for whom were they performed? Could they be used at any time, in any way and by any person? Were they used together with other sound tools and vocal sounds, as well as dancing? Could anybody see and hear the ringing stones or were they reserved for a special group in the society? How far away were the ringing stones audible – or meant to be audible? Did the range of the sound indicate territorial boundaries of any kind? Were the ringing stones that sacred or even taboo that they could not be used by any person, at any time, in any way? Did both the ringing stone and its sounds signify something in a larger, complex “cosmological” system, in which sound was actually of less importance than the actual signs – the stones and/or the cup marks?

All questions, however, of how and what, who, for whom, etc. bring us back to the essential problem: why and in what context were the ringing stones used? Maja Hultman, in her contextual study, concludes that prehistoric man seems to have preferred to put up some of their constructions close to the ringing stones, that is, they had some kind of closer relation to the rest of the cultural

45 Westling, Bo (1995): De flyttade flyttblocken. Jönköping, Sandbergs Bokhandel, Tranås. 46 Hultman, Maja (2007): Ljud I landskapet. Akustikarkeologi och öländska klangstenar.

Magisteruppsats, Uppsala universitet, Institutionen för Arkeologi och Antik Historia: 10. 47 Kleinitz, Cornelia (2008): Soundscapes of the Nubian Nile Valley. “Rock Music” in the Fourth

Cataract Region (Sudan). Orient-Archäologie Band 22: Studien zur Musikarchäologie, VI (eds. A.A.Both/R.Eichmann/E.Hickmann/L.-C.Koch), Rahden/Westf., Verlag Marie Leidorf: 135-136;

48 Ibid.131. 49 Schaeffner, André (1936/1968): Origine des instruments de musique. Mouton, Johnson Reprint

Corporation: 374, who divides “Pierre sonores” into various sub groups according to how they were technically caused to sound.

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landscape.50 When summarizing possible functions, it seems to her “…less likely that they had some kind of practical use since the human voice carries longer than the ringing sound does.”51 She finds it more likely “…that they were used on special occasions with a specific purpose.” She refers to a recent theory that “…the ringing stones were consciously placed close to communication routes in the landscape and were used like the Greek herms and the Swedish ’offerkast’ where travellers plead with different kinds of higher beings to ask for good luck during the journey.”52 .

Standpoint. Once again I want to stress that a sound tool is in itself not sufficient foundation for discussing and explaining its sounds and the way in which it was used in the societies of its time. For the sound produced by a sound tool depends not only on its design but, to no less an extent, on the way in which it is handled technically and on the way in which the user puts the various sounds together. And this in turn will depend on what is intended, which again is connected with the reason for producing the sounds.

3.1 Final remark

There are a few facts but many hypotheses regarding ringing stones in Prehistoric societies.

Extensive inventories and documentations of ringing stones not only in the Nordic area but also on the European continent, as well as follow-up and intensive studies in multidisciplinary “dream teams” would naturally be a goal to strive for (“a dream project”) in the attempt to better explain and understand the ringing stones, their possible use and functions in Prehistory. The idea is not new. Already M. Catherine Fagg wanted to see more extensive, worldwide inventories.53 To begin with, we should in any case hope for an increasing number of local and regional inventories. These will for sure form a base for further questions at the same time as this gathering of data and the analyses of them must continue, and new suppositions will be made. The “research wheel” must go on!54

50 Hultman, Maja (2007): Ljud I landskapet. Akustikarkeologi och öländska klangstenar.

Magisteruppsats, Uppsala universitet, Institutionen för Arkeologi och Antik Historia: 64. 51 Ibid. 52 Ibid. 53 Fagg, M.Catherine (1997): Rock Music. Oxford, Pitt Rivers Museum, University of Oxford: xi. 54 Cf. Lund, Cajsa S. (1988): On animal calls in ancient Scandinavia: theory and data. The

Archaeology of Early Music Cultures: Third International Meeting of the ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology (eds. E.Hickmann and D.W.Hughes), Bonn, Verlag für systematische Musikwissenschaft GmbH: 303.

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Early Ringing Stones in Scandinavia – Finds and Traditions, Questions and Problems __________________________________________________________________________ Reprinted from Studia

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