E-government success factors: Mapping practical tools to theoretical foundations J. Ramo ´ n Gil- Garc ı ´a, Theresa A. Pardo T Center for Technology in Government, University at Albany, Albany, NY 12205-1138, USA Abstract Str ate gies ar e systematic and long-term appro aches to pr oblems. Fed eral, sta te, and local governments are investing in the development of strategies to further their e-government goals. These strategies are based on their knowledge of the field and the relevant resources available to them. Governments are communicating these strategies to practitioners through the use of practical guides. The guides provide direction to practitioners as they consider, make a case for, and implement IT initiatives. This article presents an analysis of a selected set of resources government practitioners use to guide their e-government efforts. A selected review of current literature on the challenges to information technology initiatives is used to create a framework for the analysis. A gap analysis examines the extentto which IT-related research is reflected in the practical guides. The resulting analysis is used to identify a set of commonalities across the practical guides and a set of recommendations for future developmentof practitioner guides and future research into e-government initiatives. D2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Keyword s: Information technology; Government; IT implementation; Success factors; Relevance 1. Introduction E-government has been conceptualized as the intensive or generalized use of information technologie s in government for the pr ovisi on of publi c services, the impr ovement of 0740-624X/$ - see front matterD2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.giq.2005.02.001 TCorresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (T.A. Pardo). Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187–216
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E-government success factors Mapping practical tools to
theoretical foundations
J Ramon Gil-Garcıa Theresa A PardoT
Center for Technology in Government University at Albany Albany NY 12205-1138 USA
Abstract
Strategies are systematic and long-term approaches to problems Federal state and local
governments are investing in the development of strategies to further their e-government goals These
strategies are based on their knowledge of the field and the relevant resources available to them
Governments are communicating these strategies to practitioners through the use of practical guidesThe guides provide direction to practitioners as they consider make a case for and implement IT
initiatives This article presents an analysis of a selected set of resources government practitioners use to
guide their e-government efforts A selected review of current literature on the challenges to information
technology initiatives is used to create a framework for the analysis A gap analysis examines the extent
to which IT-related research is reflected in the practical guides The resulting analysis is used to identify
a set of commonalities across the practical guides and a set of recommendations for future development
of practitioner guides and future research into e-government initiatives
D 2005 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved
Keywords Information technology Government IT implementation Success factors Relevance
1 Introduction
E-government has been conceptualized as the intensive or generalized use of information
technologies in government for the provision of public services the improvement of
0740-624X$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved
doi101016jgiq200502001
T Corresponding author
E-mail address tpardoctgalbanyedu (TA Pardo)
Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216
managerial effectiveness and the promotion of democratic values and mechanisms1
Information technology (IT) has the potential to transform government structures and to
improve the quality of government services Technology provides two main opportunities for government (1) increased operational efficiency by reducing costs and increasing
productivity and (2) better quality of services provided by government agencies Realizing
the benefits of these technologies requires organizations to understand and overcome the
challenges to their efforts Technological complexity and incompatibility are not the only nor
the most difficult challenges to overcome Managerial political and legal factors have been
identified as important elements to take into consideration in the design and development of
IT initiatives as well2 Politics privacy concerns turf and other institutional arrangements
can also affect the results of an IT project3
Information managers in government must be aware of the many problems they face in IT-intensive projects IT initiatives in general and e-government projects in particular face
multiple and complex challenges4 Identifying and overcoming these challenges is not always
easy Many national state and local governments are developing tools to help managers
make decisions about IT investments and implementation The purpose of this article is to
examine the extent to which IS research informs the development of practitioner tools for
government IT decision makers Four tools were selected as the focus of this examination
based on their visibility and central role in informing practitioners at the national level in the
United States and Canada and at the state level within the United States The examination
produced a number of observations about the practical tools in terms of their treatment of thechallenges to e-government and strategies for successful IT initiatives as identified by current
research It also produced a set of recommendations for future efforts in both research and
practice
This article is divided in seven sections including these introductory comments Section 2
frames the debate about e-government research and relevance issues Section 3 describes the
method used in this comparative effort Section 4 presents some challenges and IT success
factors identified in different disciplines Section 5 introduces the four practical tools selected
for this study Section 6 identifies how the challenges and factors drawn from the various
disciplinary literature have been incorporated into the selected set of tools Finally the article
offers some conclusions and recommendations
2 E-government research and relevance issues
As the interest in and pressure for new and expanded e-government increases public
managers find themselves making decisions about information and information technology
for which they are often unprepared or ill-equipped Recognition of the complexity and risk
of IT decisions and of the broad range of public managers involved in making these types of
decisions has spurred the development of many structured and rigorous tools to support IT business case analysis and risk assessment strategies These strategies recommended in some
government agencies and required in others provide guidance for IT decision making within
particular organizational contexts
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 188
It is important for both practitioners and researchers that these tools be grounded in the
latest information systems research and practice At this point however there is no empirical
evidence that this goal has been achieved The extent to which practitioners have found theresults of years of IS research relevant to their efforts to produce tools that limit the risk of IT
initiatives is unclear A continuing high level of systems failures however encourages an
examination of the relationship between research and practice
The latest debate about the relevance of information systems research was presented in the
March 2001 issue of the Communications of the Association for Information Systems
(CAIS) This issue presented the thoughts concerns and recommendations of a wide range of
researcher s in the field The 26 articles included discussions about (1) expanding the notion of
relevance5 (2) the question of relevance to whom6 and (3) the need for better matches
between academic research goals and goals of constituents7
Paul Gray the editor of CAIS inhis introduction to the special issue describes the relevance issue as one that bconcerns the
importance of academic IS research to the practitioner community Q 8 According to Gray the
authors of the 26 papers in the special issue seem to have consensus that published work is
not being read by practitioners The explanations presented for this gap include abstractedness
of writing lack of practical experience of faculty latency of publication of academic research
and a failure to focus on applications for non-business constituencies such as the public sector
and the community use of computing9
Therefore the summary concern stated from articles and surveys is that practitioners are
not reading researchmdashthe inference being therefore it is not informing their practices The premise of this article is that an examination of the tools being used by practitioners for
evidence of empirically supported practices and strategies will inform this discussion We
may find that although practitioners are not systematically reading research they realize the
benefit of research that is incorporated into the practical guides they are reading and in some
cases required to use
3 Method
A gap analysis between a selected set of practitioner tools and a set of key success factors of IT initiatives has the potential to inform questions about the relationship between research and
practice A gap analysis strategy represents an opportunity to do a component-by-component
analysis to determine the extent to which the design of each reflects awareness of relevant
research on information systems success10 This strategy could also inform future refinement
of practical tools as well as suggest strategies for the future development of research-based
practical tools The gap analysis is comprised of the four-step process outlined below
First a review of current literature in information systems research is used to identify
factors found to influence the success of IT initiatives This review includes the scanning of
the last 5 years (1999ndash2003) of five top journals in public administration11
Articles with afocus on e-government success factors were selected The literature review also includes
selected journal articles and book chapters that specifically address IT success factors in both
public and private organizations
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 189
Second the research identified and described a set of tools used for government IT
initiatives These tools were selected based on their visibility and central role in informing
practitioners at the national level in the United States and Canada and at the state level withinthe United States The review and description of the tools was selective and based on sections
that explicitly deal with IT risks and success factors Third a comparison of the factors
against the selective descriptions was conducted This comparison focused on four categories
of challenges and strategies found in the IS success literature Fourth an identification of the
gaps between the research and the practical tools is presented and discussed
4 E-government challenges and success strategies a review of the literature
A number of disciplines have invested in efforts to build understanding of the challenges in
information technology initiatives Research focused on technology management policy
information and organizational issues have all contributed to knowledge about these
challenges12
Simultaneously government practitioners have worked to improve their chances for
success by developing and adopting multiple and sometimes interrelated strategies for
responding to challenges to their IT initiatives The research community too has continued to
invest in research into the success of IT initiatives Practitioner and research efforts are
moving beyond a view of technology as the primary determinant of success and are seeking
more broadly based and sophisticated understanding of the interaction among technology
organizations and environments
41 Challenges to e-government initiatives
Although there is no single list of challenges to e-government initiatives notable
consistencies exist across the disciplines These consistent challenges are organized here as
primary challenges to e-government as information systems in context (see Table 1) The
primary challenges are grouped into five categories according to their core aspect (1)
information and data (2) information technology (3) organizational and managerial (4) legaland regulatory and (5) institutional and environmental
411 Information and data challenges
E-government initiatives are about the capture management use dissemination and
sharing of information A number of the challenges relate to the information that is at the core
of e-government initiatives Redman13 Kaplan et al14 and Ballou and Tayi15 are among the
many scientists who focus their research on data quality and data accuracy issues According to
Redman16 data quality problems include inaccuracies inconsistencies and incompleteness of
data Kaplan et al
17
emphasize that data quality is very important not only for intraorganiza-tional usage but also for reports to different stakeholders In addition Tayi and Ballou18
identify the lack of appropriate data as a further challenge to IT initiatives In this regard it is
important to understand the challenges of using bhard Q legacy data for decision support
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 190
systems when the decision process calls for bsoft Q data Dawes19 and Ambite et al20 address
how poor results in projects emerge from problems with data structures and data definitions
Overall Brown21 cautions us against taking information quality problems for granted
412 Information technology challenges
System usability and ease of use are important factors to consider22 Technology
incompatibility has also been identified as one difficult challenge to IT-intensive projects
23
Systems that are very different and sometimes very old increase the complexity of IT projects
especially information integration initiatives24 Complexity and newness of technology are
also constraints that can potentially affect the results of IT projects25 The lack of relevant
technical skills within the project team has been found to be an important factor 26 as well as the
shortages of qualified technical personnel27 Legacy systems present additional challenges28
For example Duchessi and Chengalur-Smith29 reported conversion of mainframe applications
as one of the problems associated with implementing clientserver technology
413 Organizational and managerial challenges
Undoubtedly the size of the project and the diversity of the users and organizationsinvolved are two of the main challenges to IT initiatives30 There are at least two other
problems related to the goals and objectives of initiatives The first is the lack of alignment
between organizational goals and the IT project31 In addition Dawes and Pardo32 identified
the existence of multiple and sometimes conflicting goals in the public sector as an
additional interorganizational challenge Finally individual interests and associated behaviors
lead to resistance to change internal conflicts and turf issues33
414 Legal and regulatory challenges
Most of the time government organizations are created and operate by virtue of a specificformal rule or group of rules In making any kind of decision including those in IT projects
public managers must take into account a large number of restrictive laws and regulations34
For example government agencies must often contend with one-year budget cycles One-year
Challenge category(s) Challenge Authors
Institutional and
environmental
Privacy concerns Andersen and Dawes 1991 Caffrey 1998 Milner
2000 Joshi et al 2002 Moon 2002 Duncan and
Roehrig 2003 Edmiston 2003 Holden et al 2003
Autonomy of agencies Dawes 1996 Caffrey 1998 Fountain 2001
Landsberg and Wolken 2001 Dawes and Pardo 2002
Policy and political pressures Bajjaly 1999 Heintze and Bretschneider 2000
Mahler and Regan 2002 Brown and Brudney
2003 Edmiston 2003 Rocheleau 2003 Roy 2003
Environmental context
(social economic demographic)
Heintze and Bretschneider 2000 Ho 2002 La Porte
et al 2002 Brown and Brudney 2003 Edmiston
2003 Holden et al 2003
Source Adapted and expanded from Jiang J and Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project
effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Table 1 (continued )
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 192
budgets are common in many national and state governments and this type of budgeting
affects the potential results of long-term IT initiatives35 Federal systems as in the United
States present additional challenges derived from the particularities of the relationships between different levels of governments and the formal checks and balances among the
executive legislative and judicial branches36
415 Institutional and environmental challenges
There are additional challenges related to a more general instit utional framework and the
policy environment in which government organizations operate37 In this context institutions
are not only laws and regulations but also norms actions or behaviors that people accept as
good or take for granted38 Privacy and related security issues are challenges that must be
adequately addressed in government IT initiatives39
The United States legal framework doesnot mention bagency autonomy Q However government agencies and programs often act as
independent and autonomous units without taking into account what other public
organizations are doing (stove pipes) This situation can constrain efforts to use technology
to integrate or share information across multiple agencies40 Finally ext ernal pressures such
as policy agendas and politics may affect the results of IT initiatives41
The above discussion highlights the range of highly complex and diverse challenges public
managers must face as they work in the e-government arena Success is not only about
selecting the right technology but also about managing organizational capabilities regulatory
constraints and environmental pressures For e-government managers to be successful intheir initiatives they must be aware of these challenges and use appropriate strategies to
overcome them
42 Success strategies for e-government initiatives
A set of strategies for achieving success in e-government initiatives drawn from the
literature can be mapped onto the five challenge categories Mapping the strategies to the
challenge categories illustrates the degree of correspondence in the research itself between
challenges and possible strategies for meeting those challenges (Table 2)
421 Information and data strategies
Dealing with information and data challenges requires an overall plan for managing data
and information products42 A quality and compliance assurance program is an effective
strategy for dealing with information and data challenges43 Developing appropriate data
structures and definitions is critical to the success of IT initiatives in particular in
interorganizational initiatives The challenge in this area stems not only from gaining
agreement that these are necessary but also from engaging the necessary partners in the
development and adoption of common structures and standards44 Managers have attempted
to minimize data-related problems by sharing standards definitions and meta-data with their potential partners Getting continual feedback from users is also an important strategy to
maintain data quality45 Overall having good quality and homogenous information seems to
be an important success factor46
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 193
Two technology-related factors that can promote the success of information systems are
system usefulness and ease of use47 Due to the relative complexity and newness of some
technologies a strategy for responding to information technology-related challenges is to
organize presentations about the technologies to build awareness and to focus early efforts on
developing system and process prototypes48 Strong technical skills and expertise in the
hands of the project leader and some team members is critical49 It is also important to take
into consideration potential shortages of qualified technical staff and an incremental approach
can help in dealing with this problem50
423 Organizational and managerial strategies
Establishing clear and realistic goals is an important factor in the success of IT initiatives51
Identifying relevant stakeholders and getting them involved in the project development
process specially end-users has also been found to be an effective strategy in overcoming
organizational and managerial challenges52 Strategic planning techniques can be seen as an
umbrella for more specific strategies such as clear milestones and measurable deliverables53
good communication channels54 and previous business process improvement55 It is alsoextremely important to take care of developers and end-users current skills and training
needs56 Successful projects need a balanced combination of technical managerial and
political skills and expertise among their members57 Finally financial resources are not
always the most important factor but are necessary Often managers need to develop
innovative financial schemes and partnerships to get e-government initiatives off the ground58
424 Legal and regulatory strategies
Restrictive laws and regulations developed prior to or in ignorance of technologies relevant
to e-government can affect the success of projects One strategy for responding to thesechallenges is to invest in changes to the regulatory environment that allow for or enable
adoption of emerging technologies59 Digital signature technologies for example required
statutory changes in most jurisdictions before they could be adopted for use Developing
Challenge category Key success strategy Source
Legal and regulatory Information technology
policies and standards
Andersen and Dawes 1991 Dawes and
Nelson 1995 Caffrey 1998 Milner 2000
Barret and Green 2001 Landsberg and Wolken
2001 Garson 2003 Kim and Kim 2003
Environmental or
institutional
Executive leadership or
sponsorship
Barki et al 1993 Jiang et al 1996 Brown
2000 Brown 2001 Landsberg and Wolken
2001 Edmiston 2003 Garson 2003 Mahler
and Regan 2003 Roy 2003
Legislative support Caffrey 1998
Strategic outsourcing and
publicprivate partnerships
Brown and Brudney 1998 Barret and Green
2001 Chen and Perry 2003 Edmiston 2003
Garson 2003 Melitski 2003 Roy 2003
Table 2 (continued )
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 195
formulate manage and maintain the portfolio of initiatives to ensure that investments made in
IT yield the anticipated benefit Q to members of the federal information technology community
The Value Measuring Methodology (VMM) How-To-Guide builds on the prior work of two efforts in particular In 2001 the Social Security Administration (SSA) in cooperation
with the General Services Administration (GSA) began to develop a methodology to asses
the value of electronic services Their goal was to produce a tool that that would be
bcompliant with current Federal regulations and OMB guidance applicable across the Federal
Government and pragmatically focused on implementation Q 66 In addition a team from Booz
Allen Hamilton and the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard was asked to conduct a
related study That report based on interviews with a variety of professionals in the field as
well as the private sector and the academic community presented the first version of the
VMM its supporting theories and philosophy Since the initial release VMM has beenapplied and refined into its current form
VMM like the methodologies and frameworks presented in the other guides calls for the
inclusion of a broad set of stakeholders affected by the initiative including direct users and
government partners The warrant for this guide was the gap between current tools and the
bneed for a more thorough and rigorous analytical approach to investment evaluation
planning and management Q 67 VMM is positioned as responding to this need by providing a
bcomprehensive and quantitative way to capture the impact that possible investment
alternatives would have on each of these parties Q 68 The methodology is designed in particular
to focus analysis on the value cost and risk baseline for any initiative changes to those baseline measures over time and the implications of those changes
The VMM How-To-Guide is organized into eight sections The Essential Factors
Framework of value cost and risk the foundation of VMM is introduced in Section 3
together with a discussion of the value gained from using the VMM methodology to analyze
e-government and other initiatives Section 4 presents an overview of the four steps of the
VMM Section 5 provides a comprehensive step-by-step presentation of the techniques and
tools of VMM as well as a discussion of the resources necessary to complete a VMM
analysis key concepts and real-life lessons from past implementations and some best
practices observations
52 Creating and using a business case for information technology projects69
This guide was issued by the Project Management Office Chief Information Officer
Branch of the Treasury Board of Canada The production of the guide was organized through
the Project Management Office and was staffed with volunteer members of a working group
as well as many additional volunteers who wrote reviewed and contributed to the guide A
member of the working group was acknowledged for directing the effort and coordinating the
participation of others
According to its statement of purpose this guide developed by public service managers for their colleagues boffers a blueprint that managers can use to build the business cases needed
to make informed investment decisions Q 70 The Canadian guide is organized around two
consistent themes The first is that a b business case is the key element of front-end planning
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 197
and sets the stage for the management of the project and for the achievement of the planned
benefit Q 71 It is considered an bindispensable first activity in the life cycle of an IT
investment Q 72 and when bcorrectly used can serve as a management framework for theinitiative Q 73 The second theme is that no one size fits all Public managers are urged to use
the business case development process to put their decisions into a bstrategic context Q
This guide exists within a larger set of guidance from the Treasury Board The guide
consistently points the reader back to the larger context of governing IT policies as well as the
official Treasury Board framework for managing IT projects Specifically wherever
appropriate the reader is directed to relevant text in the Treasury Boardrsquos Management of
Information Technology Policy and their An Enhanced Framework for the Management of
Information Technology Projects
This tool is structured for use as both a source book and a road map through the ITinvestment process for public managers The introduction also positions it as a tool to
bintroduce other stakeholders to the framework that shapes the decision-making model Q 74
The five central chapters of the guide introduce the framework for examining the
environment and seeking insight about the specific barriers risks and benefits of each
solution alternative being examined The next two chapters focus on customizing the case for
specific audiencesmdashagain stressing the idea that no one size or focus of presentation fits all
audiences Chapter 10 focuses on tips and techniques for designing and managing ongoing
project reviews Finally the appendix introduces Logical Framework Analysis a dynamic
technique for planning communicating and controlling project elements
53 Business case basics and beyond a primer on state government IT business cases 75
This guide was produced by the National Association of Chief Information Officers
(NASCIO) A primary author from the practitioner community worked together with the
NASCIO Executive Committee to write the guide Feedback was also provided by NASCIOrsquos
customer relationship management committee and a range of government practitioners and
private sector and academic partners Thirty-eight people from state and federal governments
and fourteen individuals from associations academic institutions and the private sector were
acknowledged for their contributionsThe guide addresses the emerging trend of business case use being broadened beyond the
analysis of one project to identify the benefits of whole programs such as data center
consolidation and Y2K This guide identifies a review of current practitioner literature on IT
business cases as the source of a framework for an enterprise business case It also presents a
discussion of the current challenges state governments in particular are facing in their e-
government initiatives and meeting the policy and service goals of their Governors The
NASCIO guide provides btools concepts and a framework for addressing a number of critical
challenges facing state Governors chief information officers and enterprise information
technology organizations Q 76
It has three main purposes (1) provide the basics on State IT business cases (2) push beyond the bBasics to Use the Business Case to Address the
Challenges of Fiscal Years 2004 and 2005 Q 77 and (3) embrace a statewide enterprise IT
investment management infrastructure It contains four different types of information for
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 198
public managers (1) business case basics (2) public sector approaches to business cases and
examples (3) resources and contacts and (4) suggested solutions to some of the challenges
One of the unique contributions of this guide is its specific discussion and treatment of anenterprise business case as separate and unique from a business case for a specific project It
also speaks to the value of technology in the business of government
54 Making smart IT choices78
This two-part guide available in print and online was produced by The Center for
Technology in Government an applied research center at the University at Albany SUNY The
Center formulated the Smart IT methodology through its work with government agencies in
projects where information strategies are applied to the challenges of public service deliveryAccording to its introduction this guide was designed to help public managers and
government organizations bmake good decisions about when and how to invest in information
technology (IT) Q 79 Put another way it was designed to bhelp public managers avoid becoming
one of the statistics that dominate reports on information technology investments Q 80
Smart IT is organized around a short list of basic issues and principles The problematic
and expensive nature of IT decisions and the high failure rates which result from hasty
unrealistic or uninformed decisions provide the basic issues framework The principles that
guide the analytical strategy of Smart IT are that public managers must identify and listen to
stakeholders they must understand what constitutes success for their initiative and they must
pursue it and form must follow function The three phase process involves the use of
analytical tools and techniques to first understand the problem and its context second
identify and test solutions and third evaluate alternatives and make choices A wide range of
tools is introduced as well as a way of understanding how each tool might best be employed
in the development of a business case within a particular economic policy organizational
managerial process and technology context
Part 1 has four chapters and begins by considering the special characteristics of the public
sector as an environment for making management decisions and IT choices In the second
chapter the analytical process that accounts for program goals stakeholders processes costs
and technology alternatives is presented Mini case examples are provided throughoutChapters 3 and 4 focus on turning the analysis into a business case and presenting it to various
audiences Part 2 presents 33 skills techniques and tools to use in the analytical process
6 Mapping practical tools to theoretical foundations
The four selected guides are very different in their genesis and designmdashyet they all present
analysis and planning frameworks that can apply both to specific IT initiatives and more
broadly to enterprise IT strategic planning They all represent the best ideas of leading practitioners and academics in this area The NASCIO guide expressed the warrant that all
four guides seem to be responding tomdashthat in IT business cases brisks sensitivities and
contingencies tend to be undeveloped and contribute to lowered credibility Q 81
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 199
61 A brief comparative analysis of the selected guides
All four guides were produced through collaborative efforts of the public private andacademic communities (Table 4) The NASCIO VMM and the CUBC guides were produced
with a governmental sponsor and a range of volunteer expert participants In each situation
the need for the guide emerged from the ranks and was responded to by a coordinating group
or professional association The Smart IT Guide was produced through a different strategymdash
by practice-oriented researchers drawing on their experiences working directly with
government agencies in developing IT initiatives Nonetheless there is notable consistency
in the messages they deliver
All of the guides stress contingency thinking heavily investing in upfront or what CTG
calls b before the beginning Q
analysis collaborative management models inclusion of IT and business stakeholders and the value of iterative analytical processes The impact that a dwell-
doneT business case can have in the ongoing design development implementation and
review of an e-government initiative is also acknowledged in all four guides
The guides vary considerably in their recommendations of specific tools and techniques to
carry out a business case analysis The Canadian guide and the VMM link the analytical
framework very closely to a specific tool Smart IT presents an analytical framework and
links steps in the analysis to a group of tools from which public managers can choose The
guides vary in their links between recommended actions and the specific issue or challenge
likely to be overcome by that particular action Smart IT in particular tends to link analysis to
the challenge addressed so that practitioners can anticipate which tools or techniques will
Table 4
Selected tools development strategy and focus
Tool Development strategy Focus
Value Measuring
Methodology
Best Practices Committee of the
Federal CIO Council built on
previous related efforts of the
committee Refined in use at
several federal agencies
The guides provide a particular
methodology for evaluating and
selecting initiatives based on ongoing
value cost and risk determinations
Creating and
Using a Business
Case for Information
Technology Projects
Developed by public service
managers for their colleagues
The guide offers a blueprint that
managers can use to build the business
cases needed to make informed
investment decisions
NASCIO Business
Case Primer
Single author broadly based
review committee
The primer provides tools concepts
and a framework for addressing a
number of critical challenges facing
state Governors CIOs and enterprise
information technology organizations
Making Smart
IT Choices
Developed by an applied research
center based on experiences inworking with government agencies
This guide provides concepts techniques
and tools to help organizations define aninformation technology project and make
a solid case for needed financial and
organizational investments
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 200
impact which challenges The NASCIO guide presents a warrant for business case analysis
its unique contribution is a well-developed strategy for assessing the effectiveness of a
business case and the compilation of current practices across the states Readers of the NASCIO guide have the opportunity to review many frameworks and tools sets for a model
that will support their environments and issues as well as an extensive reference list
The NASCIO guide offers examples of business cases and IT investment analysis
processes from as many states as possible The VMM guide devotes most of its space to a
comprehensive risk and cost alternative analysis The Smart IT guide focuses its presentation
on a set of tools and techniquesmdasha toolkit of sort and on the introduction of an analytical
framework to which public managers can apply appropriate tools from the toolkit The
Canadian guide provides the reader with a comprehensive overview targeted and actionable
summaries of activity within each step and unique among the guides providesrecommendations for the design of a project evaluation process
62 Building the research practice bridge
The selected guides were designed to build awareness of challenges to e-government
initiatives and to present useful strategies tools and techniques to overcome the challenges
The following section highlights the links between the research literature and the selected
guides through an analysis of each guide in terms of the four categories of challenges and
strategies derived from the literature review Several observations about the guides and
recommendations for future development of practitioner resources and for further research
into the relevance of research to practice are then provided (Tables 5 and 6)
621 Information and data factors
Research published in the public management literature related to the capture
organization management use and archiving of information and data appears to be limited
Coverage of the information and data challenges and the presentation of strategies related to
overcoming them is also limited The Canadian guide identifies initial data collection and
conversion of archival data as a cost category that must be taken into account when
considering the overall cost of an initiative Smart IT urges public managers to consider theinformation and data that a particular solution strategy depends on to be successful so that
cost and risk analysis can include any threats to access Other resources addressing these
factors are beginning to emerge from recent experiences with government information
integration initiatives These initiatives are providing new insights into the challenges posed
by information and data issues82 insights that need to be reflected in future practice guides
622 Information technology factors
In the case of information technology Canadarsquos guide addresses almost all the challenges
The risks section of the guide is based on research about software development done by theSoftware Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University83 All three tools discuss the
need for technical skills and expertise Two address the complexity of the technology used in
the project Two others address usefulness and ease of use as important elements
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 201
All of the guides speak to the challenges that stem from organizational and managerialrealities Each introduces the discussion of these challenges at a different level based on
their target audience and style The NASCIO guide speaks to organizational challenges
primarily at an enterprise level seeking to encourage CIOrsquos and other leaders to consider the
Table 5
E-government challenges address by selected tools
VMM CUBC BCBB MSIT
Information and data challenges
Information and data quality U
Information technology challenges
Security issues U U U
Technological incompatibility U U
Technology complexity U U
Technical skills andor expertise U U U
Technology newness U U
Organizational and managerial challenges
Project size and related complexity U U
Users or organizational diversity U
Lack of alignment between organizational
goals and IT project
U U
Multiple or conflicting goals U U
Resistance to change U
Turf and conflicts
Legal and regulatory challenges
Restrictive laws and regulations U U
One-year budget restrictions U
Potential intergovernmental relationships U U
Institutional and environmental challenges
Privacy concerns U
Institutional arrangements (eg autonomy of agencies) U
Competition or political pressures (eg timing) U U U
Identification of partners and their contributions U U U
Lessons from previous IT experiences U U U
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 202
strategic role of the enterprise The CUBC focuses more directly on initiative level
managerial challenges such as skills of the project leader planning as a management tool
and adequate funding VMM provides techniques for assessing the impact of organizationaland managerial risks such as a lack of alignment Further it provides techniques for testing
underlying assumptions about initiatives and for assessing the impact of incorrect
assumptions on an initiative plan Smart IT raises awareness about organizational and
managerial risks such as lack of attention to users a lack of alignment between initiative and
organizational goals and multiple and conflicting goals It provides techniques such as
structured service objectives visioning and a strategic framework for minimizing these
challenges All of these guides urge stakeholder involvement as a critical strategy for
overcoming organizational and managerial challenges
624 Legal and regulatory factors
Legal and regulatory challenges are well addressed in the guides The NASCIO guide
covers the topic of legal frameworks and provides guidance on reviewing governing policies
and regulations It advises public managers to be aware of regulatory frameworks in the
development of the IT initiatives Smart IT speaks to these challenges as well by providing
tools such as partisan analysis stakeholder analysis and news analysis Each guide presents a
discussion of the possible enabling and constraining influences of the regulatory environment
on e-government initiatives Managers are urged for example to carefully consider security
policies that restrict or facilitate infrastructure expansion efforts
625 Institutional and environmental factors
Challenges stemming from environmental realities and institutional practices are identified
in each the four selected guides Timing in particular is presented as a strategy for
overcoming some of the environmental and institutional challenges The NASCIO Guide for
example encourages public managers to understand the impact of election cycles on their
initiatives Smart IT also speaks to these environmental challenges and adds in the one-year
budgetary cycles of government and its challenges to multi-year multi-institutional IT
initiatives The NASCIO guide the Canadian Treasury Board guide and the Smart IT guide
speak to the need to scan the economic and political environments and to carefully choose thebtiming Q of the IT initiative Smart IT provides a number of tools and techniques for
increasing awareness environmental and institutional factors and their influence
7 Final comments and recommendations
Understanding and reducing risk in e-government initiatives is a high priority for both
researchers and practitioners One consequence of attention to risk is that organizations both
public and private are increasing their investments in standard tools for planning and managingIT initiatives This study has sought to examine whether the tools available to practitioners
benefit from research in IS We believe the answer is bYes Q Increasingly practical guides are
urging practitioners to think beyond technology to think about bsystems in context Q 84
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 204
Our comparison of selected research findings and practical guides has provided insight into
the extent to which research is reflected in guides to inform practice The analysis highlighted
the particular characteristics of the guides and provided a general review of the extent towhich these guides ref lect cur rent research Five observations about the key commonalties
among the guides (see Table 7) and four recommendations for future efforts in both research
and practice also emerged from the analysis
The four recommendations derived from the analysis of gaps between current research and
the guides are provided to inform both future IS research and practical guide development
efforts This work also informs future efforts to conduct further empirical studies of the
impact of research on the focus and content of e-government investment decision making
tools in international national state and local governments
71 Characterize risk in context
The guides introduce the concept of risk and speak to the need to identify and invest in
strategies to manage risk Risk as a concept receives very thorough treatment however
challenges tend to be characterized in general terms A more thorough characterization of the
specific risks to specific kinds of initiatives would complement the presentation of risk
identification and analysis strategies Practitioners would be more aware of the potential risks
they face and could consider the analytic methodologies in terms of a set of likely risks given
the context of a particular initiative
72 Build understanding of information and data challenges
The impact of information and data challenges such as inconsistent data structures semantic
issues and incomplete data on the success of e-government initiatives need to be explored
further in research and presented more thoroughly in practitioner guides The success of e-
government initiatives involving multi-agency information sharing and integration such as
homeland security and public health depend on greater understanding of these challenges
Table 7
Key commonalities of selected E-government practitioner guides
1 Risks sensitivities and contingencies tend to be undeveloped and that threatens the credibility of IS
initiatives (NASCIO 2003)
2 The iterative process of information gathering analysis and decision making is central to the effort to
build understanding of problems solutions alternatives costs and risks
3 Investment analysis and business case documents are living documents and if maintained and updated over
time can provide guidance to teams throughout an initiative and beyond
4 Contextualizing technology solutions is critical to success b No one size fits all Q is the underlying theme
throughout each of the guides Finding out what size does fit in which situation is the goal each guide setsout to achieve
5 Contingency thinking is necessary for planning and preparation for unexpected consequences and changes
in the bvalue cost and risk Q determinations
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 205
73 Build a business case for business case analysis
Empirical support for the investment in business case and investment analysis is lacking Theguides present common-sense rationales for using business case strategies Some outline the
necessary elements The NASCIO guide outlines a set of key value indicators for a sound business
case The Smart IT Guide is illustrated throughout with excerpts from a business case However a
robust empirical base for particular business case strategies within particular environments and
contexts would provide public managers with a more informed roadmap for their efforts
74 Explore the impact of contingency thinking in project planning and management
The guides generally focus on the how-to of investment analysis and business casedevelopment Future guides need to continue to enhance the capability of public managers to
identify influence and act on the dynamic set of contingencies that influence information
technology initiatives Project management training for IT managers for example can
contribute as well to the ability of government managers to understand and prepare for the
dynamic environment of e-government initiatives
Governments at all levels have invested in the development of guides and handbooks to
raise awareness of the challenges facing IT initiatives These practical guides are providing a
bridge between knowledge gained through research in information systems public
administration political science organization theory and management and the knowledge
gained by practitioners participating in and leading these technology initiatives These
resources provide an opportunity when developed with full knowledge of current research and
practice to build awareness about these challenges and to provide tools and techniques that can
lead to success This study supports the conclusion that although practitioners may not read IS
research directly this research is finding its way at least recently onto their desktops and into
their briefcases and presumably into their IT initiatives through the pages of research-aware
practical guides reference tools and handbooks Further empirical work focusing on the extent
to which practitioners are using these and similar guides and the nature of that use is called for
Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank Sharon Dawes Terry Maxwell Anthony Cresswell and Luis
Luna-Reyes for their valuable comments in early versions of this paper Any mistakes or
omissions are the sole responsibility of the authors
Appendix A Bibliography included in Tables 1 and 2
Ambite J L et al (2002) Data integration and access In W J McIver amp A K
Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government Technology Human Factors and
Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic Publishers
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 206
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems
In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government
Technology Human Factors and Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic PublishersDeLone W amp Mclean E (1992) Information systems success The quest for the
dependent variable Information Systems Research 3(1) 60ndash95
DeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean Model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30
Duncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public
Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group
PublishingEdmiston K D (2003) State and local e-government Prospects and challenges
American Review of Public Administration 33(1) 20ndash45
Flowers S (1996) Software failure Management failure Amazing Stories and
Cautionary Tales New York Wiley
Fountain J E (2001) Building the Virtual State Information Technology and Institutional
Change Washington DC Brookings Institution Press
Gagnon Y -C (2001) The behavior of public managers in adopting new technologies
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(4) 337ndash350
Garson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for publicadministration In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and
Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
Harris N D (2000) Intergovernmental cooperation in the development and use of
information systems In G D Garson (Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New
York Marcel Dekker Inc
Heintze T amp Bretschneider S (2000) Information technology and restructuring in public
organizations Does adoption of information technology affect organizational structures
communications and decision making Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 10(4) 801ndash830
Ho A T -K (2002) Reinventing local governments and the e-government initiative
Public Administration Review 62(4) 434ndash444
Holden S H Norris D F amp Fletcher P D (2003) Electronic government at the local
level Progress to date and future issues Public Performance and Management Review
26 (4) 325ndash344
Irvine C E (2000) Security issues for automated information systems In G D Garson
(Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New York Marcel Dekker Inc
Jiang J amp Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation success
factors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 208
Rocheleau B (2000) Prescriptions for public-sector information management A review
analysis and critique American Review of Public Administration 30(4) 414ndash435
Rocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systemsIn G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues
Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Roy J (2003) The relational dynamics of e-governance A case study of the City of
Ottawa Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 391ndash403
Smith L D Campbell J F Subramanian A Bird D A amp Nelson A C (2001)
Strategic planning for municipal information systems Some lessons from a large US City
American Review of Public Administration 31(2) 139ndash157
Tayi G K amp Ballou D P (1998) Examining data quality Communications of the ACM
41(2) 54ndash56Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
West J P amp Berman E M (2001) The impact of revitalized management practices
on the adoption of information technology A national survey of local governments
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(3) 233ndash253
Notes and References
1 Gil-Garcıa J Ramon amp Luna-Reyes Luis F (2003) Towards a definition of electronicgovernment A comparative review In Mendez-Vilas A et al (Eds) Techno-legal
aspects of information society and new economy An overview Extremadura Spain7
Formatex Information Society Series
2 Best J D (1997) The Digital Organization New York 7 Wiley
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems In
W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in digital government Technology
human factors and policy Norwell MA7 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Landsbergen D J amp Wolken Jr G (1998 October) Eliminating Legal and
Policy Barriers to Interoperable Government Systems Paper presented at theannual research conference of the association for public policy analysis and
management New York
3 Bellamy C (2000) The politics of public information systems In G D Garson (Ed)
Handbook of Public Information Systems New York 7 Marcel Dekker IncDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed)
Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
PublishingMilner E M (2000) Managing Information and Knowledge in the Public Sector New
York 7 RoutledgeRocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systems
In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management
Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group Publishing
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 210
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
managerial effectiveness and the promotion of democratic values and mechanisms1
Information technology (IT) has the potential to transform government structures and to
improve the quality of government services Technology provides two main opportunities for government (1) increased operational efficiency by reducing costs and increasing
productivity and (2) better quality of services provided by government agencies Realizing
the benefits of these technologies requires organizations to understand and overcome the
challenges to their efforts Technological complexity and incompatibility are not the only nor
the most difficult challenges to overcome Managerial political and legal factors have been
identified as important elements to take into consideration in the design and development of
IT initiatives as well2 Politics privacy concerns turf and other institutional arrangements
can also affect the results of an IT project3
Information managers in government must be aware of the many problems they face in IT-intensive projects IT initiatives in general and e-government projects in particular face
multiple and complex challenges4 Identifying and overcoming these challenges is not always
easy Many national state and local governments are developing tools to help managers
make decisions about IT investments and implementation The purpose of this article is to
examine the extent to which IS research informs the development of practitioner tools for
government IT decision makers Four tools were selected as the focus of this examination
based on their visibility and central role in informing practitioners at the national level in the
United States and Canada and at the state level within the United States The examination
produced a number of observations about the practical tools in terms of their treatment of thechallenges to e-government and strategies for successful IT initiatives as identified by current
research It also produced a set of recommendations for future efforts in both research and
practice
This article is divided in seven sections including these introductory comments Section 2
frames the debate about e-government research and relevance issues Section 3 describes the
method used in this comparative effort Section 4 presents some challenges and IT success
factors identified in different disciplines Section 5 introduces the four practical tools selected
for this study Section 6 identifies how the challenges and factors drawn from the various
disciplinary literature have been incorporated into the selected set of tools Finally the article
offers some conclusions and recommendations
2 E-government research and relevance issues
As the interest in and pressure for new and expanded e-government increases public
managers find themselves making decisions about information and information technology
for which they are often unprepared or ill-equipped Recognition of the complexity and risk
of IT decisions and of the broad range of public managers involved in making these types of
decisions has spurred the development of many structured and rigorous tools to support IT business case analysis and risk assessment strategies These strategies recommended in some
government agencies and required in others provide guidance for IT decision making within
particular organizational contexts
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 188
It is important for both practitioners and researchers that these tools be grounded in the
latest information systems research and practice At this point however there is no empirical
evidence that this goal has been achieved The extent to which practitioners have found theresults of years of IS research relevant to their efforts to produce tools that limit the risk of IT
initiatives is unclear A continuing high level of systems failures however encourages an
examination of the relationship between research and practice
The latest debate about the relevance of information systems research was presented in the
March 2001 issue of the Communications of the Association for Information Systems
(CAIS) This issue presented the thoughts concerns and recommendations of a wide range of
researcher s in the field The 26 articles included discussions about (1) expanding the notion of
relevance5 (2) the question of relevance to whom6 and (3) the need for better matches
between academic research goals and goals of constituents7
Paul Gray the editor of CAIS inhis introduction to the special issue describes the relevance issue as one that bconcerns the
importance of academic IS research to the practitioner community Q 8 According to Gray the
authors of the 26 papers in the special issue seem to have consensus that published work is
not being read by practitioners The explanations presented for this gap include abstractedness
of writing lack of practical experience of faculty latency of publication of academic research
and a failure to focus on applications for non-business constituencies such as the public sector
and the community use of computing9
Therefore the summary concern stated from articles and surveys is that practitioners are
not reading researchmdashthe inference being therefore it is not informing their practices The premise of this article is that an examination of the tools being used by practitioners for
evidence of empirically supported practices and strategies will inform this discussion We
may find that although practitioners are not systematically reading research they realize the
benefit of research that is incorporated into the practical guides they are reading and in some
cases required to use
3 Method
A gap analysis between a selected set of practitioner tools and a set of key success factors of IT initiatives has the potential to inform questions about the relationship between research and
practice A gap analysis strategy represents an opportunity to do a component-by-component
analysis to determine the extent to which the design of each reflects awareness of relevant
research on information systems success10 This strategy could also inform future refinement
of practical tools as well as suggest strategies for the future development of research-based
practical tools The gap analysis is comprised of the four-step process outlined below
First a review of current literature in information systems research is used to identify
factors found to influence the success of IT initiatives This review includes the scanning of
the last 5 years (1999ndash2003) of five top journals in public administration11
Articles with afocus on e-government success factors were selected The literature review also includes
selected journal articles and book chapters that specifically address IT success factors in both
public and private organizations
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 189
Second the research identified and described a set of tools used for government IT
initiatives These tools were selected based on their visibility and central role in informing
practitioners at the national level in the United States and Canada and at the state level withinthe United States The review and description of the tools was selective and based on sections
that explicitly deal with IT risks and success factors Third a comparison of the factors
against the selective descriptions was conducted This comparison focused on four categories
of challenges and strategies found in the IS success literature Fourth an identification of the
gaps between the research and the practical tools is presented and discussed
4 E-government challenges and success strategies a review of the literature
A number of disciplines have invested in efforts to build understanding of the challenges in
information technology initiatives Research focused on technology management policy
information and organizational issues have all contributed to knowledge about these
challenges12
Simultaneously government practitioners have worked to improve their chances for
success by developing and adopting multiple and sometimes interrelated strategies for
responding to challenges to their IT initiatives The research community too has continued to
invest in research into the success of IT initiatives Practitioner and research efforts are
moving beyond a view of technology as the primary determinant of success and are seeking
more broadly based and sophisticated understanding of the interaction among technology
organizations and environments
41 Challenges to e-government initiatives
Although there is no single list of challenges to e-government initiatives notable
consistencies exist across the disciplines These consistent challenges are organized here as
primary challenges to e-government as information systems in context (see Table 1) The
primary challenges are grouped into five categories according to their core aspect (1)
information and data (2) information technology (3) organizational and managerial (4) legaland regulatory and (5) institutional and environmental
411 Information and data challenges
E-government initiatives are about the capture management use dissemination and
sharing of information A number of the challenges relate to the information that is at the core
of e-government initiatives Redman13 Kaplan et al14 and Ballou and Tayi15 are among the
many scientists who focus their research on data quality and data accuracy issues According to
Redman16 data quality problems include inaccuracies inconsistencies and incompleteness of
data Kaplan et al
17
emphasize that data quality is very important not only for intraorganiza-tional usage but also for reports to different stakeholders In addition Tayi and Ballou18
identify the lack of appropriate data as a further challenge to IT initiatives In this regard it is
important to understand the challenges of using bhard Q legacy data for decision support
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 190
systems when the decision process calls for bsoft Q data Dawes19 and Ambite et al20 address
how poor results in projects emerge from problems with data structures and data definitions
Overall Brown21 cautions us against taking information quality problems for granted
412 Information technology challenges
System usability and ease of use are important factors to consider22 Technology
incompatibility has also been identified as one difficult challenge to IT-intensive projects
23
Systems that are very different and sometimes very old increase the complexity of IT projects
especially information integration initiatives24 Complexity and newness of technology are
also constraints that can potentially affect the results of IT projects25 The lack of relevant
technical skills within the project team has been found to be an important factor 26 as well as the
shortages of qualified technical personnel27 Legacy systems present additional challenges28
For example Duchessi and Chengalur-Smith29 reported conversion of mainframe applications
as one of the problems associated with implementing clientserver technology
413 Organizational and managerial challenges
Undoubtedly the size of the project and the diversity of the users and organizationsinvolved are two of the main challenges to IT initiatives30 There are at least two other
problems related to the goals and objectives of initiatives The first is the lack of alignment
between organizational goals and the IT project31 In addition Dawes and Pardo32 identified
the existence of multiple and sometimes conflicting goals in the public sector as an
additional interorganizational challenge Finally individual interests and associated behaviors
lead to resistance to change internal conflicts and turf issues33
414 Legal and regulatory challenges
Most of the time government organizations are created and operate by virtue of a specificformal rule or group of rules In making any kind of decision including those in IT projects
public managers must take into account a large number of restrictive laws and regulations34
For example government agencies must often contend with one-year budget cycles One-year
Challenge category(s) Challenge Authors
Institutional and
environmental
Privacy concerns Andersen and Dawes 1991 Caffrey 1998 Milner
2000 Joshi et al 2002 Moon 2002 Duncan and
Roehrig 2003 Edmiston 2003 Holden et al 2003
Autonomy of agencies Dawes 1996 Caffrey 1998 Fountain 2001
Landsberg and Wolken 2001 Dawes and Pardo 2002
Policy and political pressures Bajjaly 1999 Heintze and Bretschneider 2000
Mahler and Regan 2002 Brown and Brudney
2003 Edmiston 2003 Rocheleau 2003 Roy 2003
Environmental context
(social economic demographic)
Heintze and Bretschneider 2000 Ho 2002 La Porte
et al 2002 Brown and Brudney 2003 Edmiston
2003 Holden et al 2003
Source Adapted and expanded from Jiang J and Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project
effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Table 1 (continued )
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 192
budgets are common in many national and state governments and this type of budgeting
affects the potential results of long-term IT initiatives35 Federal systems as in the United
States present additional challenges derived from the particularities of the relationships between different levels of governments and the formal checks and balances among the
executive legislative and judicial branches36
415 Institutional and environmental challenges
There are additional challenges related to a more general instit utional framework and the
policy environment in which government organizations operate37 In this context institutions
are not only laws and regulations but also norms actions or behaviors that people accept as
good or take for granted38 Privacy and related security issues are challenges that must be
adequately addressed in government IT initiatives39
The United States legal framework doesnot mention bagency autonomy Q However government agencies and programs often act as
independent and autonomous units without taking into account what other public
organizations are doing (stove pipes) This situation can constrain efforts to use technology
to integrate or share information across multiple agencies40 Finally ext ernal pressures such
as policy agendas and politics may affect the results of IT initiatives41
The above discussion highlights the range of highly complex and diverse challenges public
managers must face as they work in the e-government arena Success is not only about
selecting the right technology but also about managing organizational capabilities regulatory
constraints and environmental pressures For e-government managers to be successful intheir initiatives they must be aware of these challenges and use appropriate strategies to
overcome them
42 Success strategies for e-government initiatives
A set of strategies for achieving success in e-government initiatives drawn from the
literature can be mapped onto the five challenge categories Mapping the strategies to the
challenge categories illustrates the degree of correspondence in the research itself between
challenges and possible strategies for meeting those challenges (Table 2)
421 Information and data strategies
Dealing with information and data challenges requires an overall plan for managing data
and information products42 A quality and compliance assurance program is an effective
strategy for dealing with information and data challenges43 Developing appropriate data
structures and definitions is critical to the success of IT initiatives in particular in
interorganizational initiatives The challenge in this area stems not only from gaining
agreement that these are necessary but also from engaging the necessary partners in the
development and adoption of common structures and standards44 Managers have attempted
to minimize data-related problems by sharing standards definitions and meta-data with their potential partners Getting continual feedback from users is also an important strategy to
maintain data quality45 Overall having good quality and homogenous information seems to
be an important success factor46
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 193
Two technology-related factors that can promote the success of information systems are
system usefulness and ease of use47 Due to the relative complexity and newness of some
technologies a strategy for responding to information technology-related challenges is to
organize presentations about the technologies to build awareness and to focus early efforts on
developing system and process prototypes48 Strong technical skills and expertise in the
hands of the project leader and some team members is critical49 It is also important to take
into consideration potential shortages of qualified technical staff and an incremental approach
can help in dealing with this problem50
423 Organizational and managerial strategies
Establishing clear and realistic goals is an important factor in the success of IT initiatives51
Identifying relevant stakeholders and getting them involved in the project development
process specially end-users has also been found to be an effective strategy in overcoming
organizational and managerial challenges52 Strategic planning techniques can be seen as an
umbrella for more specific strategies such as clear milestones and measurable deliverables53
good communication channels54 and previous business process improvement55 It is alsoextremely important to take care of developers and end-users current skills and training
needs56 Successful projects need a balanced combination of technical managerial and
political skills and expertise among their members57 Finally financial resources are not
always the most important factor but are necessary Often managers need to develop
innovative financial schemes and partnerships to get e-government initiatives off the ground58
424 Legal and regulatory strategies
Restrictive laws and regulations developed prior to or in ignorance of technologies relevant
to e-government can affect the success of projects One strategy for responding to thesechallenges is to invest in changes to the regulatory environment that allow for or enable
adoption of emerging technologies59 Digital signature technologies for example required
statutory changes in most jurisdictions before they could be adopted for use Developing
Challenge category Key success strategy Source
Legal and regulatory Information technology
policies and standards
Andersen and Dawes 1991 Dawes and
Nelson 1995 Caffrey 1998 Milner 2000
Barret and Green 2001 Landsberg and Wolken
2001 Garson 2003 Kim and Kim 2003
Environmental or
institutional
Executive leadership or
sponsorship
Barki et al 1993 Jiang et al 1996 Brown
2000 Brown 2001 Landsberg and Wolken
2001 Edmiston 2003 Garson 2003 Mahler
and Regan 2003 Roy 2003
Legislative support Caffrey 1998
Strategic outsourcing and
publicprivate partnerships
Brown and Brudney 1998 Barret and Green
2001 Chen and Perry 2003 Edmiston 2003
Garson 2003 Melitski 2003 Roy 2003
Table 2 (continued )
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 195
formulate manage and maintain the portfolio of initiatives to ensure that investments made in
IT yield the anticipated benefit Q to members of the federal information technology community
The Value Measuring Methodology (VMM) How-To-Guide builds on the prior work of two efforts in particular In 2001 the Social Security Administration (SSA) in cooperation
with the General Services Administration (GSA) began to develop a methodology to asses
the value of electronic services Their goal was to produce a tool that that would be
bcompliant with current Federal regulations and OMB guidance applicable across the Federal
Government and pragmatically focused on implementation Q 66 In addition a team from Booz
Allen Hamilton and the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard was asked to conduct a
related study That report based on interviews with a variety of professionals in the field as
well as the private sector and the academic community presented the first version of the
VMM its supporting theories and philosophy Since the initial release VMM has beenapplied and refined into its current form
VMM like the methodologies and frameworks presented in the other guides calls for the
inclusion of a broad set of stakeholders affected by the initiative including direct users and
government partners The warrant for this guide was the gap between current tools and the
bneed for a more thorough and rigorous analytical approach to investment evaluation
planning and management Q 67 VMM is positioned as responding to this need by providing a
bcomprehensive and quantitative way to capture the impact that possible investment
alternatives would have on each of these parties Q 68 The methodology is designed in particular
to focus analysis on the value cost and risk baseline for any initiative changes to those baseline measures over time and the implications of those changes
The VMM How-To-Guide is organized into eight sections The Essential Factors
Framework of value cost and risk the foundation of VMM is introduced in Section 3
together with a discussion of the value gained from using the VMM methodology to analyze
e-government and other initiatives Section 4 presents an overview of the four steps of the
VMM Section 5 provides a comprehensive step-by-step presentation of the techniques and
tools of VMM as well as a discussion of the resources necessary to complete a VMM
analysis key concepts and real-life lessons from past implementations and some best
practices observations
52 Creating and using a business case for information technology projects69
This guide was issued by the Project Management Office Chief Information Officer
Branch of the Treasury Board of Canada The production of the guide was organized through
the Project Management Office and was staffed with volunteer members of a working group
as well as many additional volunteers who wrote reviewed and contributed to the guide A
member of the working group was acknowledged for directing the effort and coordinating the
participation of others
According to its statement of purpose this guide developed by public service managers for their colleagues boffers a blueprint that managers can use to build the business cases needed
to make informed investment decisions Q 70 The Canadian guide is organized around two
consistent themes The first is that a b business case is the key element of front-end planning
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 197
and sets the stage for the management of the project and for the achievement of the planned
benefit Q 71 It is considered an bindispensable first activity in the life cycle of an IT
investment Q 72 and when bcorrectly used can serve as a management framework for theinitiative Q 73 The second theme is that no one size fits all Public managers are urged to use
the business case development process to put their decisions into a bstrategic context Q
This guide exists within a larger set of guidance from the Treasury Board The guide
consistently points the reader back to the larger context of governing IT policies as well as the
official Treasury Board framework for managing IT projects Specifically wherever
appropriate the reader is directed to relevant text in the Treasury Boardrsquos Management of
Information Technology Policy and their An Enhanced Framework for the Management of
Information Technology Projects
This tool is structured for use as both a source book and a road map through the ITinvestment process for public managers The introduction also positions it as a tool to
bintroduce other stakeholders to the framework that shapes the decision-making model Q 74
The five central chapters of the guide introduce the framework for examining the
environment and seeking insight about the specific barriers risks and benefits of each
solution alternative being examined The next two chapters focus on customizing the case for
specific audiencesmdashagain stressing the idea that no one size or focus of presentation fits all
audiences Chapter 10 focuses on tips and techniques for designing and managing ongoing
project reviews Finally the appendix introduces Logical Framework Analysis a dynamic
technique for planning communicating and controlling project elements
53 Business case basics and beyond a primer on state government IT business cases 75
This guide was produced by the National Association of Chief Information Officers
(NASCIO) A primary author from the practitioner community worked together with the
NASCIO Executive Committee to write the guide Feedback was also provided by NASCIOrsquos
customer relationship management committee and a range of government practitioners and
private sector and academic partners Thirty-eight people from state and federal governments
and fourteen individuals from associations academic institutions and the private sector were
acknowledged for their contributionsThe guide addresses the emerging trend of business case use being broadened beyond the
analysis of one project to identify the benefits of whole programs such as data center
consolidation and Y2K This guide identifies a review of current practitioner literature on IT
business cases as the source of a framework for an enterprise business case It also presents a
discussion of the current challenges state governments in particular are facing in their e-
government initiatives and meeting the policy and service goals of their Governors The
NASCIO guide provides btools concepts and a framework for addressing a number of critical
challenges facing state Governors chief information officers and enterprise information
technology organizations Q 76
It has three main purposes (1) provide the basics on State IT business cases (2) push beyond the bBasics to Use the Business Case to Address the
Challenges of Fiscal Years 2004 and 2005 Q 77 and (3) embrace a statewide enterprise IT
investment management infrastructure It contains four different types of information for
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 198
public managers (1) business case basics (2) public sector approaches to business cases and
examples (3) resources and contacts and (4) suggested solutions to some of the challenges
One of the unique contributions of this guide is its specific discussion and treatment of anenterprise business case as separate and unique from a business case for a specific project It
also speaks to the value of technology in the business of government
54 Making smart IT choices78
This two-part guide available in print and online was produced by The Center for
Technology in Government an applied research center at the University at Albany SUNY The
Center formulated the Smart IT methodology through its work with government agencies in
projects where information strategies are applied to the challenges of public service deliveryAccording to its introduction this guide was designed to help public managers and
government organizations bmake good decisions about when and how to invest in information
technology (IT) Q 79 Put another way it was designed to bhelp public managers avoid becoming
one of the statistics that dominate reports on information technology investments Q 80
Smart IT is organized around a short list of basic issues and principles The problematic
and expensive nature of IT decisions and the high failure rates which result from hasty
unrealistic or uninformed decisions provide the basic issues framework The principles that
guide the analytical strategy of Smart IT are that public managers must identify and listen to
stakeholders they must understand what constitutes success for their initiative and they must
pursue it and form must follow function The three phase process involves the use of
analytical tools and techniques to first understand the problem and its context second
identify and test solutions and third evaluate alternatives and make choices A wide range of
tools is introduced as well as a way of understanding how each tool might best be employed
in the development of a business case within a particular economic policy organizational
managerial process and technology context
Part 1 has four chapters and begins by considering the special characteristics of the public
sector as an environment for making management decisions and IT choices In the second
chapter the analytical process that accounts for program goals stakeholders processes costs
and technology alternatives is presented Mini case examples are provided throughoutChapters 3 and 4 focus on turning the analysis into a business case and presenting it to various
audiences Part 2 presents 33 skills techniques and tools to use in the analytical process
6 Mapping practical tools to theoretical foundations
The four selected guides are very different in their genesis and designmdashyet they all present
analysis and planning frameworks that can apply both to specific IT initiatives and more
broadly to enterprise IT strategic planning They all represent the best ideas of leading practitioners and academics in this area The NASCIO guide expressed the warrant that all
four guides seem to be responding tomdashthat in IT business cases brisks sensitivities and
contingencies tend to be undeveloped and contribute to lowered credibility Q 81
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 199
61 A brief comparative analysis of the selected guides
All four guides were produced through collaborative efforts of the public private andacademic communities (Table 4) The NASCIO VMM and the CUBC guides were produced
with a governmental sponsor and a range of volunteer expert participants In each situation
the need for the guide emerged from the ranks and was responded to by a coordinating group
or professional association The Smart IT Guide was produced through a different strategymdash
by practice-oriented researchers drawing on their experiences working directly with
government agencies in developing IT initiatives Nonetheless there is notable consistency
in the messages they deliver
All of the guides stress contingency thinking heavily investing in upfront or what CTG
calls b before the beginning Q
analysis collaborative management models inclusion of IT and business stakeholders and the value of iterative analytical processes The impact that a dwell-
doneT business case can have in the ongoing design development implementation and
review of an e-government initiative is also acknowledged in all four guides
The guides vary considerably in their recommendations of specific tools and techniques to
carry out a business case analysis The Canadian guide and the VMM link the analytical
framework very closely to a specific tool Smart IT presents an analytical framework and
links steps in the analysis to a group of tools from which public managers can choose The
guides vary in their links between recommended actions and the specific issue or challenge
likely to be overcome by that particular action Smart IT in particular tends to link analysis to
the challenge addressed so that practitioners can anticipate which tools or techniques will
Table 4
Selected tools development strategy and focus
Tool Development strategy Focus
Value Measuring
Methodology
Best Practices Committee of the
Federal CIO Council built on
previous related efforts of the
committee Refined in use at
several federal agencies
The guides provide a particular
methodology for evaluating and
selecting initiatives based on ongoing
value cost and risk determinations
Creating and
Using a Business
Case for Information
Technology Projects
Developed by public service
managers for their colleagues
The guide offers a blueprint that
managers can use to build the business
cases needed to make informed
investment decisions
NASCIO Business
Case Primer
Single author broadly based
review committee
The primer provides tools concepts
and a framework for addressing a
number of critical challenges facing
state Governors CIOs and enterprise
information technology organizations
Making Smart
IT Choices
Developed by an applied research
center based on experiences inworking with government agencies
This guide provides concepts techniques
and tools to help organizations define aninformation technology project and make
a solid case for needed financial and
organizational investments
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 200
impact which challenges The NASCIO guide presents a warrant for business case analysis
its unique contribution is a well-developed strategy for assessing the effectiveness of a
business case and the compilation of current practices across the states Readers of the NASCIO guide have the opportunity to review many frameworks and tools sets for a model
that will support their environments and issues as well as an extensive reference list
The NASCIO guide offers examples of business cases and IT investment analysis
processes from as many states as possible The VMM guide devotes most of its space to a
comprehensive risk and cost alternative analysis The Smart IT guide focuses its presentation
on a set of tools and techniquesmdasha toolkit of sort and on the introduction of an analytical
framework to which public managers can apply appropriate tools from the toolkit The
Canadian guide provides the reader with a comprehensive overview targeted and actionable
summaries of activity within each step and unique among the guides providesrecommendations for the design of a project evaluation process
62 Building the research practice bridge
The selected guides were designed to build awareness of challenges to e-government
initiatives and to present useful strategies tools and techniques to overcome the challenges
The following section highlights the links between the research literature and the selected
guides through an analysis of each guide in terms of the four categories of challenges and
strategies derived from the literature review Several observations about the guides and
recommendations for future development of practitioner resources and for further research
into the relevance of research to practice are then provided (Tables 5 and 6)
621 Information and data factors
Research published in the public management literature related to the capture
organization management use and archiving of information and data appears to be limited
Coverage of the information and data challenges and the presentation of strategies related to
overcoming them is also limited The Canadian guide identifies initial data collection and
conversion of archival data as a cost category that must be taken into account when
considering the overall cost of an initiative Smart IT urges public managers to consider theinformation and data that a particular solution strategy depends on to be successful so that
cost and risk analysis can include any threats to access Other resources addressing these
factors are beginning to emerge from recent experiences with government information
integration initiatives These initiatives are providing new insights into the challenges posed
by information and data issues82 insights that need to be reflected in future practice guides
622 Information technology factors
In the case of information technology Canadarsquos guide addresses almost all the challenges
The risks section of the guide is based on research about software development done by theSoftware Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University83 All three tools discuss the
need for technical skills and expertise Two address the complexity of the technology used in
the project Two others address usefulness and ease of use as important elements
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 201
All of the guides speak to the challenges that stem from organizational and managerialrealities Each introduces the discussion of these challenges at a different level based on
their target audience and style The NASCIO guide speaks to organizational challenges
primarily at an enterprise level seeking to encourage CIOrsquos and other leaders to consider the
Table 5
E-government challenges address by selected tools
VMM CUBC BCBB MSIT
Information and data challenges
Information and data quality U
Information technology challenges
Security issues U U U
Technological incompatibility U U
Technology complexity U U
Technical skills andor expertise U U U
Technology newness U U
Organizational and managerial challenges
Project size and related complexity U U
Users or organizational diversity U
Lack of alignment between organizational
goals and IT project
U U
Multiple or conflicting goals U U
Resistance to change U
Turf and conflicts
Legal and regulatory challenges
Restrictive laws and regulations U U
One-year budget restrictions U
Potential intergovernmental relationships U U
Institutional and environmental challenges
Privacy concerns U
Institutional arrangements (eg autonomy of agencies) U
Competition or political pressures (eg timing) U U U
Identification of partners and their contributions U U U
Lessons from previous IT experiences U U U
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 202
strategic role of the enterprise The CUBC focuses more directly on initiative level
managerial challenges such as skills of the project leader planning as a management tool
and adequate funding VMM provides techniques for assessing the impact of organizationaland managerial risks such as a lack of alignment Further it provides techniques for testing
underlying assumptions about initiatives and for assessing the impact of incorrect
assumptions on an initiative plan Smart IT raises awareness about organizational and
managerial risks such as lack of attention to users a lack of alignment between initiative and
organizational goals and multiple and conflicting goals It provides techniques such as
structured service objectives visioning and a strategic framework for minimizing these
challenges All of these guides urge stakeholder involvement as a critical strategy for
overcoming organizational and managerial challenges
624 Legal and regulatory factors
Legal and regulatory challenges are well addressed in the guides The NASCIO guide
covers the topic of legal frameworks and provides guidance on reviewing governing policies
and regulations It advises public managers to be aware of regulatory frameworks in the
development of the IT initiatives Smart IT speaks to these challenges as well by providing
tools such as partisan analysis stakeholder analysis and news analysis Each guide presents a
discussion of the possible enabling and constraining influences of the regulatory environment
on e-government initiatives Managers are urged for example to carefully consider security
policies that restrict or facilitate infrastructure expansion efforts
625 Institutional and environmental factors
Challenges stemming from environmental realities and institutional practices are identified
in each the four selected guides Timing in particular is presented as a strategy for
overcoming some of the environmental and institutional challenges The NASCIO Guide for
example encourages public managers to understand the impact of election cycles on their
initiatives Smart IT also speaks to these environmental challenges and adds in the one-year
budgetary cycles of government and its challenges to multi-year multi-institutional IT
initiatives The NASCIO guide the Canadian Treasury Board guide and the Smart IT guide
speak to the need to scan the economic and political environments and to carefully choose thebtiming Q of the IT initiative Smart IT provides a number of tools and techniques for
increasing awareness environmental and institutional factors and their influence
7 Final comments and recommendations
Understanding and reducing risk in e-government initiatives is a high priority for both
researchers and practitioners One consequence of attention to risk is that organizations both
public and private are increasing their investments in standard tools for planning and managingIT initiatives This study has sought to examine whether the tools available to practitioners
benefit from research in IS We believe the answer is bYes Q Increasingly practical guides are
urging practitioners to think beyond technology to think about bsystems in context Q 84
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 204
Our comparison of selected research findings and practical guides has provided insight into
the extent to which research is reflected in guides to inform practice The analysis highlighted
the particular characteristics of the guides and provided a general review of the extent towhich these guides ref lect cur rent research Five observations about the key commonalties
among the guides (see Table 7) and four recommendations for future efforts in both research
and practice also emerged from the analysis
The four recommendations derived from the analysis of gaps between current research and
the guides are provided to inform both future IS research and practical guide development
efforts This work also informs future efforts to conduct further empirical studies of the
impact of research on the focus and content of e-government investment decision making
tools in international national state and local governments
71 Characterize risk in context
The guides introduce the concept of risk and speak to the need to identify and invest in
strategies to manage risk Risk as a concept receives very thorough treatment however
challenges tend to be characterized in general terms A more thorough characterization of the
specific risks to specific kinds of initiatives would complement the presentation of risk
identification and analysis strategies Practitioners would be more aware of the potential risks
they face and could consider the analytic methodologies in terms of a set of likely risks given
the context of a particular initiative
72 Build understanding of information and data challenges
The impact of information and data challenges such as inconsistent data structures semantic
issues and incomplete data on the success of e-government initiatives need to be explored
further in research and presented more thoroughly in practitioner guides The success of e-
government initiatives involving multi-agency information sharing and integration such as
homeland security and public health depend on greater understanding of these challenges
Table 7
Key commonalities of selected E-government practitioner guides
1 Risks sensitivities and contingencies tend to be undeveloped and that threatens the credibility of IS
initiatives (NASCIO 2003)
2 The iterative process of information gathering analysis and decision making is central to the effort to
build understanding of problems solutions alternatives costs and risks
3 Investment analysis and business case documents are living documents and if maintained and updated over
time can provide guidance to teams throughout an initiative and beyond
4 Contextualizing technology solutions is critical to success b No one size fits all Q is the underlying theme
throughout each of the guides Finding out what size does fit in which situation is the goal each guide setsout to achieve
5 Contingency thinking is necessary for planning and preparation for unexpected consequences and changes
in the bvalue cost and risk Q determinations
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 205
73 Build a business case for business case analysis
Empirical support for the investment in business case and investment analysis is lacking Theguides present common-sense rationales for using business case strategies Some outline the
necessary elements The NASCIO guide outlines a set of key value indicators for a sound business
case The Smart IT Guide is illustrated throughout with excerpts from a business case However a
robust empirical base for particular business case strategies within particular environments and
contexts would provide public managers with a more informed roadmap for their efforts
74 Explore the impact of contingency thinking in project planning and management
The guides generally focus on the how-to of investment analysis and business casedevelopment Future guides need to continue to enhance the capability of public managers to
identify influence and act on the dynamic set of contingencies that influence information
technology initiatives Project management training for IT managers for example can
contribute as well to the ability of government managers to understand and prepare for the
dynamic environment of e-government initiatives
Governments at all levels have invested in the development of guides and handbooks to
raise awareness of the challenges facing IT initiatives These practical guides are providing a
bridge between knowledge gained through research in information systems public
administration political science organization theory and management and the knowledge
gained by practitioners participating in and leading these technology initiatives These
resources provide an opportunity when developed with full knowledge of current research and
practice to build awareness about these challenges and to provide tools and techniques that can
lead to success This study supports the conclusion that although practitioners may not read IS
research directly this research is finding its way at least recently onto their desktops and into
their briefcases and presumably into their IT initiatives through the pages of research-aware
practical guides reference tools and handbooks Further empirical work focusing on the extent
to which practitioners are using these and similar guides and the nature of that use is called for
Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank Sharon Dawes Terry Maxwell Anthony Cresswell and Luis
Luna-Reyes for their valuable comments in early versions of this paper Any mistakes or
omissions are the sole responsibility of the authors
Appendix A Bibliography included in Tables 1 and 2
Ambite J L et al (2002) Data integration and access In W J McIver amp A K
Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government Technology Human Factors and
Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic Publishers
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 206
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems
In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government
Technology Human Factors and Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic PublishersDeLone W amp Mclean E (1992) Information systems success The quest for the
dependent variable Information Systems Research 3(1) 60ndash95
DeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean Model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30
Duncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public
Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group
PublishingEdmiston K D (2003) State and local e-government Prospects and challenges
American Review of Public Administration 33(1) 20ndash45
Flowers S (1996) Software failure Management failure Amazing Stories and
Cautionary Tales New York Wiley
Fountain J E (2001) Building the Virtual State Information Technology and Institutional
Change Washington DC Brookings Institution Press
Gagnon Y -C (2001) The behavior of public managers in adopting new technologies
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(4) 337ndash350
Garson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for publicadministration In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and
Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
Harris N D (2000) Intergovernmental cooperation in the development and use of
information systems In G D Garson (Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New
York Marcel Dekker Inc
Heintze T amp Bretschneider S (2000) Information technology and restructuring in public
organizations Does adoption of information technology affect organizational structures
communications and decision making Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 10(4) 801ndash830
Ho A T -K (2002) Reinventing local governments and the e-government initiative
Public Administration Review 62(4) 434ndash444
Holden S H Norris D F amp Fletcher P D (2003) Electronic government at the local
level Progress to date and future issues Public Performance and Management Review
26 (4) 325ndash344
Irvine C E (2000) Security issues for automated information systems In G D Garson
(Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New York Marcel Dekker Inc
Jiang J amp Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation success
factors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 208
Rocheleau B (2000) Prescriptions for public-sector information management A review
analysis and critique American Review of Public Administration 30(4) 414ndash435
Rocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systemsIn G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues
Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Roy J (2003) The relational dynamics of e-governance A case study of the City of
Ottawa Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 391ndash403
Smith L D Campbell J F Subramanian A Bird D A amp Nelson A C (2001)
Strategic planning for municipal information systems Some lessons from a large US City
American Review of Public Administration 31(2) 139ndash157
Tayi G K amp Ballou D P (1998) Examining data quality Communications of the ACM
41(2) 54ndash56Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
West J P amp Berman E M (2001) The impact of revitalized management practices
on the adoption of information technology A national survey of local governments
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(3) 233ndash253
Notes and References
1 Gil-Garcıa J Ramon amp Luna-Reyes Luis F (2003) Towards a definition of electronicgovernment A comparative review In Mendez-Vilas A et al (Eds) Techno-legal
aspects of information society and new economy An overview Extremadura Spain7
Formatex Information Society Series
2 Best J D (1997) The Digital Organization New York 7 Wiley
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems In
W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in digital government Technology
human factors and policy Norwell MA7 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Landsbergen D J amp Wolken Jr G (1998 October) Eliminating Legal and
Policy Barriers to Interoperable Government Systems Paper presented at theannual research conference of the association for public policy analysis and
management New York
3 Bellamy C (2000) The politics of public information systems In G D Garson (Ed)
Handbook of Public Information Systems New York 7 Marcel Dekker IncDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed)
Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
PublishingMilner E M (2000) Managing Information and Knowledge in the Public Sector New
York 7 RoutledgeRocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systems
In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management
Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group Publishing
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 210
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
It is important for both practitioners and researchers that these tools be grounded in the
latest information systems research and practice At this point however there is no empirical
evidence that this goal has been achieved The extent to which practitioners have found theresults of years of IS research relevant to their efforts to produce tools that limit the risk of IT
initiatives is unclear A continuing high level of systems failures however encourages an
examination of the relationship between research and practice
The latest debate about the relevance of information systems research was presented in the
March 2001 issue of the Communications of the Association for Information Systems
(CAIS) This issue presented the thoughts concerns and recommendations of a wide range of
researcher s in the field The 26 articles included discussions about (1) expanding the notion of
relevance5 (2) the question of relevance to whom6 and (3) the need for better matches
between academic research goals and goals of constituents7
Paul Gray the editor of CAIS inhis introduction to the special issue describes the relevance issue as one that bconcerns the
importance of academic IS research to the practitioner community Q 8 According to Gray the
authors of the 26 papers in the special issue seem to have consensus that published work is
not being read by practitioners The explanations presented for this gap include abstractedness
of writing lack of practical experience of faculty latency of publication of academic research
and a failure to focus on applications for non-business constituencies such as the public sector
and the community use of computing9
Therefore the summary concern stated from articles and surveys is that practitioners are
not reading researchmdashthe inference being therefore it is not informing their practices The premise of this article is that an examination of the tools being used by practitioners for
evidence of empirically supported practices and strategies will inform this discussion We
may find that although practitioners are not systematically reading research they realize the
benefit of research that is incorporated into the practical guides they are reading and in some
cases required to use
3 Method
A gap analysis between a selected set of practitioner tools and a set of key success factors of IT initiatives has the potential to inform questions about the relationship between research and
practice A gap analysis strategy represents an opportunity to do a component-by-component
analysis to determine the extent to which the design of each reflects awareness of relevant
research on information systems success10 This strategy could also inform future refinement
of practical tools as well as suggest strategies for the future development of research-based
practical tools The gap analysis is comprised of the four-step process outlined below
First a review of current literature in information systems research is used to identify
factors found to influence the success of IT initiatives This review includes the scanning of
the last 5 years (1999ndash2003) of five top journals in public administration11
Articles with afocus on e-government success factors were selected The literature review also includes
selected journal articles and book chapters that specifically address IT success factors in both
public and private organizations
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 189
Second the research identified and described a set of tools used for government IT
initiatives These tools were selected based on their visibility and central role in informing
practitioners at the national level in the United States and Canada and at the state level withinthe United States The review and description of the tools was selective and based on sections
that explicitly deal with IT risks and success factors Third a comparison of the factors
against the selective descriptions was conducted This comparison focused on four categories
of challenges and strategies found in the IS success literature Fourth an identification of the
gaps between the research and the practical tools is presented and discussed
4 E-government challenges and success strategies a review of the literature
A number of disciplines have invested in efforts to build understanding of the challenges in
information technology initiatives Research focused on technology management policy
information and organizational issues have all contributed to knowledge about these
challenges12
Simultaneously government practitioners have worked to improve their chances for
success by developing and adopting multiple and sometimes interrelated strategies for
responding to challenges to their IT initiatives The research community too has continued to
invest in research into the success of IT initiatives Practitioner and research efforts are
moving beyond a view of technology as the primary determinant of success and are seeking
more broadly based and sophisticated understanding of the interaction among technology
organizations and environments
41 Challenges to e-government initiatives
Although there is no single list of challenges to e-government initiatives notable
consistencies exist across the disciplines These consistent challenges are organized here as
primary challenges to e-government as information systems in context (see Table 1) The
primary challenges are grouped into five categories according to their core aspect (1)
information and data (2) information technology (3) organizational and managerial (4) legaland regulatory and (5) institutional and environmental
411 Information and data challenges
E-government initiatives are about the capture management use dissemination and
sharing of information A number of the challenges relate to the information that is at the core
of e-government initiatives Redman13 Kaplan et al14 and Ballou and Tayi15 are among the
many scientists who focus their research on data quality and data accuracy issues According to
Redman16 data quality problems include inaccuracies inconsistencies and incompleteness of
data Kaplan et al
17
emphasize that data quality is very important not only for intraorganiza-tional usage but also for reports to different stakeholders In addition Tayi and Ballou18
identify the lack of appropriate data as a further challenge to IT initiatives In this regard it is
important to understand the challenges of using bhard Q legacy data for decision support
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 190
systems when the decision process calls for bsoft Q data Dawes19 and Ambite et al20 address
how poor results in projects emerge from problems with data structures and data definitions
Overall Brown21 cautions us against taking information quality problems for granted
412 Information technology challenges
System usability and ease of use are important factors to consider22 Technology
incompatibility has also been identified as one difficult challenge to IT-intensive projects
23
Systems that are very different and sometimes very old increase the complexity of IT projects
especially information integration initiatives24 Complexity and newness of technology are
also constraints that can potentially affect the results of IT projects25 The lack of relevant
technical skills within the project team has been found to be an important factor 26 as well as the
shortages of qualified technical personnel27 Legacy systems present additional challenges28
For example Duchessi and Chengalur-Smith29 reported conversion of mainframe applications
as one of the problems associated with implementing clientserver technology
413 Organizational and managerial challenges
Undoubtedly the size of the project and the diversity of the users and organizationsinvolved are two of the main challenges to IT initiatives30 There are at least two other
problems related to the goals and objectives of initiatives The first is the lack of alignment
between organizational goals and the IT project31 In addition Dawes and Pardo32 identified
the existence of multiple and sometimes conflicting goals in the public sector as an
additional interorganizational challenge Finally individual interests and associated behaviors
lead to resistance to change internal conflicts and turf issues33
414 Legal and regulatory challenges
Most of the time government organizations are created and operate by virtue of a specificformal rule or group of rules In making any kind of decision including those in IT projects
public managers must take into account a large number of restrictive laws and regulations34
For example government agencies must often contend with one-year budget cycles One-year
Challenge category(s) Challenge Authors
Institutional and
environmental
Privacy concerns Andersen and Dawes 1991 Caffrey 1998 Milner
2000 Joshi et al 2002 Moon 2002 Duncan and
Roehrig 2003 Edmiston 2003 Holden et al 2003
Autonomy of agencies Dawes 1996 Caffrey 1998 Fountain 2001
Landsberg and Wolken 2001 Dawes and Pardo 2002
Policy and political pressures Bajjaly 1999 Heintze and Bretschneider 2000
Mahler and Regan 2002 Brown and Brudney
2003 Edmiston 2003 Rocheleau 2003 Roy 2003
Environmental context
(social economic demographic)
Heintze and Bretschneider 2000 Ho 2002 La Porte
et al 2002 Brown and Brudney 2003 Edmiston
2003 Holden et al 2003
Source Adapted and expanded from Jiang J and Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project
effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Table 1 (continued )
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 192
budgets are common in many national and state governments and this type of budgeting
affects the potential results of long-term IT initiatives35 Federal systems as in the United
States present additional challenges derived from the particularities of the relationships between different levels of governments and the formal checks and balances among the
executive legislative and judicial branches36
415 Institutional and environmental challenges
There are additional challenges related to a more general instit utional framework and the
policy environment in which government organizations operate37 In this context institutions
are not only laws and regulations but also norms actions or behaviors that people accept as
good or take for granted38 Privacy and related security issues are challenges that must be
adequately addressed in government IT initiatives39
The United States legal framework doesnot mention bagency autonomy Q However government agencies and programs often act as
independent and autonomous units without taking into account what other public
organizations are doing (stove pipes) This situation can constrain efforts to use technology
to integrate or share information across multiple agencies40 Finally ext ernal pressures such
as policy agendas and politics may affect the results of IT initiatives41
The above discussion highlights the range of highly complex and diverse challenges public
managers must face as they work in the e-government arena Success is not only about
selecting the right technology but also about managing organizational capabilities regulatory
constraints and environmental pressures For e-government managers to be successful intheir initiatives they must be aware of these challenges and use appropriate strategies to
overcome them
42 Success strategies for e-government initiatives
A set of strategies for achieving success in e-government initiatives drawn from the
literature can be mapped onto the five challenge categories Mapping the strategies to the
challenge categories illustrates the degree of correspondence in the research itself between
challenges and possible strategies for meeting those challenges (Table 2)
421 Information and data strategies
Dealing with information and data challenges requires an overall plan for managing data
and information products42 A quality and compliance assurance program is an effective
strategy for dealing with information and data challenges43 Developing appropriate data
structures and definitions is critical to the success of IT initiatives in particular in
interorganizational initiatives The challenge in this area stems not only from gaining
agreement that these are necessary but also from engaging the necessary partners in the
development and adoption of common structures and standards44 Managers have attempted
to minimize data-related problems by sharing standards definitions and meta-data with their potential partners Getting continual feedback from users is also an important strategy to
maintain data quality45 Overall having good quality and homogenous information seems to
be an important success factor46
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 193
Two technology-related factors that can promote the success of information systems are
system usefulness and ease of use47 Due to the relative complexity and newness of some
technologies a strategy for responding to information technology-related challenges is to
organize presentations about the technologies to build awareness and to focus early efforts on
developing system and process prototypes48 Strong technical skills and expertise in the
hands of the project leader and some team members is critical49 It is also important to take
into consideration potential shortages of qualified technical staff and an incremental approach
can help in dealing with this problem50
423 Organizational and managerial strategies
Establishing clear and realistic goals is an important factor in the success of IT initiatives51
Identifying relevant stakeholders and getting them involved in the project development
process specially end-users has also been found to be an effective strategy in overcoming
organizational and managerial challenges52 Strategic planning techniques can be seen as an
umbrella for more specific strategies such as clear milestones and measurable deliverables53
good communication channels54 and previous business process improvement55 It is alsoextremely important to take care of developers and end-users current skills and training
needs56 Successful projects need a balanced combination of technical managerial and
political skills and expertise among their members57 Finally financial resources are not
always the most important factor but are necessary Often managers need to develop
innovative financial schemes and partnerships to get e-government initiatives off the ground58
424 Legal and regulatory strategies
Restrictive laws and regulations developed prior to or in ignorance of technologies relevant
to e-government can affect the success of projects One strategy for responding to thesechallenges is to invest in changes to the regulatory environment that allow for or enable
adoption of emerging technologies59 Digital signature technologies for example required
statutory changes in most jurisdictions before they could be adopted for use Developing
Challenge category Key success strategy Source
Legal and regulatory Information technology
policies and standards
Andersen and Dawes 1991 Dawes and
Nelson 1995 Caffrey 1998 Milner 2000
Barret and Green 2001 Landsberg and Wolken
2001 Garson 2003 Kim and Kim 2003
Environmental or
institutional
Executive leadership or
sponsorship
Barki et al 1993 Jiang et al 1996 Brown
2000 Brown 2001 Landsberg and Wolken
2001 Edmiston 2003 Garson 2003 Mahler
and Regan 2003 Roy 2003
Legislative support Caffrey 1998
Strategic outsourcing and
publicprivate partnerships
Brown and Brudney 1998 Barret and Green
2001 Chen and Perry 2003 Edmiston 2003
Garson 2003 Melitski 2003 Roy 2003
Table 2 (continued )
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 195
formulate manage and maintain the portfolio of initiatives to ensure that investments made in
IT yield the anticipated benefit Q to members of the federal information technology community
The Value Measuring Methodology (VMM) How-To-Guide builds on the prior work of two efforts in particular In 2001 the Social Security Administration (SSA) in cooperation
with the General Services Administration (GSA) began to develop a methodology to asses
the value of electronic services Their goal was to produce a tool that that would be
bcompliant with current Federal regulations and OMB guidance applicable across the Federal
Government and pragmatically focused on implementation Q 66 In addition a team from Booz
Allen Hamilton and the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard was asked to conduct a
related study That report based on interviews with a variety of professionals in the field as
well as the private sector and the academic community presented the first version of the
VMM its supporting theories and philosophy Since the initial release VMM has beenapplied and refined into its current form
VMM like the methodologies and frameworks presented in the other guides calls for the
inclusion of a broad set of stakeholders affected by the initiative including direct users and
government partners The warrant for this guide was the gap between current tools and the
bneed for a more thorough and rigorous analytical approach to investment evaluation
planning and management Q 67 VMM is positioned as responding to this need by providing a
bcomprehensive and quantitative way to capture the impact that possible investment
alternatives would have on each of these parties Q 68 The methodology is designed in particular
to focus analysis on the value cost and risk baseline for any initiative changes to those baseline measures over time and the implications of those changes
The VMM How-To-Guide is organized into eight sections The Essential Factors
Framework of value cost and risk the foundation of VMM is introduced in Section 3
together with a discussion of the value gained from using the VMM methodology to analyze
e-government and other initiatives Section 4 presents an overview of the four steps of the
VMM Section 5 provides a comprehensive step-by-step presentation of the techniques and
tools of VMM as well as a discussion of the resources necessary to complete a VMM
analysis key concepts and real-life lessons from past implementations and some best
practices observations
52 Creating and using a business case for information technology projects69
This guide was issued by the Project Management Office Chief Information Officer
Branch of the Treasury Board of Canada The production of the guide was organized through
the Project Management Office and was staffed with volunteer members of a working group
as well as many additional volunteers who wrote reviewed and contributed to the guide A
member of the working group was acknowledged for directing the effort and coordinating the
participation of others
According to its statement of purpose this guide developed by public service managers for their colleagues boffers a blueprint that managers can use to build the business cases needed
to make informed investment decisions Q 70 The Canadian guide is organized around two
consistent themes The first is that a b business case is the key element of front-end planning
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 197
and sets the stage for the management of the project and for the achievement of the planned
benefit Q 71 It is considered an bindispensable first activity in the life cycle of an IT
investment Q 72 and when bcorrectly used can serve as a management framework for theinitiative Q 73 The second theme is that no one size fits all Public managers are urged to use
the business case development process to put their decisions into a bstrategic context Q
This guide exists within a larger set of guidance from the Treasury Board The guide
consistently points the reader back to the larger context of governing IT policies as well as the
official Treasury Board framework for managing IT projects Specifically wherever
appropriate the reader is directed to relevant text in the Treasury Boardrsquos Management of
Information Technology Policy and their An Enhanced Framework for the Management of
Information Technology Projects
This tool is structured for use as both a source book and a road map through the ITinvestment process for public managers The introduction also positions it as a tool to
bintroduce other stakeholders to the framework that shapes the decision-making model Q 74
The five central chapters of the guide introduce the framework for examining the
environment and seeking insight about the specific barriers risks and benefits of each
solution alternative being examined The next two chapters focus on customizing the case for
specific audiencesmdashagain stressing the idea that no one size or focus of presentation fits all
audiences Chapter 10 focuses on tips and techniques for designing and managing ongoing
project reviews Finally the appendix introduces Logical Framework Analysis a dynamic
technique for planning communicating and controlling project elements
53 Business case basics and beyond a primer on state government IT business cases 75
This guide was produced by the National Association of Chief Information Officers
(NASCIO) A primary author from the practitioner community worked together with the
NASCIO Executive Committee to write the guide Feedback was also provided by NASCIOrsquos
customer relationship management committee and a range of government practitioners and
private sector and academic partners Thirty-eight people from state and federal governments
and fourteen individuals from associations academic institutions and the private sector were
acknowledged for their contributionsThe guide addresses the emerging trend of business case use being broadened beyond the
analysis of one project to identify the benefits of whole programs such as data center
consolidation and Y2K This guide identifies a review of current practitioner literature on IT
business cases as the source of a framework for an enterprise business case It also presents a
discussion of the current challenges state governments in particular are facing in their e-
government initiatives and meeting the policy and service goals of their Governors The
NASCIO guide provides btools concepts and a framework for addressing a number of critical
challenges facing state Governors chief information officers and enterprise information
technology organizations Q 76
It has three main purposes (1) provide the basics on State IT business cases (2) push beyond the bBasics to Use the Business Case to Address the
Challenges of Fiscal Years 2004 and 2005 Q 77 and (3) embrace a statewide enterprise IT
investment management infrastructure It contains four different types of information for
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 198
public managers (1) business case basics (2) public sector approaches to business cases and
examples (3) resources and contacts and (4) suggested solutions to some of the challenges
One of the unique contributions of this guide is its specific discussion and treatment of anenterprise business case as separate and unique from a business case for a specific project It
also speaks to the value of technology in the business of government
54 Making smart IT choices78
This two-part guide available in print and online was produced by The Center for
Technology in Government an applied research center at the University at Albany SUNY The
Center formulated the Smart IT methodology through its work with government agencies in
projects where information strategies are applied to the challenges of public service deliveryAccording to its introduction this guide was designed to help public managers and
government organizations bmake good decisions about when and how to invest in information
technology (IT) Q 79 Put another way it was designed to bhelp public managers avoid becoming
one of the statistics that dominate reports on information technology investments Q 80
Smart IT is organized around a short list of basic issues and principles The problematic
and expensive nature of IT decisions and the high failure rates which result from hasty
unrealistic or uninformed decisions provide the basic issues framework The principles that
guide the analytical strategy of Smart IT are that public managers must identify and listen to
stakeholders they must understand what constitutes success for their initiative and they must
pursue it and form must follow function The three phase process involves the use of
analytical tools and techniques to first understand the problem and its context second
identify and test solutions and third evaluate alternatives and make choices A wide range of
tools is introduced as well as a way of understanding how each tool might best be employed
in the development of a business case within a particular economic policy organizational
managerial process and technology context
Part 1 has four chapters and begins by considering the special characteristics of the public
sector as an environment for making management decisions and IT choices In the second
chapter the analytical process that accounts for program goals stakeholders processes costs
and technology alternatives is presented Mini case examples are provided throughoutChapters 3 and 4 focus on turning the analysis into a business case and presenting it to various
audiences Part 2 presents 33 skills techniques and tools to use in the analytical process
6 Mapping practical tools to theoretical foundations
The four selected guides are very different in their genesis and designmdashyet they all present
analysis and planning frameworks that can apply both to specific IT initiatives and more
broadly to enterprise IT strategic planning They all represent the best ideas of leading practitioners and academics in this area The NASCIO guide expressed the warrant that all
four guides seem to be responding tomdashthat in IT business cases brisks sensitivities and
contingencies tend to be undeveloped and contribute to lowered credibility Q 81
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 199
61 A brief comparative analysis of the selected guides
All four guides were produced through collaborative efforts of the public private andacademic communities (Table 4) The NASCIO VMM and the CUBC guides were produced
with a governmental sponsor and a range of volunteer expert participants In each situation
the need for the guide emerged from the ranks and was responded to by a coordinating group
or professional association The Smart IT Guide was produced through a different strategymdash
by practice-oriented researchers drawing on their experiences working directly with
government agencies in developing IT initiatives Nonetheless there is notable consistency
in the messages they deliver
All of the guides stress contingency thinking heavily investing in upfront or what CTG
calls b before the beginning Q
analysis collaborative management models inclusion of IT and business stakeholders and the value of iterative analytical processes The impact that a dwell-
doneT business case can have in the ongoing design development implementation and
review of an e-government initiative is also acknowledged in all four guides
The guides vary considerably in their recommendations of specific tools and techniques to
carry out a business case analysis The Canadian guide and the VMM link the analytical
framework very closely to a specific tool Smart IT presents an analytical framework and
links steps in the analysis to a group of tools from which public managers can choose The
guides vary in their links between recommended actions and the specific issue or challenge
likely to be overcome by that particular action Smart IT in particular tends to link analysis to
the challenge addressed so that practitioners can anticipate which tools or techniques will
Table 4
Selected tools development strategy and focus
Tool Development strategy Focus
Value Measuring
Methodology
Best Practices Committee of the
Federal CIO Council built on
previous related efforts of the
committee Refined in use at
several federal agencies
The guides provide a particular
methodology for evaluating and
selecting initiatives based on ongoing
value cost and risk determinations
Creating and
Using a Business
Case for Information
Technology Projects
Developed by public service
managers for their colleagues
The guide offers a blueprint that
managers can use to build the business
cases needed to make informed
investment decisions
NASCIO Business
Case Primer
Single author broadly based
review committee
The primer provides tools concepts
and a framework for addressing a
number of critical challenges facing
state Governors CIOs and enterprise
information technology organizations
Making Smart
IT Choices
Developed by an applied research
center based on experiences inworking with government agencies
This guide provides concepts techniques
and tools to help organizations define aninformation technology project and make
a solid case for needed financial and
organizational investments
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 200
impact which challenges The NASCIO guide presents a warrant for business case analysis
its unique contribution is a well-developed strategy for assessing the effectiveness of a
business case and the compilation of current practices across the states Readers of the NASCIO guide have the opportunity to review many frameworks and tools sets for a model
that will support their environments and issues as well as an extensive reference list
The NASCIO guide offers examples of business cases and IT investment analysis
processes from as many states as possible The VMM guide devotes most of its space to a
comprehensive risk and cost alternative analysis The Smart IT guide focuses its presentation
on a set of tools and techniquesmdasha toolkit of sort and on the introduction of an analytical
framework to which public managers can apply appropriate tools from the toolkit The
Canadian guide provides the reader with a comprehensive overview targeted and actionable
summaries of activity within each step and unique among the guides providesrecommendations for the design of a project evaluation process
62 Building the research practice bridge
The selected guides were designed to build awareness of challenges to e-government
initiatives and to present useful strategies tools and techniques to overcome the challenges
The following section highlights the links between the research literature and the selected
guides through an analysis of each guide in terms of the four categories of challenges and
strategies derived from the literature review Several observations about the guides and
recommendations for future development of practitioner resources and for further research
into the relevance of research to practice are then provided (Tables 5 and 6)
621 Information and data factors
Research published in the public management literature related to the capture
organization management use and archiving of information and data appears to be limited
Coverage of the information and data challenges and the presentation of strategies related to
overcoming them is also limited The Canadian guide identifies initial data collection and
conversion of archival data as a cost category that must be taken into account when
considering the overall cost of an initiative Smart IT urges public managers to consider theinformation and data that a particular solution strategy depends on to be successful so that
cost and risk analysis can include any threats to access Other resources addressing these
factors are beginning to emerge from recent experiences with government information
integration initiatives These initiatives are providing new insights into the challenges posed
by information and data issues82 insights that need to be reflected in future practice guides
622 Information technology factors
In the case of information technology Canadarsquos guide addresses almost all the challenges
The risks section of the guide is based on research about software development done by theSoftware Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University83 All three tools discuss the
need for technical skills and expertise Two address the complexity of the technology used in
the project Two others address usefulness and ease of use as important elements
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 201
All of the guides speak to the challenges that stem from organizational and managerialrealities Each introduces the discussion of these challenges at a different level based on
their target audience and style The NASCIO guide speaks to organizational challenges
primarily at an enterprise level seeking to encourage CIOrsquos and other leaders to consider the
Table 5
E-government challenges address by selected tools
VMM CUBC BCBB MSIT
Information and data challenges
Information and data quality U
Information technology challenges
Security issues U U U
Technological incompatibility U U
Technology complexity U U
Technical skills andor expertise U U U
Technology newness U U
Organizational and managerial challenges
Project size and related complexity U U
Users or organizational diversity U
Lack of alignment between organizational
goals and IT project
U U
Multiple or conflicting goals U U
Resistance to change U
Turf and conflicts
Legal and regulatory challenges
Restrictive laws and regulations U U
One-year budget restrictions U
Potential intergovernmental relationships U U
Institutional and environmental challenges
Privacy concerns U
Institutional arrangements (eg autonomy of agencies) U
Competition or political pressures (eg timing) U U U
Identification of partners and their contributions U U U
Lessons from previous IT experiences U U U
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 202
strategic role of the enterprise The CUBC focuses more directly on initiative level
managerial challenges such as skills of the project leader planning as a management tool
and adequate funding VMM provides techniques for assessing the impact of organizationaland managerial risks such as a lack of alignment Further it provides techniques for testing
underlying assumptions about initiatives and for assessing the impact of incorrect
assumptions on an initiative plan Smart IT raises awareness about organizational and
managerial risks such as lack of attention to users a lack of alignment between initiative and
organizational goals and multiple and conflicting goals It provides techniques such as
structured service objectives visioning and a strategic framework for minimizing these
challenges All of these guides urge stakeholder involvement as a critical strategy for
overcoming organizational and managerial challenges
624 Legal and regulatory factors
Legal and regulatory challenges are well addressed in the guides The NASCIO guide
covers the topic of legal frameworks and provides guidance on reviewing governing policies
and regulations It advises public managers to be aware of regulatory frameworks in the
development of the IT initiatives Smart IT speaks to these challenges as well by providing
tools such as partisan analysis stakeholder analysis and news analysis Each guide presents a
discussion of the possible enabling and constraining influences of the regulatory environment
on e-government initiatives Managers are urged for example to carefully consider security
policies that restrict or facilitate infrastructure expansion efforts
625 Institutional and environmental factors
Challenges stemming from environmental realities and institutional practices are identified
in each the four selected guides Timing in particular is presented as a strategy for
overcoming some of the environmental and institutional challenges The NASCIO Guide for
example encourages public managers to understand the impact of election cycles on their
initiatives Smart IT also speaks to these environmental challenges and adds in the one-year
budgetary cycles of government and its challenges to multi-year multi-institutional IT
initiatives The NASCIO guide the Canadian Treasury Board guide and the Smart IT guide
speak to the need to scan the economic and political environments and to carefully choose thebtiming Q of the IT initiative Smart IT provides a number of tools and techniques for
increasing awareness environmental and institutional factors and their influence
7 Final comments and recommendations
Understanding and reducing risk in e-government initiatives is a high priority for both
researchers and practitioners One consequence of attention to risk is that organizations both
public and private are increasing their investments in standard tools for planning and managingIT initiatives This study has sought to examine whether the tools available to practitioners
benefit from research in IS We believe the answer is bYes Q Increasingly practical guides are
urging practitioners to think beyond technology to think about bsystems in context Q 84
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 204
Our comparison of selected research findings and practical guides has provided insight into
the extent to which research is reflected in guides to inform practice The analysis highlighted
the particular characteristics of the guides and provided a general review of the extent towhich these guides ref lect cur rent research Five observations about the key commonalties
among the guides (see Table 7) and four recommendations for future efforts in both research
and practice also emerged from the analysis
The four recommendations derived from the analysis of gaps between current research and
the guides are provided to inform both future IS research and practical guide development
efforts This work also informs future efforts to conduct further empirical studies of the
impact of research on the focus and content of e-government investment decision making
tools in international national state and local governments
71 Characterize risk in context
The guides introduce the concept of risk and speak to the need to identify and invest in
strategies to manage risk Risk as a concept receives very thorough treatment however
challenges tend to be characterized in general terms A more thorough characterization of the
specific risks to specific kinds of initiatives would complement the presentation of risk
identification and analysis strategies Practitioners would be more aware of the potential risks
they face and could consider the analytic methodologies in terms of a set of likely risks given
the context of a particular initiative
72 Build understanding of information and data challenges
The impact of information and data challenges such as inconsistent data structures semantic
issues and incomplete data on the success of e-government initiatives need to be explored
further in research and presented more thoroughly in practitioner guides The success of e-
government initiatives involving multi-agency information sharing and integration such as
homeland security and public health depend on greater understanding of these challenges
Table 7
Key commonalities of selected E-government practitioner guides
1 Risks sensitivities and contingencies tend to be undeveloped and that threatens the credibility of IS
initiatives (NASCIO 2003)
2 The iterative process of information gathering analysis and decision making is central to the effort to
build understanding of problems solutions alternatives costs and risks
3 Investment analysis and business case documents are living documents and if maintained and updated over
time can provide guidance to teams throughout an initiative and beyond
4 Contextualizing technology solutions is critical to success b No one size fits all Q is the underlying theme
throughout each of the guides Finding out what size does fit in which situation is the goal each guide setsout to achieve
5 Contingency thinking is necessary for planning and preparation for unexpected consequences and changes
in the bvalue cost and risk Q determinations
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 205
73 Build a business case for business case analysis
Empirical support for the investment in business case and investment analysis is lacking Theguides present common-sense rationales for using business case strategies Some outline the
necessary elements The NASCIO guide outlines a set of key value indicators for a sound business
case The Smart IT Guide is illustrated throughout with excerpts from a business case However a
robust empirical base for particular business case strategies within particular environments and
contexts would provide public managers with a more informed roadmap for their efforts
74 Explore the impact of contingency thinking in project planning and management
The guides generally focus on the how-to of investment analysis and business casedevelopment Future guides need to continue to enhance the capability of public managers to
identify influence and act on the dynamic set of contingencies that influence information
technology initiatives Project management training for IT managers for example can
contribute as well to the ability of government managers to understand and prepare for the
dynamic environment of e-government initiatives
Governments at all levels have invested in the development of guides and handbooks to
raise awareness of the challenges facing IT initiatives These practical guides are providing a
bridge between knowledge gained through research in information systems public
administration political science organization theory and management and the knowledge
gained by practitioners participating in and leading these technology initiatives These
resources provide an opportunity when developed with full knowledge of current research and
practice to build awareness about these challenges and to provide tools and techniques that can
lead to success This study supports the conclusion that although practitioners may not read IS
research directly this research is finding its way at least recently onto their desktops and into
their briefcases and presumably into their IT initiatives through the pages of research-aware
practical guides reference tools and handbooks Further empirical work focusing on the extent
to which practitioners are using these and similar guides and the nature of that use is called for
Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank Sharon Dawes Terry Maxwell Anthony Cresswell and Luis
Luna-Reyes for their valuable comments in early versions of this paper Any mistakes or
omissions are the sole responsibility of the authors
Appendix A Bibliography included in Tables 1 and 2
Ambite J L et al (2002) Data integration and access In W J McIver amp A K
Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government Technology Human Factors and
Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic Publishers
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 206
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems
In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government
Technology Human Factors and Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic PublishersDeLone W amp Mclean E (1992) Information systems success The quest for the
dependent variable Information Systems Research 3(1) 60ndash95
DeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean Model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30
Duncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public
Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group
PublishingEdmiston K D (2003) State and local e-government Prospects and challenges
American Review of Public Administration 33(1) 20ndash45
Flowers S (1996) Software failure Management failure Amazing Stories and
Cautionary Tales New York Wiley
Fountain J E (2001) Building the Virtual State Information Technology and Institutional
Change Washington DC Brookings Institution Press
Gagnon Y -C (2001) The behavior of public managers in adopting new technologies
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(4) 337ndash350
Garson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for publicadministration In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and
Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
Harris N D (2000) Intergovernmental cooperation in the development and use of
information systems In G D Garson (Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New
York Marcel Dekker Inc
Heintze T amp Bretschneider S (2000) Information technology and restructuring in public
organizations Does adoption of information technology affect organizational structures
communications and decision making Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 10(4) 801ndash830
Ho A T -K (2002) Reinventing local governments and the e-government initiative
Public Administration Review 62(4) 434ndash444
Holden S H Norris D F amp Fletcher P D (2003) Electronic government at the local
level Progress to date and future issues Public Performance and Management Review
26 (4) 325ndash344
Irvine C E (2000) Security issues for automated information systems In G D Garson
(Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New York Marcel Dekker Inc
Jiang J amp Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation success
factors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 208
Rocheleau B (2000) Prescriptions for public-sector information management A review
analysis and critique American Review of Public Administration 30(4) 414ndash435
Rocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systemsIn G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues
Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Roy J (2003) The relational dynamics of e-governance A case study of the City of
Ottawa Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 391ndash403
Smith L D Campbell J F Subramanian A Bird D A amp Nelson A C (2001)
Strategic planning for municipal information systems Some lessons from a large US City
American Review of Public Administration 31(2) 139ndash157
Tayi G K amp Ballou D P (1998) Examining data quality Communications of the ACM
41(2) 54ndash56Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
West J P amp Berman E M (2001) The impact of revitalized management practices
on the adoption of information technology A national survey of local governments
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(3) 233ndash253
Notes and References
1 Gil-Garcıa J Ramon amp Luna-Reyes Luis F (2003) Towards a definition of electronicgovernment A comparative review In Mendez-Vilas A et al (Eds) Techno-legal
aspects of information society and new economy An overview Extremadura Spain7
Formatex Information Society Series
2 Best J D (1997) The Digital Organization New York 7 Wiley
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems In
W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in digital government Technology
human factors and policy Norwell MA7 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Landsbergen D J amp Wolken Jr G (1998 October) Eliminating Legal and
Policy Barriers to Interoperable Government Systems Paper presented at theannual research conference of the association for public policy analysis and
management New York
3 Bellamy C (2000) The politics of public information systems In G D Garson (Ed)
Handbook of Public Information Systems New York 7 Marcel Dekker IncDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed)
Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
PublishingMilner E M (2000) Managing Information and Knowledge in the Public Sector New
York 7 RoutledgeRocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systems
In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management
Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group Publishing
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 210
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
Second the research identified and described a set of tools used for government IT
initiatives These tools were selected based on their visibility and central role in informing
practitioners at the national level in the United States and Canada and at the state level withinthe United States The review and description of the tools was selective and based on sections
that explicitly deal with IT risks and success factors Third a comparison of the factors
against the selective descriptions was conducted This comparison focused on four categories
of challenges and strategies found in the IS success literature Fourth an identification of the
gaps between the research and the practical tools is presented and discussed
4 E-government challenges and success strategies a review of the literature
A number of disciplines have invested in efforts to build understanding of the challenges in
information technology initiatives Research focused on technology management policy
information and organizational issues have all contributed to knowledge about these
challenges12
Simultaneously government practitioners have worked to improve their chances for
success by developing and adopting multiple and sometimes interrelated strategies for
responding to challenges to their IT initiatives The research community too has continued to
invest in research into the success of IT initiatives Practitioner and research efforts are
moving beyond a view of technology as the primary determinant of success and are seeking
more broadly based and sophisticated understanding of the interaction among technology
organizations and environments
41 Challenges to e-government initiatives
Although there is no single list of challenges to e-government initiatives notable
consistencies exist across the disciplines These consistent challenges are organized here as
primary challenges to e-government as information systems in context (see Table 1) The
primary challenges are grouped into five categories according to their core aspect (1)
information and data (2) information technology (3) organizational and managerial (4) legaland regulatory and (5) institutional and environmental
411 Information and data challenges
E-government initiatives are about the capture management use dissemination and
sharing of information A number of the challenges relate to the information that is at the core
of e-government initiatives Redman13 Kaplan et al14 and Ballou and Tayi15 are among the
many scientists who focus their research on data quality and data accuracy issues According to
Redman16 data quality problems include inaccuracies inconsistencies and incompleteness of
data Kaplan et al
17
emphasize that data quality is very important not only for intraorganiza-tional usage but also for reports to different stakeholders In addition Tayi and Ballou18
identify the lack of appropriate data as a further challenge to IT initiatives In this regard it is
important to understand the challenges of using bhard Q legacy data for decision support
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 190
systems when the decision process calls for bsoft Q data Dawes19 and Ambite et al20 address
how poor results in projects emerge from problems with data structures and data definitions
Overall Brown21 cautions us against taking information quality problems for granted
412 Information technology challenges
System usability and ease of use are important factors to consider22 Technology
incompatibility has also been identified as one difficult challenge to IT-intensive projects
23
Systems that are very different and sometimes very old increase the complexity of IT projects
especially information integration initiatives24 Complexity and newness of technology are
also constraints that can potentially affect the results of IT projects25 The lack of relevant
technical skills within the project team has been found to be an important factor 26 as well as the
shortages of qualified technical personnel27 Legacy systems present additional challenges28
For example Duchessi and Chengalur-Smith29 reported conversion of mainframe applications
as one of the problems associated with implementing clientserver technology
413 Organizational and managerial challenges
Undoubtedly the size of the project and the diversity of the users and organizationsinvolved are two of the main challenges to IT initiatives30 There are at least two other
problems related to the goals and objectives of initiatives The first is the lack of alignment
between organizational goals and the IT project31 In addition Dawes and Pardo32 identified
the existence of multiple and sometimes conflicting goals in the public sector as an
additional interorganizational challenge Finally individual interests and associated behaviors
lead to resistance to change internal conflicts and turf issues33
414 Legal and regulatory challenges
Most of the time government organizations are created and operate by virtue of a specificformal rule or group of rules In making any kind of decision including those in IT projects
public managers must take into account a large number of restrictive laws and regulations34
For example government agencies must often contend with one-year budget cycles One-year
Challenge category(s) Challenge Authors
Institutional and
environmental
Privacy concerns Andersen and Dawes 1991 Caffrey 1998 Milner
2000 Joshi et al 2002 Moon 2002 Duncan and
Roehrig 2003 Edmiston 2003 Holden et al 2003
Autonomy of agencies Dawes 1996 Caffrey 1998 Fountain 2001
Landsberg and Wolken 2001 Dawes and Pardo 2002
Policy and political pressures Bajjaly 1999 Heintze and Bretschneider 2000
Mahler and Regan 2002 Brown and Brudney
2003 Edmiston 2003 Rocheleau 2003 Roy 2003
Environmental context
(social economic demographic)
Heintze and Bretschneider 2000 Ho 2002 La Porte
et al 2002 Brown and Brudney 2003 Edmiston
2003 Holden et al 2003
Source Adapted and expanded from Jiang J and Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project
effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Table 1 (continued )
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 192
budgets are common in many national and state governments and this type of budgeting
affects the potential results of long-term IT initiatives35 Federal systems as in the United
States present additional challenges derived from the particularities of the relationships between different levels of governments and the formal checks and balances among the
executive legislative and judicial branches36
415 Institutional and environmental challenges
There are additional challenges related to a more general instit utional framework and the
policy environment in which government organizations operate37 In this context institutions
are not only laws and regulations but also norms actions or behaviors that people accept as
good or take for granted38 Privacy and related security issues are challenges that must be
adequately addressed in government IT initiatives39
The United States legal framework doesnot mention bagency autonomy Q However government agencies and programs often act as
independent and autonomous units without taking into account what other public
organizations are doing (stove pipes) This situation can constrain efforts to use technology
to integrate or share information across multiple agencies40 Finally ext ernal pressures such
as policy agendas and politics may affect the results of IT initiatives41
The above discussion highlights the range of highly complex and diverse challenges public
managers must face as they work in the e-government arena Success is not only about
selecting the right technology but also about managing organizational capabilities regulatory
constraints and environmental pressures For e-government managers to be successful intheir initiatives they must be aware of these challenges and use appropriate strategies to
overcome them
42 Success strategies for e-government initiatives
A set of strategies for achieving success in e-government initiatives drawn from the
literature can be mapped onto the five challenge categories Mapping the strategies to the
challenge categories illustrates the degree of correspondence in the research itself between
challenges and possible strategies for meeting those challenges (Table 2)
421 Information and data strategies
Dealing with information and data challenges requires an overall plan for managing data
and information products42 A quality and compliance assurance program is an effective
strategy for dealing with information and data challenges43 Developing appropriate data
structures and definitions is critical to the success of IT initiatives in particular in
interorganizational initiatives The challenge in this area stems not only from gaining
agreement that these are necessary but also from engaging the necessary partners in the
development and adoption of common structures and standards44 Managers have attempted
to minimize data-related problems by sharing standards definitions and meta-data with their potential partners Getting continual feedback from users is also an important strategy to
maintain data quality45 Overall having good quality and homogenous information seems to
be an important success factor46
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 193
Two technology-related factors that can promote the success of information systems are
system usefulness and ease of use47 Due to the relative complexity and newness of some
technologies a strategy for responding to information technology-related challenges is to
organize presentations about the technologies to build awareness and to focus early efforts on
developing system and process prototypes48 Strong technical skills and expertise in the
hands of the project leader and some team members is critical49 It is also important to take
into consideration potential shortages of qualified technical staff and an incremental approach
can help in dealing with this problem50
423 Organizational and managerial strategies
Establishing clear and realistic goals is an important factor in the success of IT initiatives51
Identifying relevant stakeholders and getting them involved in the project development
process specially end-users has also been found to be an effective strategy in overcoming
organizational and managerial challenges52 Strategic planning techniques can be seen as an
umbrella for more specific strategies such as clear milestones and measurable deliverables53
good communication channels54 and previous business process improvement55 It is alsoextremely important to take care of developers and end-users current skills and training
needs56 Successful projects need a balanced combination of technical managerial and
political skills and expertise among their members57 Finally financial resources are not
always the most important factor but are necessary Often managers need to develop
innovative financial schemes and partnerships to get e-government initiatives off the ground58
424 Legal and regulatory strategies
Restrictive laws and regulations developed prior to or in ignorance of technologies relevant
to e-government can affect the success of projects One strategy for responding to thesechallenges is to invest in changes to the regulatory environment that allow for or enable
adoption of emerging technologies59 Digital signature technologies for example required
statutory changes in most jurisdictions before they could be adopted for use Developing
Challenge category Key success strategy Source
Legal and regulatory Information technology
policies and standards
Andersen and Dawes 1991 Dawes and
Nelson 1995 Caffrey 1998 Milner 2000
Barret and Green 2001 Landsberg and Wolken
2001 Garson 2003 Kim and Kim 2003
Environmental or
institutional
Executive leadership or
sponsorship
Barki et al 1993 Jiang et al 1996 Brown
2000 Brown 2001 Landsberg and Wolken
2001 Edmiston 2003 Garson 2003 Mahler
and Regan 2003 Roy 2003
Legislative support Caffrey 1998
Strategic outsourcing and
publicprivate partnerships
Brown and Brudney 1998 Barret and Green
2001 Chen and Perry 2003 Edmiston 2003
Garson 2003 Melitski 2003 Roy 2003
Table 2 (continued )
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 195
formulate manage and maintain the portfolio of initiatives to ensure that investments made in
IT yield the anticipated benefit Q to members of the federal information technology community
The Value Measuring Methodology (VMM) How-To-Guide builds on the prior work of two efforts in particular In 2001 the Social Security Administration (SSA) in cooperation
with the General Services Administration (GSA) began to develop a methodology to asses
the value of electronic services Their goal was to produce a tool that that would be
bcompliant with current Federal regulations and OMB guidance applicable across the Federal
Government and pragmatically focused on implementation Q 66 In addition a team from Booz
Allen Hamilton and the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard was asked to conduct a
related study That report based on interviews with a variety of professionals in the field as
well as the private sector and the academic community presented the first version of the
VMM its supporting theories and philosophy Since the initial release VMM has beenapplied and refined into its current form
VMM like the methodologies and frameworks presented in the other guides calls for the
inclusion of a broad set of stakeholders affected by the initiative including direct users and
government partners The warrant for this guide was the gap between current tools and the
bneed for a more thorough and rigorous analytical approach to investment evaluation
planning and management Q 67 VMM is positioned as responding to this need by providing a
bcomprehensive and quantitative way to capture the impact that possible investment
alternatives would have on each of these parties Q 68 The methodology is designed in particular
to focus analysis on the value cost and risk baseline for any initiative changes to those baseline measures over time and the implications of those changes
The VMM How-To-Guide is organized into eight sections The Essential Factors
Framework of value cost and risk the foundation of VMM is introduced in Section 3
together with a discussion of the value gained from using the VMM methodology to analyze
e-government and other initiatives Section 4 presents an overview of the four steps of the
VMM Section 5 provides a comprehensive step-by-step presentation of the techniques and
tools of VMM as well as a discussion of the resources necessary to complete a VMM
analysis key concepts and real-life lessons from past implementations and some best
practices observations
52 Creating and using a business case for information technology projects69
This guide was issued by the Project Management Office Chief Information Officer
Branch of the Treasury Board of Canada The production of the guide was organized through
the Project Management Office and was staffed with volunteer members of a working group
as well as many additional volunteers who wrote reviewed and contributed to the guide A
member of the working group was acknowledged for directing the effort and coordinating the
participation of others
According to its statement of purpose this guide developed by public service managers for their colleagues boffers a blueprint that managers can use to build the business cases needed
to make informed investment decisions Q 70 The Canadian guide is organized around two
consistent themes The first is that a b business case is the key element of front-end planning
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 197
and sets the stage for the management of the project and for the achievement of the planned
benefit Q 71 It is considered an bindispensable first activity in the life cycle of an IT
investment Q 72 and when bcorrectly used can serve as a management framework for theinitiative Q 73 The second theme is that no one size fits all Public managers are urged to use
the business case development process to put their decisions into a bstrategic context Q
This guide exists within a larger set of guidance from the Treasury Board The guide
consistently points the reader back to the larger context of governing IT policies as well as the
official Treasury Board framework for managing IT projects Specifically wherever
appropriate the reader is directed to relevant text in the Treasury Boardrsquos Management of
Information Technology Policy and their An Enhanced Framework for the Management of
Information Technology Projects
This tool is structured for use as both a source book and a road map through the ITinvestment process for public managers The introduction also positions it as a tool to
bintroduce other stakeholders to the framework that shapes the decision-making model Q 74
The five central chapters of the guide introduce the framework for examining the
environment and seeking insight about the specific barriers risks and benefits of each
solution alternative being examined The next two chapters focus on customizing the case for
specific audiencesmdashagain stressing the idea that no one size or focus of presentation fits all
audiences Chapter 10 focuses on tips and techniques for designing and managing ongoing
project reviews Finally the appendix introduces Logical Framework Analysis a dynamic
technique for planning communicating and controlling project elements
53 Business case basics and beyond a primer on state government IT business cases 75
This guide was produced by the National Association of Chief Information Officers
(NASCIO) A primary author from the practitioner community worked together with the
NASCIO Executive Committee to write the guide Feedback was also provided by NASCIOrsquos
customer relationship management committee and a range of government practitioners and
private sector and academic partners Thirty-eight people from state and federal governments
and fourteen individuals from associations academic institutions and the private sector were
acknowledged for their contributionsThe guide addresses the emerging trend of business case use being broadened beyond the
analysis of one project to identify the benefits of whole programs such as data center
consolidation and Y2K This guide identifies a review of current practitioner literature on IT
business cases as the source of a framework for an enterprise business case It also presents a
discussion of the current challenges state governments in particular are facing in their e-
government initiatives and meeting the policy and service goals of their Governors The
NASCIO guide provides btools concepts and a framework for addressing a number of critical
challenges facing state Governors chief information officers and enterprise information
technology organizations Q 76
It has three main purposes (1) provide the basics on State IT business cases (2) push beyond the bBasics to Use the Business Case to Address the
Challenges of Fiscal Years 2004 and 2005 Q 77 and (3) embrace a statewide enterprise IT
investment management infrastructure It contains four different types of information for
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 198
public managers (1) business case basics (2) public sector approaches to business cases and
examples (3) resources and contacts and (4) suggested solutions to some of the challenges
One of the unique contributions of this guide is its specific discussion and treatment of anenterprise business case as separate and unique from a business case for a specific project It
also speaks to the value of technology in the business of government
54 Making smart IT choices78
This two-part guide available in print and online was produced by The Center for
Technology in Government an applied research center at the University at Albany SUNY The
Center formulated the Smart IT methodology through its work with government agencies in
projects where information strategies are applied to the challenges of public service deliveryAccording to its introduction this guide was designed to help public managers and
government organizations bmake good decisions about when and how to invest in information
technology (IT) Q 79 Put another way it was designed to bhelp public managers avoid becoming
one of the statistics that dominate reports on information technology investments Q 80
Smart IT is organized around a short list of basic issues and principles The problematic
and expensive nature of IT decisions and the high failure rates which result from hasty
unrealistic or uninformed decisions provide the basic issues framework The principles that
guide the analytical strategy of Smart IT are that public managers must identify and listen to
stakeholders they must understand what constitutes success for their initiative and they must
pursue it and form must follow function The three phase process involves the use of
analytical tools and techniques to first understand the problem and its context second
identify and test solutions and third evaluate alternatives and make choices A wide range of
tools is introduced as well as a way of understanding how each tool might best be employed
in the development of a business case within a particular economic policy organizational
managerial process and technology context
Part 1 has four chapters and begins by considering the special characteristics of the public
sector as an environment for making management decisions and IT choices In the second
chapter the analytical process that accounts for program goals stakeholders processes costs
and technology alternatives is presented Mini case examples are provided throughoutChapters 3 and 4 focus on turning the analysis into a business case and presenting it to various
audiences Part 2 presents 33 skills techniques and tools to use in the analytical process
6 Mapping practical tools to theoretical foundations
The four selected guides are very different in their genesis and designmdashyet they all present
analysis and planning frameworks that can apply both to specific IT initiatives and more
broadly to enterprise IT strategic planning They all represent the best ideas of leading practitioners and academics in this area The NASCIO guide expressed the warrant that all
four guides seem to be responding tomdashthat in IT business cases brisks sensitivities and
contingencies tend to be undeveloped and contribute to lowered credibility Q 81
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 199
61 A brief comparative analysis of the selected guides
All four guides were produced through collaborative efforts of the public private andacademic communities (Table 4) The NASCIO VMM and the CUBC guides were produced
with a governmental sponsor and a range of volunteer expert participants In each situation
the need for the guide emerged from the ranks and was responded to by a coordinating group
or professional association The Smart IT Guide was produced through a different strategymdash
by practice-oriented researchers drawing on their experiences working directly with
government agencies in developing IT initiatives Nonetheless there is notable consistency
in the messages they deliver
All of the guides stress contingency thinking heavily investing in upfront or what CTG
calls b before the beginning Q
analysis collaborative management models inclusion of IT and business stakeholders and the value of iterative analytical processes The impact that a dwell-
doneT business case can have in the ongoing design development implementation and
review of an e-government initiative is also acknowledged in all four guides
The guides vary considerably in their recommendations of specific tools and techniques to
carry out a business case analysis The Canadian guide and the VMM link the analytical
framework very closely to a specific tool Smart IT presents an analytical framework and
links steps in the analysis to a group of tools from which public managers can choose The
guides vary in their links between recommended actions and the specific issue or challenge
likely to be overcome by that particular action Smart IT in particular tends to link analysis to
the challenge addressed so that practitioners can anticipate which tools or techniques will
Table 4
Selected tools development strategy and focus
Tool Development strategy Focus
Value Measuring
Methodology
Best Practices Committee of the
Federal CIO Council built on
previous related efforts of the
committee Refined in use at
several federal agencies
The guides provide a particular
methodology for evaluating and
selecting initiatives based on ongoing
value cost and risk determinations
Creating and
Using a Business
Case for Information
Technology Projects
Developed by public service
managers for their colleagues
The guide offers a blueprint that
managers can use to build the business
cases needed to make informed
investment decisions
NASCIO Business
Case Primer
Single author broadly based
review committee
The primer provides tools concepts
and a framework for addressing a
number of critical challenges facing
state Governors CIOs and enterprise
information technology organizations
Making Smart
IT Choices
Developed by an applied research
center based on experiences inworking with government agencies
This guide provides concepts techniques
and tools to help organizations define aninformation technology project and make
a solid case for needed financial and
organizational investments
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 200
impact which challenges The NASCIO guide presents a warrant for business case analysis
its unique contribution is a well-developed strategy for assessing the effectiveness of a
business case and the compilation of current practices across the states Readers of the NASCIO guide have the opportunity to review many frameworks and tools sets for a model
that will support their environments and issues as well as an extensive reference list
The NASCIO guide offers examples of business cases and IT investment analysis
processes from as many states as possible The VMM guide devotes most of its space to a
comprehensive risk and cost alternative analysis The Smart IT guide focuses its presentation
on a set of tools and techniquesmdasha toolkit of sort and on the introduction of an analytical
framework to which public managers can apply appropriate tools from the toolkit The
Canadian guide provides the reader with a comprehensive overview targeted and actionable
summaries of activity within each step and unique among the guides providesrecommendations for the design of a project evaluation process
62 Building the research practice bridge
The selected guides were designed to build awareness of challenges to e-government
initiatives and to present useful strategies tools and techniques to overcome the challenges
The following section highlights the links between the research literature and the selected
guides through an analysis of each guide in terms of the four categories of challenges and
strategies derived from the literature review Several observations about the guides and
recommendations for future development of practitioner resources and for further research
into the relevance of research to practice are then provided (Tables 5 and 6)
621 Information and data factors
Research published in the public management literature related to the capture
organization management use and archiving of information and data appears to be limited
Coverage of the information and data challenges and the presentation of strategies related to
overcoming them is also limited The Canadian guide identifies initial data collection and
conversion of archival data as a cost category that must be taken into account when
considering the overall cost of an initiative Smart IT urges public managers to consider theinformation and data that a particular solution strategy depends on to be successful so that
cost and risk analysis can include any threats to access Other resources addressing these
factors are beginning to emerge from recent experiences with government information
integration initiatives These initiatives are providing new insights into the challenges posed
by information and data issues82 insights that need to be reflected in future practice guides
622 Information technology factors
In the case of information technology Canadarsquos guide addresses almost all the challenges
The risks section of the guide is based on research about software development done by theSoftware Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University83 All three tools discuss the
need for technical skills and expertise Two address the complexity of the technology used in
the project Two others address usefulness and ease of use as important elements
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 201
All of the guides speak to the challenges that stem from organizational and managerialrealities Each introduces the discussion of these challenges at a different level based on
their target audience and style The NASCIO guide speaks to organizational challenges
primarily at an enterprise level seeking to encourage CIOrsquos and other leaders to consider the
Table 5
E-government challenges address by selected tools
VMM CUBC BCBB MSIT
Information and data challenges
Information and data quality U
Information technology challenges
Security issues U U U
Technological incompatibility U U
Technology complexity U U
Technical skills andor expertise U U U
Technology newness U U
Organizational and managerial challenges
Project size and related complexity U U
Users or organizational diversity U
Lack of alignment between organizational
goals and IT project
U U
Multiple or conflicting goals U U
Resistance to change U
Turf and conflicts
Legal and regulatory challenges
Restrictive laws and regulations U U
One-year budget restrictions U
Potential intergovernmental relationships U U
Institutional and environmental challenges
Privacy concerns U
Institutional arrangements (eg autonomy of agencies) U
Competition or political pressures (eg timing) U U U
Identification of partners and their contributions U U U
Lessons from previous IT experiences U U U
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 202
strategic role of the enterprise The CUBC focuses more directly on initiative level
managerial challenges such as skills of the project leader planning as a management tool
and adequate funding VMM provides techniques for assessing the impact of organizationaland managerial risks such as a lack of alignment Further it provides techniques for testing
underlying assumptions about initiatives and for assessing the impact of incorrect
assumptions on an initiative plan Smart IT raises awareness about organizational and
managerial risks such as lack of attention to users a lack of alignment between initiative and
organizational goals and multiple and conflicting goals It provides techniques such as
structured service objectives visioning and a strategic framework for minimizing these
challenges All of these guides urge stakeholder involvement as a critical strategy for
overcoming organizational and managerial challenges
624 Legal and regulatory factors
Legal and regulatory challenges are well addressed in the guides The NASCIO guide
covers the topic of legal frameworks and provides guidance on reviewing governing policies
and regulations It advises public managers to be aware of regulatory frameworks in the
development of the IT initiatives Smart IT speaks to these challenges as well by providing
tools such as partisan analysis stakeholder analysis and news analysis Each guide presents a
discussion of the possible enabling and constraining influences of the regulatory environment
on e-government initiatives Managers are urged for example to carefully consider security
policies that restrict or facilitate infrastructure expansion efforts
625 Institutional and environmental factors
Challenges stemming from environmental realities and institutional practices are identified
in each the four selected guides Timing in particular is presented as a strategy for
overcoming some of the environmental and institutional challenges The NASCIO Guide for
example encourages public managers to understand the impact of election cycles on their
initiatives Smart IT also speaks to these environmental challenges and adds in the one-year
budgetary cycles of government and its challenges to multi-year multi-institutional IT
initiatives The NASCIO guide the Canadian Treasury Board guide and the Smart IT guide
speak to the need to scan the economic and political environments and to carefully choose thebtiming Q of the IT initiative Smart IT provides a number of tools and techniques for
increasing awareness environmental and institutional factors and their influence
7 Final comments and recommendations
Understanding and reducing risk in e-government initiatives is a high priority for both
researchers and practitioners One consequence of attention to risk is that organizations both
public and private are increasing their investments in standard tools for planning and managingIT initiatives This study has sought to examine whether the tools available to practitioners
benefit from research in IS We believe the answer is bYes Q Increasingly practical guides are
urging practitioners to think beyond technology to think about bsystems in context Q 84
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 204
Our comparison of selected research findings and practical guides has provided insight into
the extent to which research is reflected in guides to inform practice The analysis highlighted
the particular characteristics of the guides and provided a general review of the extent towhich these guides ref lect cur rent research Five observations about the key commonalties
among the guides (see Table 7) and four recommendations for future efforts in both research
and practice also emerged from the analysis
The four recommendations derived from the analysis of gaps between current research and
the guides are provided to inform both future IS research and practical guide development
efforts This work also informs future efforts to conduct further empirical studies of the
impact of research on the focus and content of e-government investment decision making
tools in international national state and local governments
71 Characterize risk in context
The guides introduce the concept of risk and speak to the need to identify and invest in
strategies to manage risk Risk as a concept receives very thorough treatment however
challenges tend to be characterized in general terms A more thorough characterization of the
specific risks to specific kinds of initiatives would complement the presentation of risk
identification and analysis strategies Practitioners would be more aware of the potential risks
they face and could consider the analytic methodologies in terms of a set of likely risks given
the context of a particular initiative
72 Build understanding of information and data challenges
The impact of information and data challenges such as inconsistent data structures semantic
issues and incomplete data on the success of e-government initiatives need to be explored
further in research and presented more thoroughly in practitioner guides The success of e-
government initiatives involving multi-agency information sharing and integration such as
homeland security and public health depend on greater understanding of these challenges
Table 7
Key commonalities of selected E-government practitioner guides
1 Risks sensitivities and contingencies tend to be undeveloped and that threatens the credibility of IS
initiatives (NASCIO 2003)
2 The iterative process of information gathering analysis and decision making is central to the effort to
build understanding of problems solutions alternatives costs and risks
3 Investment analysis and business case documents are living documents and if maintained and updated over
time can provide guidance to teams throughout an initiative and beyond
4 Contextualizing technology solutions is critical to success b No one size fits all Q is the underlying theme
throughout each of the guides Finding out what size does fit in which situation is the goal each guide setsout to achieve
5 Contingency thinking is necessary for planning and preparation for unexpected consequences and changes
in the bvalue cost and risk Q determinations
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 205
73 Build a business case for business case analysis
Empirical support for the investment in business case and investment analysis is lacking Theguides present common-sense rationales for using business case strategies Some outline the
necessary elements The NASCIO guide outlines a set of key value indicators for a sound business
case The Smart IT Guide is illustrated throughout with excerpts from a business case However a
robust empirical base for particular business case strategies within particular environments and
contexts would provide public managers with a more informed roadmap for their efforts
74 Explore the impact of contingency thinking in project planning and management
The guides generally focus on the how-to of investment analysis and business casedevelopment Future guides need to continue to enhance the capability of public managers to
identify influence and act on the dynamic set of contingencies that influence information
technology initiatives Project management training for IT managers for example can
contribute as well to the ability of government managers to understand and prepare for the
dynamic environment of e-government initiatives
Governments at all levels have invested in the development of guides and handbooks to
raise awareness of the challenges facing IT initiatives These practical guides are providing a
bridge between knowledge gained through research in information systems public
administration political science organization theory and management and the knowledge
gained by practitioners participating in and leading these technology initiatives These
resources provide an opportunity when developed with full knowledge of current research and
practice to build awareness about these challenges and to provide tools and techniques that can
lead to success This study supports the conclusion that although practitioners may not read IS
research directly this research is finding its way at least recently onto their desktops and into
their briefcases and presumably into their IT initiatives through the pages of research-aware
practical guides reference tools and handbooks Further empirical work focusing on the extent
to which practitioners are using these and similar guides and the nature of that use is called for
Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank Sharon Dawes Terry Maxwell Anthony Cresswell and Luis
Luna-Reyes for their valuable comments in early versions of this paper Any mistakes or
omissions are the sole responsibility of the authors
Appendix A Bibliography included in Tables 1 and 2
Ambite J L et al (2002) Data integration and access In W J McIver amp A K
Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government Technology Human Factors and
Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic Publishers
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 206
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems
In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government
Technology Human Factors and Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic PublishersDeLone W amp Mclean E (1992) Information systems success The quest for the
dependent variable Information Systems Research 3(1) 60ndash95
DeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean Model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30
Duncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public
Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group
PublishingEdmiston K D (2003) State and local e-government Prospects and challenges
American Review of Public Administration 33(1) 20ndash45
Flowers S (1996) Software failure Management failure Amazing Stories and
Cautionary Tales New York Wiley
Fountain J E (2001) Building the Virtual State Information Technology and Institutional
Change Washington DC Brookings Institution Press
Gagnon Y -C (2001) The behavior of public managers in adopting new technologies
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(4) 337ndash350
Garson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for publicadministration In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and
Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
Harris N D (2000) Intergovernmental cooperation in the development and use of
information systems In G D Garson (Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New
York Marcel Dekker Inc
Heintze T amp Bretschneider S (2000) Information technology and restructuring in public
organizations Does adoption of information technology affect organizational structures
communications and decision making Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 10(4) 801ndash830
Ho A T -K (2002) Reinventing local governments and the e-government initiative
Public Administration Review 62(4) 434ndash444
Holden S H Norris D F amp Fletcher P D (2003) Electronic government at the local
level Progress to date and future issues Public Performance and Management Review
26 (4) 325ndash344
Irvine C E (2000) Security issues for automated information systems In G D Garson
(Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New York Marcel Dekker Inc
Jiang J amp Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation success
factors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 208
Rocheleau B (2000) Prescriptions for public-sector information management A review
analysis and critique American Review of Public Administration 30(4) 414ndash435
Rocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systemsIn G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues
Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Roy J (2003) The relational dynamics of e-governance A case study of the City of
Ottawa Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 391ndash403
Smith L D Campbell J F Subramanian A Bird D A amp Nelson A C (2001)
Strategic planning for municipal information systems Some lessons from a large US City
American Review of Public Administration 31(2) 139ndash157
Tayi G K amp Ballou D P (1998) Examining data quality Communications of the ACM
41(2) 54ndash56Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
West J P amp Berman E M (2001) The impact of revitalized management practices
on the adoption of information technology A national survey of local governments
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(3) 233ndash253
Notes and References
1 Gil-Garcıa J Ramon amp Luna-Reyes Luis F (2003) Towards a definition of electronicgovernment A comparative review In Mendez-Vilas A et al (Eds) Techno-legal
aspects of information society and new economy An overview Extremadura Spain7
Formatex Information Society Series
2 Best J D (1997) The Digital Organization New York 7 Wiley
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems In
W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in digital government Technology
human factors and policy Norwell MA7 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Landsbergen D J amp Wolken Jr G (1998 October) Eliminating Legal and
Policy Barriers to Interoperable Government Systems Paper presented at theannual research conference of the association for public policy analysis and
management New York
3 Bellamy C (2000) The politics of public information systems In G D Garson (Ed)
Handbook of Public Information Systems New York 7 Marcel Dekker IncDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed)
Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
PublishingMilner E M (2000) Managing Information and Knowledge in the Public Sector New
York 7 RoutledgeRocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systems
In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management
Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group Publishing
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 210
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
systems when the decision process calls for bsoft Q data Dawes19 and Ambite et al20 address
how poor results in projects emerge from problems with data structures and data definitions
Overall Brown21 cautions us against taking information quality problems for granted
412 Information technology challenges
System usability and ease of use are important factors to consider22 Technology
incompatibility has also been identified as one difficult challenge to IT-intensive projects
23
Systems that are very different and sometimes very old increase the complexity of IT projects
especially information integration initiatives24 Complexity and newness of technology are
also constraints that can potentially affect the results of IT projects25 The lack of relevant
technical skills within the project team has been found to be an important factor 26 as well as the
shortages of qualified technical personnel27 Legacy systems present additional challenges28
For example Duchessi and Chengalur-Smith29 reported conversion of mainframe applications
as one of the problems associated with implementing clientserver technology
413 Organizational and managerial challenges
Undoubtedly the size of the project and the diversity of the users and organizationsinvolved are two of the main challenges to IT initiatives30 There are at least two other
problems related to the goals and objectives of initiatives The first is the lack of alignment
between organizational goals and the IT project31 In addition Dawes and Pardo32 identified
the existence of multiple and sometimes conflicting goals in the public sector as an
additional interorganizational challenge Finally individual interests and associated behaviors
lead to resistance to change internal conflicts and turf issues33
414 Legal and regulatory challenges
Most of the time government organizations are created and operate by virtue of a specificformal rule or group of rules In making any kind of decision including those in IT projects
public managers must take into account a large number of restrictive laws and regulations34
For example government agencies must often contend with one-year budget cycles One-year
Challenge category(s) Challenge Authors
Institutional and
environmental
Privacy concerns Andersen and Dawes 1991 Caffrey 1998 Milner
2000 Joshi et al 2002 Moon 2002 Duncan and
Roehrig 2003 Edmiston 2003 Holden et al 2003
Autonomy of agencies Dawes 1996 Caffrey 1998 Fountain 2001
Landsberg and Wolken 2001 Dawes and Pardo 2002
Policy and political pressures Bajjaly 1999 Heintze and Bretschneider 2000
Mahler and Regan 2002 Brown and Brudney
2003 Edmiston 2003 Rocheleau 2003 Roy 2003
Environmental context
(social economic demographic)
Heintze and Bretschneider 2000 Ho 2002 La Porte
et al 2002 Brown and Brudney 2003 Edmiston
2003 Holden et al 2003
Source Adapted and expanded from Jiang J and Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project
effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Table 1 (continued )
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 192
budgets are common in many national and state governments and this type of budgeting
affects the potential results of long-term IT initiatives35 Federal systems as in the United
States present additional challenges derived from the particularities of the relationships between different levels of governments and the formal checks and balances among the
executive legislative and judicial branches36
415 Institutional and environmental challenges
There are additional challenges related to a more general instit utional framework and the
policy environment in which government organizations operate37 In this context institutions
are not only laws and regulations but also norms actions or behaviors that people accept as
good or take for granted38 Privacy and related security issues are challenges that must be
adequately addressed in government IT initiatives39
The United States legal framework doesnot mention bagency autonomy Q However government agencies and programs often act as
independent and autonomous units without taking into account what other public
organizations are doing (stove pipes) This situation can constrain efforts to use technology
to integrate or share information across multiple agencies40 Finally ext ernal pressures such
as policy agendas and politics may affect the results of IT initiatives41
The above discussion highlights the range of highly complex and diverse challenges public
managers must face as they work in the e-government arena Success is not only about
selecting the right technology but also about managing organizational capabilities regulatory
constraints and environmental pressures For e-government managers to be successful intheir initiatives they must be aware of these challenges and use appropriate strategies to
overcome them
42 Success strategies for e-government initiatives
A set of strategies for achieving success in e-government initiatives drawn from the
literature can be mapped onto the five challenge categories Mapping the strategies to the
challenge categories illustrates the degree of correspondence in the research itself between
challenges and possible strategies for meeting those challenges (Table 2)
421 Information and data strategies
Dealing with information and data challenges requires an overall plan for managing data
and information products42 A quality and compliance assurance program is an effective
strategy for dealing with information and data challenges43 Developing appropriate data
structures and definitions is critical to the success of IT initiatives in particular in
interorganizational initiatives The challenge in this area stems not only from gaining
agreement that these are necessary but also from engaging the necessary partners in the
development and adoption of common structures and standards44 Managers have attempted
to minimize data-related problems by sharing standards definitions and meta-data with their potential partners Getting continual feedback from users is also an important strategy to
maintain data quality45 Overall having good quality and homogenous information seems to
be an important success factor46
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 193
Two technology-related factors that can promote the success of information systems are
system usefulness and ease of use47 Due to the relative complexity and newness of some
technologies a strategy for responding to information technology-related challenges is to
organize presentations about the technologies to build awareness and to focus early efforts on
developing system and process prototypes48 Strong technical skills and expertise in the
hands of the project leader and some team members is critical49 It is also important to take
into consideration potential shortages of qualified technical staff and an incremental approach
can help in dealing with this problem50
423 Organizational and managerial strategies
Establishing clear and realistic goals is an important factor in the success of IT initiatives51
Identifying relevant stakeholders and getting them involved in the project development
process specially end-users has also been found to be an effective strategy in overcoming
organizational and managerial challenges52 Strategic planning techniques can be seen as an
umbrella for more specific strategies such as clear milestones and measurable deliverables53
good communication channels54 and previous business process improvement55 It is alsoextremely important to take care of developers and end-users current skills and training
needs56 Successful projects need a balanced combination of technical managerial and
political skills and expertise among their members57 Finally financial resources are not
always the most important factor but are necessary Often managers need to develop
innovative financial schemes and partnerships to get e-government initiatives off the ground58
424 Legal and regulatory strategies
Restrictive laws and regulations developed prior to or in ignorance of technologies relevant
to e-government can affect the success of projects One strategy for responding to thesechallenges is to invest in changes to the regulatory environment that allow for or enable
adoption of emerging technologies59 Digital signature technologies for example required
statutory changes in most jurisdictions before they could be adopted for use Developing
Challenge category Key success strategy Source
Legal and regulatory Information technology
policies and standards
Andersen and Dawes 1991 Dawes and
Nelson 1995 Caffrey 1998 Milner 2000
Barret and Green 2001 Landsberg and Wolken
2001 Garson 2003 Kim and Kim 2003
Environmental or
institutional
Executive leadership or
sponsorship
Barki et al 1993 Jiang et al 1996 Brown
2000 Brown 2001 Landsberg and Wolken
2001 Edmiston 2003 Garson 2003 Mahler
and Regan 2003 Roy 2003
Legislative support Caffrey 1998
Strategic outsourcing and
publicprivate partnerships
Brown and Brudney 1998 Barret and Green
2001 Chen and Perry 2003 Edmiston 2003
Garson 2003 Melitski 2003 Roy 2003
Table 2 (continued )
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 195
formulate manage and maintain the portfolio of initiatives to ensure that investments made in
IT yield the anticipated benefit Q to members of the federal information technology community
The Value Measuring Methodology (VMM) How-To-Guide builds on the prior work of two efforts in particular In 2001 the Social Security Administration (SSA) in cooperation
with the General Services Administration (GSA) began to develop a methodology to asses
the value of electronic services Their goal was to produce a tool that that would be
bcompliant with current Federal regulations and OMB guidance applicable across the Federal
Government and pragmatically focused on implementation Q 66 In addition a team from Booz
Allen Hamilton and the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard was asked to conduct a
related study That report based on interviews with a variety of professionals in the field as
well as the private sector and the academic community presented the first version of the
VMM its supporting theories and philosophy Since the initial release VMM has beenapplied and refined into its current form
VMM like the methodologies and frameworks presented in the other guides calls for the
inclusion of a broad set of stakeholders affected by the initiative including direct users and
government partners The warrant for this guide was the gap between current tools and the
bneed for a more thorough and rigorous analytical approach to investment evaluation
planning and management Q 67 VMM is positioned as responding to this need by providing a
bcomprehensive and quantitative way to capture the impact that possible investment
alternatives would have on each of these parties Q 68 The methodology is designed in particular
to focus analysis on the value cost and risk baseline for any initiative changes to those baseline measures over time and the implications of those changes
The VMM How-To-Guide is organized into eight sections The Essential Factors
Framework of value cost and risk the foundation of VMM is introduced in Section 3
together with a discussion of the value gained from using the VMM methodology to analyze
e-government and other initiatives Section 4 presents an overview of the four steps of the
VMM Section 5 provides a comprehensive step-by-step presentation of the techniques and
tools of VMM as well as a discussion of the resources necessary to complete a VMM
analysis key concepts and real-life lessons from past implementations and some best
practices observations
52 Creating and using a business case for information technology projects69
This guide was issued by the Project Management Office Chief Information Officer
Branch of the Treasury Board of Canada The production of the guide was organized through
the Project Management Office and was staffed with volunteer members of a working group
as well as many additional volunteers who wrote reviewed and contributed to the guide A
member of the working group was acknowledged for directing the effort and coordinating the
participation of others
According to its statement of purpose this guide developed by public service managers for their colleagues boffers a blueprint that managers can use to build the business cases needed
to make informed investment decisions Q 70 The Canadian guide is organized around two
consistent themes The first is that a b business case is the key element of front-end planning
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 197
and sets the stage for the management of the project and for the achievement of the planned
benefit Q 71 It is considered an bindispensable first activity in the life cycle of an IT
investment Q 72 and when bcorrectly used can serve as a management framework for theinitiative Q 73 The second theme is that no one size fits all Public managers are urged to use
the business case development process to put their decisions into a bstrategic context Q
This guide exists within a larger set of guidance from the Treasury Board The guide
consistently points the reader back to the larger context of governing IT policies as well as the
official Treasury Board framework for managing IT projects Specifically wherever
appropriate the reader is directed to relevant text in the Treasury Boardrsquos Management of
Information Technology Policy and their An Enhanced Framework for the Management of
Information Technology Projects
This tool is structured for use as both a source book and a road map through the ITinvestment process for public managers The introduction also positions it as a tool to
bintroduce other stakeholders to the framework that shapes the decision-making model Q 74
The five central chapters of the guide introduce the framework for examining the
environment and seeking insight about the specific barriers risks and benefits of each
solution alternative being examined The next two chapters focus on customizing the case for
specific audiencesmdashagain stressing the idea that no one size or focus of presentation fits all
audiences Chapter 10 focuses on tips and techniques for designing and managing ongoing
project reviews Finally the appendix introduces Logical Framework Analysis a dynamic
technique for planning communicating and controlling project elements
53 Business case basics and beyond a primer on state government IT business cases 75
This guide was produced by the National Association of Chief Information Officers
(NASCIO) A primary author from the practitioner community worked together with the
NASCIO Executive Committee to write the guide Feedback was also provided by NASCIOrsquos
customer relationship management committee and a range of government practitioners and
private sector and academic partners Thirty-eight people from state and federal governments
and fourteen individuals from associations academic institutions and the private sector were
acknowledged for their contributionsThe guide addresses the emerging trend of business case use being broadened beyond the
analysis of one project to identify the benefits of whole programs such as data center
consolidation and Y2K This guide identifies a review of current practitioner literature on IT
business cases as the source of a framework for an enterprise business case It also presents a
discussion of the current challenges state governments in particular are facing in their e-
government initiatives and meeting the policy and service goals of their Governors The
NASCIO guide provides btools concepts and a framework for addressing a number of critical
challenges facing state Governors chief information officers and enterprise information
technology organizations Q 76
It has three main purposes (1) provide the basics on State IT business cases (2) push beyond the bBasics to Use the Business Case to Address the
Challenges of Fiscal Years 2004 and 2005 Q 77 and (3) embrace a statewide enterprise IT
investment management infrastructure It contains four different types of information for
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 198
public managers (1) business case basics (2) public sector approaches to business cases and
examples (3) resources and contacts and (4) suggested solutions to some of the challenges
One of the unique contributions of this guide is its specific discussion and treatment of anenterprise business case as separate and unique from a business case for a specific project It
also speaks to the value of technology in the business of government
54 Making smart IT choices78
This two-part guide available in print and online was produced by The Center for
Technology in Government an applied research center at the University at Albany SUNY The
Center formulated the Smart IT methodology through its work with government agencies in
projects where information strategies are applied to the challenges of public service deliveryAccording to its introduction this guide was designed to help public managers and
government organizations bmake good decisions about when and how to invest in information
technology (IT) Q 79 Put another way it was designed to bhelp public managers avoid becoming
one of the statistics that dominate reports on information technology investments Q 80
Smart IT is organized around a short list of basic issues and principles The problematic
and expensive nature of IT decisions and the high failure rates which result from hasty
unrealistic or uninformed decisions provide the basic issues framework The principles that
guide the analytical strategy of Smart IT are that public managers must identify and listen to
stakeholders they must understand what constitutes success for their initiative and they must
pursue it and form must follow function The three phase process involves the use of
analytical tools and techniques to first understand the problem and its context second
identify and test solutions and third evaluate alternatives and make choices A wide range of
tools is introduced as well as a way of understanding how each tool might best be employed
in the development of a business case within a particular economic policy organizational
managerial process and technology context
Part 1 has four chapters and begins by considering the special characteristics of the public
sector as an environment for making management decisions and IT choices In the second
chapter the analytical process that accounts for program goals stakeholders processes costs
and technology alternatives is presented Mini case examples are provided throughoutChapters 3 and 4 focus on turning the analysis into a business case and presenting it to various
audiences Part 2 presents 33 skills techniques and tools to use in the analytical process
6 Mapping practical tools to theoretical foundations
The four selected guides are very different in their genesis and designmdashyet they all present
analysis and planning frameworks that can apply both to specific IT initiatives and more
broadly to enterprise IT strategic planning They all represent the best ideas of leading practitioners and academics in this area The NASCIO guide expressed the warrant that all
four guides seem to be responding tomdashthat in IT business cases brisks sensitivities and
contingencies tend to be undeveloped and contribute to lowered credibility Q 81
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 199
61 A brief comparative analysis of the selected guides
All four guides were produced through collaborative efforts of the public private andacademic communities (Table 4) The NASCIO VMM and the CUBC guides were produced
with a governmental sponsor and a range of volunteer expert participants In each situation
the need for the guide emerged from the ranks and was responded to by a coordinating group
or professional association The Smart IT Guide was produced through a different strategymdash
by practice-oriented researchers drawing on their experiences working directly with
government agencies in developing IT initiatives Nonetheless there is notable consistency
in the messages they deliver
All of the guides stress contingency thinking heavily investing in upfront or what CTG
calls b before the beginning Q
analysis collaborative management models inclusion of IT and business stakeholders and the value of iterative analytical processes The impact that a dwell-
doneT business case can have in the ongoing design development implementation and
review of an e-government initiative is also acknowledged in all four guides
The guides vary considerably in their recommendations of specific tools and techniques to
carry out a business case analysis The Canadian guide and the VMM link the analytical
framework very closely to a specific tool Smart IT presents an analytical framework and
links steps in the analysis to a group of tools from which public managers can choose The
guides vary in their links between recommended actions and the specific issue or challenge
likely to be overcome by that particular action Smart IT in particular tends to link analysis to
the challenge addressed so that practitioners can anticipate which tools or techniques will
Table 4
Selected tools development strategy and focus
Tool Development strategy Focus
Value Measuring
Methodology
Best Practices Committee of the
Federal CIO Council built on
previous related efforts of the
committee Refined in use at
several federal agencies
The guides provide a particular
methodology for evaluating and
selecting initiatives based on ongoing
value cost and risk determinations
Creating and
Using a Business
Case for Information
Technology Projects
Developed by public service
managers for their colleagues
The guide offers a blueprint that
managers can use to build the business
cases needed to make informed
investment decisions
NASCIO Business
Case Primer
Single author broadly based
review committee
The primer provides tools concepts
and a framework for addressing a
number of critical challenges facing
state Governors CIOs and enterprise
information technology organizations
Making Smart
IT Choices
Developed by an applied research
center based on experiences inworking with government agencies
This guide provides concepts techniques
and tools to help organizations define aninformation technology project and make
a solid case for needed financial and
organizational investments
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 200
impact which challenges The NASCIO guide presents a warrant for business case analysis
its unique contribution is a well-developed strategy for assessing the effectiveness of a
business case and the compilation of current practices across the states Readers of the NASCIO guide have the opportunity to review many frameworks and tools sets for a model
that will support their environments and issues as well as an extensive reference list
The NASCIO guide offers examples of business cases and IT investment analysis
processes from as many states as possible The VMM guide devotes most of its space to a
comprehensive risk and cost alternative analysis The Smart IT guide focuses its presentation
on a set of tools and techniquesmdasha toolkit of sort and on the introduction of an analytical
framework to which public managers can apply appropriate tools from the toolkit The
Canadian guide provides the reader with a comprehensive overview targeted and actionable
summaries of activity within each step and unique among the guides providesrecommendations for the design of a project evaluation process
62 Building the research practice bridge
The selected guides were designed to build awareness of challenges to e-government
initiatives and to present useful strategies tools and techniques to overcome the challenges
The following section highlights the links between the research literature and the selected
guides through an analysis of each guide in terms of the four categories of challenges and
strategies derived from the literature review Several observations about the guides and
recommendations for future development of practitioner resources and for further research
into the relevance of research to practice are then provided (Tables 5 and 6)
621 Information and data factors
Research published in the public management literature related to the capture
organization management use and archiving of information and data appears to be limited
Coverage of the information and data challenges and the presentation of strategies related to
overcoming them is also limited The Canadian guide identifies initial data collection and
conversion of archival data as a cost category that must be taken into account when
considering the overall cost of an initiative Smart IT urges public managers to consider theinformation and data that a particular solution strategy depends on to be successful so that
cost and risk analysis can include any threats to access Other resources addressing these
factors are beginning to emerge from recent experiences with government information
integration initiatives These initiatives are providing new insights into the challenges posed
by information and data issues82 insights that need to be reflected in future practice guides
622 Information technology factors
In the case of information technology Canadarsquos guide addresses almost all the challenges
The risks section of the guide is based on research about software development done by theSoftware Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University83 All three tools discuss the
need for technical skills and expertise Two address the complexity of the technology used in
the project Two others address usefulness and ease of use as important elements
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 201
All of the guides speak to the challenges that stem from organizational and managerialrealities Each introduces the discussion of these challenges at a different level based on
their target audience and style The NASCIO guide speaks to organizational challenges
primarily at an enterprise level seeking to encourage CIOrsquos and other leaders to consider the
Table 5
E-government challenges address by selected tools
VMM CUBC BCBB MSIT
Information and data challenges
Information and data quality U
Information technology challenges
Security issues U U U
Technological incompatibility U U
Technology complexity U U
Technical skills andor expertise U U U
Technology newness U U
Organizational and managerial challenges
Project size and related complexity U U
Users or organizational diversity U
Lack of alignment between organizational
goals and IT project
U U
Multiple or conflicting goals U U
Resistance to change U
Turf and conflicts
Legal and regulatory challenges
Restrictive laws and regulations U U
One-year budget restrictions U
Potential intergovernmental relationships U U
Institutional and environmental challenges
Privacy concerns U
Institutional arrangements (eg autonomy of agencies) U
Competition or political pressures (eg timing) U U U
Identification of partners and their contributions U U U
Lessons from previous IT experiences U U U
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 202
strategic role of the enterprise The CUBC focuses more directly on initiative level
managerial challenges such as skills of the project leader planning as a management tool
and adequate funding VMM provides techniques for assessing the impact of organizationaland managerial risks such as a lack of alignment Further it provides techniques for testing
underlying assumptions about initiatives and for assessing the impact of incorrect
assumptions on an initiative plan Smart IT raises awareness about organizational and
managerial risks such as lack of attention to users a lack of alignment between initiative and
organizational goals and multiple and conflicting goals It provides techniques such as
structured service objectives visioning and a strategic framework for minimizing these
challenges All of these guides urge stakeholder involvement as a critical strategy for
overcoming organizational and managerial challenges
624 Legal and regulatory factors
Legal and regulatory challenges are well addressed in the guides The NASCIO guide
covers the topic of legal frameworks and provides guidance on reviewing governing policies
and regulations It advises public managers to be aware of regulatory frameworks in the
development of the IT initiatives Smart IT speaks to these challenges as well by providing
tools such as partisan analysis stakeholder analysis and news analysis Each guide presents a
discussion of the possible enabling and constraining influences of the regulatory environment
on e-government initiatives Managers are urged for example to carefully consider security
policies that restrict or facilitate infrastructure expansion efforts
625 Institutional and environmental factors
Challenges stemming from environmental realities and institutional practices are identified
in each the four selected guides Timing in particular is presented as a strategy for
overcoming some of the environmental and institutional challenges The NASCIO Guide for
example encourages public managers to understand the impact of election cycles on their
initiatives Smart IT also speaks to these environmental challenges and adds in the one-year
budgetary cycles of government and its challenges to multi-year multi-institutional IT
initiatives The NASCIO guide the Canadian Treasury Board guide and the Smart IT guide
speak to the need to scan the economic and political environments and to carefully choose thebtiming Q of the IT initiative Smart IT provides a number of tools and techniques for
increasing awareness environmental and institutional factors and their influence
7 Final comments and recommendations
Understanding and reducing risk in e-government initiatives is a high priority for both
researchers and practitioners One consequence of attention to risk is that organizations both
public and private are increasing their investments in standard tools for planning and managingIT initiatives This study has sought to examine whether the tools available to practitioners
benefit from research in IS We believe the answer is bYes Q Increasingly practical guides are
urging practitioners to think beyond technology to think about bsystems in context Q 84
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 204
Our comparison of selected research findings and practical guides has provided insight into
the extent to which research is reflected in guides to inform practice The analysis highlighted
the particular characteristics of the guides and provided a general review of the extent towhich these guides ref lect cur rent research Five observations about the key commonalties
among the guides (see Table 7) and four recommendations for future efforts in both research
and practice also emerged from the analysis
The four recommendations derived from the analysis of gaps between current research and
the guides are provided to inform both future IS research and practical guide development
efforts This work also informs future efforts to conduct further empirical studies of the
impact of research on the focus and content of e-government investment decision making
tools in international national state and local governments
71 Characterize risk in context
The guides introduce the concept of risk and speak to the need to identify and invest in
strategies to manage risk Risk as a concept receives very thorough treatment however
challenges tend to be characterized in general terms A more thorough characterization of the
specific risks to specific kinds of initiatives would complement the presentation of risk
identification and analysis strategies Practitioners would be more aware of the potential risks
they face and could consider the analytic methodologies in terms of a set of likely risks given
the context of a particular initiative
72 Build understanding of information and data challenges
The impact of information and data challenges such as inconsistent data structures semantic
issues and incomplete data on the success of e-government initiatives need to be explored
further in research and presented more thoroughly in practitioner guides The success of e-
government initiatives involving multi-agency information sharing and integration such as
homeland security and public health depend on greater understanding of these challenges
Table 7
Key commonalities of selected E-government practitioner guides
1 Risks sensitivities and contingencies tend to be undeveloped and that threatens the credibility of IS
initiatives (NASCIO 2003)
2 The iterative process of information gathering analysis and decision making is central to the effort to
build understanding of problems solutions alternatives costs and risks
3 Investment analysis and business case documents are living documents and if maintained and updated over
time can provide guidance to teams throughout an initiative and beyond
4 Contextualizing technology solutions is critical to success b No one size fits all Q is the underlying theme
throughout each of the guides Finding out what size does fit in which situation is the goal each guide setsout to achieve
5 Contingency thinking is necessary for planning and preparation for unexpected consequences and changes
in the bvalue cost and risk Q determinations
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 205
73 Build a business case for business case analysis
Empirical support for the investment in business case and investment analysis is lacking Theguides present common-sense rationales for using business case strategies Some outline the
necessary elements The NASCIO guide outlines a set of key value indicators for a sound business
case The Smart IT Guide is illustrated throughout with excerpts from a business case However a
robust empirical base for particular business case strategies within particular environments and
contexts would provide public managers with a more informed roadmap for their efforts
74 Explore the impact of contingency thinking in project planning and management
The guides generally focus on the how-to of investment analysis and business casedevelopment Future guides need to continue to enhance the capability of public managers to
identify influence and act on the dynamic set of contingencies that influence information
technology initiatives Project management training for IT managers for example can
contribute as well to the ability of government managers to understand and prepare for the
dynamic environment of e-government initiatives
Governments at all levels have invested in the development of guides and handbooks to
raise awareness of the challenges facing IT initiatives These practical guides are providing a
bridge between knowledge gained through research in information systems public
administration political science organization theory and management and the knowledge
gained by practitioners participating in and leading these technology initiatives These
resources provide an opportunity when developed with full knowledge of current research and
practice to build awareness about these challenges and to provide tools and techniques that can
lead to success This study supports the conclusion that although practitioners may not read IS
research directly this research is finding its way at least recently onto their desktops and into
their briefcases and presumably into their IT initiatives through the pages of research-aware
practical guides reference tools and handbooks Further empirical work focusing on the extent
to which practitioners are using these and similar guides and the nature of that use is called for
Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank Sharon Dawes Terry Maxwell Anthony Cresswell and Luis
Luna-Reyes for their valuable comments in early versions of this paper Any mistakes or
omissions are the sole responsibility of the authors
Appendix A Bibliography included in Tables 1 and 2
Ambite J L et al (2002) Data integration and access In W J McIver amp A K
Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government Technology Human Factors and
Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic Publishers
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 206
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems
In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government
Technology Human Factors and Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic PublishersDeLone W amp Mclean E (1992) Information systems success The quest for the
dependent variable Information Systems Research 3(1) 60ndash95
DeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean Model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30
Duncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public
Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group
PublishingEdmiston K D (2003) State and local e-government Prospects and challenges
American Review of Public Administration 33(1) 20ndash45
Flowers S (1996) Software failure Management failure Amazing Stories and
Cautionary Tales New York Wiley
Fountain J E (2001) Building the Virtual State Information Technology and Institutional
Change Washington DC Brookings Institution Press
Gagnon Y -C (2001) The behavior of public managers in adopting new technologies
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(4) 337ndash350
Garson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for publicadministration In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and
Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
Harris N D (2000) Intergovernmental cooperation in the development and use of
information systems In G D Garson (Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New
York Marcel Dekker Inc
Heintze T amp Bretschneider S (2000) Information technology and restructuring in public
organizations Does adoption of information technology affect organizational structures
communications and decision making Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 10(4) 801ndash830
Ho A T -K (2002) Reinventing local governments and the e-government initiative
Public Administration Review 62(4) 434ndash444
Holden S H Norris D F amp Fletcher P D (2003) Electronic government at the local
level Progress to date and future issues Public Performance and Management Review
26 (4) 325ndash344
Irvine C E (2000) Security issues for automated information systems In G D Garson
(Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New York Marcel Dekker Inc
Jiang J amp Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation success
factors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 208
Rocheleau B (2000) Prescriptions for public-sector information management A review
analysis and critique American Review of Public Administration 30(4) 414ndash435
Rocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systemsIn G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues
Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Roy J (2003) The relational dynamics of e-governance A case study of the City of
Ottawa Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 391ndash403
Smith L D Campbell J F Subramanian A Bird D A amp Nelson A C (2001)
Strategic planning for municipal information systems Some lessons from a large US City
American Review of Public Administration 31(2) 139ndash157
Tayi G K amp Ballou D P (1998) Examining data quality Communications of the ACM
41(2) 54ndash56Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
West J P amp Berman E M (2001) The impact of revitalized management practices
on the adoption of information technology A national survey of local governments
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(3) 233ndash253
Notes and References
1 Gil-Garcıa J Ramon amp Luna-Reyes Luis F (2003) Towards a definition of electronicgovernment A comparative review In Mendez-Vilas A et al (Eds) Techno-legal
aspects of information society and new economy An overview Extremadura Spain7
Formatex Information Society Series
2 Best J D (1997) The Digital Organization New York 7 Wiley
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems In
W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in digital government Technology
human factors and policy Norwell MA7 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Landsbergen D J amp Wolken Jr G (1998 October) Eliminating Legal and
Policy Barriers to Interoperable Government Systems Paper presented at theannual research conference of the association for public policy analysis and
management New York
3 Bellamy C (2000) The politics of public information systems In G D Garson (Ed)
Handbook of Public Information Systems New York 7 Marcel Dekker IncDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed)
Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
PublishingMilner E M (2000) Managing Information and Knowledge in the Public Sector New
York 7 RoutledgeRocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systems
In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management
Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group Publishing
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 210
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
systems when the decision process calls for bsoft Q data Dawes19 and Ambite et al20 address
how poor results in projects emerge from problems with data structures and data definitions
Overall Brown21 cautions us against taking information quality problems for granted
412 Information technology challenges
System usability and ease of use are important factors to consider22 Technology
incompatibility has also been identified as one difficult challenge to IT-intensive projects
23
Systems that are very different and sometimes very old increase the complexity of IT projects
especially information integration initiatives24 Complexity and newness of technology are
also constraints that can potentially affect the results of IT projects25 The lack of relevant
technical skills within the project team has been found to be an important factor 26 as well as the
shortages of qualified technical personnel27 Legacy systems present additional challenges28
For example Duchessi and Chengalur-Smith29 reported conversion of mainframe applications
as one of the problems associated with implementing clientserver technology
413 Organizational and managerial challenges
Undoubtedly the size of the project and the diversity of the users and organizationsinvolved are two of the main challenges to IT initiatives30 There are at least two other
problems related to the goals and objectives of initiatives The first is the lack of alignment
between organizational goals and the IT project31 In addition Dawes and Pardo32 identified
the existence of multiple and sometimes conflicting goals in the public sector as an
additional interorganizational challenge Finally individual interests and associated behaviors
lead to resistance to change internal conflicts and turf issues33
414 Legal and regulatory challenges
Most of the time government organizations are created and operate by virtue of a specificformal rule or group of rules In making any kind of decision including those in IT projects
public managers must take into account a large number of restrictive laws and regulations34
For example government agencies must often contend with one-year budget cycles One-year
Challenge category(s) Challenge Authors
Institutional and
environmental
Privacy concerns Andersen and Dawes 1991 Caffrey 1998 Milner
2000 Joshi et al 2002 Moon 2002 Duncan and
Roehrig 2003 Edmiston 2003 Holden et al 2003
Autonomy of agencies Dawes 1996 Caffrey 1998 Fountain 2001
Landsberg and Wolken 2001 Dawes and Pardo 2002
Policy and political pressures Bajjaly 1999 Heintze and Bretschneider 2000
Mahler and Regan 2002 Brown and Brudney
2003 Edmiston 2003 Rocheleau 2003 Roy 2003
Environmental context
(social economic demographic)
Heintze and Bretschneider 2000 Ho 2002 La Porte
et al 2002 Brown and Brudney 2003 Edmiston
2003 Holden et al 2003
Source Adapted and expanded from Jiang J and Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project
effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Table 1 (continued )
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 192
budgets are common in many national and state governments and this type of budgeting
affects the potential results of long-term IT initiatives35 Federal systems as in the United
States present additional challenges derived from the particularities of the relationships between different levels of governments and the formal checks and balances among the
executive legislative and judicial branches36
415 Institutional and environmental challenges
There are additional challenges related to a more general instit utional framework and the
policy environment in which government organizations operate37 In this context institutions
are not only laws and regulations but also norms actions or behaviors that people accept as
good or take for granted38 Privacy and related security issues are challenges that must be
adequately addressed in government IT initiatives39
The United States legal framework doesnot mention bagency autonomy Q However government agencies and programs often act as
independent and autonomous units without taking into account what other public
organizations are doing (stove pipes) This situation can constrain efforts to use technology
to integrate or share information across multiple agencies40 Finally ext ernal pressures such
as policy agendas and politics may affect the results of IT initiatives41
The above discussion highlights the range of highly complex and diverse challenges public
managers must face as they work in the e-government arena Success is not only about
selecting the right technology but also about managing organizational capabilities regulatory
constraints and environmental pressures For e-government managers to be successful intheir initiatives they must be aware of these challenges and use appropriate strategies to
overcome them
42 Success strategies for e-government initiatives
A set of strategies for achieving success in e-government initiatives drawn from the
literature can be mapped onto the five challenge categories Mapping the strategies to the
challenge categories illustrates the degree of correspondence in the research itself between
challenges and possible strategies for meeting those challenges (Table 2)
421 Information and data strategies
Dealing with information and data challenges requires an overall plan for managing data
and information products42 A quality and compliance assurance program is an effective
strategy for dealing with information and data challenges43 Developing appropriate data
structures and definitions is critical to the success of IT initiatives in particular in
interorganizational initiatives The challenge in this area stems not only from gaining
agreement that these are necessary but also from engaging the necessary partners in the
development and adoption of common structures and standards44 Managers have attempted
to minimize data-related problems by sharing standards definitions and meta-data with their potential partners Getting continual feedback from users is also an important strategy to
maintain data quality45 Overall having good quality and homogenous information seems to
be an important success factor46
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 193
Two technology-related factors that can promote the success of information systems are
system usefulness and ease of use47 Due to the relative complexity and newness of some
technologies a strategy for responding to information technology-related challenges is to
organize presentations about the technologies to build awareness and to focus early efforts on
developing system and process prototypes48 Strong technical skills and expertise in the
hands of the project leader and some team members is critical49 It is also important to take
into consideration potential shortages of qualified technical staff and an incremental approach
can help in dealing with this problem50
423 Organizational and managerial strategies
Establishing clear and realistic goals is an important factor in the success of IT initiatives51
Identifying relevant stakeholders and getting them involved in the project development
process specially end-users has also been found to be an effective strategy in overcoming
organizational and managerial challenges52 Strategic planning techniques can be seen as an
umbrella for more specific strategies such as clear milestones and measurable deliverables53
good communication channels54 and previous business process improvement55 It is alsoextremely important to take care of developers and end-users current skills and training
needs56 Successful projects need a balanced combination of technical managerial and
political skills and expertise among their members57 Finally financial resources are not
always the most important factor but are necessary Often managers need to develop
innovative financial schemes and partnerships to get e-government initiatives off the ground58
424 Legal and regulatory strategies
Restrictive laws and regulations developed prior to or in ignorance of technologies relevant
to e-government can affect the success of projects One strategy for responding to thesechallenges is to invest in changes to the regulatory environment that allow for or enable
adoption of emerging technologies59 Digital signature technologies for example required
statutory changes in most jurisdictions before they could be adopted for use Developing
Challenge category Key success strategy Source
Legal and regulatory Information technology
policies and standards
Andersen and Dawes 1991 Dawes and
Nelson 1995 Caffrey 1998 Milner 2000
Barret and Green 2001 Landsberg and Wolken
2001 Garson 2003 Kim and Kim 2003
Environmental or
institutional
Executive leadership or
sponsorship
Barki et al 1993 Jiang et al 1996 Brown
2000 Brown 2001 Landsberg and Wolken
2001 Edmiston 2003 Garson 2003 Mahler
and Regan 2003 Roy 2003
Legislative support Caffrey 1998
Strategic outsourcing and
publicprivate partnerships
Brown and Brudney 1998 Barret and Green
2001 Chen and Perry 2003 Edmiston 2003
Garson 2003 Melitski 2003 Roy 2003
Table 2 (continued )
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 195
formulate manage and maintain the portfolio of initiatives to ensure that investments made in
IT yield the anticipated benefit Q to members of the federal information technology community
The Value Measuring Methodology (VMM) How-To-Guide builds on the prior work of two efforts in particular In 2001 the Social Security Administration (SSA) in cooperation
with the General Services Administration (GSA) began to develop a methodology to asses
the value of electronic services Their goal was to produce a tool that that would be
bcompliant with current Federal regulations and OMB guidance applicable across the Federal
Government and pragmatically focused on implementation Q 66 In addition a team from Booz
Allen Hamilton and the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard was asked to conduct a
related study That report based on interviews with a variety of professionals in the field as
well as the private sector and the academic community presented the first version of the
VMM its supporting theories and philosophy Since the initial release VMM has beenapplied and refined into its current form
VMM like the methodologies and frameworks presented in the other guides calls for the
inclusion of a broad set of stakeholders affected by the initiative including direct users and
government partners The warrant for this guide was the gap between current tools and the
bneed for a more thorough and rigorous analytical approach to investment evaluation
planning and management Q 67 VMM is positioned as responding to this need by providing a
bcomprehensive and quantitative way to capture the impact that possible investment
alternatives would have on each of these parties Q 68 The methodology is designed in particular
to focus analysis on the value cost and risk baseline for any initiative changes to those baseline measures over time and the implications of those changes
The VMM How-To-Guide is organized into eight sections The Essential Factors
Framework of value cost and risk the foundation of VMM is introduced in Section 3
together with a discussion of the value gained from using the VMM methodology to analyze
e-government and other initiatives Section 4 presents an overview of the four steps of the
VMM Section 5 provides a comprehensive step-by-step presentation of the techniques and
tools of VMM as well as a discussion of the resources necessary to complete a VMM
analysis key concepts and real-life lessons from past implementations and some best
practices observations
52 Creating and using a business case for information technology projects69
This guide was issued by the Project Management Office Chief Information Officer
Branch of the Treasury Board of Canada The production of the guide was organized through
the Project Management Office and was staffed with volunteer members of a working group
as well as many additional volunteers who wrote reviewed and contributed to the guide A
member of the working group was acknowledged for directing the effort and coordinating the
participation of others
According to its statement of purpose this guide developed by public service managers for their colleagues boffers a blueprint that managers can use to build the business cases needed
to make informed investment decisions Q 70 The Canadian guide is organized around two
consistent themes The first is that a b business case is the key element of front-end planning
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 197
and sets the stage for the management of the project and for the achievement of the planned
benefit Q 71 It is considered an bindispensable first activity in the life cycle of an IT
investment Q 72 and when bcorrectly used can serve as a management framework for theinitiative Q 73 The second theme is that no one size fits all Public managers are urged to use
the business case development process to put their decisions into a bstrategic context Q
This guide exists within a larger set of guidance from the Treasury Board The guide
consistently points the reader back to the larger context of governing IT policies as well as the
official Treasury Board framework for managing IT projects Specifically wherever
appropriate the reader is directed to relevant text in the Treasury Boardrsquos Management of
Information Technology Policy and their An Enhanced Framework for the Management of
Information Technology Projects
This tool is structured for use as both a source book and a road map through the ITinvestment process for public managers The introduction also positions it as a tool to
bintroduce other stakeholders to the framework that shapes the decision-making model Q 74
The five central chapters of the guide introduce the framework for examining the
environment and seeking insight about the specific barriers risks and benefits of each
solution alternative being examined The next two chapters focus on customizing the case for
specific audiencesmdashagain stressing the idea that no one size or focus of presentation fits all
audiences Chapter 10 focuses on tips and techniques for designing and managing ongoing
project reviews Finally the appendix introduces Logical Framework Analysis a dynamic
technique for planning communicating and controlling project elements
53 Business case basics and beyond a primer on state government IT business cases 75
This guide was produced by the National Association of Chief Information Officers
(NASCIO) A primary author from the practitioner community worked together with the
NASCIO Executive Committee to write the guide Feedback was also provided by NASCIOrsquos
customer relationship management committee and a range of government practitioners and
private sector and academic partners Thirty-eight people from state and federal governments
and fourteen individuals from associations academic institutions and the private sector were
acknowledged for their contributionsThe guide addresses the emerging trend of business case use being broadened beyond the
analysis of one project to identify the benefits of whole programs such as data center
consolidation and Y2K This guide identifies a review of current practitioner literature on IT
business cases as the source of a framework for an enterprise business case It also presents a
discussion of the current challenges state governments in particular are facing in their e-
government initiatives and meeting the policy and service goals of their Governors The
NASCIO guide provides btools concepts and a framework for addressing a number of critical
challenges facing state Governors chief information officers and enterprise information
technology organizations Q 76
It has three main purposes (1) provide the basics on State IT business cases (2) push beyond the bBasics to Use the Business Case to Address the
Challenges of Fiscal Years 2004 and 2005 Q 77 and (3) embrace a statewide enterprise IT
investment management infrastructure It contains four different types of information for
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 198
public managers (1) business case basics (2) public sector approaches to business cases and
examples (3) resources and contacts and (4) suggested solutions to some of the challenges
One of the unique contributions of this guide is its specific discussion and treatment of anenterprise business case as separate and unique from a business case for a specific project It
also speaks to the value of technology in the business of government
54 Making smart IT choices78
This two-part guide available in print and online was produced by The Center for
Technology in Government an applied research center at the University at Albany SUNY The
Center formulated the Smart IT methodology through its work with government agencies in
projects where information strategies are applied to the challenges of public service deliveryAccording to its introduction this guide was designed to help public managers and
government organizations bmake good decisions about when and how to invest in information
technology (IT) Q 79 Put another way it was designed to bhelp public managers avoid becoming
one of the statistics that dominate reports on information technology investments Q 80
Smart IT is organized around a short list of basic issues and principles The problematic
and expensive nature of IT decisions and the high failure rates which result from hasty
unrealistic or uninformed decisions provide the basic issues framework The principles that
guide the analytical strategy of Smart IT are that public managers must identify and listen to
stakeholders they must understand what constitutes success for their initiative and they must
pursue it and form must follow function The three phase process involves the use of
analytical tools and techniques to first understand the problem and its context second
identify and test solutions and third evaluate alternatives and make choices A wide range of
tools is introduced as well as a way of understanding how each tool might best be employed
in the development of a business case within a particular economic policy organizational
managerial process and technology context
Part 1 has four chapters and begins by considering the special characteristics of the public
sector as an environment for making management decisions and IT choices In the second
chapter the analytical process that accounts for program goals stakeholders processes costs
and technology alternatives is presented Mini case examples are provided throughoutChapters 3 and 4 focus on turning the analysis into a business case and presenting it to various
audiences Part 2 presents 33 skills techniques and tools to use in the analytical process
6 Mapping practical tools to theoretical foundations
The four selected guides are very different in their genesis and designmdashyet they all present
analysis and planning frameworks that can apply both to specific IT initiatives and more
broadly to enterprise IT strategic planning They all represent the best ideas of leading practitioners and academics in this area The NASCIO guide expressed the warrant that all
four guides seem to be responding tomdashthat in IT business cases brisks sensitivities and
contingencies tend to be undeveloped and contribute to lowered credibility Q 81
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 199
61 A brief comparative analysis of the selected guides
All four guides were produced through collaborative efforts of the public private andacademic communities (Table 4) The NASCIO VMM and the CUBC guides were produced
with a governmental sponsor and a range of volunteer expert participants In each situation
the need for the guide emerged from the ranks and was responded to by a coordinating group
or professional association The Smart IT Guide was produced through a different strategymdash
by practice-oriented researchers drawing on their experiences working directly with
government agencies in developing IT initiatives Nonetheless there is notable consistency
in the messages they deliver
All of the guides stress contingency thinking heavily investing in upfront or what CTG
calls b before the beginning Q
analysis collaborative management models inclusion of IT and business stakeholders and the value of iterative analytical processes The impact that a dwell-
doneT business case can have in the ongoing design development implementation and
review of an e-government initiative is also acknowledged in all four guides
The guides vary considerably in their recommendations of specific tools and techniques to
carry out a business case analysis The Canadian guide and the VMM link the analytical
framework very closely to a specific tool Smart IT presents an analytical framework and
links steps in the analysis to a group of tools from which public managers can choose The
guides vary in their links between recommended actions and the specific issue or challenge
likely to be overcome by that particular action Smart IT in particular tends to link analysis to
the challenge addressed so that practitioners can anticipate which tools or techniques will
Table 4
Selected tools development strategy and focus
Tool Development strategy Focus
Value Measuring
Methodology
Best Practices Committee of the
Federal CIO Council built on
previous related efforts of the
committee Refined in use at
several federal agencies
The guides provide a particular
methodology for evaluating and
selecting initiatives based on ongoing
value cost and risk determinations
Creating and
Using a Business
Case for Information
Technology Projects
Developed by public service
managers for their colleagues
The guide offers a blueprint that
managers can use to build the business
cases needed to make informed
investment decisions
NASCIO Business
Case Primer
Single author broadly based
review committee
The primer provides tools concepts
and a framework for addressing a
number of critical challenges facing
state Governors CIOs and enterprise
information technology organizations
Making Smart
IT Choices
Developed by an applied research
center based on experiences inworking with government agencies
This guide provides concepts techniques
and tools to help organizations define aninformation technology project and make
a solid case for needed financial and
organizational investments
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 200
impact which challenges The NASCIO guide presents a warrant for business case analysis
its unique contribution is a well-developed strategy for assessing the effectiveness of a
business case and the compilation of current practices across the states Readers of the NASCIO guide have the opportunity to review many frameworks and tools sets for a model
that will support their environments and issues as well as an extensive reference list
The NASCIO guide offers examples of business cases and IT investment analysis
processes from as many states as possible The VMM guide devotes most of its space to a
comprehensive risk and cost alternative analysis The Smart IT guide focuses its presentation
on a set of tools and techniquesmdasha toolkit of sort and on the introduction of an analytical
framework to which public managers can apply appropriate tools from the toolkit The
Canadian guide provides the reader with a comprehensive overview targeted and actionable
summaries of activity within each step and unique among the guides providesrecommendations for the design of a project evaluation process
62 Building the research practice bridge
The selected guides were designed to build awareness of challenges to e-government
initiatives and to present useful strategies tools and techniques to overcome the challenges
The following section highlights the links between the research literature and the selected
guides through an analysis of each guide in terms of the four categories of challenges and
strategies derived from the literature review Several observations about the guides and
recommendations for future development of practitioner resources and for further research
into the relevance of research to practice are then provided (Tables 5 and 6)
621 Information and data factors
Research published in the public management literature related to the capture
organization management use and archiving of information and data appears to be limited
Coverage of the information and data challenges and the presentation of strategies related to
overcoming them is also limited The Canadian guide identifies initial data collection and
conversion of archival data as a cost category that must be taken into account when
considering the overall cost of an initiative Smart IT urges public managers to consider theinformation and data that a particular solution strategy depends on to be successful so that
cost and risk analysis can include any threats to access Other resources addressing these
factors are beginning to emerge from recent experiences with government information
integration initiatives These initiatives are providing new insights into the challenges posed
by information and data issues82 insights that need to be reflected in future practice guides
622 Information technology factors
In the case of information technology Canadarsquos guide addresses almost all the challenges
The risks section of the guide is based on research about software development done by theSoftware Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University83 All three tools discuss the
need for technical skills and expertise Two address the complexity of the technology used in
the project Two others address usefulness and ease of use as important elements
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 201
All of the guides speak to the challenges that stem from organizational and managerialrealities Each introduces the discussion of these challenges at a different level based on
their target audience and style The NASCIO guide speaks to organizational challenges
primarily at an enterprise level seeking to encourage CIOrsquos and other leaders to consider the
Table 5
E-government challenges address by selected tools
VMM CUBC BCBB MSIT
Information and data challenges
Information and data quality U
Information technology challenges
Security issues U U U
Technological incompatibility U U
Technology complexity U U
Technical skills andor expertise U U U
Technology newness U U
Organizational and managerial challenges
Project size and related complexity U U
Users or organizational diversity U
Lack of alignment between organizational
goals and IT project
U U
Multiple or conflicting goals U U
Resistance to change U
Turf and conflicts
Legal and regulatory challenges
Restrictive laws and regulations U U
One-year budget restrictions U
Potential intergovernmental relationships U U
Institutional and environmental challenges
Privacy concerns U
Institutional arrangements (eg autonomy of agencies) U
Competition or political pressures (eg timing) U U U
Identification of partners and their contributions U U U
Lessons from previous IT experiences U U U
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 202
strategic role of the enterprise The CUBC focuses more directly on initiative level
managerial challenges such as skills of the project leader planning as a management tool
and adequate funding VMM provides techniques for assessing the impact of organizationaland managerial risks such as a lack of alignment Further it provides techniques for testing
underlying assumptions about initiatives and for assessing the impact of incorrect
assumptions on an initiative plan Smart IT raises awareness about organizational and
managerial risks such as lack of attention to users a lack of alignment between initiative and
organizational goals and multiple and conflicting goals It provides techniques such as
structured service objectives visioning and a strategic framework for minimizing these
challenges All of these guides urge stakeholder involvement as a critical strategy for
overcoming organizational and managerial challenges
624 Legal and regulatory factors
Legal and regulatory challenges are well addressed in the guides The NASCIO guide
covers the topic of legal frameworks and provides guidance on reviewing governing policies
and regulations It advises public managers to be aware of regulatory frameworks in the
development of the IT initiatives Smart IT speaks to these challenges as well by providing
tools such as partisan analysis stakeholder analysis and news analysis Each guide presents a
discussion of the possible enabling and constraining influences of the regulatory environment
on e-government initiatives Managers are urged for example to carefully consider security
policies that restrict or facilitate infrastructure expansion efforts
625 Institutional and environmental factors
Challenges stemming from environmental realities and institutional practices are identified
in each the four selected guides Timing in particular is presented as a strategy for
overcoming some of the environmental and institutional challenges The NASCIO Guide for
example encourages public managers to understand the impact of election cycles on their
initiatives Smart IT also speaks to these environmental challenges and adds in the one-year
budgetary cycles of government and its challenges to multi-year multi-institutional IT
initiatives The NASCIO guide the Canadian Treasury Board guide and the Smart IT guide
speak to the need to scan the economic and political environments and to carefully choose thebtiming Q of the IT initiative Smart IT provides a number of tools and techniques for
increasing awareness environmental and institutional factors and their influence
7 Final comments and recommendations
Understanding and reducing risk in e-government initiatives is a high priority for both
researchers and practitioners One consequence of attention to risk is that organizations both
public and private are increasing their investments in standard tools for planning and managingIT initiatives This study has sought to examine whether the tools available to practitioners
benefit from research in IS We believe the answer is bYes Q Increasingly practical guides are
urging practitioners to think beyond technology to think about bsystems in context Q 84
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 204
Our comparison of selected research findings and practical guides has provided insight into
the extent to which research is reflected in guides to inform practice The analysis highlighted
the particular characteristics of the guides and provided a general review of the extent towhich these guides ref lect cur rent research Five observations about the key commonalties
among the guides (see Table 7) and four recommendations for future efforts in both research
and practice also emerged from the analysis
The four recommendations derived from the analysis of gaps between current research and
the guides are provided to inform both future IS research and practical guide development
efforts This work also informs future efforts to conduct further empirical studies of the
impact of research on the focus and content of e-government investment decision making
tools in international national state and local governments
71 Characterize risk in context
The guides introduce the concept of risk and speak to the need to identify and invest in
strategies to manage risk Risk as a concept receives very thorough treatment however
challenges tend to be characterized in general terms A more thorough characterization of the
specific risks to specific kinds of initiatives would complement the presentation of risk
identification and analysis strategies Practitioners would be more aware of the potential risks
they face and could consider the analytic methodologies in terms of a set of likely risks given
the context of a particular initiative
72 Build understanding of information and data challenges
The impact of information and data challenges such as inconsistent data structures semantic
issues and incomplete data on the success of e-government initiatives need to be explored
further in research and presented more thoroughly in practitioner guides The success of e-
government initiatives involving multi-agency information sharing and integration such as
homeland security and public health depend on greater understanding of these challenges
Table 7
Key commonalities of selected E-government practitioner guides
1 Risks sensitivities and contingencies tend to be undeveloped and that threatens the credibility of IS
initiatives (NASCIO 2003)
2 The iterative process of information gathering analysis and decision making is central to the effort to
build understanding of problems solutions alternatives costs and risks
3 Investment analysis and business case documents are living documents and if maintained and updated over
time can provide guidance to teams throughout an initiative and beyond
4 Contextualizing technology solutions is critical to success b No one size fits all Q is the underlying theme
throughout each of the guides Finding out what size does fit in which situation is the goal each guide setsout to achieve
5 Contingency thinking is necessary for planning and preparation for unexpected consequences and changes
in the bvalue cost and risk Q determinations
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 205
73 Build a business case for business case analysis
Empirical support for the investment in business case and investment analysis is lacking Theguides present common-sense rationales for using business case strategies Some outline the
necessary elements The NASCIO guide outlines a set of key value indicators for a sound business
case The Smart IT Guide is illustrated throughout with excerpts from a business case However a
robust empirical base for particular business case strategies within particular environments and
contexts would provide public managers with a more informed roadmap for their efforts
74 Explore the impact of contingency thinking in project planning and management
The guides generally focus on the how-to of investment analysis and business casedevelopment Future guides need to continue to enhance the capability of public managers to
identify influence and act on the dynamic set of contingencies that influence information
technology initiatives Project management training for IT managers for example can
contribute as well to the ability of government managers to understand and prepare for the
dynamic environment of e-government initiatives
Governments at all levels have invested in the development of guides and handbooks to
raise awareness of the challenges facing IT initiatives These practical guides are providing a
bridge between knowledge gained through research in information systems public
administration political science organization theory and management and the knowledge
gained by practitioners participating in and leading these technology initiatives These
resources provide an opportunity when developed with full knowledge of current research and
practice to build awareness about these challenges and to provide tools and techniques that can
lead to success This study supports the conclusion that although practitioners may not read IS
research directly this research is finding its way at least recently onto their desktops and into
their briefcases and presumably into their IT initiatives through the pages of research-aware
practical guides reference tools and handbooks Further empirical work focusing on the extent
to which practitioners are using these and similar guides and the nature of that use is called for
Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank Sharon Dawes Terry Maxwell Anthony Cresswell and Luis
Luna-Reyes for their valuable comments in early versions of this paper Any mistakes or
omissions are the sole responsibility of the authors
Appendix A Bibliography included in Tables 1 and 2
Ambite J L et al (2002) Data integration and access In W J McIver amp A K
Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government Technology Human Factors and
Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic Publishers
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 206
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems
In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government
Technology Human Factors and Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic PublishersDeLone W amp Mclean E (1992) Information systems success The quest for the
dependent variable Information Systems Research 3(1) 60ndash95
DeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean Model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30
Duncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public
Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group
PublishingEdmiston K D (2003) State and local e-government Prospects and challenges
American Review of Public Administration 33(1) 20ndash45
Flowers S (1996) Software failure Management failure Amazing Stories and
Cautionary Tales New York Wiley
Fountain J E (2001) Building the Virtual State Information Technology and Institutional
Change Washington DC Brookings Institution Press
Gagnon Y -C (2001) The behavior of public managers in adopting new technologies
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(4) 337ndash350
Garson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for publicadministration In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and
Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
Harris N D (2000) Intergovernmental cooperation in the development and use of
information systems In G D Garson (Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New
York Marcel Dekker Inc
Heintze T amp Bretschneider S (2000) Information technology and restructuring in public
organizations Does adoption of information technology affect organizational structures
communications and decision making Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 10(4) 801ndash830
Ho A T -K (2002) Reinventing local governments and the e-government initiative
Public Administration Review 62(4) 434ndash444
Holden S H Norris D F amp Fletcher P D (2003) Electronic government at the local
level Progress to date and future issues Public Performance and Management Review
26 (4) 325ndash344
Irvine C E (2000) Security issues for automated information systems In G D Garson
(Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New York Marcel Dekker Inc
Jiang J amp Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation success
factors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 208
Rocheleau B (2000) Prescriptions for public-sector information management A review
analysis and critique American Review of Public Administration 30(4) 414ndash435
Rocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systemsIn G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues
Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Roy J (2003) The relational dynamics of e-governance A case study of the City of
Ottawa Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 391ndash403
Smith L D Campbell J F Subramanian A Bird D A amp Nelson A C (2001)
Strategic planning for municipal information systems Some lessons from a large US City
American Review of Public Administration 31(2) 139ndash157
Tayi G K amp Ballou D P (1998) Examining data quality Communications of the ACM
41(2) 54ndash56Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
West J P amp Berman E M (2001) The impact of revitalized management practices
on the adoption of information technology A national survey of local governments
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(3) 233ndash253
Notes and References
1 Gil-Garcıa J Ramon amp Luna-Reyes Luis F (2003) Towards a definition of electronicgovernment A comparative review In Mendez-Vilas A et al (Eds) Techno-legal
aspects of information society and new economy An overview Extremadura Spain7
Formatex Information Society Series
2 Best J D (1997) The Digital Organization New York 7 Wiley
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems In
W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in digital government Technology
human factors and policy Norwell MA7 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Landsbergen D J amp Wolken Jr G (1998 October) Eliminating Legal and
Policy Barriers to Interoperable Government Systems Paper presented at theannual research conference of the association for public policy analysis and
management New York
3 Bellamy C (2000) The politics of public information systems In G D Garson (Ed)
Handbook of Public Information Systems New York 7 Marcel Dekker IncDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed)
Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
PublishingMilner E M (2000) Managing Information and Knowledge in the Public Sector New
York 7 RoutledgeRocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systems
In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management
Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group Publishing
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 210
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
budgets are common in many national and state governments and this type of budgeting
affects the potential results of long-term IT initiatives35 Federal systems as in the United
States present additional challenges derived from the particularities of the relationships between different levels of governments and the formal checks and balances among the
executive legislative and judicial branches36
415 Institutional and environmental challenges
There are additional challenges related to a more general instit utional framework and the
policy environment in which government organizations operate37 In this context institutions
are not only laws and regulations but also norms actions or behaviors that people accept as
good or take for granted38 Privacy and related security issues are challenges that must be
adequately addressed in government IT initiatives39
The United States legal framework doesnot mention bagency autonomy Q However government agencies and programs often act as
independent and autonomous units without taking into account what other public
organizations are doing (stove pipes) This situation can constrain efforts to use technology
to integrate or share information across multiple agencies40 Finally ext ernal pressures such
as policy agendas and politics may affect the results of IT initiatives41
The above discussion highlights the range of highly complex and diverse challenges public
managers must face as they work in the e-government arena Success is not only about
selecting the right technology but also about managing organizational capabilities regulatory
constraints and environmental pressures For e-government managers to be successful intheir initiatives they must be aware of these challenges and use appropriate strategies to
overcome them
42 Success strategies for e-government initiatives
A set of strategies for achieving success in e-government initiatives drawn from the
literature can be mapped onto the five challenge categories Mapping the strategies to the
challenge categories illustrates the degree of correspondence in the research itself between
challenges and possible strategies for meeting those challenges (Table 2)
421 Information and data strategies
Dealing with information and data challenges requires an overall plan for managing data
and information products42 A quality and compliance assurance program is an effective
strategy for dealing with information and data challenges43 Developing appropriate data
structures and definitions is critical to the success of IT initiatives in particular in
interorganizational initiatives The challenge in this area stems not only from gaining
agreement that these are necessary but also from engaging the necessary partners in the
development and adoption of common structures and standards44 Managers have attempted
to minimize data-related problems by sharing standards definitions and meta-data with their potential partners Getting continual feedback from users is also an important strategy to
maintain data quality45 Overall having good quality and homogenous information seems to
be an important success factor46
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 193
Two technology-related factors that can promote the success of information systems are
system usefulness and ease of use47 Due to the relative complexity and newness of some
technologies a strategy for responding to information technology-related challenges is to
organize presentations about the technologies to build awareness and to focus early efforts on
developing system and process prototypes48 Strong technical skills and expertise in the
hands of the project leader and some team members is critical49 It is also important to take
into consideration potential shortages of qualified technical staff and an incremental approach
can help in dealing with this problem50
423 Organizational and managerial strategies
Establishing clear and realistic goals is an important factor in the success of IT initiatives51
Identifying relevant stakeholders and getting them involved in the project development
process specially end-users has also been found to be an effective strategy in overcoming
organizational and managerial challenges52 Strategic planning techniques can be seen as an
umbrella for more specific strategies such as clear milestones and measurable deliverables53
good communication channels54 and previous business process improvement55 It is alsoextremely important to take care of developers and end-users current skills and training
needs56 Successful projects need a balanced combination of technical managerial and
political skills and expertise among their members57 Finally financial resources are not
always the most important factor but are necessary Often managers need to develop
innovative financial schemes and partnerships to get e-government initiatives off the ground58
424 Legal and regulatory strategies
Restrictive laws and regulations developed prior to or in ignorance of technologies relevant
to e-government can affect the success of projects One strategy for responding to thesechallenges is to invest in changes to the regulatory environment that allow for or enable
adoption of emerging technologies59 Digital signature technologies for example required
statutory changes in most jurisdictions before they could be adopted for use Developing
Challenge category Key success strategy Source
Legal and regulatory Information technology
policies and standards
Andersen and Dawes 1991 Dawes and
Nelson 1995 Caffrey 1998 Milner 2000
Barret and Green 2001 Landsberg and Wolken
2001 Garson 2003 Kim and Kim 2003
Environmental or
institutional
Executive leadership or
sponsorship
Barki et al 1993 Jiang et al 1996 Brown
2000 Brown 2001 Landsberg and Wolken
2001 Edmiston 2003 Garson 2003 Mahler
and Regan 2003 Roy 2003
Legislative support Caffrey 1998
Strategic outsourcing and
publicprivate partnerships
Brown and Brudney 1998 Barret and Green
2001 Chen and Perry 2003 Edmiston 2003
Garson 2003 Melitski 2003 Roy 2003
Table 2 (continued )
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 195
formulate manage and maintain the portfolio of initiatives to ensure that investments made in
IT yield the anticipated benefit Q to members of the federal information technology community
The Value Measuring Methodology (VMM) How-To-Guide builds on the prior work of two efforts in particular In 2001 the Social Security Administration (SSA) in cooperation
with the General Services Administration (GSA) began to develop a methodology to asses
the value of electronic services Their goal was to produce a tool that that would be
bcompliant with current Federal regulations and OMB guidance applicable across the Federal
Government and pragmatically focused on implementation Q 66 In addition a team from Booz
Allen Hamilton and the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard was asked to conduct a
related study That report based on interviews with a variety of professionals in the field as
well as the private sector and the academic community presented the first version of the
VMM its supporting theories and philosophy Since the initial release VMM has beenapplied and refined into its current form
VMM like the methodologies and frameworks presented in the other guides calls for the
inclusion of a broad set of stakeholders affected by the initiative including direct users and
government partners The warrant for this guide was the gap between current tools and the
bneed for a more thorough and rigorous analytical approach to investment evaluation
planning and management Q 67 VMM is positioned as responding to this need by providing a
bcomprehensive and quantitative way to capture the impact that possible investment
alternatives would have on each of these parties Q 68 The methodology is designed in particular
to focus analysis on the value cost and risk baseline for any initiative changes to those baseline measures over time and the implications of those changes
The VMM How-To-Guide is organized into eight sections The Essential Factors
Framework of value cost and risk the foundation of VMM is introduced in Section 3
together with a discussion of the value gained from using the VMM methodology to analyze
e-government and other initiatives Section 4 presents an overview of the four steps of the
VMM Section 5 provides a comprehensive step-by-step presentation of the techniques and
tools of VMM as well as a discussion of the resources necessary to complete a VMM
analysis key concepts and real-life lessons from past implementations and some best
practices observations
52 Creating and using a business case for information technology projects69
This guide was issued by the Project Management Office Chief Information Officer
Branch of the Treasury Board of Canada The production of the guide was organized through
the Project Management Office and was staffed with volunteer members of a working group
as well as many additional volunteers who wrote reviewed and contributed to the guide A
member of the working group was acknowledged for directing the effort and coordinating the
participation of others
According to its statement of purpose this guide developed by public service managers for their colleagues boffers a blueprint that managers can use to build the business cases needed
to make informed investment decisions Q 70 The Canadian guide is organized around two
consistent themes The first is that a b business case is the key element of front-end planning
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 197
and sets the stage for the management of the project and for the achievement of the planned
benefit Q 71 It is considered an bindispensable first activity in the life cycle of an IT
investment Q 72 and when bcorrectly used can serve as a management framework for theinitiative Q 73 The second theme is that no one size fits all Public managers are urged to use
the business case development process to put their decisions into a bstrategic context Q
This guide exists within a larger set of guidance from the Treasury Board The guide
consistently points the reader back to the larger context of governing IT policies as well as the
official Treasury Board framework for managing IT projects Specifically wherever
appropriate the reader is directed to relevant text in the Treasury Boardrsquos Management of
Information Technology Policy and their An Enhanced Framework for the Management of
Information Technology Projects
This tool is structured for use as both a source book and a road map through the ITinvestment process for public managers The introduction also positions it as a tool to
bintroduce other stakeholders to the framework that shapes the decision-making model Q 74
The five central chapters of the guide introduce the framework for examining the
environment and seeking insight about the specific barriers risks and benefits of each
solution alternative being examined The next two chapters focus on customizing the case for
specific audiencesmdashagain stressing the idea that no one size or focus of presentation fits all
audiences Chapter 10 focuses on tips and techniques for designing and managing ongoing
project reviews Finally the appendix introduces Logical Framework Analysis a dynamic
technique for planning communicating and controlling project elements
53 Business case basics and beyond a primer on state government IT business cases 75
This guide was produced by the National Association of Chief Information Officers
(NASCIO) A primary author from the practitioner community worked together with the
NASCIO Executive Committee to write the guide Feedback was also provided by NASCIOrsquos
customer relationship management committee and a range of government practitioners and
private sector and academic partners Thirty-eight people from state and federal governments
and fourteen individuals from associations academic institutions and the private sector were
acknowledged for their contributionsThe guide addresses the emerging trend of business case use being broadened beyond the
analysis of one project to identify the benefits of whole programs such as data center
consolidation and Y2K This guide identifies a review of current practitioner literature on IT
business cases as the source of a framework for an enterprise business case It also presents a
discussion of the current challenges state governments in particular are facing in their e-
government initiatives and meeting the policy and service goals of their Governors The
NASCIO guide provides btools concepts and a framework for addressing a number of critical
challenges facing state Governors chief information officers and enterprise information
technology organizations Q 76
It has three main purposes (1) provide the basics on State IT business cases (2) push beyond the bBasics to Use the Business Case to Address the
Challenges of Fiscal Years 2004 and 2005 Q 77 and (3) embrace a statewide enterprise IT
investment management infrastructure It contains four different types of information for
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 198
public managers (1) business case basics (2) public sector approaches to business cases and
examples (3) resources and contacts and (4) suggested solutions to some of the challenges
One of the unique contributions of this guide is its specific discussion and treatment of anenterprise business case as separate and unique from a business case for a specific project It
also speaks to the value of technology in the business of government
54 Making smart IT choices78
This two-part guide available in print and online was produced by The Center for
Technology in Government an applied research center at the University at Albany SUNY The
Center formulated the Smart IT methodology through its work with government agencies in
projects where information strategies are applied to the challenges of public service deliveryAccording to its introduction this guide was designed to help public managers and
government organizations bmake good decisions about when and how to invest in information
technology (IT) Q 79 Put another way it was designed to bhelp public managers avoid becoming
one of the statistics that dominate reports on information technology investments Q 80
Smart IT is organized around a short list of basic issues and principles The problematic
and expensive nature of IT decisions and the high failure rates which result from hasty
unrealistic or uninformed decisions provide the basic issues framework The principles that
guide the analytical strategy of Smart IT are that public managers must identify and listen to
stakeholders they must understand what constitutes success for their initiative and they must
pursue it and form must follow function The three phase process involves the use of
analytical tools and techniques to first understand the problem and its context second
identify and test solutions and third evaluate alternatives and make choices A wide range of
tools is introduced as well as a way of understanding how each tool might best be employed
in the development of a business case within a particular economic policy organizational
managerial process and technology context
Part 1 has four chapters and begins by considering the special characteristics of the public
sector as an environment for making management decisions and IT choices In the second
chapter the analytical process that accounts for program goals stakeholders processes costs
and technology alternatives is presented Mini case examples are provided throughoutChapters 3 and 4 focus on turning the analysis into a business case and presenting it to various
audiences Part 2 presents 33 skills techniques and tools to use in the analytical process
6 Mapping practical tools to theoretical foundations
The four selected guides are very different in their genesis and designmdashyet they all present
analysis and planning frameworks that can apply both to specific IT initiatives and more
broadly to enterprise IT strategic planning They all represent the best ideas of leading practitioners and academics in this area The NASCIO guide expressed the warrant that all
four guides seem to be responding tomdashthat in IT business cases brisks sensitivities and
contingencies tend to be undeveloped and contribute to lowered credibility Q 81
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 199
61 A brief comparative analysis of the selected guides
All four guides were produced through collaborative efforts of the public private andacademic communities (Table 4) The NASCIO VMM and the CUBC guides were produced
with a governmental sponsor and a range of volunteer expert participants In each situation
the need for the guide emerged from the ranks and was responded to by a coordinating group
or professional association The Smart IT Guide was produced through a different strategymdash
by practice-oriented researchers drawing on their experiences working directly with
government agencies in developing IT initiatives Nonetheless there is notable consistency
in the messages they deliver
All of the guides stress contingency thinking heavily investing in upfront or what CTG
calls b before the beginning Q
analysis collaborative management models inclusion of IT and business stakeholders and the value of iterative analytical processes The impact that a dwell-
doneT business case can have in the ongoing design development implementation and
review of an e-government initiative is also acknowledged in all four guides
The guides vary considerably in their recommendations of specific tools and techniques to
carry out a business case analysis The Canadian guide and the VMM link the analytical
framework very closely to a specific tool Smart IT presents an analytical framework and
links steps in the analysis to a group of tools from which public managers can choose The
guides vary in their links between recommended actions and the specific issue or challenge
likely to be overcome by that particular action Smart IT in particular tends to link analysis to
the challenge addressed so that practitioners can anticipate which tools or techniques will
Table 4
Selected tools development strategy and focus
Tool Development strategy Focus
Value Measuring
Methodology
Best Practices Committee of the
Federal CIO Council built on
previous related efforts of the
committee Refined in use at
several federal agencies
The guides provide a particular
methodology for evaluating and
selecting initiatives based on ongoing
value cost and risk determinations
Creating and
Using a Business
Case for Information
Technology Projects
Developed by public service
managers for their colleagues
The guide offers a blueprint that
managers can use to build the business
cases needed to make informed
investment decisions
NASCIO Business
Case Primer
Single author broadly based
review committee
The primer provides tools concepts
and a framework for addressing a
number of critical challenges facing
state Governors CIOs and enterprise
information technology organizations
Making Smart
IT Choices
Developed by an applied research
center based on experiences inworking with government agencies
This guide provides concepts techniques
and tools to help organizations define aninformation technology project and make
a solid case for needed financial and
organizational investments
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 200
impact which challenges The NASCIO guide presents a warrant for business case analysis
its unique contribution is a well-developed strategy for assessing the effectiveness of a
business case and the compilation of current practices across the states Readers of the NASCIO guide have the opportunity to review many frameworks and tools sets for a model
that will support their environments and issues as well as an extensive reference list
The NASCIO guide offers examples of business cases and IT investment analysis
processes from as many states as possible The VMM guide devotes most of its space to a
comprehensive risk and cost alternative analysis The Smart IT guide focuses its presentation
on a set of tools and techniquesmdasha toolkit of sort and on the introduction of an analytical
framework to which public managers can apply appropriate tools from the toolkit The
Canadian guide provides the reader with a comprehensive overview targeted and actionable
summaries of activity within each step and unique among the guides providesrecommendations for the design of a project evaluation process
62 Building the research practice bridge
The selected guides were designed to build awareness of challenges to e-government
initiatives and to present useful strategies tools and techniques to overcome the challenges
The following section highlights the links between the research literature and the selected
guides through an analysis of each guide in terms of the four categories of challenges and
strategies derived from the literature review Several observations about the guides and
recommendations for future development of practitioner resources and for further research
into the relevance of research to practice are then provided (Tables 5 and 6)
621 Information and data factors
Research published in the public management literature related to the capture
organization management use and archiving of information and data appears to be limited
Coverage of the information and data challenges and the presentation of strategies related to
overcoming them is also limited The Canadian guide identifies initial data collection and
conversion of archival data as a cost category that must be taken into account when
considering the overall cost of an initiative Smart IT urges public managers to consider theinformation and data that a particular solution strategy depends on to be successful so that
cost and risk analysis can include any threats to access Other resources addressing these
factors are beginning to emerge from recent experiences with government information
integration initiatives These initiatives are providing new insights into the challenges posed
by information and data issues82 insights that need to be reflected in future practice guides
622 Information technology factors
In the case of information technology Canadarsquos guide addresses almost all the challenges
The risks section of the guide is based on research about software development done by theSoftware Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University83 All three tools discuss the
need for technical skills and expertise Two address the complexity of the technology used in
the project Two others address usefulness and ease of use as important elements
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 201
All of the guides speak to the challenges that stem from organizational and managerialrealities Each introduces the discussion of these challenges at a different level based on
their target audience and style The NASCIO guide speaks to organizational challenges
primarily at an enterprise level seeking to encourage CIOrsquos and other leaders to consider the
Table 5
E-government challenges address by selected tools
VMM CUBC BCBB MSIT
Information and data challenges
Information and data quality U
Information technology challenges
Security issues U U U
Technological incompatibility U U
Technology complexity U U
Technical skills andor expertise U U U
Technology newness U U
Organizational and managerial challenges
Project size and related complexity U U
Users or organizational diversity U
Lack of alignment between organizational
goals and IT project
U U
Multiple or conflicting goals U U
Resistance to change U
Turf and conflicts
Legal and regulatory challenges
Restrictive laws and regulations U U
One-year budget restrictions U
Potential intergovernmental relationships U U
Institutional and environmental challenges
Privacy concerns U
Institutional arrangements (eg autonomy of agencies) U
Competition or political pressures (eg timing) U U U
Identification of partners and their contributions U U U
Lessons from previous IT experiences U U U
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 202
strategic role of the enterprise The CUBC focuses more directly on initiative level
managerial challenges such as skills of the project leader planning as a management tool
and adequate funding VMM provides techniques for assessing the impact of organizationaland managerial risks such as a lack of alignment Further it provides techniques for testing
underlying assumptions about initiatives and for assessing the impact of incorrect
assumptions on an initiative plan Smart IT raises awareness about organizational and
managerial risks such as lack of attention to users a lack of alignment between initiative and
organizational goals and multiple and conflicting goals It provides techniques such as
structured service objectives visioning and a strategic framework for minimizing these
challenges All of these guides urge stakeholder involvement as a critical strategy for
overcoming organizational and managerial challenges
624 Legal and regulatory factors
Legal and regulatory challenges are well addressed in the guides The NASCIO guide
covers the topic of legal frameworks and provides guidance on reviewing governing policies
and regulations It advises public managers to be aware of regulatory frameworks in the
development of the IT initiatives Smart IT speaks to these challenges as well by providing
tools such as partisan analysis stakeholder analysis and news analysis Each guide presents a
discussion of the possible enabling and constraining influences of the regulatory environment
on e-government initiatives Managers are urged for example to carefully consider security
policies that restrict or facilitate infrastructure expansion efforts
625 Institutional and environmental factors
Challenges stemming from environmental realities and institutional practices are identified
in each the four selected guides Timing in particular is presented as a strategy for
overcoming some of the environmental and institutional challenges The NASCIO Guide for
example encourages public managers to understand the impact of election cycles on their
initiatives Smart IT also speaks to these environmental challenges and adds in the one-year
budgetary cycles of government and its challenges to multi-year multi-institutional IT
initiatives The NASCIO guide the Canadian Treasury Board guide and the Smart IT guide
speak to the need to scan the economic and political environments and to carefully choose thebtiming Q of the IT initiative Smart IT provides a number of tools and techniques for
increasing awareness environmental and institutional factors and their influence
7 Final comments and recommendations
Understanding and reducing risk in e-government initiatives is a high priority for both
researchers and practitioners One consequence of attention to risk is that organizations both
public and private are increasing their investments in standard tools for planning and managingIT initiatives This study has sought to examine whether the tools available to practitioners
benefit from research in IS We believe the answer is bYes Q Increasingly practical guides are
urging practitioners to think beyond technology to think about bsystems in context Q 84
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 204
Our comparison of selected research findings and practical guides has provided insight into
the extent to which research is reflected in guides to inform practice The analysis highlighted
the particular characteristics of the guides and provided a general review of the extent towhich these guides ref lect cur rent research Five observations about the key commonalties
among the guides (see Table 7) and four recommendations for future efforts in both research
and practice also emerged from the analysis
The four recommendations derived from the analysis of gaps between current research and
the guides are provided to inform both future IS research and practical guide development
efforts This work also informs future efforts to conduct further empirical studies of the
impact of research on the focus and content of e-government investment decision making
tools in international national state and local governments
71 Characterize risk in context
The guides introduce the concept of risk and speak to the need to identify and invest in
strategies to manage risk Risk as a concept receives very thorough treatment however
challenges tend to be characterized in general terms A more thorough characterization of the
specific risks to specific kinds of initiatives would complement the presentation of risk
identification and analysis strategies Practitioners would be more aware of the potential risks
they face and could consider the analytic methodologies in terms of a set of likely risks given
the context of a particular initiative
72 Build understanding of information and data challenges
The impact of information and data challenges such as inconsistent data structures semantic
issues and incomplete data on the success of e-government initiatives need to be explored
further in research and presented more thoroughly in practitioner guides The success of e-
government initiatives involving multi-agency information sharing and integration such as
homeland security and public health depend on greater understanding of these challenges
Table 7
Key commonalities of selected E-government practitioner guides
1 Risks sensitivities and contingencies tend to be undeveloped and that threatens the credibility of IS
initiatives (NASCIO 2003)
2 The iterative process of information gathering analysis and decision making is central to the effort to
build understanding of problems solutions alternatives costs and risks
3 Investment analysis and business case documents are living documents and if maintained and updated over
time can provide guidance to teams throughout an initiative and beyond
4 Contextualizing technology solutions is critical to success b No one size fits all Q is the underlying theme
throughout each of the guides Finding out what size does fit in which situation is the goal each guide setsout to achieve
5 Contingency thinking is necessary for planning and preparation for unexpected consequences and changes
in the bvalue cost and risk Q determinations
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 205
73 Build a business case for business case analysis
Empirical support for the investment in business case and investment analysis is lacking Theguides present common-sense rationales for using business case strategies Some outline the
necessary elements The NASCIO guide outlines a set of key value indicators for a sound business
case The Smart IT Guide is illustrated throughout with excerpts from a business case However a
robust empirical base for particular business case strategies within particular environments and
contexts would provide public managers with a more informed roadmap for their efforts
74 Explore the impact of contingency thinking in project planning and management
The guides generally focus on the how-to of investment analysis and business casedevelopment Future guides need to continue to enhance the capability of public managers to
identify influence and act on the dynamic set of contingencies that influence information
technology initiatives Project management training for IT managers for example can
contribute as well to the ability of government managers to understand and prepare for the
dynamic environment of e-government initiatives
Governments at all levels have invested in the development of guides and handbooks to
raise awareness of the challenges facing IT initiatives These practical guides are providing a
bridge between knowledge gained through research in information systems public
administration political science organization theory and management and the knowledge
gained by practitioners participating in and leading these technology initiatives These
resources provide an opportunity when developed with full knowledge of current research and
practice to build awareness about these challenges and to provide tools and techniques that can
lead to success This study supports the conclusion that although practitioners may not read IS
research directly this research is finding its way at least recently onto their desktops and into
their briefcases and presumably into their IT initiatives through the pages of research-aware
practical guides reference tools and handbooks Further empirical work focusing on the extent
to which practitioners are using these and similar guides and the nature of that use is called for
Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank Sharon Dawes Terry Maxwell Anthony Cresswell and Luis
Luna-Reyes for their valuable comments in early versions of this paper Any mistakes or
omissions are the sole responsibility of the authors
Appendix A Bibliography included in Tables 1 and 2
Ambite J L et al (2002) Data integration and access In W J McIver amp A K
Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government Technology Human Factors and
Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic Publishers
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 206
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems
In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government
Technology Human Factors and Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic PublishersDeLone W amp Mclean E (1992) Information systems success The quest for the
dependent variable Information Systems Research 3(1) 60ndash95
DeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean Model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30
Duncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public
Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group
PublishingEdmiston K D (2003) State and local e-government Prospects and challenges
American Review of Public Administration 33(1) 20ndash45
Flowers S (1996) Software failure Management failure Amazing Stories and
Cautionary Tales New York Wiley
Fountain J E (2001) Building the Virtual State Information Technology and Institutional
Change Washington DC Brookings Institution Press
Gagnon Y -C (2001) The behavior of public managers in adopting new technologies
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(4) 337ndash350
Garson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for publicadministration In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and
Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
Harris N D (2000) Intergovernmental cooperation in the development and use of
information systems In G D Garson (Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New
York Marcel Dekker Inc
Heintze T amp Bretschneider S (2000) Information technology and restructuring in public
organizations Does adoption of information technology affect organizational structures
communications and decision making Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 10(4) 801ndash830
Ho A T -K (2002) Reinventing local governments and the e-government initiative
Public Administration Review 62(4) 434ndash444
Holden S H Norris D F amp Fletcher P D (2003) Electronic government at the local
level Progress to date and future issues Public Performance and Management Review
26 (4) 325ndash344
Irvine C E (2000) Security issues for automated information systems In G D Garson
(Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New York Marcel Dekker Inc
Jiang J amp Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation success
factors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 208
Rocheleau B (2000) Prescriptions for public-sector information management A review
analysis and critique American Review of Public Administration 30(4) 414ndash435
Rocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systemsIn G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues
Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Roy J (2003) The relational dynamics of e-governance A case study of the City of
Ottawa Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 391ndash403
Smith L D Campbell J F Subramanian A Bird D A amp Nelson A C (2001)
Strategic planning for municipal information systems Some lessons from a large US City
American Review of Public Administration 31(2) 139ndash157
Tayi G K amp Ballou D P (1998) Examining data quality Communications of the ACM
41(2) 54ndash56Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
West J P amp Berman E M (2001) The impact of revitalized management practices
on the adoption of information technology A national survey of local governments
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(3) 233ndash253
Notes and References
1 Gil-Garcıa J Ramon amp Luna-Reyes Luis F (2003) Towards a definition of electronicgovernment A comparative review In Mendez-Vilas A et al (Eds) Techno-legal
aspects of information society and new economy An overview Extremadura Spain7
Formatex Information Society Series
2 Best J D (1997) The Digital Organization New York 7 Wiley
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems In
W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in digital government Technology
human factors and policy Norwell MA7 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Landsbergen D J amp Wolken Jr G (1998 October) Eliminating Legal and
Policy Barriers to Interoperable Government Systems Paper presented at theannual research conference of the association for public policy analysis and
management New York
3 Bellamy C (2000) The politics of public information systems In G D Garson (Ed)
Handbook of Public Information Systems New York 7 Marcel Dekker IncDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed)
Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
PublishingMilner E M (2000) Managing Information and Knowledge in the Public Sector New
York 7 RoutledgeRocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systems
In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management
Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group Publishing
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 210
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
Two technology-related factors that can promote the success of information systems are
system usefulness and ease of use47 Due to the relative complexity and newness of some
technologies a strategy for responding to information technology-related challenges is to
organize presentations about the technologies to build awareness and to focus early efforts on
developing system and process prototypes48 Strong technical skills and expertise in the
hands of the project leader and some team members is critical49 It is also important to take
into consideration potential shortages of qualified technical staff and an incremental approach
can help in dealing with this problem50
423 Organizational and managerial strategies
Establishing clear and realistic goals is an important factor in the success of IT initiatives51
Identifying relevant stakeholders and getting them involved in the project development
process specially end-users has also been found to be an effective strategy in overcoming
organizational and managerial challenges52 Strategic planning techniques can be seen as an
umbrella for more specific strategies such as clear milestones and measurable deliverables53
good communication channels54 and previous business process improvement55 It is alsoextremely important to take care of developers and end-users current skills and training
needs56 Successful projects need a balanced combination of technical managerial and
political skills and expertise among their members57 Finally financial resources are not
always the most important factor but are necessary Often managers need to develop
innovative financial schemes and partnerships to get e-government initiatives off the ground58
424 Legal and regulatory strategies
Restrictive laws and regulations developed prior to or in ignorance of technologies relevant
to e-government can affect the success of projects One strategy for responding to thesechallenges is to invest in changes to the regulatory environment that allow for or enable
adoption of emerging technologies59 Digital signature technologies for example required
statutory changes in most jurisdictions before they could be adopted for use Developing
Challenge category Key success strategy Source
Legal and regulatory Information technology
policies and standards
Andersen and Dawes 1991 Dawes and
Nelson 1995 Caffrey 1998 Milner 2000
Barret and Green 2001 Landsberg and Wolken
2001 Garson 2003 Kim and Kim 2003
Environmental or
institutional
Executive leadership or
sponsorship
Barki et al 1993 Jiang et al 1996 Brown
2000 Brown 2001 Landsberg and Wolken
2001 Edmiston 2003 Garson 2003 Mahler
and Regan 2003 Roy 2003
Legislative support Caffrey 1998
Strategic outsourcing and
publicprivate partnerships
Brown and Brudney 1998 Barret and Green
2001 Chen and Perry 2003 Edmiston 2003
Garson 2003 Melitski 2003 Roy 2003
Table 2 (continued )
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 195
formulate manage and maintain the portfolio of initiatives to ensure that investments made in
IT yield the anticipated benefit Q to members of the federal information technology community
The Value Measuring Methodology (VMM) How-To-Guide builds on the prior work of two efforts in particular In 2001 the Social Security Administration (SSA) in cooperation
with the General Services Administration (GSA) began to develop a methodology to asses
the value of electronic services Their goal was to produce a tool that that would be
bcompliant with current Federal regulations and OMB guidance applicable across the Federal
Government and pragmatically focused on implementation Q 66 In addition a team from Booz
Allen Hamilton and the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard was asked to conduct a
related study That report based on interviews with a variety of professionals in the field as
well as the private sector and the academic community presented the first version of the
VMM its supporting theories and philosophy Since the initial release VMM has beenapplied and refined into its current form
VMM like the methodologies and frameworks presented in the other guides calls for the
inclusion of a broad set of stakeholders affected by the initiative including direct users and
government partners The warrant for this guide was the gap between current tools and the
bneed for a more thorough and rigorous analytical approach to investment evaluation
planning and management Q 67 VMM is positioned as responding to this need by providing a
bcomprehensive and quantitative way to capture the impact that possible investment
alternatives would have on each of these parties Q 68 The methodology is designed in particular
to focus analysis on the value cost and risk baseline for any initiative changes to those baseline measures over time and the implications of those changes
The VMM How-To-Guide is organized into eight sections The Essential Factors
Framework of value cost and risk the foundation of VMM is introduced in Section 3
together with a discussion of the value gained from using the VMM methodology to analyze
e-government and other initiatives Section 4 presents an overview of the four steps of the
VMM Section 5 provides a comprehensive step-by-step presentation of the techniques and
tools of VMM as well as a discussion of the resources necessary to complete a VMM
analysis key concepts and real-life lessons from past implementations and some best
practices observations
52 Creating and using a business case for information technology projects69
This guide was issued by the Project Management Office Chief Information Officer
Branch of the Treasury Board of Canada The production of the guide was organized through
the Project Management Office and was staffed with volunteer members of a working group
as well as many additional volunteers who wrote reviewed and contributed to the guide A
member of the working group was acknowledged for directing the effort and coordinating the
participation of others
According to its statement of purpose this guide developed by public service managers for their colleagues boffers a blueprint that managers can use to build the business cases needed
to make informed investment decisions Q 70 The Canadian guide is organized around two
consistent themes The first is that a b business case is the key element of front-end planning
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 197
and sets the stage for the management of the project and for the achievement of the planned
benefit Q 71 It is considered an bindispensable first activity in the life cycle of an IT
investment Q 72 and when bcorrectly used can serve as a management framework for theinitiative Q 73 The second theme is that no one size fits all Public managers are urged to use
the business case development process to put their decisions into a bstrategic context Q
This guide exists within a larger set of guidance from the Treasury Board The guide
consistently points the reader back to the larger context of governing IT policies as well as the
official Treasury Board framework for managing IT projects Specifically wherever
appropriate the reader is directed to relevant text in the Treasury Boardrsquos Management of
Information Technology Policy and their An Enhanced Framework for the Management of
Information Technology Projects
This tool is structured for use as both a source book and a road map through the ITinvestment process for public managers The introduction also positions it as a tool to
bintroduce other stakeholders to the framework that shapes the decision-making model Q 74
The five central chapters of the guide introduce the framework for examining the
environment and seeking insight about the specific barriers risks and benefits of each
solution alternative being examined The next two chapters focus on customizing the case for
specific audiencesmdashagain stressing the idea that no one size or focus of presentation fits all
audiences Chapter 10 focuses on tips and techniques for designing and managing ongoing
project reviews Finally the appendix introduces Logical Framework Analysis a dynamic
technique for planning communicating and controlling project elements
53 Business case basics and beyond a primer on state government IT business cases 75
This guide was produced by the National Association of Chief Information Officers
(NASCIO) A primary author from the practitioner community worked together with the
NASCIO Executive Committee to write the guide Feedback was also provided by NASCIOrsquos
customer relationship management committee and a range of government practitioners and
private sector and academic partners Thirty-eight people from state and federal governments
and fourteen individuals from associations academic institutions and the private sector were
acknowledged for their contributionsThe guide addresses the emerging trend of business case use being broadened beyond the
analysis of one project to identify the benefits of whole programs such as data center
consolidation and Y2K This guide identifies a review of current practitioner literature on IT
business cases as the source of a framework for an enterprise business case It also presents a
discussion of the current challenges state governments in particular are facing in their e-
government initiatives and meeting the policy and service goals of their Governors The
NASCIO guide provides btools concepts and a framework for addressing a number of critical
challenges facing state Governors chief information officers and enterprise information
technology organizations Q 76
It has three main purposes (1) provide the basics on State IT business cases (2) push beyond the bBasics to Use the Business Case to Address the
Challenges of Fiscal Years 2004 and 2005 Q 77 and (3) embrace a statewide enterprise IT
investment management infrastructure It contains four different types of information for
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 198
public managers (1) business case basics (2) public sector approaches to business cases and
examples (3) resources and contacts and (4) suggested solutions to some of the challenges
One of the unique contributions of this guide is its specific discussion and treatment of anenterprise business case as separate and unique from a business case for a specific project It
also speaks to the value of technology in the business of government
54 Making smart IT choices78
This two-part guide available in print and online was produced by The Center for
Technology in Government an applied research center at the University at Albany SUNY The
Center formulated the Smart IT methodology through its work with government agencies in
projects where information strategies are applied to the challenges of public service deliveryAccording to its introduction this guide was designed to help public managers and
government organizations bmake good decisions about when and how to invest in information
technology (IT) Q 79 Put another way it was designed to bhelp public managers avoid becoming
one of the statistics that dominate reports on information technology investments Q 80
Smart IT is organized around a short list of basic issues and principles The problematic
and expensive nature of IT decisions and the high failure rates which result from hasty
unrealistic or uninformed decisions provide the basic issues framework The principles that
guide the analytical strategy of Smart IT are that public managers must identify and listen to
stakeholders they must understand what constitutes success for their initiative and they must
pursue it and form must follow function The three phase process involves the use of
analytical tools and techniques to first understand the problem and its context second
identify and test solutions and third evaluate alternatives and make choices A wide range of
tools is introduced as well as a way of understanding how each tool might best be employed
in the development of a business case within a particular economic policy organizational
managerial process and technology context
Part 1 has four chapters and begins by considering the special characteristics of the public
sector as an environment for making management decisions and IT choices In the second
chapter the analytical process that accounts for program goals stakeholders processes costs
and technology alternatives is presented Mini case examples are provided throughoutChapters 3 and 4 focus on turning the analysis into a business case and presenting it to various
audiences Part 2 presents 33 skills techniques and tools to use in the analytical process
6 Mapping practical tools to theoretical foundations
The four selected guides are very different in their genesis and designmdashyet they all present
analysis and planning frameworks that can apply both to specific IT initiatives and more
broadly to enterprise IT strategic planning They all represent the best ideas of leading practitioners and academics in this area The NASCIO guide expressed the warrant that all
four guides seem to be responding tomdashthat in IT business cases brisks sensitivities and
contingencies tend to be undeveloped and contribute to lowered credibility Q 81
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 199
61 A brief comparative analysis of the selected guides
All four guides were produced through collaborative efforts of the public private andacademic communities (Table 4) The NASCIO VMM and the CUBC guides were produced
with a governmental sponsor and a range of volunteer expert participants In each situation
the need for the guide emerged from the ranks and was responded to by a coordinating group
or professional association The Smart IT Guide was produced through a different strategymdash
by practice-oriented researchers drawing on their experiences working directly with
government agencies in developing IT initiatives Nonetheless there is notable consistency
in the messages they deliver
All of the guides stress contingency thinking heavily investing in upfront or what CTG
calls b before the beginning Q
analysis collaborative management models inclusion of IT and business stakeholders and the value of iterative analytical processes The impact that a dwell-
doneT business case can have in the ongoing design development implementation and
review of an e-government initiative is also acknowledged in all four guides
The guides vary considerably in their recommendations of specific tools and techniques to
carry out a business case analysis The Canadian guide and the VMM link the analytical
framework very closely to a specific tool Smart IT presents an analytical framework and
links steps in the analysis to a group of tools from which public managers can choose The
guides vary in their links between recommended actions and the specific issue or challenge
likely to be overcome by that particular action Smart IT in particular tends to link analysis to
the challenge addressed so that practitioners can anticipate which tools or techniques will
Table 4
Selected tools development strategy and focus
Tool Development strategy Focus
Value Measuring
Methodology
Best Practices Committee of the
Federal CIO Council built on
previous related efforts of the
committee Refined in use at
several federal agencies
The guides provide a particular
methodology for evaluating and
selecting initiatives based on ongoing
value cost and risk determinations
Creating and
Using a Business
Case for Information
Technology Projects
Developed by public service
managers for their colleagues
The guide offers a blueprint that
managers can use to build the business
cases needed to make informed
investment decisions
NASCIO Business
Case Primer
Single author broadly based
review committee
The primer provides tools concepts
and a framework for addressing a
number of critical challenges facing
state Governors CIOs and enterprise
information technology organizations
Making Smart
IT Choices
Developed by an applied research
center based on experiences inworking with government agencies
This guide provides concepts techniques
and tools to help organizations define aninformation technology project and make
a solid case for needed financial and
organizational investments
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 200
impact which challenges The NASCIO guide presents a warrant for business case analysis
its unique contribution is a well-developed strategy for assessing the effectiveness of a
business case and the compilation of current practices across the states Readers of the NASCIO guide have the opportunity to review many frameworks and tools sets for a model
that will support their environments and issues as well as an extensive reference list
The NASCIO guide offers examples of business cases and IT investment analysis
processes from as many states as possible The VMM guide devotes most of its space to a
comprehensive risk and cost alternative analysis The Smart IT guide focuses its presentation
on a set of tools and techniquesmdasha toolkit of sort and on the introduction of an analytical
framework to which public managers can apply appropriate tools from the toolkit The
Canadian guide provides the reader with a comprehensive overview targeted and actionable
summaries of activity within each step and unique among the guides providesrecommendations for the design of a project evaluation process
62 Building the research practice bridge
The selected guides were designed to build awareness of challenges to e-government
initiatives and to present useful strategies tools and techniques to overcome the challenges
The following section highlights the links between the research literature and the selected
guides through an analysis of each guide in terms of the four categories of challenges and
strategies derived from the literature review Several observations about the guides and
recommendations for future development of practitioner resources and for further research
into the relevance of research to practice are then provided (Tables 5 and 6)
621 Information and data factors
Research published in the public management literature related to the capture
organization management use and archiving of information and data appears to be limited
Coverage of the information and data challenges and the presentation of strategies related to
overcoming them is also limited The Canadian guide identifies initial data collection and
conversion of archival data as a cost category that must be taken into account when
considering the overall cost of an initiative Smart IT urges public managers to consider theinformation and data that a particular solution strategy depends on to be successful so that
cost and risk analysis can include any threats to access Other resources addressing these
factors are beginning to emerge from recent experiences with government information
integration initiatives These initiatives are providing new insights into the challenges posed
by information and data issues82 insights that need to be reflected in future practice guides
622 Information technology factors
In the case of information technology Canadarsquos guide addresses almost all the challenges
The risks section of the guide is based on research about software development done by theSoftware Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University83 All three tools discuss the
need for technical skills and expertise Two address the complexity of the technology used in
the project Two others address usefulness and ease of use as important elements
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 201
All of the guides speak to the challenges that stem from organizational and managerialrealities Each introduces the discussion of these challenges at a different level based on
their target audience and style The NASCIO guide speaks to organizational challenges
primarily at an enterprise level seeking to encourage CIOrsquos and other leaders to consider the
Table 5
E-government challenges address by selected tools
VMM CUBC BCBB MSIT
Information and data challenges
Information and data quality U
Information technology challenges
Security issues U U U
Technological incompatibility U U
Technology complexity U U
Technical skills andor expertise U U U
Technology newness U U
Organizational and managerial challenges
Project size and related complexity U U
Users or organizational diversity U
Lack of alignment between organizational
goals and IT project
U U
Multiple or conflicting goals U U
Resistance to change U
Turf and conflicts
Legal and regulatory challenges
Restrictive laws and regulations U U
One-year budget restrictions U
Potential intergovernmental relationships U U
Institutional and environmental challenges
Privacy concerns U
Institutional arrangements (eg autonomy of agencies) U
Competition or political pressures (eg timing) U U U
Identification of partners and their contributions U U U
Lessons from previous IT experiences U U U
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 202
strategic role of the enterprise The CUBC focuses more directly on initiative level
managerial challenges such as skills of the project leader planning as a management tool
and adequate funding VMM provides techniques for assessing the impact of organizationaland managerial risks such as a lack of alignment Further it provides techniques for testing
underlying assumptions about initiatives and for assessing the impact of incorrect
assumptions on an initiative plan Smart IT raises awareness about organizational and
managerial risks such as lack of attention to users a lack of alignment between initiative and
organizational goals and multiple and conflicting goals It provides techniques such as
structured service objectives visioning and a strategic framework for minimizing these
challenges All of these guides urge stakeholder involvement as a critical strategy for
overcoming organizational and managerial challenges
624 Legal and regulatory factors
Legal and regulatory challenges are well addressed in the guides The NASCIO guide
covers the topic of legal frameworks and provides guidance on reviewing governing policies
and regulations It advises public managers to be aware of regulatory frameworks in the
development of the IT initiatives Smart IT speaks to these challenges as well by providing
tools such as partisan analysis stakeholder analysis and news analysis Each guide presents a
discussion of the possible enabling and constraining influences of the regulatory environment
on e-government initiatives Managers are urged for example to carefully consider security
policies that restrict or facilitate infrastructure expansion efforts
625 Institutional and environmental factors
Challenges stemming from environmental realities and institutional practices are identified
in each the four selected guides Timing in particular is presented as a strategy for
overcoming some of the environmental and institutional challenges The NASCIO Guide for
example encourages public managers to understand the impact of election cycles on their
initiatives Smart IT also speaks to these environmental challenges and adds in the one-year
budgetary cycles of government and its challenges to multi-year multi-institutional IT
initiatives The NASCIO guide the Canadian Treasury Board guide and the Smart IT guide
speak to the need to scan the economic and political environments and to carefully choose thebtiming Q of the IT initiative Smart IT provides a number of tools and techniques for
increasing awareness environmental and institutional factors and their influence
7 Final comments and recommendations
Understanding and reducing risk in e-government initiatives is a high priority for both
researchers and practitioners One consequence of attention to risk is that organizations both
public and private are increasing their investments in standard tools for planning and managingIT initiatives This study has sought to examine whether the tools available to practitioners
benefit from research in IS We believe the answer is bYes Q Increasingly practical guides are
urging practitioners to think beyond technology to think about bsystems in context Q 84
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 204
Our comparison of selected research findings and practical guides has provided insight into
the extent to which research is reflected in guides to inform practice The analysis highlighted
the particular characteristics of the guides and provided a general review of the extent towhich these guides ref lect cur rent research Five observations about the key commonalties
among the guides (see Table 7) and four recommendations for future efforts in both research
and practice also emerged from the analysis
The four recommendations derived from the analysis of gaps between current research and
the guides are provided to inform both future IS research and practical guide development
efforts This work also informs future efforts to conduct further empirical studies of the
impact of research on the focus and content of e-government investment decision making
tools in international national state and local governments
71 Characterize risk in context
The guides introduce the concept of risk and speak to the need to identify and invest in
strategies to manage risk Risk as a concept receives very thorough treatment however
challenges tend to be characterized in general terms A more thorough characterization of the
specific risks to specific kinds of initiatives would complement the presentation of risk
identification and analysis strategies Practitioners would be more aware of the potential risks
they face and could consider the analytic methodologies in terms of a set of likely risks given
the context of a particular initiative
72 Build understanding of information and data challenges
The impact of information and data challenges such as inconsistent data structures semantic
issues and incomplete data on the success of e-government initiatives need to be explored
further in research and presented more thoroughly in practitioner guides The success of e-
government initiatives involving multi-agency information sharing and integration such as
homeland security and public health depend on greater understanding of these challenges
Table 7
Key commonalities of selected E-government practitioner guides
1 Risks sensitivities and contingencies tend to be undeveloped and that threatens the credibility of IS
initiatives (NASCIO 2003)
2 The iterative process of information gathering analysis and decision making is central to the effort to
build understanding of problems solutions alternatives costs and risks
3 Investment analysis and business case documents are living documents and if maintained and updated over
time can provide guidance to teams throughout an initiative and beyond
4 Contextualizing technology solutions is critical to success b No one size fits all Q is the underlying theme
throughout each of the guides Finding out what size does fit in which situation is the goal each guide setsout to achieve
5 Contingency thinking is necessary for planning and preparation for unexpected consequences and changes
in the bvalue cost and risk Q determinations
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 205
73 Build a business case for business case analysis
Empirical support for the investment in business case and investment analysis is lacking Theguides present common-sense rationales for using business case strategies Some outline the
necessary elements The NASCIO guide outlines a set of key value indicators for a sound business
case The Smart IT Guide is illustrated throughout with excerpts from a business case However a
robust empirical base for particular business case strategies within particular environments and
contexts would provide public managers with a more informed roadmap for their efforts
74 Explore the impact of contingency thinking in project planning and management
The guides generally focus on the how-to of investment analysis and business casedevelopment Future guides need to continue to enhance the capability of public managers to
identify influence and act on the dynamic set of contingencies that influence information
technology initiatives Project management training for IT managers for example can
contribute as well to the ability of government managers to understand and prepare for the
dynamic environment of e-government initiatives
Governments at all levels have invested in the development of guides and handbooks to
raise awareness of the challenges facing IT initiatives These practical guides are providing a
bridge between knowledge gained through research in information systems public
administration political science organization theory and management and the knowledge
gained by practitioners participating in and leading these technology initiatives These
resources provide an opportunity when developed with full knowledge of current research and
practice to build awareness about these challenges and to provide tools and techniques that can
lead to success This study supports the conclusion that although practitioners may not read IS
research directly this research is finding its way at least recently onto their desktops and into
their briefcases and presumably into their IT initiatives through the pages of research-aware
practical guides reference tools and handbooks Further empirical work focusing on the extent
to which practitioners are using these and similar guides and the nature of that use is called for
Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank Sharon Dawes Terry Maxwell Anthony Cresswell and Luis
Luna-Reyes for their valuable comments in early versions of this paper Any mistakes or
omissions are the sole responsibility of the authors
Appendix A Bibliography included in Tables 1 and 2
Ambite J L et al (2002) Data integration and access In W J McIver amp A K
Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government Technology Human Factors and
Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic Publishers
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 206
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems
In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government
Technology Human Factors and Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic PublishersDeLone W amp Mclean E (1992) Information systems success The quest for the
dependent variable Information Systems Research 3(1) 60ndash95
DeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean Model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30
Duncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public
Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group
PublishingEdmiston K D (2003) State and local e-government Prospects and challenges
American Review of Public Administration 33(1) 20ndash45
Flowers S (1996) Software failure Management failure Amazing Stories and
Cautionary Tales New York Wiley
Fountain J E (2001) Building the Virtual State Information Technology and Institutional
Change Washington DC Brookings Institution Press
Gagnon Y -C (2001) The behavior of public managers in adopting new technologies
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(4) 337ndash350
Garson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for publicadministration In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and
Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
Harris N D (2000) Intergovernmental cooperation in the development and use of
information systems In G D Garson (Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New
York Marcel Dekker Inc
Heintze T amp Bretschneider S (2000) Information technology and restructuring in public
organizations Does adoption of information technology affect organizational structures
communications and decision making Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 10(4) 801ndash830
Ho A T -K (2002) Reinventing local governments and the e-government initiative
Public Administration Review 62(4) 434ndash444
Holden S H Norris D F amp Fletcher P D (2003) Electronic government at the local
level Progress to date and future issues Public Performance and Management Review
26 (4) 325ndash344
Irvine C E (2000) Security issues for automated information systems In G D Garson
(Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New York Marcel Dekker Inc
Jiang J amp Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation success
factors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 208
Rocheleau B (2000) Prescriptions for public-sector information management A review
analysis and critique American Review of Public Administration 30(4) 414ndash435
Rocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systemsIn G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues
Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Roy J (2003) The relational dynamics of e-governance A case study of the City of
Ottawa Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 391ndash403
Smith L D Campbell J F Subramanian A Bird D A amp Nelson A C (2001)
Strategic planning for municipal information systems Some lessons from a large US City
American Review of Public Administration 31(2) 139ndash157
Tayi G K amp Ballou D P (1998) Examining data quality Communications of the ACM
41(2) 54ndash56Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
West J P amp Berman E M (2001) The impact of revitalized management practices
on the adoption of information technology A national survey of local governments
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(3) 233ndash253
Notes and References
1 Gil-Garcıa J Ramon amp Luna-Reyes Luis F (2003) Towards a definition of electronicgovernment A comparative review In Mendez-Vilas A et al (Eds) Techno-legal
aspects of information society and new economy An overview Extremadura Spain7
Formatex Information Society Series
2 Best J D (1997) The Digital Organization New York 7 Wiley
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems In
W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in digital government Technology
human factors and policy Norwell MA7 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Landsbergen D J amp Wolken Jr G (1998 October) Eliminating Legal and
Policy Barriers to Interoperable Government Systems Paper presented at theannual research conference of the association for public policy analysis and
management New York
3 Bellamy C (2000) The politics of public information systems In G D Garson (Ed)
Handbook of Public Information Systems New York 7 Marcel Dekker IncDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed)
Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
PublishingMilner E M (2000) Managing Information and Knowledge in the Public Sector New
York 7 RoutledgeRocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systems
In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management
Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group Publishing
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 210
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
Two technology-related factors that can promote the success of information systems are
system usefulness and ease of use47 Due to the relative complexity and newness of some
technologies a strategy for responding to information technology-related challenges is to
organize presentations about the technologies to build awareness and to focus early efforts on
developing system and process prototypes48 Strong technical skills and expertise in the
hands of the project leader and some team members is critical49 It is also important to take
into consideration potential shortages of qualified technical staff and an incremental approach
can help in dealing with this problem50
423 Organizational and managerial strategies
Establishing clear and realistic goals is an important factor in the success of IT initiatives51
Identifying relevant stakeholders and getting them involved in the project development
process specially end-users has also been found to be an effective strategy in overcoming
organizational and managerial challenges52 Strategic planning techniques can be seen as an
umbrella for more specific strategies such as clear milestones and measurable deliverables53
good communication channels54 and previous business process improvement55 It is alsoextremely important to take care of developers and end-users current skills and training
needs56 Successful projects need a balanced combination of technical managerial and
political skills and expertise among their members57 Finally financial resources are not
always the most important factor but are necessary Often managers need to develop
innovative financial schemes and partnerships to get e-government initiatives off the ground58
424 Legal and regulatory strategies
Restrictive laws and regulations developed prior to or in ignorance of technologies relevant
to e-government can affect the success of projects One strategy for responding to thesechallenges is to invest in changes to the regulatory environment that allow for or enable
adoption of emerging technologies59 Digital signature technologies for example required
statutory changes in most jurisdictions before they could be adopted for use Developing
Challenge category Key success strategy Source
Legal and regulatory Information technology
policies and standards
Andersen and Dawes 1991 Dawes and
Nelson 1995 Caffrey 1998 Milner 2000
Barret and Green 2001 Landsberg and Wolken
2001 Garson 2003 Kim and Kim 2003
Environmental or
institutional
Executive leadership or
sponsorship
Barki et al 1993 Jiang et al 1996 Brown
2000 Brown 2001 Landsberg and Wolken
2001 Edmiston 2003 Garson 2003 Mahler
and Regan 2003 Roy 2003
Legislative support Caffrey 1998
Strategic outsourcing and
publicprivate partnerships
Brown and Brudney 1998 Barret and Green
2001 Chen and Perry 2003 Edmiston 2003
Garson 2003 Melitski 2003 Roy 2003
Table 2 (continued )
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 195
formulate manage and maintain the portfolio of initiatives to ensure that investments made in
IT yield the anticipated benefit Q to members of the federal information technology community
The Value Measuring Methodology (VMM) How-To-Guide builds on the prior work of two efforts in particular In 2001 the Social Security Administration (SSA) in cooperation
with the General Services Administration (GSA) began to develop a methodology to asses
the value of electronic services Their goal was to produce a tool that that would be
bcompliant with current Federal regulations and OMB guidance applicable across the Federal
Government and pragmatically focused on implementation Q 66 In addition a team from Booz
Allen Hamilton and the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard was asked to conduct a
related study That report based on interviews with a variety of professionals in the field as
well as the private sector and the academic community presented the first version of the
VMM its supporting theories and philosophy Since the initial release VMM has beenapplied and refined into its current form
VMM like the methodologies and frameworks presented in the other guides calls for the
inclusion of a broad set of stakeholders affected by the initiative including direct users and
government partners The warrant for this guide was the gap between current tools and the
bneed for a more thorough and rigorous analytical approach to investment evaluation
planning and management Q 67 VMM is positioned as responding to this need by providing a
bcomprehensive and quantitative way to capture the impact that possible investment
alternatives would have on each of these parties Q 68 The methodology is designed in particular
to focus analysis on the value cost and risk baseline for any initiative changes to those baseline measures over time and the implications of those changes
The VMM How-To-Guide is organized into eight sections The Essential Factors
Framework of value cost and risk the foundation of VMM is introduced in Section 3
together with a discussion of the value gained from using the VMM methodology to analyze
e-government and other initiatives Section 4 presents an overview of the four steps of the
VMM Section 5 provides a comprehensive step-by-step presentation of the techniques and
tools of VMM as well as a discussion of the resources necessary to complete a VMM
analysis key concepts and real-life lessons from past implementations and some best
practices observations
52 Creating and using a business case for information technology projects69
This guide was issued by the Project Management Office Chief Information Officer
Branch of the Treasury Board of Canada The production of the guide was organized through
the Project Management Office and was staffed with volunteer members of a working group
as well as many additional volunteers who wrote reviewed and contributed to the guide A
member of the working group was acknowledged for directing the effort and coordinating the
participation of others
According to its statement of purpose this guide developed by public service managers for their colleagues boffers a blueprint that managers can use to build the business cases needed
to make informed investment decisions Q 70 The Canadian guide is organized around two
consistent themes The first is that a b business case is the key element of front-end planning
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 197
and sets the stage for the management of the project and for the achievement of the planned
benefit Q 71 It is considered an bindispensable first activity in the life cycle of an IT
investment Q 72 and when bcorrectly used can serve as a management framework for theinitiative Q 73 The second theme is that no one size fits all Public managers are urged to use
the business case development process to put their decisions into a bstrategic context Q
This guide exists within a larger set of guidance from the Treasury Board The guide
consistently points the reader back to the larger context of governing IT policies as well as the
official Treasury Board framework for managing IT projects Specifically wherever
appropriate the reader is directed to relevant text in the Treasury Boardrsquos Management of
Information Technology Policy and their An Enhanced Framework for the Management of
Information Technology Projects
This tool is structured for use as both a source book and a road map through the ITinvestment process for public managers The introduction also positions it as a tool to
bintroduce other stakeholders to the framework that shapes the decision-making model Q 74
The five central chapters of the guide introduce the framework for examining the
environment and seeking insight about the specific barriers risks and benefits of each
solution alternative being examined The next two chapters focus on customizing the case for
specific audiencesmdashagain stressing the idea that no one size or focus of presentation fits all
audiences Chapter 10 focuses on tips and techniques for designing and managing ongoing
project reviews Finally the appendix introduces Logical Framework Analysis a dynamic
technique for planning communicating and controlling project elements
53 Business case basics and beyond a primer on state government IT business cases 75
This guide was produced by the National Association of Chief Information Officers
(NASCIO) A primary author from the practitioner community worked together with the
NASCIO Executive Committee to write the guide Feedback was also provided by NASCIOrsquos
customer relationship management committee and a range of government practitioners and
private sector and academic partners Thirty-eight people from state and federal governments
and fourteen individuals from associations academic institutions and the private sector were
acknowledged for their contributionsThe guide addresses the emerging trend of business case use being broadened beyond the
analysis of one project to identify the benefits of whole programs such as data center
consolidation and Y2K This guide identifies a review of current practitioner literature on IT
business cases as the source of a framework for an enterprise business case It also presents a
discussion of the current challenges state governments in particular are facing in their e-
government initiatives and meeting the policy and service goals of their Governors The
NASCIO guide provides btools concepts and a framework for addressing a number of critical
challenges facing state Governors chief information officers and enterprise information
technology organizations Q 76
It has three main purposes (1) provide the basics on State IT business cases (2) push beyond the bBasics to Use the Business Case to Address the
Challenges of Fiscal Years 2004 and 2005 Q 77 and (3) embrace a statewide enterprise IT
investment management infrastructure It contains four different types of information for
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 198
public managers (1) business case basics (2) public sector approaches to business cases and
examples (3) resources and contacts and (4) suggested solutions to some of the challenges
One of the unique contributions of this guide is its specific discussion and treatment of anenterprise business case as separate and unique from a business case for a specific project It
also speaks to the value of technology in the business of government
54 Making smart IT choices78
This two-part guide available in print and online was produced by The Center for
Technology in Government an applied research center at the University at Albany SUNY The
Center formulated the Smart IT methodology through its work with government agencies in
projects where information strategies are applied to the challenges of public service deliveryAccording to its introduction this guide was designed to help public managers and
government organizations bmake good decisions about when and how to invest in information
technology (IT) Q 79 Put another way it was designed to bhelp public managers avoid becoming
one of the statistics that dominate reports on information technology investments Q 80
Smart IT is organized around a short list of basic issues and principles The problematic
and expensive nature of IT decisions and the high failure rates which result from hasty
unrealistic or uninformed decisions provide the basic issues framework The principles that
guide the analytical strategy of Smart IT are that public managers must identify and listen to
stakeholders they must understand what constitutes success for their initiative and they must
pursue it and form must follow function The three phase process involves the use of
analytical tools and techniques to first understand the problem and its context second
identify and test solutions and third evaluate alternatives and make choices A wide range of
tools is introduced as well as a way of understanding how each tool might best be employed
in the development of a business case within a particular economic policy organizational
managerial process and technology context
Part 1 has four chapters and begins by considering the special characteristics of the public
sector as an environment for making management decisions and IT choices In the second
chapter the analytical process that accounts for program goals stakeholders processes costs
and technology alternatives is presented Mini case examples are provided throughoutChapters 3 and 4 focus on turning the analysis into a business case and presenting it to various
audiences Part 2 presents 33 skills techniques and tools to use in the analytical process
6 Mapping practical tools to theoretical foundations
The four selected guides are very different in their genesis and designmdashyet they all present
analysis and planning frameworks that can apply both to specific IT initiatives and more
broadly to enterprise IT strategic planning They all represent the best ideas of leading practitioners and academics in this area The NASCIO guide expressed the warrant that all
four guides seem to be responding tomdashthat in IT business cases brisks sensitivities and
contingencies tend to be undeveloped and contribute to lowered credibility Q 81
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 199
61 A brief comparative analysis of the selected guides
All four guides were produced through collaborative efforts of the public private andacademic communities (Table 4) The NASCIO VMM and the CUBC guides were produced
with a governmental sponsor and a range of volunteer expert participants In each situation
the need for the guide emerged from the ranks and was responded to by a coordinating group
or professional association The Smart IT Guide was produced through a different strategymdash
by practice-oriented researchers drawing on their experiences working directly with
government agencies in developing IT initiatives Nonetheless there is notable consistency
in the messages they deliver
All of the guides stress contingency thinking heavily investing in upfront or what CTG
calls b before the beginning Q
analysis collaborative management models inclusion of IT and business stakeholders and the value of iterative analytical processes The impact that a dwell-
doneT business case can have in the ongoing design development implementation and
review of an e-government initiative is also acknowledged in all four guides
The guides vary considerably in their recommendations of specific tools and techniques to
carry out a business case analysis The Canadian guide and the VMM link the analytical
framework very closely to a specific tool Smart IT presents an analytical framework and
links steps in the analysis to a group of tools from which public managers can choose The
guides vary in their links between recommended actions and the specific issue or challenge
likely to be overcome by that particular action Smart IT in particular tends to link analysis to
the challenge addressed so that practitioners can anticipate which tools or techniques will
Table 4
Selected tools development strategy and focus
Tool Development strategy Focus
Value Measuring
Methodology
Best Practices Committee of the
Federal CIO Council built on
previous related efforts of the
committee Refined in use at
several federal agencies
The guides provide a particular
methodology for evaluating and
selecting initiatives based on ongoing
value cost and risk determinations
Creating and
Using a Business
Case for Information
Technology Projects
Developed by public service
managers for their colleagues
The guide offers a blueprint that
managers can use to build the business
cases needed to make informed
investment decisions
NASCIO Business
Case Primer
Single author broadly based
review committee
The primer provides tools concepts
and a framework for addressing a
number of critical challenges facing
state Governors CIOs and enterprise
information technology organizations
Making Smart
IT Choices
Developed by an applied research
center based on experiences inworking with government agencies
This guide provides concepts techniques
and tools to help organizations define aninformation technology project and make
a solid case for needed financial and
organizational investments
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 200
impact which challenges The NASCIO guide presents a warrant for business case analysis
its unique contribution is a well-developed strategy for assessing the effectiveness of a
business case and the compilation of current practices across the states Readers of the NASCIO guide have the opportunity to review many frameworks and tools sets for a model
that will support their environments and issues as well as an extensive reference list
The NASCIO guide offers examples of business cases and IT investment analysis
processes from as many states as possible The VMM guide devotes most of its space to a
comprehensive risk and cost alternative analysis The Smart IT guide focuses its presentation
on a set of tools and techniquesmdasha toolkit of sort and on the introduction of an analytical
framework to which public managers can apply appropriate tools from the toolkit The
Canadian guide provides the reader with a comprehensive overview targeted and actionable
summaries of activity within each step and unique among the guides providesrecommendations for the design of a project evaluation process
62 Building the research practice bridge
The selected guides were designed to build awareness of challenges to e-government
initiatives and to present useful strategies tools and techniques to overcome the challenges
The following section highlights the links between the research literature and the selected
guides through an analysis of each guide in terms of the four categories of challenges and
strategies derived from the literature review Several observations about the guides and
recommendations for future development of practitioner resources and for further research
into the relevance of research to practice are then provided (Tables 5 and 6)
621 Information and data factors
Research published in the public management literature related to the capture
organization management use and archiving of information and data appears to be limited
Coverage of the information and data challenges and the presentation of strategies related to
overcoming them is also limited The Canadian guide identifies initial data collection and
conversion of archival data as a cost category that must be taken into account when
considering the overall cost of an initiative Smart IT urges public managers to consider theinformation and data that a particular solution strategy depends on to be successful so that
cost and risk analysis can include any threats to access Other resources addressing these
factors are beginning to emerge from recent experiences with government information
integration initiatives These initiatives are providing new insights into the challenges posed
by information and data issues82 insights that need to be reflected in future practice guides
622 Information technology factors
In the case of information technology Canadarsquos guide addresses almost all the challenges
The risks section of the guide is based on research about software development done by theSoftware Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University83 All three tools discuss the
need for technical skills and expertise Two address the complexity of the technology used in
the project Two others address usefulness and ease of use as important elements
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 201
All of the guides speak to the challenges that stem from organizational and managerialrealities Each introduces the discussion of these challenges at a different level based on
their target audience and style The NASCIO guide speaks to organizational challenges
primarily at an enterprise level seeking to encourage CIOrsquos and other leaders to consider the
Table 5
E-government challenges address by selected tools
VMM CUBC BCBB MSIT
Information and data challenges
Information and data quality U
Information technology challenges
Security issues U U U
Technological incompatibility U U
Technology complexity U U
Technical skills andor expertise U U U
Technology newness U U
Organizational and managerial challenges
Project size and related complexity U U
Users or organizational diversity U
Lack of alignment between organizational
goals and IT project
U U
Multiple or conflicting goals U U
Resistance to change U
Turf and conflicts
Legal and regulatory challenges
Restrictive laws and regulations U U
One-year budget restrictions U
Potential intergovernmental relationships U U
Institutional and environmental challenges
Privacy concerns U
Institutional arrangements (eg autonomy of agencies) U
Competition or political pressures (eg timing) U U U
Identification of partners and their contributions U U U
Lessons from previous IT experiences U U U
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 202
strategic role of the enterprise The CUBC focuses more directly on initiative level
managerial challenges such as skills of the project leader planning as a management tool
and adequate funding VMM provides techniques for assessing the impact of organizationaland managerial risks such as a lack of alignment Further it provides techniques for testing
underlying assumptions about initiatives and for assessing the impact of incorrect
assumptions on an initiative plan Smart IT raises awareness about organizational and
managerial risks such as lack of attention to users a lack of alignment between initiative and
organizational goals and multiple and conflicting goals It provides techniques such as
structured service objectives visioning and a strategic framework for minimizing these
challenges All of these guides urge stakeholder involvement as a critical strategy for
overcoming organizational and managerial challenges
624 Legal and regulatory factors
Legal and regulatory challenges are well addressed in the guides The NASCIO guide
covers the topic of legal frameworks and provides guidance on reviewing governing policies
and regulations It advises public managers to be aware of regulatory frameworks in the
development of the IT initiatives Smart IT speaks to these challenges as well by providing
tools such as partisan analysis stakeholder analysis and news analysis Each guide presents a
discussion of the possible enabling and constraining influences of the regulatory environment
on e-government initiatives Managers are urged for example to carefully consider security
policies that restrict or facilitate infrastructure expansion efforts
625 Institutional and environmental factors
Challenges stemming from environmental realities and institutional practices are identified
in each the four selected guides Timing in particular is presented as a strategy for
overcoming some of the environmental and institutional challenges The NASCIO Guide for
example encourages public managers to understand the impact of election cycles on their
initiatives Smart IT also speaks to these environmental challenges and adds in the one-year
budgetary cycles of government and its challenges to multi-year multi-institutional IT
initiatives The NASCIO guide the Canadian Treasury Board guide and the Smart IT guide
speak to the need to scan the economic and political environments and to carefully choose thebtiming Q of the IT initiative Smart IT provides a number of tools and techniques for
increasing awareness environmental and institutional factors and their influence
7 Final comments and recommendations
Understanding and reducing risk in e-government initiatives is a high priority for both
researchers and practitioners One consequence of attention to risk is that organizations both
public and private are increasing their investments in standard tools for planning and managingIT initiatives This study has sought to examine whether the tools available to practitioners
benefit from research in IS We believe the answer is bYes Q Increasingly practical guides are
urging practitioners to think beyond technology to think about bsystems in context Q 84
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 204
Our comparison of selected research findings and practical guides has provided insight into
the extent to which research is reflected in guides to inform practice The analysis highlighted
the particular characteristics of the guides and provided a general review of the extent towhich these guides ref lect cur rent research Five observations about the key commonalties
among the guides (see Table 7) and four recommendations for future efforts in both research
and practice also emerged from the analysis
The four recommendations derived from the analysis of gaps between current research and
the guides are provided to inform both future IS research and practical guide development
efforts This work also informs future efforts to conduct further empirical studies of the
impact of research on the focus and content of e-government investment decision making
tools in international national state and local governments
71 Characterize risk in context
The guides introduce the concept of risk and speak to the need to identify and invest in
strategies to manage risk Risk as a concept receives very thorough treatment however
challenges tend to be characterized in general terms A more thorough characterization of the
specific risks to specific kinds of initiatives would complement the presentation of risk
identification and analysis strategies Practitioners would be more aware of the potential risks
they face and could consider the analytic methodologies in terms of a set of likely risks given
the context of a particular initiative
72 Build understanding of information and data challenges
The impact of information and data challenges such as inconsistent data structures semantic
issues and incomplete data on the success of e-government initiatives need to be explored
further in research and presented more thoroughly in practitioner guides The success of e-
government initiatives involving multi-agency information sharing and integration such as
homeland security and public health depend on greater understanding of these challenges
Table 7
Key commonalities of selected E-government practitioner guides
1 Risks sensitivities and contingencies tend to be undeveloped and that threatens the credibility of IS
initiatives (NASCIO 2003)
2 The iterative process of information gathering analysis and decision making is central to the effort to
build understanding of problems solutions alternatives costs and risks
3 Investment analysis and business case documents are living documents and if maintained and updated over
time can provide guidance to teams throughout an initiative and beyond
4 Contextualizing technology solutions is critical to success b No one size fits all Q is the underlying theme
throughout each of the guides Finding out what size does fit in which situation is the goal each guide setsout to achieve
5 Contingency thinking is necessary for planning and preparation for unexpected consequences and changes
in the bvalue cost and risk Q determinations
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 205
73 Build a business case for business case analysis
Empirical support for the investment in business case and investment analysis is lacking Theguides present common-sense rationales for using business case strategies Some outline the
necessary elements The NASCIO guide outlines a set of key value indicators for a sound business
case The Smart IT Guide is illustrated throughout with excerpts from a business case However a
robust empirical base for particular business case strategies within particular environments and
contexts would provide public managers with a more informed roadmap for their efforts
74 Explore the impact of contingency thinking in project planning and management
The guides generally focus on the how-to of investment analysis and business casedevelopment Future guides need to continue to enhance the capability of public managers to
identify influence and act on the dynamic set of contingencies that influence information
technology initiatives Project management training for IT managers for example can
contribute as well to the ability of government managers to understand and prepare for the
dynamic environment of e-government initiatives
Governments at all levels have invested in the development of guides and handbooks to
raise awareness of the challenges facing IT initiatives These practical guides are providing a
bridge between knowledge gained through research in information systems public
administration political science organization theory and management and the knowledge
gained by practitioners participating in and leading these technology initiatives These
resources provide an opportunity when developed with full knowledge of current research and
practice to build awareness about these challenges and to provide tools and techniques that can
lead to success This study supports the conclusion that although practitioners may not read IS
research directly this research is finding its way at least recently onto their desktops and into
their briefcases and presumably into their IT initiatives through the pages of research-aware
practical guides reference tools and handbooks Further empirical work focusing on the extent
to which practitioners are using these and similar guides and the nature of that use is called for
Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank Sharon Dawes Terry Maxwell Anthony Cresswell and Luis
Luna-Reyes for their valuable comments in early versions of this paper Any mistakes or
omissions are the sole responsibility of the authors
Appendix A Bibliography included in Tables 1 and 2
Ambite J L et al (2002) Data integration and access In W J McIver amp A K
Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government Technology Human Factors and
Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic Publishers
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 206
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems
In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government
Technology Human Factors and Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic PublishersDeLone W amp Mclean E (1992) Information systems success The quest for the
dependent variable Information Systems Research 3(1) 60ndash95
DeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean Model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30
Duncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public
Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group
PublishingEdmiston K D (2003) State and local e-government Prospects and challenges
American Review of Public Administration 33(1) 20ndash45
Flowers S (1996) Software failure Management failure Amazing Stories and
Cautionary Tales New York Wiley
Fountain J E (2001) Building the Virtual State Information Technology and Institutional
Change Washington DC Brookings Institution Press
Gagnon Y -C (2001) The behavior of public managers in adopting new technologies
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(4) 337ndash350
Garson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for publicadministration In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and
Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
Harris N D (2000) Intergovernmental cooperation in the development and use of
information systems In G D Garson (Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New
York Marcel Dekker Inc
Heintze T amp Bretschneider S (2000) Information technology and restructuring in public
organizations Does adoption of information technology affect organizational structures
communications and decision making Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 10(4) 801ndash830
Ho A T -K (2002) Reinventing local governments and the e-government initiative
Public Administration Review 62(4) 434ndash444
Holden S H Norris D F amp Fletcher P D (2003) Electronic government at the local
level Progress to date and future issues Public Performance and Management Review
26 (4) 325ndash344
Irvine C E (2000) Security issues for automated information systems In G D Garson
(Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New York Marcel Dekker Inc
Jiang J amp Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation success
factors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 208
Rocheleau B (2000) Prescriptions for public-sector information management A review
analysis and critique American Review of Public Administration 30(4) 414ndash435
Rocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systemsIn G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues
Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Roy J (2003) The relational dynamics of e-governance A case study of the City of
Ottawa Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 391ndash403
Smith L D Campbell J F Subramanian A Bird D A amp Nelson A C (2001)
Strategic planning for municipal information systems Some lessons from a large US City
American Review of Public Administration 31(2) 139ndash157
Tayi G K amp Ballou D P (1998) Examining data quality Communications of the ACM
41(2) 54ndash56Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
West J P amp Berman E M (2001) The impact of revitalized management practices
on the adoption of information technology A national survey of local governments
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(3) 233ndash253
Notes and References
1 Gil-Garcıa J Ramon amp Luna-Reyes Luis F (2003) Towards a definition of electronicgovernment A comparative review In Mendez-Vilas A et al (Eds) Techno-legal
aspects of information society and new economy An overview Extremadura Spain7
Formatex Information Society Series
2 Best J D (1997) The Digital Organization New York 7 Wiley
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems In
W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in digital government Technology
human factors and policy Norwell MA7 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Landsbergen D J amp Wolken Jr G (1998 October) Eliminating Legal and
Policy Barriers to Interoperable Government Systems Paper presented at theannual research conference of the association for public policy analysis and
management New York
3 Bellamy C (2000) The politics of public information systems In G D Garson (Ed)
Handbook of Public Information Systems New York 7 Marcel Dekker IncDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed)
Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
PublishingMilner E M (2000) Managing Information and Knowledge in the Public Sector New
York 7 RoutledgeRocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systems
In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management
Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group Publishing
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 210
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
formulate manage and maintain the portfolio of initiatives to ensure that investments made in
IT yield the anticipated benefit Q to members of the federal information technology community
The Value Measuring Methodology (VMM) How-To-Guide builds on the prior work of two efforts in particular In 2001 the Social Security Administration (SSA) in cooperation
with the General Services Administration (GSA) began to develop a methodology to asses
the value of electronic services Their goal was to produce a tool that that would be
bcompliant with current Federal regulations and OMB guidance applicable across the Federal
Government and pragmatically focused on implementation Q 66 In addition a team from Booz
Allen Hamilton and the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard was asked to conduct a
related study That report based on interviews with a variety of professionals in the field as
well as the private sector and the academic community presented the first version of the
VMM its supporting theories and philosophy Since the initial release VMM has beenapplied and refined into its current form
VMM like the methodologies and frameworks presented in the other guides calls for the
inclusion of a broad set of stakeholders affected by the initiative including direct users and
government partners The warrant for this guide was the gap between current tools and the
bneed for a more thorough and rigorous analytical approach to investment evaluation
planning and management Q 67 VMM is positioned as responding to this need by providing a
bcomprehensive and quantitative way to capture the impact that possible investment
alternatives would have on each of these parties Q 68 The methodology is designed in particular
to focus analysis on the value cost and risk baseline for any initiative changes to those baseline measures over time and the implications of those changes
The VMM How-To-Guide is organized into eight sections The Essential Factors
Framework of value cost and risk the foundation of VMM is introduced in Section 3
together with a discussion of the value gained from using the VMM methodology to analyze
e-government and other initiatives Section 4 presents an overview of the four steps of the
VMM Section 5 provides a comprehensive step-by-step presentation of the techniques and
tools of VMM as well as a discussion of the resources necessary to complete a VMM
analysis key concepts and real-life lessons from past implementations and some best
practices observations
52 Creating and using a business case for information technology projects69
This guide was issued by the Project Management Office Chief Information Officer
Branch of the Treasury Board of Canada The production of the guide was organized through
the Project Management Office and was staffed with volunteer members of a working group
as well as many additional volunteers who wrote reviewed and contributed to the guide A
member of the working group was acknowledged for directing the effort and coordinating the
participation of others
According to its statement of purpose this guide developed by public service managers for their colleagues boffers a blueprint that managers can use to build the business cases needed
to make informed investment decisions Q 70 The Canadian guide is organized around two
consistent themes The first is that a b business case is the key element of front-end planning
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 197
and sets the stage for the management of the project and for the achievement of the planned
benefit Q 71 It is considered an bindispensable first activity in the life cycle of an IT
investment Q 72 and when bcorrectly used can serve as a management framework for theinitiative Q 73 The second theme is that no one size fits all Public managers are urged to use
the business case development process to put their decisions into a bstrategic context Q
This guide exists within a larger set of guidance from the Treasury Board The guide
consistently points the reader back to the larger context of governing IT policies as well as the
official Treasury Board framework for managing IT projects Specifically wherever
appropriate the reader is directed to relevant text in the Treasury Boardrsquos Management of
Information Technology Policy and their An Enhanced Framework for the Management of
Information Technology Projects
This tool is structured for use as both a source book and a road map through the ITinvestment process for public managers The introduction also positions it as a tool to
bintroduce other stakeholders to the framework that shapes the decision-making model Q 74
The five central chapters of the guide introduce the framework for examining the
environment and seeking insight about the specific barriers risks and benefits of each
solution alternative being examined The next two chapters focus on customizing the case for
specific audiencesmdashagain stressing the idea that no one size or focus of presentation fits all
audiences Chapter 10 focuses on tips and techniques for designing and managing ongoing
project reviews Finally the appendix introduces Logical Framework Analysis a dynamic
technique for planning communicating and controlling project elements
53 Business case basics and beyond a primer on state government IT business cases 75
This guide was produced by the National Association of Chief Information Officers
(NASCIO) A primary author from the practitioner community worked together with the
NASCIO Executive Committee to write the guide Feedback was also provided by NASCIOrsquos
customer relationship management committee and a range of government practitioners and
private sector and academic partners Thirty-eight people from state and federal governments
and fourteen individuals from associations academic institutions and the private sector were
acknowledged for their contributionsThe guide addresses the emerging trend of business case use being broadened beyond the
analysis of one project to identify the benefits of whole programs such as data center
consolidation and Y2K This guide identifies a review of current practitioner literature on IT
business cases as the source of a framework for an enterprise business case It also presents a
discussion of the current challenges state governments in particular are facing in their e-
government initiatives and meeting the policy and service goals of their Governors The
NASCIO guide provides btools concepts and a framework for addressing a number of critical
challenges facing state Governors chief information officers and enterprise information
technology organizations Q 76
It has three main purposes (1) provide the basics on State IT business cases (2) push beyond the bBasics to Use the Business Case to Address the
Challenges of Fiscal Years 2004 and 2005 Q 77 and (3) embrace a statewide enterprise IT
investment management infrastructure It contains four different types of information for
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 198
public managers (1) business case basics (2) public sector approaches to business cases and
examples (3) resources and contacts and (4) suggested solutions to some of the challenges
One of the unique contributions of this guide is its specific discussion and treatment of anenterprise business case as separate and unique from a business case for a specific project It
also speaks to the value of technology in the business of government
54 Making smart IT choices78
This two-part guide available in print and online was produced by The Center for
Technology in Government an applied research center at the University at Albany SUNY The
Center formulated the Smart IT methodology through its work with government agencies in
projects where information strategies are applied to the challenges of public service deliveryAccording to its introduction this guide was designed to help public managers and
government organizations bmake good decisions about when and how to invest in information
technology (IT) Q 79 Put another way it was designed to bhelp public managers avoid becoming
one of the statistics that dominate reports on information technology investments Q 80
Smart IT is organized around a short list of basic issues and principles The problematic
and expensive nature of IT decisions and the high failure rates which result from hasty
unrealistic or uninformed decisions provide the basic issues framework The principles that
guide the analytical strategy of Smart IT are that public managers must identify and listen to
stakeholders they must understand what constitutes success for their initiative and they must
pursue it and form must follow function The three phase process involves the use of
analytical tools and techniques to first understand the problem and its context second
identify and test solutions and third evaluate alternatives and make choices A wide range of
tools is introduced as well as a way of understanding how each tool might best be employed
in the development of a business case within a particular economic policy organizational
managerial process and technology context
Part 1 has four chapters and begins by considering the special characteristics of the public
sector as an environment for making management decisions and IT choices In the second
chapter the analytical process that accounts for program goals stakeholders processes costs
and technology alternatives is presented Mini case examples are provided throughoutChapters 3 and 4 focus on turning the analysis into a business case and presenting it to various
audiences Part 2 presents 33 skills techniques and tools to use in the analytical process
6 Mapping practical tools to theoretical foundations
The four selected guides are very different in their genesis and designmdashyet they all present
analysis and planning frameworks that can apply both to specific IT initiatives and more
broadly to enterprise IT strategic planning They all represent the best ideas of leading practitioners and academics in this area The NASCIO guide expressed the warrant that all
four guides seem to be responding tomdashthat in IT business cases brisks sensitivities and
contingencies tend to be undeveloped and contribute to lowered credibility Q 81
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 199
61 A brief comparative analysis of the selected guides
All four guides were produced through collaborative efforts of the public private andacademic communities (Table 4) The NASCIO VMM and the CUBC guides were produced
with a governmental sponsor and a range of volunteer expert participants In each situation
the need for the guide emerged from the ranks and was responded to by a coordinating group
or professional association The Smart IT Guide was produced through a different strategymdash
by practice-oriented researchers drawing on their experiences working directly with
government agencies in developing IT initiatives Nonetheless there is notable consistency
in the messages they deliver
All of the guides stress contingency thinking heavily investing in upfront or what CTG
calls b before the beginning Q
analysis collaborative management models inclusion of IT and business stakeholders and the value of iterative analytical processes The impact that a dwell-
doneT business case can have in the ongoing design development implementation and
review of an e-government initiative is also acknowledged in all four guides
The guides vary considerably in their recommendations of specific tools and techniques to
carry out a business case analysis The Canadian guide and the VMM link the analytical
framework very closely to a specific tool Smart IT presents an analytical framework and
links steps in the analysis to a group of tools from which public managers can choose The
guides vary in their links between recommended actions and the specific issue or challenge
likely to be overcome by that particular action Smart IT in particular tends to link analysis to
the challenge addressed so that practitioners can anticipate which tools or techniques will
Table 4
Selected tools development strategy and focus
Tool Development strategy Focus
Value Measuring
Methodology
Best Practices Committee of the
Federal CIO Council built on
previous related efforts of the
committee Refined in use at
several federal agencies
The guides provide a particular
methodology for evaluating and
selecting initiatives based on ongoing
value cost and risk determinations
Creating and
Using a Business
Case for Information
Technology Projects
Developed by public service
managers for their colleagues
The guide offers a blueprint that
managers can use to build the business
cases needed to make informed
investment decisions
NASCIO Business
Case Primer
Single author broadly based
review committee
The primer provides tools concepts
and a framework for addressing a
number of critical challenges facing
state Governors CIOs and enterprise
information technology organizations
Making Smart
IT Choices
Developed by an applied research
center based on experiences inworking with government agencies
This guide provides concepts techniques
and tools to help organizations define aninformation technology project and make
a solid case for needed financial and
organizational investments
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 200
impact which challenges The NASCIO guide presents a warrant for business case analysis
its unique contribution is a well-developed strategy for assessing the effectiveness of a
business case and the compilation of current practices across the states Readers of the NASCIO guide have the opportunity to review many frameworks and tools sets for a model
that will support their environments and issues as well as an extensive reference list
The NASCIO guide offers examples of business cases and IT investment analysis
processes from as many states as possible The VMM guide devotes most of its space to a
comprehensive risk and cost alternative analysis The Smart IT guide focuses its presentation
on a set of tools and techniquesmdasha toolkit of sort and on the introduction of an analytical
framework to which public managers can apply appropriate tools from the toolkit The
Canadian guide provides the reader with a comprehensive overview targeted and actionable
summaries of activity within each step and unique among the guides providesrecommendations for the design of a project evaluation process
62 Building the research practice bridge
The selected guides were designed to build awareness of challenges to e-government
initiatives and to present useful strategies tools and techniques to overcome the challenges
The following section highlights the links between the research literature and the selected
guides through an analysis of each guide in terms of the four categories of challenges and
strategies derived from the literature review Several observations about the guides and
recommendations for future development of practitioner resources and for further research
into the relevance of research to practice are then provided (Tables 5 and 6)
621 Information and data factors
Research published in the public management literature related to the capture
organization management use and archiving of information and data appears to be limited
Coverage of the information and data challenges and the presentation of strategies related to
overcoming them is also limited The Canadian guide identifies initial data collection and
conversion of archival data as a cost category that must be taken into account when
considering the overall cost of an initiative Smart IT urges public managers to consider theinformation and data that a particular solution strategy depends on to be successful so that
cost and risk analysis can include any threats to access Other resources addressing these
factors are beginning to emerge from recent experiences with government information
integration initiatives These initiatives are providing new insights into the challenges posed
by information and data issues82 insights that need to be reflected in future practice guides
622 Information technology factors
In the case of information technology Canadarsquos guide addresses almost all the challenges
The risks section of the guide is based on research about software development done by theSoftware Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University83 All three tools discuss the
need for technical skills and expertise Two address the complexity of the technology used in
the project Two others address usefulness and ease of use as important elements
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 201
All of the guides speak to the challenges that stem from organizational and managerialrealities Each introduces the discussion of these challenges at a different level based on
their target audience and style The NASCIO guide speaks to organizational challenges
primarily at an enterprise level seeking to encourage CIOrsquos and other leaders to consider the
Table 5
E-government challenges address by selected tools
VMM CUBC BCBB MSIT
Information and data challenges
Information and data quality U
Information technology challenges
Security issues U U U
Technological incompatibility U U
Technology complexity U U
Technical skills andor expertise U U U
Technology newness U U
Organizational and managerial challenges
Project size and related complexity U U
Users or organizational diversity U
Lack of alignment between organizational
goals and IT project
U U
Multiple or conflicting goals U U
Resistance to change U
Turf and conflicts
Legal and regulatory challenges
Restrictive laws and regulations U U
One-year budget restrictions U
Potential intergovernmental relationships U U
Institutional and environmental challenges
Privacy concerns U
Institutional arrangements (eg autonomy of agencies) U
Competition or political pressures (eg timing) U U U
Identification of partners and their contributions U U U
Lessons from previous IT experiences U U U
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 202
strategic role of the enterprise The CUBC focuses more directly on initiative level
managerial challenges such as skills of the project leader planning as a management tool
and adequate funding VMM provides techniques for assessing the impact of organizationaland managerial risks such as a lack of alignment Further it provides techniques for testing
underlying assumptions about initiatives and for assessing the impact of incorrect
assumptions on an initiative plan Smart IT raises awareness about organizational and
managerial risks such as lack of attention to users a lack of alignment between initiative and
organizational goals and multiple and conflicting goals It provides techniques such as
structured service objectives visioning and a strategic framework for minimizing these
challenges All of these guides urge stakeholder involvement as a critical strategy for
overcoming organizational and managerial challenges
624 Legal and regulatory factors
Legal and regulatory challenges are well addressed in the guides The NASCIO guide
covers the topic of legal frameworks and provides guidance on reviewing governing policies
and regulations It advises public managers to be aware of regulatory frameworks in the
development of the IT initiatives Smart IT speaks to these challenges as well by providing
tools such as partisan analysis stakeholder analysis and news analysis Each guide presents a
discussion of the possible enabling and constraining influences of the regulatory environment
on e-government initiatives Managers are urged for example to carefully consider security
policies that restrict or facilitate infrastructure expansion efforts
625 Institutional and environmental factors
Challenges stemming from environmental realities and institutional practices are identified
in each the four selected guides Timing in particular is presented as a strategy for
overcoming some of the environmental and institutional challenges The NASCIO Guide for
example encourages public managers to understand the impact of election cycles on their
initiatives Smart IT also speaks to these environmental challenges and adds in the one-year
budgetary cycles of government and its challenges to multi-year multi-institutional IT
initiatives The NASCIO guide the Canadian Treasury Board guide and the Smart IT guide
speak to the need to scan the economic and political environments and to carefully choose thebtiming Q of the IT initiative Smart IT provides a number of tools and techniques for
increasing awareness environmental and institutional factors and their influence
7 Final comments and recommendations
Understanding and reducing risk in e-government initiatives is a high priority for both
researchers and practitioners One consequence of attention to risk is that organizations both
public and private are increasing their investments in standard tools for planning and managingIT initiatives This study has sought to examine whether the tools available to practitioners
benefit from research in IS We believe the answer is bYes Q Increasingly practical guides are
urging practitioners to think beyond technology to think about bsystems in context Q 84
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 204
Our comparison of selected research findings and practical guides has provided insight into
the extent to which research is reflected in guides to inform practice The analysis highlighted
the particular characteristics of the guides and provided a general review of the extent towhich these guides ref lect cur rent research Five observations about the key commonalties
among the guides (see Table 7) and four recommendations for future efforts in both research
and practice also emerged from the analysis
The four recommendations derived from the analysis of gaps between current research and
the guides are provided to inform both future IS research and practical guide development
efforts This work also informs future efforts to conduct further empirical studies of the
impact of research on the focus and content of e-government investment decision making
tools in international national state and local governments
71 Characterize risk in context
The guides introduce the concept of risk and speak to the need to identify and invest in
strategies to manage risk Risk as a concept receives very thorough treatment however
challenges tend to be characterized in general terms A more thorough characterization of the
specific risks to specific kinds of initiatives would complement the presentation of risk
identification and analysis strategies Practitioners would be more aware of the potential risks
they face and could consider the analytic methodologies in terms of a set of likely risks given
the context of a particular initiative
72 Build understanding of information and data challenges
The impact of information and data challenges such as inconsistent data structures semantic
issues and incomplete data on the success of e-government initiatives need to be explored
further in research and presented more thoroughly in practitioner guides The success of e-
government initiatives involving multi-agency information sharing and integration such as
homeland security and public health depend on greater understanding of these challenges
Table 7
Key commonalities of selected E-government practitioner guides
1 Risks sensitivities and contingencies tend to be undeveloped and that threatens the credibility of IS
initiatives (NASCIO 2003)
2 The iterative process of information gathering analysis and decision making is central to the effort to
build understanding of problems solutions alternatives costs and risks
3 Investment analysis and business case documents are living documents and if maintained and updated over
time can provide guidance to teams throughout an initiative and beyond
4 Contextualizing technology solutions is critical to success b No one size fits all Q is the underlying theme
throughout each of the guides Finding out what size does fit in which situation is the goal each guide setsout to achieve
5 Contingency thinking is necessary for planning and preparation for unexpected consequences and changes
in the bvalue cost and risk Q determinations
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 205
73 Build a business case for business case analysis
Empirical support for the investment in business case and investment analysis is lacking Theguides present common-sense rationales for using business case strategies Some outline the
necessary elements The NASCIO guide outlines a set of key value indicators for a sound business
case The Smart IT Guide is illustrated throughout with excerpts from a business case However a
robust empirical base for particular business case strategies within particular environments and
contexts would provide public managers with a more informed roadmap for their efforts
74 Explore the impact of contingency thinking in project planning and management
The guides generally focus on the how-to of investment analysis and business casedevelopment Future guides need to continue to enhance the capability of public managers to
identify influence and act on the dynamic set of contingencies that influence information
technology initiatives Project management training for IT managers for example can
contribute as well to the ability of government managers to understand and prepare for the
dynamic environment of e-government initiatives
Governments at all levels have invested in the development of guides and handbooks to
raise awareness of the challenges facing IT initiatives These practical guides are providing a
bridge between knowledge gained through research in information systems public
administration political science organization theory and management and the knowledge
gained by practitioners participating in and leading these technology initiatives These
resources provide an opportunity when developed with full knowledge of current research and
practice to build awareness about these challenges and to provide tools and techniques that can
lead to success This study supports the conclusion that although practitioners may not read IS
research directly this research is finding its way at least recently onto their desktops and into
their briefcases and presumably into their IT initiatives through the pages of research-aware
practical guides reference tools and handbooks Further empirical work focusing on the extent
to which practitioners are using these and similar guides and the nature of that use is called for
Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank Sharon Dawes Terry Maxwell Anthony Cresswell and Luis
Luna-Reyes for their valuable comments in early versions of this paper Any mistakes or
omissions are the sole responsibility of the authors
Appendix A Bibliography included in Tables 1 and 2
Ambite J L et al (2002) Data integration and access In W J McIver amp A K
Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government Technology Human Factors and
Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic Publishers
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 206
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems
In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government
Technology Human Factors and Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic PublishersDeLone W amp Mclean E (1992) Information systems success The quest for the
dependent variable Information Systems Research 3(1) 60ndash95
DeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean Model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30
Duncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public
Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group
PublishingEdmiston K D (2003) State and local e-government Prospects and challenges
American Review of Public Administration 33(1) 20ndash45
Flowers S (1996) Software failure Management failure Amazing Stories and
Cautionary Tales New York Wiley
Fountain J E (2001) Building the Virtual State Information Technology and Institutional
Change Washington DC Brookings Institution Press
Gagnon Y -C (2001) The behavior of public managers in adopting new technologies
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(4) 337ndash350
Garson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for publicadministration In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and
Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
Harris N D (2000) Intergovernmental cooperation in the development and use of
information systems In G D Garson (Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New
York Marcel Dekker Inc
Heintze T amp Bretschneider S (2000) Information technology and restructuring in public
organizations Does adoption of information technology affect organizational structures
communications and decision making Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 10(4) 801ndash830
Ho A T -K (2002) Reinventing local governments and the e-government initiative
Public Administration Review 62(4) 434ndash444
Holden S H Norris D F amp Fletcher P D (2003) Electronic government at the local
level Progress to date and future issues Public Performance and Management Review
26 (4) 325ndash344
Irvine C E (2000) Security issues for automated information systems In G D Garson
(Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New York Marcel Dekker Inc
Jiang J amp Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation success
factors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 208
Rocheleau B (2000) Prescriptions for public-sector information management A review
analysis and critique American Review of Public Administration 30(4) 414ndash435
Rocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systemsIn G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues
Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Roy J (2003) The relational dynamics of e-governance A case study of the City of
Ottawa Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 391ndash403
Smith L D Campbell J F Subramanian A Bird D A amp Nelson A C (2001)
Strategic planning for municipal information systems Some lessons from a large US City
American Review of Public Administration 31(2) 139ndash157
Tayi G K amp Ballou D P (1998) Examining data quality Communications of the ACM
41(2) 54ndash56Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
West J P amp Berman E M (2001) The impact of revitalized management practices
on the adoption of information technology A national survey of local governments
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(3) 233ndash253
Notes and References
1 Gil-Garcıa J Ramon amp Luna-Reyes Luis F (2003) Towards a definition of electronicgovernment A comparative review In Mendez-Vilas A et al (Eds) Techno-legal
aspects of information society and new economy An overview Extremadura Spain7
Formatex Information Society Series
2 Best J D (1997) The Digital Organization New York 7 Wiley
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems In
W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in digital government Technology
human factors and policy Norwell MA7 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Landsbergen D J amp Wolken Jr G (1998 October) Eliminating Legal and
Policy Barriers to Interoperable Government Systems Paper presented at theannual research conference of the association for public policy analysis and
management New York
3 Bellamy C (2000) The politics of public information systems In G D Garson (Ed)
Handbook of Public Information Systems New York 7 Marcel Dekker IncDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed)
Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
PublishingMilner E M (2000) Managing Information and Knowledge in the Public Sector New
York 7 RoutledgeRocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systems
In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management
Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group Publishing
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 210
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
formulate manage and maintain the portfolio of initiatives to ensure that investments made in
IT yield the anticipated benefit Q to members of the federal information technology community
The Value Measuring Methodology (VMM) How-To-Guide builds on the prior work of two efforts in particular In 2001 the Social Security Administration (SSA) in cooperation
with the General Services Administration (GSA) began to develop a methodology to asses
the value of electronic services Their goal was to produce a tool that that would be
bcompliant with current Federal regulations and OMB guidance applicable across the Federal
Government and pragmatically focused on implementation Q 66 In addition a team from Booz
Allen Hamilton and the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard was asked to conduct a
related study That report based on interviews with a variety of professionals in the field as
well as the private sector and the academic community presented the first version of the
VMM its supporting theories and philosophy Since the initial release VMM has beenapplied and refined into its current form
VMM like the methodologies and frameworks presented in the other guides calls for the
inclusion of a broad set of stakeholders affected by the initiative including direct users and
government partners The warrant for this guide was the gap between current tools and the
bneed for a more thorough and rigorous analytical approach to investment evaluation
planning and management Q 67 VMM is positioned as responding to this need by providing a
bcomprehensive and quantitative way to capture the impact that possible investment
alternatives would have on each of these parties Q 68 The methodology is designed in particular
to focus analysis on the value cost and risk baseline for any initiative changes to those baseline measures over time and the implications of those changes
The VMM How-To-Guide is organized into eight sections The Essential Factors
Framework of value cost and risk the foundation of VMM is introduced in Section 3
together with a discussion of the value gained from using the VMM methodology to analyze
e-government and other initiatives Section 4 presents an overview of the four steps of the
VMM Section 5 provides a comprehensive step-by-step presentation of the techniques and
tools of VMM as well as a discussion of the resources necessary to complete a VMM
analysis key concepts and real-life lessons from past implementations and some best
practices observations
52 Creating and using a business case for information technology projects69
This guide was issued by the Project Management Office Chief Information Officer
Branch of the Treasury Board of Canada The production of the guide was organized through
the Project Management Office and was staffed with volunteer members of a working group
as well as many additional volunteers who wrote reviewed and contributed to the guide A
member of the working group was acknowledged for directing the effort and coordinating the
participation of others
According to its statement of purpose this guide developed by public service managers for their colleagues boffers a blueprint that managers can use to build the business cases needed
to make informed investment decisions Q 70 The Canadian guide is organized around two
consistent themes The first is that a b business case is the key element of front-end planning
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 197
and sets the stage for the management of the project and for the achievement of the planned
benefit Q 71 It is considered an bindispensable first activity in the life cycle of an IT
investment Q 72 and when bcorrectly used can serve as a management framework for theinitiative Q 73 The second theme is that no one size fits all Public managers are urged to use
the business case development process to put their decisions into a bstrategic context Q
This guide exists within a larger set of guidance from the Treasury Board The guide
consistently points the reader back to the larger context of governing IT policies as well as the
official Treasury Board framework for managing IT projects Specifically wherever
appropriate the reader is directed to relevant text in the Treasury Boardrsquos Management of
Information Technology Policy and their An Enhanced Framework for the Management of
Information Technology Projects
This tool is structured for use as both a source book and a road map through the ITinvestment process for public managers The introduction also positions it as a tool to
bintroduce other stakeholders to the framework that shapes the decision-making model Q 74
The five central chapters of the guide introduce the framework for examining the
environment and seeking insight about the specific barriers risks and benefits of each
solution alternative being examined The next two chapters focus on customizing the case for
specific audiencesmdashagain stressing the idea that no one size or focus of presentation fits all
audiences Chapter 10 focuses on tips and techniques for designing and managing ongoing
project reviews Finally the appendix introduces Logical Framework Analysis a dynamic
technique for planning communicating and controlling project elements
53 Business case basics and beyond a primer on state government IT business cases 75
This guide was produced by the National Association of Chief Information Officers
(NASCIO) A primary author from the practitioner community worked together with the
NASCIO Executive Committee to write the guide Feedback was also provided by NASCIOrsquos
customer relationship management committee and a range of government practitioners and
private sector and academic partners Thirty-eight people from state and federal governments
and fourteen individuals from associations academic institutions and the private sector were
acknowledged for their contributionsThe guide addresses the emerging trend of business case use being broadened beyond the
analysis of one project to identify the benefits of whole programs such as data center
consolidation and Y2K This guide identifies a review of current practitioner literature on IT
business cases as the source of a framework for an enterprise business case It also presents a
discussion of the current challenges state governments in particular are facing in their e-
government initiatives and meeting the policy and service goals of their Governors The
NASCIO guide provides btools concepts and a framework for addressing a number of critical
challenges facing state Governors chief information officers and enterprise information
technology organizations Q 76
It has three main purposes (1) provide the basics on State IT business cases (2) push beyond the bBasics to Use the Business Case to Address the
Challenges of Fiscal Years 2004 and 2005 Q 77 and (3) embrace a statewide enterprise IT
investment management infrastructure It contains four different types of information for
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 198
public managers (1) business case basics (2) public sector approaches to business cases and
examples (3) resources and contacts and (4) suggested solutions to some of the challenges
One of the unique contributions of this guide is its specific discussion and treatment of anenterprise business case as separate and unique from a business case for a specific project It
also speaks to the value of technology in the business of government
54 Making smart IT choices78
This two-part guide available in print and online was produced by The Center for
Technology in Government an applied research center at the University at Albany SUNY The
Center formulated the Smart IT methodology through its work with government agencies in
projects where information strategies are applied to the challenges of public service deliveryAccording to its introduction this guide was designed to help public managers and
government organizations bmake good decisions about when and how to invest in information
technology (IT) Q 79 Put another way it was designed to bhelp public managers avoid becoming
one of the statistics that dominate reports on information technology investments Q 80
Smart IT is organized around a short list of basic issues and principles The problematic
and expensive nature of IT decisions and the high failure rates which result from hasty
unrealistic or uninformed decisions provide the basic issues framework The principles that
guide the analytical strategy of Smart IT are that public managers must identify and listen to
stakeholders they must understand what constitutes success for their initiative and they must
pursue it and form must follow function The three phase process involves the use of
analytical tools and techniques to first understand the problem and its context second
identify and test solutions and third evaluate alternatives and make choices A wide range of
tools is introduced as well as a way of understanding how each tool might best be employed
in the development of a business case within a particular economic policy organizational
managerial process and technology context
Part 1 has four chapters and begins by considering the special characteristics of the public
sector as an environment for making management decisions and IT choices In the second
chapter the analytical process that accounts for program goals stakeholders processes costs
and technology alternatives is presented Mini case examples are provided throughoutChapters 3 and 4 focus on turning the analysis into a business case and presenting it to various
audiences Part 2 presents 33 skills techniques and tools to use in the analytical process
6 Mapping practical tools to theoretical foundations
The four selected guides are very different in their genesis and designmdashyet they all present
analysis and planning frameworks that can apply both to specific IT initiatives and more
broadly to enterprise IT strategic planning They all represent the best ideas of leading practitioners and academics in this area The NASCIO guide expressed the warrant that all
four guides seem to be responding tomdashthat in IT business cases brisks sensitivities and
contingencies tend to be undeveloped and contribute to lowered credibility Q 81
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 199
61 A brief comparative analysis of the selected guides
All four guides were produced through collaborative efforts of the public private andacademic communities (Table 4) The NASCIO VMM and the CUBC guides were produced
with a governmental sponsor and a range of volunteer expert participants In each situation
the need for the guide emerged from the ranks and was responded to by a coordinating group
or professional association The Smart IT Guide was produced through a different strategymdash
by practice-oriented researchers drawing on their experiences working directly with
government agencies in developing IT initiatives Nonetheless there is notable consistency
in the messages they deliver
All of the guides stress contingency thinking heavily investing in upfront or what CTG
calls b before the beginning Q
analysis collaborative management models inclusion of IT and business stakeholders and the value of iterative analytical processes The impact that a dwell-
doneT business case can have in the ongoing design development implementation and
review of an e-government initiative is also acknowledged in all four guides
The guides vary considerably in their recommendations of specific tools and techniques to
carry out a business case analysis The Canadian guide and the VMM link the analytical
framework very closely to a specific tool Smart IT presents an analytical framework and
links steps in the analysis to a group of tools from which public managers can choose The
guides vary in their links between recommended actions and the specific issue or challenge
likely to be overcome by that particular action Smart IT in particular tends to link analysis to
the challenge addressed so that practitioners can anticipate which tools or techniques will
Table 4
Selected tools development strategy and focus
Tool Development strategy Focus
Value Measuring
Methodology
Best Practices Committee of the
Federal CIO Council built on
previous related efforts of the
committee Refined in use at
several federal agencies
The guides provide a particular
methodology for evaluating and
selecting initiatives based on ongoing
value cost and risk determinations
Creating and
Using a Business
Case for Information
Technology Projects
Developed by public service
managers for their colleagues
The guide offers a blueprint that
managers can use to build the business
cases needed to make informed
investment decisions
NASCIO Business
Case Primer
Single author broadly based
review committee
The primer provides tools concepts
and a framework for addressing a
number of critical challenges facing
state Governors CIOs and enterprise
information technology organizations
Making Smart
IT Choices
Developed by an applied research
center based on experiences inworking with government agencies
This guide provides concepts techniques
and tools to help organizations define aninformation technology project and make
a solid case for needed financial and
organizational investments
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 200
impact which challenges The NASCIO guide presents a warrant for business case analysis
its unique contribution is a well-developed strategy for assessing the effectiveness of a
business case and the compilation of current practices across the states Readers of the NASCIO guide have the opportunity to review many frameworks and tools sets for a model
that will support their environments and issues as well as an extensive reference list
The NASCIO guide offers examples of business cases and IT investment analysis
processes from as many states as possible The VMM guide devotes most of its space to a
comprehensive risk and cost alternative analysis The Smart IT guide focuses its presentation
on a set of tools and techniquesmdasha toolkit of sort and on the introduction of an analytical
framework to which public managers can apply appropriate tools from the toolkit The
Canadian guide provides the reader with a comprehensive overview targeted and actionable
summaries of activity within each step and unique among the guides providesrecommendations for the design of a project evaluation process
62 Building the research practice bridge
The selected guides were designed to build awareness of challenges to e-government
initiatives and to present useful strategies tools and techniques to overcome the challenges
The following section highlights the links between the research literature and the selected
guides through an analysis of each guide in terms of the four categories of challenges and
strategies derived from the literature review Several observations about the guides and
recommendations for future development of practitioner resources and for further research
into the relevance of research to practice are then provided (Tables 5 and 6)
621 Information and data factors
Research published in the public management literature related to the capture
organization management use and archiving of information and data appears to be limited
Coverage of the information and data challenges and the presentation of strategies related to
overcoming them is also limited The Canadian guide identifies initial data collection and
conversion of archival data as a cost category that must be taken into account when
considering the overall cost of an initiative Smart IT urges public managers to consider theinformation and data that a particular solution strategy depends on to be successful so that
cost and risk analysis can include any threats to access Other resources addressing these
factors are beginning to emerge from recent experiences with government information
integration initiatives These initiatives are providing new insights into the challenges posed
by information and data issues82 insights that need to be reflected in future practice guides
622 Information technology factors
In the case of information technology Canadarsquos guide addresses almost all the challenges
The risks section of the guide is based on research about software development done by theSoftware Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University83 All three tools discuss the
need for technical skills and expertise Two address the complexity of the technology used in
the project Two others address usefulness and ease of use as important elements
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 201
All of the guides speak to the challenges that stem from organizational and managerialrealities Each introduces the discussion of these challenges at a different level based on
their target audience and style The NASCIO guide speaks to organizational challenges
primarily at an enterprise level seeking to encourage CIOrsquos and other leaders to consider the
Table 5
E-government challenges address by selected tools
VMM CUBC BCBB MSIT
Information and data challenges
Information and data quality U
Information technology challenges
Security issues U U U
Technological incompatibility U U
Technology complexity U U
Technical skills andor expertise U U U
Technology newness U U
Organizational and managerial challenges
Project size and related complexity U U
Users or organizational diversity U
Lack of alignment between organizational
goals and IT project
U U
Multiple or conflicting goals U U
Resistance to change U
Turf and conflicts
Legal and regulatory challenges
Restrictive laws and regulations U U
One-year budget restrictions U
Potential intergovernmental relationships U U
Institutional and environmental challenges
Privacy concerns U
Institutional arrangements (eg autonomy of agencies) U
Competition or political pressures (eg timing) U U U
Identification of partners and their contributions U U U
Lessons from previous IT experiences U U U
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 202
strategic role of the enterprise The CUBC focuses more directly on initiative level
managerial challenges such as skills of the project leader planning as a management tool
and adequate funding VMM provides techniques for assessing the impact of organizationaland managerial risks such as a lack of alignment Further it provides techniques for testing
underlying assumptions about initiatives and for assessing the impact of incorrect
assumptions on an initiative plan Smart IT raises awareness about organizational and
managerial risks such as lack of attention to users a lack of alignment between initiative and
organizational goals and multiple and conflicting goals It provides techniques such as
structured service objectives visioning and a strategic framework for minimizing these
challenges All of these guides urge stakeholder involvement as a critical strategy for
overcoming organizational and managerial challenges
624 Legal and regulatory factors
Legal and regulatory challenges are well addressed in the guides The NASCIO guide
covers the topic of legal frameworks and provides guidance on reviewing governing policies
and regulations It advises public managers to be aware of regulatory frameworks in the
development of the IT initiatives Smart IT speaks to these challenges as well by providing
tools such as partisan analysis stakeholder analysis and news analysis Each guide presents a
discussion of the possible enabling and constraining influences of the regulatory environment
on e-government initiatives Managers are urged for example to carefully consider security
policies that restrict or facilitate infrastructure expansion efforts
625 Institutional and environmental factors
Challenges stemming from environmental realities and institutional practices are identified
in each the four selected guides Timing in particular is presented as a strategy for
overcoming some of the environmental and institutional challenges The NASCIO Guide for
example encourages public managers to understand the impact of election cycles on their
initiatives Smart IT also speaks to these environmental challenges and adds in the one-year
budgetary cycles of government and its challenges to multi-year multi-institutional IT
initiatives The NASCIO guide the Canadian Treasury Board guide and the Smart IT guide
speak to the need to scan the economic and political environments and to carefully choose thebtiming Q of the IT initiative Smart IT provides a number of tools and techniques for
increasing awareness environmental and institutional factors and their influence
7 Final comments and recommendations
Understanding and reducing risk in e-government initiatives is a high priority for both
researchers and practitioners One consequence of attention to risk is that organizations both
public and private are increasing their investments in standard tools for planning and managingIT initiatives This study has sought to examine whether the tools available to practitioners
benefit from research in IS We believe the answer is bYes Q Increasingly practical guides are
urging practitioners to think beyond technology to think about bsystems in context Q 84
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 204
Our comparison of selected research findings and practical guides has provided insight into
the extent to which research is reflected in guides to inform practice The analysis highlighted
the particular characteristics of the guides and provided a general review of the extent towhich these guides ref lect cur rent research Five observations about the key commonalties
among the guides (see Table 7) and four recommendations for future efforts in both research
and practice also emerged from the analysis
The four recommendations derived from the analysis of gaps between current research and
the guides are provided to inform both future IS research and practical guide development
efforts This work also informs future efforts to conduct further empirical studies of the
impact of research on the focus and content of e-government investment decision making
tools in international national state and local governments
71 Characterize risk in context
The guides introduce the concept of risk and speak to the need to identify and invest in
strategies to manage risk Risk as a concept receives very thorough treatment however
challenges tend to be characterized in general terms A more thorough characterization of the
specific risks to specific kinds of initiatives would complement the presentation of risk
identification and analysis strategies Practitioners would be more aware of the potential risks
they face and could consider the analytic methodologies in terms of a set of likely risks given
the context of a particular initiative
72 Build understanding of information and data challenges
The impact of information and data challenges such as inconsistent data structures semantic
issues and incomplete data on the success of e-government initiatives need to be explored
further in research and presented more thoroughly in practitioner guides The success of e-
government initiatives involving multi-agency information sharing and integration such as
homeland security and public health depend on greater understanding of these challenges
Table 7
Key commonalities of selected E-government practitioner guides
1 Risks sensitivities and contingencies tend to be undeveloped and that threatens the credibility of IS
initiatives (NASCIO 2003)
2 The iterative process of information gathering analysis and decision making is central to the effort to
build understanding of problems solutions alternatives costs and risks
3 Investment analysis and business case documents are living documents and if maintained and updated over
time can provide guidance to teams throughout an initiative and beyond
4 Contextualizing technology solutions is critical to success b No one size fits all Q is the underlying theme
throughout each of the guides Finding out what size does fit in which situation is the goal each guide setsout to achieve
5 Contingency thinking is necessary for planning and preparation for unexpected consequences and changes
in the bvalue cost and risk Q determinations
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 205
73 Build a business case for business case analysis
Empirical support for the investment in business case and investment analysis is lacking Theguides present common-sense rationales for using business case strategies Some outline the
necessary elements The NASCIO guide outlines a set of key value indicators for a sound business
case The Smart IT Guide is illustrated throughout with excerpts from a business case However a
robust empirical base for particular business case strategies within particular environments and
contexts would provide public managers with a more informed roadmap for their efforts
74 Explore the impact of contingency thinking in project planning and management
The guides generally focus on the how-to of investment analysis and business casedevelopment Future guides need to continue to enhance the capability of public managers to
identify influence and act on the dynamic set of contingencies that influence information
technology initiatives Project management training for IT managers for example can
contribute as well to the ability of government managers to understand and prepare for the
dynamic environment of e-government initiatives
Governments at all levels have invested in the development of guides and handbooks to
raise awareness of the challenges facing IT initiatives These practical guides are providing a
bridge between knowledge gained through research in information systems public
administration political science organization theory and management and the knowledge
gained by practitioners participating in and leading these technology initiatives These
resources provide an opportunity when developed with full knowledge of current research and
practice to build awareness about these challenges and to provide tools and techniques that can
lead to success This study supports the conclusion that although practitioners may not read IS
research directly this research is finding its way at least recently onto their desktops and into
their briefcases and presumably into their IT initiatives through the pages of research-aware
practical guides reference tools and handbooks Further empirical work focusing on the extent
to which practitioners are using these and similar guides and the nature of that use is called for
Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank Sharon Dawes Terry Maxwell Anthony Cresswell and Luis
Luna-Reyes for their valuable comments in early versions of this paper Any mistakes or
omissions are the sole responsibility of the authors
Appendix A Bibliography included in Tables 1 and 2
Ambite J L et al (2002) Data integration and access In W J McIver amp A K
Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government Technology Human Factors and
Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic Publishers
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 206
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems
In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government
Technology Human Factors and Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic PublishersDeLone W amp Mclean E (1992) Information systems success The quest for the
dependent variable Information Systems Research 3(1) 60ndash95
DeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean Model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30
Duncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public
Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group
PublishingEdmiston K D (2003) State and local e-government Prospects and challenges
American Review of Public Administration 33(1) 20ndash45
Flowers S (1996) Software failure Management failure Amazing Stories and
Cautionary Tales New York Wiley
Fountain J E (2001) Building the Virtual State Information Technology and Institutional
Change Washington DC Brookings Institution Press
Gagnon Y -C (2001) The behavior of public managers in adopting new technologies
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(4) 337ndash350
Garson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for publicadministration In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and
Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
Harris N D (2000) Intergovernmental cooperation in the development and use of
information systems In G D Garson (Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New
York Marcel Dekker Inc
Heintze T amp Bretschneider S (2000) Information technology and restructuring in public
organizations Does adoption of information technology affect organizational structures
communications and decision making Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 10(4) 801ndash830
Ho A T -K (2002) Reinventing local governments and the e-government initiative
Public Administration Review 62(4) 434ndash444
Holden S H Norris D F amp Fletcher P D (2003) Electronic government at the local
level Progress to date and future issues Public Performance and Management Review
26 (4) 325ndash344
Irvine C E (2000) Security issues for automated information systems In G D Garson
(Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New York Marcel Dekker Inc
Jiang J amp Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation success
factors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 208
Rocheleau B (2000) Prescriptions for public-sector information management A review
analysis and critique American Review of Public Administration 30(4) 414ndash435
Rocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systemsIn G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues
Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Roy J (2003) The relational dynamics of e-governance A case study of the City of
Ottawa Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 391ndash403
Smith L D Campbell J F Subramanian A Bird D A amp Nelson A C (2001)
Strategic planning for municipal information systems Some lessons from a large US City
American Review of Public Administration 31(2) 139ndash157
Tayi G K amp Ballou D P (1998) Examining data quality Communications of the ACM
41(2) 54ndash56Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
West J P amp Berman E M (2001) The impact of revitalized management practices
on the adoption of information technology A national survey of local governments
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(3) 233ndash253
Notes and References
1 Gil-Garcıa J Ramon amp Luna-Reyes Luis F (2003) Towards a definition of electronicgovernment A comparative review In Mendez-Vilas A et al (Eds) Techno-legal
aspects of information society and new economy An overview Extremadura Spain7
Formatex Information Society Series
2 Best J D (1997) The Digital Organization New York 7 Wiley
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems In
W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in digital government Technology
human factors and policy Norwell MA7 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Landsbergen D J amp Wolken Jr G (1998 October) Eliminating Legal and
Policy Barriers to Interoperable Government Systems Paper presented at theannual research conference of the association for public policy analysis and
management New York
3 Bellamy C (2000) The politics of public information systems In G D Garson (Ed)
Handbook of Public Information Systems New York 7 Marcel Dekker IncDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed)
Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
PublishingMilner E M (2000) Managing Information and Knowledge in the Public Sector New
York 7 RoutledgeRocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systems
In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management
Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group Publishing
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 210
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
and sets the stage for the management of the project and for the achievement of the planned
benefit Q 71 It is considered an bindispensable first activity in the life cycle of an IT
investment Q 72 and when bcorrectly used can serve as a management framework for theinitiative Q 73 The second theme is that no one size fits all Public managers are urged to use
the business case development process to put their decisions into a bstrategic context Q
This guide exists within a larger set of guidance from the Treasury Board The guide
consistently points the reader back to the larger context of governing IT policies as well as the
official Treasury Board framework for managing IT projects Specifically wherever
appropriate the reader is directed to relevant text in the Treasury Boardrsquos Management of
Information Technology Policy and their An Enhanced Framework for the Management of
Information Technology Projects
This tool is structured for use as both a source book and a road map through the ITinvestment process for public managers The introduction also positions it as a tool to
bintroduce other stakeholders to the framework that shapes the decision-making model Q 74
The five central chapters of the guide introduce the framework for examining the
environment and seeking insight about the specific barriers risks and benefits of each
solution alternative being examined The next two chapters focus on customizing the case for
specific audiencesmdashagain stressing the idea that no one size or focus of presentation fits all
audiences Chapter 10 focuses on tips and techniques for designing and managing ongoing
project reviews Finally the appendix introduces Logical Framework Analysis a dynamic
technique for planning communicating and controlling project elements
53 Business case basics and beyond a primer on state government IT business cases 75
This guide was produced by the National Association of Chief Information Officers
(NASCIO) A primary author from the practitioner community worked together with the
NASCIO Executive Committee to write the guide Feedback was also provided by NASCIOrsquos
customer relationship management committee and a range of government practitioners and
private sector and academic partners Thirty-eight people from state and federal governments
and fourteen individuals from associations academic institutions and the private sector were
acknowledged for their contributionsThe guide addresses the emerging trend of business case use being broadened beyond the
analysis of one project to identify the benefits of whole programs such as data center
consolidation and Y2K This guide identifies a review of current practitioner literature on IT
business cases as the source of a framework for an enterprise business case It also presents a
discussion of the current challenges state governments in particular are facing in their e-
government initiatives and meeting the policy and service goals of their Governors The
NASCIO guide provides btools concepts and a framework for addressing a number of critical
challenges facing state Governors chief information officers and enterprise information
technology organizations Q 76
It has three main purposes (1) provide the basics on State IT business cases (2) push beyond the bBasics to Use the Business Case to Address the
Challenges of Fiscal Years 2004 and 2005 Q 77 and (3) embrace a statewide enterprise IT
investment management infrastructure It contains four different types of information for
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 198
public managers (1) business case basics (2) public sector approaches to business cases and
examples (3) resources and contacts and (4) suggested solutions to some of the challenges
One of the unique contributions of this guide is its specific discussion and treatment of anenterprise business case as separate and unique from a business case for a specific project It
also speaks to the value of technology in the business of government
54 Making smart IT choices78
This two-part guide available in print and online was produced by The Center for
Technology in Government an applied research center at the University at Albany SUNY The
Center formulated the Smart IT methodology through its work with government agencies in
projects where information strategies are applied to the challenges of public service deliveryAccording to its introduction this guide was designed to help public managers and
government organizations bmake good decisions about when and how to invest in information
technology (IT) Q 79 Put another way it was designed to bhelp public managers avoid becoming
one of the statistics that dominate reports on information technology investments Q 80
Smart IT is organized around a short list of basic issues and principles The problematic
and expensive nature of IT decisions and the high failure rates which result from hasty
unrealistic or uninformed decisions provide the basic issues framework The principles that
guide the analytical strategy of Smart IT are that public managers must identify and listen to
stakeholders they must understand what constitutes success for their initiative and they must
pursue it and form must follow function The three phase process involves the use of
analytical tools and techniques to first understand the problem and its context second
identify and test solutions and third evaluate alternatives and make choices A wide range of
tools is introduced as well as a way of understanding how each tool might best be employed
in the development of a business case within a particular economic policy organizational
managerial process and technology context
Part 1 has four chapters and begins by considering the special characteristics of the public
sector as an environment for making management decisions and IT choices In the second
chapter the analytical process that accounts for program goals stakeholders processes costs
and technology alternatives is presented Mini case examples are provided throughoutChapters 3 and 4 focus on turning the analysis into a business case and presenting it to various
audiences Part 2 presents 33 skills techniques and tools to use in the analytical process
6 Mapping practical tools to theoretical foundations
The four selected guides are very different in their genesis and designmdashyet they all present
analysis and planning frameworks that can apply both to specific IT initiatives and more
broadly to enterprise IT strategic planning They all represent the best ideas of leading practitioners and academics in this area The NASCIO guide expressed the warrant that all
four guides seem to be responding tomdashthat in IT business cases brisks sensitivities and
contingencies tend to be undeveloped and contribute to lowered credibility Q 81
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 199
61 A brief comparative analysis of the selected guides
All four guides were produced through collaborative efforts of the public private andacademic communities (Table 4) The NASCIO VMM and the CUBC guides were produced
with a governmental sponsor and a range of volunteer expert participants In each situation
the need for the guide emerged from the ranks and was responded to by a coordinating group
or professional association The Smart IT Guide was produced through a different strategymdash
by practice-oriented researchers drawing on their experiences working directly with
government agencies in developing IT initiatives Nonetheless there is notable consistency
in the messages they deliver
All of the guides stress contingency thinking heavily investing in upfront or what CTG
calls b before the beginning Q
analysis collaborative management models inclusion of IT and business stakeholders and the value of iterative analytical processes The impact that a dwell-
doneT business case can have in the ongoing design development implementation and
review of an e-government initiative is also acknowledged in all four guides
The guides vary considerably in their recommendations of specific tools and techniques to
carry out a business case analysis The Canadian guide and the VMM link the analytical
framework very closely to a specific tool Smart IT presents an analytical framework and
links steps in the analysis to a group of tools from which public managers can choose The
guides vary in their links between recommended actions and the specific issue or challenge
likely to be overcome by that particular action Smart IT in particular tends to link analysis to
the challenge addressed so that practitioners can anticipate which tools or techniques will
Table 4
Selected tools development strategy and focus
Tool Development strategy Focus
Value Measuring
Methodology
Best Practices Committee of the
Federal CIO Council built on
previous related efforts of the
committee Refined in use at
several federal agencies
The guides provide a particular
methodology for evaluating and
selecting initiatives based on ongoing
value cost and risk determinations
Creating and
Using a Business
Case for Information
Technology Projects
Developed by public service
managers for their colleagues
The guide offers a blueprint that
managers can use to build the business
cases needed to make informed
investment decisions
NASCIO Business
Case Primer
Single author broadly based
review committee
The primer provides tools concepts
and a framework for addressing a
number of critical challenges facing
state Governors CIOs and enterprise
information technology organizations
Making Smart
IT Choices
Developed by an applied research
center based on experiences inworking with government agencies
This guide provides concepts techniques
and tools to help organizations define aninformation technology project and make
a solid case for needed financial and
organizational investments
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 200
impact which challenges The NASCIO guide presents a warrant for business case analysis
its unique contribution is a well-developed strategy for assessing the effectiveness of a
business case and the compilation of current practices across the states Readers of the NASCIO guide have the opportunity to review many frameworks and tools sets for a model
that will support their environments and issues as well as an extensive reference list
The NASCIO guide offers examples of business cases and IT investment analysis
processes from as many states as possible The VMM guide devotes most of its space to a
comprehensive risk and cost alternative analysis The Smart IT guide focuses its presentation
on a set of tools and techniquesmdasha toolkit of sort and on the introduction of an analytical
framework to which public managers can apply appropriate tools from the toolkit The
Canadian guide provides the reader with a comprehensive overview targeted and actionable
summaries of activity within each step and unique among the guides providesrecommendations for the design of a project evaluation process
62 Building the research practice bridge
The selected guides were designed to build awareness of challenges to e-government
initiatives and to present useful strategies tools and techniques to overcome the challenges
The following section highlights the links between the research literature and the selected
guides through an analysis of each guide in terms of the four categories of challenges and
strategies derived from the literature review Several observations about the guides and
recommendations for future development of practitioner resources and for further research
into the relevance of research to practice are then provided (Tables 5 and 6)
621 Information and data factors
Research published in the public management literature related to the capture
organization management use and archiving of information and data appears to be limited
Coverage of the information and data challenges and the presentation of strategies related to
overcoming them is also limited The Canadian guide identifies initial data collection and
conversion of archival data as a cost category that must be taken into account when
considering the overall cost of an initiative Smart IT urges public managers to consider theinformation and data that a particular solution strategy depends on to be successful so that
cost and risk analysis can include any threats to access Other resources addressing these
factors are beginning to emerge from recent experiences with government information
integration initiatives These initiatives are providing new insights into the challenges posed
by information and data issues82 insights that need to be reflected in future practice guides
622 Information technology factors
In the case of information technology Canadarsquos guide addresses almost all the challenges
The risks section of the guide is based on research about software development done by theSoftware Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University83 All three tools discuss the
need for technical skills and expertise Two address the complexity of the technology used in
the project Two others address usefulness and ease of use as important elements
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 201
All of the guides speak to the challenges that stem from organizational and managerialrealities Each introduces the discussion of these challenges at a different level based on
their target audience and style The NASCIO guide speaks to organizational challenges
primarily at an enterprise level seeking to encourage CIOrsquos and other leaders to consider the
Table 5
E-government challenges address by selected tools
VMM CUBC BCBB MSIT
Information and data challenges
Information and data quality U
Information technology challenges
Security issues U U U
Technological incompatibility U U
Technology complexity U U
Technical skills andor expertise U U U
Technology newness U U
Organizational and managerial challenges
Project size and related complexity U U
Users or organizational diversity U
Lack of alignment between organizational
goals and IT project
U U
Multiple or conflicting goals U U
Resistance to change U
Turf and conflicts
Legal and regulatory challenges
Restrictive laws and regulations U U
One-year budget restrictions U
Potential intergovernmental relationships U U
Institutional and environmental challenges
Privacy concerns U
Institutional arrangements (eg autonomy of agencies) U
Competition or political pressures (eg timing) U U U
Identification of partners and their contributions U U U
Lessons from previous IT experiences U U U
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 202
strategic role of the enterprise The CUBC focuses more directly on initiative level
managerial challenges such as skills of the project leader planning as a management tool
and adequate funding VMM provides techniques for assessing the impact of organizationaland managerial risks such as a lack of alignment Further it provides techniques for testing
underlying assumptions about initiatives and for assessing the impact of incorrect
assumptions on an initiative plan Smart IT raises awareness about organizational and
managerial risks such as lack of attention to users a lack of alignment between initiative and
organizational goals and multiple and conflicting goals It provides techniques such as
structured service objectives visioning and a strategic framework for minimizing these
challenges All of these guides urge stakeholder involvement as a critical strategy for
overcoming organizational and managerial challenges
624 Legal and regulatory factors
Legal and regulatory challenges are well addressed in the guides The NASCIO guide
covers the topic of legal frameworks and provides guidance on reviewing governing policies
and regulations It advises public managers to be aware of regulatory frameworks in the
development of the IT initiatives Smart IT speaks to these challenges as well by providing
tools such as partisan analysis stakeholder analysis and news analysis Each guide presents a
discussion of the possible enabling and constraining influences of the regulatory environment
on e-government initiatives Managers are urged for example to carefully consider security
policies that restrict or facilitate infrastructure expansion efforts
625 Institutional and environmental factors
Challenges stemming from environmental realities and institutional practices are identified
in each the four selected guides Timing in particular is presented as a strategy for
overcoming some of the environmental and institutional challenges The NASCIO Guide for
example encourages public managers to understand the impact of election cycles on their
initiatives Smart IT also speaks to these environmental challenges and adds in the one-year
budgetary cycles of government and its challenges to multi-year multi-institutional IT
initiatives The NASCIO guide the Canadian Treasury Board guide and the Smart IT guide
speak to the need to scan the economic and political environments and to carefully choose thebtiming Q of the IT initiative Smart IT provides a number of tools and techniques for
increasing awareness environmental and institutional factors and their influence
7 Final comments and recommendations
Understanding and reducing risk in e-government initiatives is a high priority for both
researchers and practitioners One consequence of attention to risk is that organizations both
public and private are increasing their investments in standard tools for planning and managingIT initiatives This study has sought to examine whether the tools available to practitioners
benefit from research in IS We believe the answer is bYes Q Increasingly practical guides are
urging practitioners to think beyond technology to think about bsystems in context Q 84
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 204
Our comparison of selected research findings and practical guides has provided insight into
the extent to which research is reflected in guides to inform practice The analysis highlighted
the particular characteristics of the guides and provided a general review of the extent towhich these guides ref lect cur rent research Five observations about the key commonalties
among the guides (see Table 7) and four recommendations for future efforts in both research
and practice also emerged from the analysis
The four recommendations derived from the analysis of gaps between current research and
the guides are provided to inform both future IS research and practical guide development
efforts This work also informs future efforts to conduct further empirical studies of the
impact of research on the focus and content of e-government investment decision making
tools in international national state and local governments
71 Characterize risk in context
The guides introduce the concept of risk and speak to the need to identify and invest in
strategies to manage risk Risk as a concept receives very thorough treatment however
challenges tend to be characterized in general terms A more thorough characterization of the
specific risks to specific kinds of initiatives would complement the presentation of risk
identification and analysis strategies Practitioners would be more aware of the potential risks
they face and could consider the analytic methodologies in terms of a set of likely risks given
the context of a particular initiative
72 Build understanding of information and data challenges
The impact of information and data challenges such as inconsistent data structures semantic
issues and incomplete data on the success of e-government initiatives need to be explored
further in research and presented more thoroughly in practitioner guides The success of e-
government initiatives involving multi-agency information sharing and integration such as
homeland security and public health depend on greater understanding of these challenges
Table 7
Key commonalities of selected E-government practitioner guides
1 Risks sensitivities and contingencies tend to be undeveloped and that threatens the credibility of IS
initiatives (NASCIO 2003)
2 The iterative process of information gathering analysis and decision making is central to the effort to
build understanding of problems solutions alternatives costs and risks
3 Investment analysis and business case documents are living documents and if maintained and updated over
time can provide guidance to teams throughout an initiative and beyond
4 Contextualizing technology solutions is critical to success b No one size fits all Q is the underlying theme
throughout each of the guides Finding out what size does fit in which situation is the goal each guide setsout to achieve
5 Contingency thinking is necessary for planning and preparation for unexpected consequences and changes
in the bvalue cost and risk Q determinations
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 205
73 Build a business case for business case analysis
Empirical support for the investment in business case and investment analysis is lacking Theguides present common-sense rationales for using business case strategies Some outline the
necessary elements The NASCIO guide outlines a set of key value indicators for a sound business
case The Smart IT Guide is illustrated throughout with excerpts from a business case However a
robust empirical base for particular business case strategies within particular environments and
contexts would provide public managers with a more informed roadmap for their efforts
74 Explore the impact of contingency thinking in project planning and management
The guides generally focus on the how-to of investment analysis and business casedevelopment Future guides need to continue to enhance the capability of public managers to
identify influence and act on the dynamic set of contingencies that influence information
technology initiatives Project management training for IT managers for example can
contribute as well to the ability of government managers to understand and prepare for the
dynamic environment of e-government initiatives
Governments at all levels have invested in the development of guides and handbooks to
raise awareness of the challenges facing IT initiatives These practical guides are providing a
bridge between knowledge gained through research in information systems public
administration political science organization theory and management and the knowledge
gained by practitioners participating in and leading these technology initiatives These
resources provide an opportunity when developed with full knowledge of current research and
practice to build awareness about these challenges and to provide tools and techniques that can
lead to success This study supports the conclusion that although practitioners may not read IS
research directly this research is finding its way at least recently onto their desktops and into
their briefcases and presumably into their IT initiatives through the pages of research-aware
practical guides reference tools and handbooks Further empirical work focusing on the extent
to which practitioners are using these and similar guides and the nature of that use is called for
Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank Sharon Dawes Terry Maxwell Anthony Cresswell and Luis
Luna-Reyes for their valuable comments in early versions of this paper Any mistakes or
omissions are the sole responsibility of the authors
Appendix A Bibliography included in Tables 1 and 2
Ambite J L et al (2002) Data integration and access In W J McIver amp A K
Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government Technology Human Factors and
Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic Publishers
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 206
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems
In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government
Technology Human Factors and Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic PublishersDeLone W amp Mclean E (1992) Information systems success The quest for the
dependent variable Information Systems Research 3(1) 60ndash95
DeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean Model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30
Duncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public
Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group
PublishingEdmiston K D (2003) State and local e-government Prospects and challenges
American Review of Public Administration 33(1) 20ndash45
Flowers S (1996) Software failure Management failure Amazing Stories and
Cautionary Tales New York Wiley
Fountain J E (2001) Building the Virtual State Information Technology and Institutional
Change Washington DC Brookings Institution Press
Gagnon Y -C (2001) The behavior of public managers in adopting new technologies
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(4) 337ndash350
Garson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for publicadministration In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and
Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
Harris N D (2000) Intergovernmental cooperation in the development and use of
information systems In G D Garson (Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New
York Marcel Dekker Inc
Heintze T amp Bretschneider S (2000) Information technology and restructuring in public
organizations Does adoption of information technology affect organizational structures
communications and decision making Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 10(4) 801ndash830
Ho A T -K (2002) Reinventing local governments and the e-government initiative
Public Administration Review 62(4) 434ndash444
Holden S H Norris D F amp Fletcher P D (2003) Electronic government at the local
level Progress to date and future issues Public Performance and Management Review
26 (4) 325ndash344
Irvine C E (2000) Security issues for automated information systems In G D Garson
(Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New York Marcel Dekker Inc
Jiang J amp Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation success
factors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 208
Rocheleau B (2000) Prescriptions for public-sector information management A review
analysis and critique American Review of Public Administration 30(4) 414ndash435
Rocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systemsIn G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues
Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Roy J (2003) The relational dynamics of e-governance A case study of the City of
Ottawa Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 391ndash403
Smith L D Campbell J F Subramanian A Bird D A amp Nelson A C (2001)
Strategic planning for municipal information systems Some lessons from a large US City
American Review of Public Administration 31(2) 139ndash157
Tayi G K amp Ballou D P (1998) Examining data quality Communications of the ACM
41(2) 54ndash56Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
West J P amp Berman E M (2001) The impact of revitalized management practices
on the adoption of information technology A national survey of local governments
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(3) 233ndash253
Notes and References
1 Gil-Garcıa J Ramon amp Luna-Reyes Luis F (2003) Towards a definition of electronicgovernment A comparative review In Mendez-Vilas A et al (Eds) Techno-legal
aspects of information society and new economy An overview Extremadura Spain7
Formatex Information Society Series
2 Best J D (1997) The Digital Organization New York 7 Wiley
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems In
W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in digital government Technology
human factors and policy Norwell MA7 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Landsbergen D J amp Wolken Jr G (1998 October) Eliminating Legal and
Policy Barriers to Interoperable Government Systems Paper presented at theannual research conference of the association for public policy analysis and
management New York
3 Bellamy C (2000) The politics of public information systems In G D Garson (Ed)
Handbook of Public Information Systems New York 7 Marcel Dekker IncDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed)
Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
PublishingMilner E M (2000) Managing Information and Knowledge in the Public Sector New
York 7 RoutledgeRocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systems
In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management
Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group Publishing
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 210
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
public managers (1) business case basics (2) public sector approaches to business cases and
examples (3) resources and contacts and (4) suggested solutions to some of the challenges
One of the unique contributions of this guide is its specific discussion and treatment of anenterprise business case as separate and unique from a business case for a specific project It
also speaks to the value of technology in the business of government
54 Making smart IT choices78
This two-part guide available in print and online was produced by The Center for
Technology in Government an applied research center at the University at Albany SUNY The
Center formulated the Smart IT methodology through its work with government agencies in
projects where information strategies are applied to the challenges of public service deliveryAccording to its introduction this guide was designed to help public managers and
government organizations bmake good decisions about when and how to invest in information
technology (IT) Q 79 Put another way it was designed to bhelp public managers avoid becoming
one of the statistics that dominate reports on information technology investments Q 80
Smart IT is organized around a short list of basic issues and principles The problematic
and expensive nature of IT decisions and the high failure rates which result from hasty
unrealistic or uninformed decisions provide the basic issues framework The principles that
guide the analytical strategy of Smart IT are that public managers must identify and listen to
stakeholders they must understand what constitutes success for their initiative and they must
pursue it and form must follow function The three phase process involves the use of
analytical tools and techniques to first understand the problem and its context second
identify and test solutions and third evaluate alternatives and make choices A wide range of
tools is introduced as well as a way of understanding how each tool might best be employed
in the development of a business case within a particular economic policy organizational
managerial process and technology context
Part 1 has four chapters and begins by considering the special characteristics of the public
sector as an environment for making management decisions and IT choices In the second
chapter the analytical process that accounts for program goals stakeholders processes costs
and technology alternatives is presented Mini case examples are provided throughoutChapters 3 and 4 focus on turning the analysis into a business case and presenting it to various
audiences Part 2 presents 33 skills techniques and tools to use in the analytical process
6 Mapping practical tools to theoretical foundations
The four selected guides are very different in their genesis and designmdashyet they all present
analysis and planning frameworks that can apply both to specific IT initiatives and more
broadly to enterprise IT strategic planning They all represent the best ideas of leading practitioners and academics in this area The NASCIO guide expressed the warrant that all
four guides seem to be responding tomdashthat in IT business cases brisks sensitivities and
contingencies tend to be undeveloped and contribute to lowered credibility Q 81
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 199
61 A brief comparative analysis of the selected guides
All four guides were produced through collaborative efforts of the public private andacademic communities (Table 4) The NASCIO VMM and the CUBC guides were produced
with a governmental sponsor and a range of volunteer expert participants In each situation
the need for the guide emerged from the ranks and was responded to by a coordinating group
or professional association The Smart IT Guide was produced through a different strategymdash
by practice-oriented researchers drawing on their experiences working directly with
government agencies in developing IT initiatives Nonetheless there is notable consistency
in the messages they deliver
All of the guides stress contingency thinking heavily investing in upfront or what CTG
calls b before the beginning Q
analysis collaborative management models inclusion of IT and business stakeholders and the value of iterative analytical processes The impact that a dwell-
doneT business case can have in the ongoing design development implementation and
review of an e-government initiative is also acknowledged in all four guides
The guides vary considerably in their recommendations of specific tools and techniques to
carry out a business case analysis The Canadian guide and the VMM link the analytical
framework very closely to a specific tool Smart IT presents an analytical framework and
links steps in the analysis to a group of tools from which public managers can choose The
guides vary in their links between recommended actions and the specific issue or challenge
likely to be overcome by that particular action Smart IT in particular tends to link analysis to
the challenge addressed so that practitioners can anticipate which tools or techniques will
Table 4
Selected tools development strategy and focus
Tool Development strategy Focus
Value Measuring
Methodology
Best Practices Committee of the
Federal CIO Council built on
previous related efforts of the
committee Refined in use at
several federal agencies
The guides provide a particular
methodology for evaluating and
selecting initiatives based on ongoing
value cost and risk determinations
Creating and
Using a Business
Case for Information
Technology Projects
Developed by public service
managers for their colleagues
The guide offers a blueprint that
managers can use to build the business
cases needed to make informed
investment decisions
NASCIO Business
Case Primer
Single author broadly based
review committee
The primer provides tools concepts
and a framework for addressing a
number of critical challenges facing
state Governors CIOs and enterprise
information technology organizations
Making Smart
IT Choices
Developed by an applied research
center based on experiences inworking with government agencies
This guide provides concepts techniques
and tools to help organizations define aninformation technology project and make
a solid case for needed financial and
organizational investments
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 200
impact which challenges The NASCIO guide presents a warrant for business case analysis
its unique contribution is a well-developed strategy for assessing the effectiveness of a
business case and the compilation of current practices across the states Readers of the NASCIO guide have the opportunity to review many frameworks and tools sets for a model
that will support their environments and issues as well as an extensive reference list
The NASCIO guide offers examples of business cases and IT investment analysis
processes from as many states as possible The VMM guide devotes most of its space to a
comprehensive risk and cost alternative analysis The Smart IT guide focuses its presentation
on a set of tools and techniquesmdasha toolkit of sort and on the introduction of an analytical
framework to which public managers can apply appropriate tools from the toolkit The
Canadian guide provides the reader with a comprehensive overview targeted and actionable
summaries of activity within each step and unique among the guides providesrecommendations for the design of a project evaluation process
62 Building the research practice bridge
The selected guides were designed to build awareness of challenges to e-government
initiatives and to present useful strategies tools and techniques to overcome the challenges
The following section highlights the links between the research literature and the selected
guides through an analysis of each guide in terms of the four categories of challenges and
strategies derived from the literature review Several observations about the guides and
recommendations for future development of practitioner resources and for further research
into the relevance of research to practice are then provided (Tables 5 and 6)
621 Information and data factors
Research published in the public management literature related to the capture
organization management use and archiving of information and data appears to be limited
Coverage of the information and data challenges and the presentation of strategies related to
overcoming them is also limited The Canadian guide identifies initial data collection and
conversion of archival data as a cost category that must be taken into account when
considering the overall cost of an initiative Smart IT urges public managers to consider theinformation and data that a particular solution strategy depends on to be successful so that
cost and risk analysis can include any threats to access Other resources addressing these
factors are beginning to emerge from recent experiences with government information
integration initiatives These initiatives are providing new insights into the challenges posed
by information and data issues82 insights that need to be reflected in future practice guides
622 Information technology factors
In the case of information technology Canadarsquos guide addresses almost all the challenges
The risks section of the guide is based on research about software development done by theSoftware Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University83 All three tools discuss the
need for technical skills and expertise Two address the complexity of the technology used in
the project Two others address usefulness and ease of use as important elements
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 201
All of the guides speak to the challenges that stem from organizational and managerialrealities Each introduces the discussion of these challenges at a different level based on
their target audience and style The NASCIO guide speaks to organizational challenges
primarily at an enterprise level seeking to encourage CIOrsquos and other leaders to consider the
Table 5
E-government challenges address by selected tools
VMM CUBC BCBB MSIT
Information and data challenges
Information and data quality U
Information technology challenges
Security issues U U U
Technological incompatibility U U
Technology complexity U U
Technical skills andor expertise U U U
Technology newness U U
Organizational and managerial challenges
Project size and related complexity U U
Users or organizational diversity U
Lack of alignment between organizational
goals and IT project
U U
Multiple or conflicting goals U U
Resistance to change U
Turf and conflicts
Legal and regulatory challenges
Restrictive laws and regulations U U
One-year budget restrictions U
Potential intergovernmental relationships U U
Institutional and environmental challenges
Privacy concerns U
Institutional arrangements (eg autonomy of agencies) U
Competition or political pressures (eg timing) U U U
Identification of partners and their contributions U U U
Lessons from previous IT experiences U U U
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 202
strategic role of the enterprise The CUBC focuses more directly on initiative level
managerial challenges such as skills of the project leader planning as a management tool
and adequate funding VMM provides techniques for assessing the impact of organizationaland managerial risks such as a lack of alignment Further it provides techniques for testing
underlying assumptions about initiatives and for assessing the impact of incorrect
assumptions on an initiative plan Smart IT raises awareness about organizational and
managerial risks such as lack of attention to users a lack of alignment between initiative and
organizational goals and multiple and conflicting goals It provides techniques such as
structured service objectives visioning and a strategic framework for minimizing these
challenges All of these guides urge stakeholder involvement as a critical strategy for
overcoming organizational and managerial challenges
624 Legal and regulatory factors
Legal and regulatory challenges are well addressed in the guides The NASCIO guide
covers the topic of legal frameworks and provides guidance on reviewing governing policies
and regulations It advises public managers to be aware of regulatory frameworks in the
development of the IT initiatives Smart IT speaks to these challenges as well by providing
tools such as partisan analysis stakeholder analysis and news analysis Each guide presents a
discussion of the possible enabling and constraining influences of the regulatory environment
on e-government initiatives Managers are urged for example to carefully consider security
policies that restrict or facilitate infrastructure expansion efforts
625 Institutional and environmental factors
Challenges stemming from environmental realities and institutional practices are identified
in each the four selected guides Timing in particular is presented as a strategy for
overcoming some of the environmental and institutional challenges The NASCIO Guide for
example encourages public managers to understand the impact of election cycles on their
initiatives Smart IT also speaks to these environmental challenges and adds in the one-year
budgetary cycles of government and its challenges to multi-year multi-institutional IT
initiatives The NASCIO guide the Canadian Treasury Board guide and the Smart IT guide
speak to the need to scan the economic and political environments and to carefully choose thebtiming Q of the IT initiative Smart IT provides a number of tools and techniques for
increasing awareness environmental and institutional factors and their influence
7 Final comments and recommendations
Understanding and reducing risk in e-government initiatives is a high priority for both
researchers and practitioners One consequence of attention to risk is that organizations both
public and private are increasing their investments in standard tools for planning and managingIT initiatives This study has sought to examine whether the tools available to practitioners
benefit from research in IS We believe the answer is bYes Q Increasingly practical guides are
urging practitioners to think beyond technology to think about bsystems in context Q 84
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 204
Our comparison of selected research findings and practical guides has provided insight into
the extent to which research is reflected in guides to inform practice The analysis highlighted
the particular characteristics of the guides and provided a general review of the extent towhich these guides ref lect cur rent research Five observations about the key commonalties
among the guides (see Table 7) and four recommendations for future efforts in both research
and practice also emerged from the analysis
The four recommendations derived from the analysis of gaps between current research and
the guides are provided to inform both future IS research and practical guide development
efforts This work also informs future efforts to conduct further empirical studies of the
impact of research on the focus and content of e-government investment decision making
tools in international national state and local governments
71 Characterize risk in context
The guides introduce the concept of risk and speak to the need to identify and invest in
strategies to manage risk Risk as a concept receives very thorough treatment however
challenges tend to be characterized in general terms A more thorough characterization of the
specific risks to specific kinds of initiatives would complement the presentation of risk
identification and analysis strategies Practitioners would be more aware of the potential risks
they face and could consider the analytic methodologies in terms of a set of likely risks given
the context of a particular initiative
72 Build understanding of information and data challenges
The impact of information and data challenges such as inconsistent data structures semantic
issues and incomplete data on the success of e-government initiatives need to be explored
further in research and presented more thoroughly in practitioner guides The success of e-
government initiatives involving multi-agency information sharing and integration such as
homeland security and public health depend on greater understanding of these challenges
Table 7
Key commonalities of selected E-government practitioner guides
1 Risks sensitivities and contingencies tend to be undeveloped and that threatens the credibility of IS
initiatives (NASCIO 2003)
2 The iterative process of information gathering analysis and decision making is central to the effort to
build understanding of problems solutions alternatives costs and risks
3 Investment analysis and business case documents are living documents and if maintained and updated over
time can provide guidance to teams throughout an initiative and beyond
4 Contextualizing technology solutions is critical to success b No one size fits all Q is the underlying theme
throughout each of the guides Finding out what size does fit in which situation is the goal each guide setsout to achieve
5 Contingency thinking is necessary for planning and preparation for unexpected consequences and changes
in the bvalue cost and risk Q determinations
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 205
73 Build a business case for business case analysis
Empirical support for the investment in business case and investment analysis is lacking Theguides present common-sense rationales for using business case strategies Some outline the
necessary elements The NASCIO guide outlines a set of key value indicators for a sound business
case The Smart IT Guide is illustrated throughout with excerpts from a business case However a
robust empirical base for particular business case strategies within particular environments and
contexts would provide public managers with a more informed roadmap for their efforts
74 Explore the impact of contingency thinking in project planning and management
The guides generally focus on the how-to of investment analysis and business casedevelopment Future guides need to continue to enhance the capability of public managers to
identify influence and act on the dynamic set of contingencies that influence information
technology initiatives Project management training for IT managers for example can
contribute as well to the ability of government managers to understand and prepare for the
dynamic environment of e-government initiatives
Governments at all levels have invested in the development of guides and handbooks to
raise awareness of the challenges facing IT initiatives These practical guides are providing a
bridge between knowledge gained through research in information systems public
administration political science organization theory and management and the knowledge
gained by practitioners participating in and leading these technology initiatives These
resources provide an opportunity when developed with full knowledge of current research and
practice to build awareness about these challenges and to provide tools and techniques that can
lead to success This study supports the conclusion that although practitioners may not read IS
research directly this research is finding its way at least recently onto their desktops and into
their briefcases and presumably into their IT initiatives through the pages of research-aware
practical guides reference tools and handbooks Further empirical work focusing on the extent
to which practitioners are using these and similar guides and the nature of that use is called for
Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank Sharon Dawes Terry Maxwell Anthony Cresswell and Luis
Luna-Reyes for their valuable comments in early versions of this paper Any mistakes or
omissions are the sole responsibility of the authors
Appendix A Bibliography included in Tables 1 and 2
Ambite J L et al (2002) Data integration and access In W J McIver amp A K
Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government Technology Human Factors and
Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic Publishers
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 206
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems
In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government
Technology Human Factors and Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic PublishersDeLone W amp Mclean E (1992) Information systems success The quest for the
dependent variable Information Systems Research 3(1) 60ndash95
DeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean Model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30
Duncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public
Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group
PublishingEdmiston K D (2003) State and local e-government Prospects and challenges
American Review of Public Administration 33(1) 20ndash45
Flowers S (1996) Software failure Management failure Amazing Stories and
Cautionary Tales New York Wiley
Fountain J E (2001) Building the Virtual State Information Technology and Institutional
Change Washington DC Brookings Institution Press
Gagnon Y -C (2001) The behavior of public managers in adopting new technologies
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(4) 337ndash350
Garson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for publicadministration In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and
Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
Harris N D (2000) Intergovernmental cooperation in the development and use of
information systems In G D Garson (Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New
York Marcel Dekker Inc
Heintze T amp Bretschneider S (2000) Information technology and restructuring in public
organizations Does adoption of information technology affect organizational structures
communications and decision making Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 10(4) 801ndash830
Ho A T -K (2002) Reinventing local governments and the e-government initiative
Public Administration Review 62(4) 434ndash444
Holden S H Norris D F amp Fletcher P D (2003) Electronic government at the local
level Progress to date and future issues Public Performance and Management Review
26 (4) 325ndash344
Irvine C E (2000) Security issues for automated information systems In G D Garson
(Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New York Marcel Dekker Inc
Jiang J amp Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation success
factors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 208
Rocheleau B (2000) Prescriptions for public-sector information management A review
analysis and critique American Review of Public Administration 30(4) 414ndash435
Rocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systemsIn G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues
Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Roy J (2003) The relational dynamics of e-governance A case study of the City of
Ottawa Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 391ndash403
Smith L D Campbell J F Subramanian A Bird D A amp Nelson A C (2001)
Strategic planning for municipal information systems Some lessons from a large US City
American Review of Public Administration 31(2) 139ndash157
Tayi G K amp Ballou D P (1998) Examining data quality Communications of the ACM
41(2) 54ndash56Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
West J P amp Berman E M (2001) The impact of revitalized management practices
on the adoption of information technology A national survey of local governments
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(3) 233ndash253
Notes and References
1 Gil-Garcıa J Ramon amp Luna-Reyes Luis F (2003) Towards a definition of electronicgovernment A comparative review In Mendez-Vilas A et al (Eds) Techno-legal
aspects of information society and new economy An overview Extremadura Spain7
Formatex Information Society Series
2 Best J D (1997) The Digital Organization New York 7 Wiley
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems In
W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in digital government Technology
human factors and policy Norwell MA7 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Landsbergen D J amp Wolken Jr G (1998 October) Eliminating Legal and
Policy Barriers to Interoperable Government Systems Paper presented at theannual research conference of the association for public policy analysis and
management New York
3 Bellamy C (2000) The politics of public information systems In G D Garson (Ed)
Handbook of Public Information Systems New York 7 Marcel Dekker IncDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed)
Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
PublishingMilner E M (2000) Managing Information and Knowledge in the Public Sector New
York 7 RoutledgeRocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systems
In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management
Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group Publishing
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 210
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
61 A brief comparative analysis of the selected guides
All four guides were produced through collaborative efforts of the public private andacademic communities (Table 4) The NASCIO VMM and the CUBC guides were produced
with a governmental sponsor and a range of volunteer expert participants In each situation
the need for the guide emerged from the ranks and was responded to by a coordinating group
or professional association The Smart IT Guide was produced through a different strategymdash
by practice-oriented researchers drawing on their experiences working directly with
government agencies in developing IT initiatives Nonetheless there is notable consistency
in the messages they deliver
All of the guides stress contingency thinking heavily investing in upfront or what CTG
calls b before the beginning Q
analysis collaborative management models inclusion of IT and business stakeholders and the value of iterative analytical processes The impact that a dwell-
doneT business case can have in the ongoing design development implementation and
review of an e-government initiative is also acknowledged in all four guides
The guides vary considerably in their recommendations of specific tools and techniques to
carry out a business case analysis The Canadian guide and the VMM link the analytical
framework very closely to a specific tool Smart IT presents an analytical framework and
links steps in the analysis to a group of tools from which public managers can choose The
guides vary in their links between recommended actions and the specific issue or challenge
likely to be overcome by that particular action Smart IT in particular tends to link analysis to
the challenge addressed so that practitioners can anticipate which tools or techniques will
Table 4
Selected tools development strategy and focus
Tool Development strategy Focus
Value Measuring
Methodology
Best Practices Committee of the
Federal CIO Council built on
previous related efforts of the
committee Refined in use at
several federal agencies
The guides provide a particular
methodology for evaluating and
selecting initiatives based on ongoing
value cost and risk determinations
Creating and
Using a Business
Case for Information
Technology Projects
Developed by public service
managers for their colleagues
The guide offers a blueprint that
managers can use to build the business
cases needed to make informed
investment decisions
NASCIO Business
Case Primer
Single author broadly based
review committee
The primer provides tools concepts
and a framework for addressing a
number of critical challenges facing
state Governors CIOs and enterprise
information technology organizations
Making Smart
IT Choices
Developed by an applied research
center based on experiences inworking with government agencies
This guide provides concepts techniques
and tools to help organizations define aninformation technology project and make
a solid case for needed financial and
organizational investments
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 200
impact which challenges The NASCIO guide presents a warrant for business case analysis
its unique contribution is a well-developed strategy for assessing the effectiveness of a
business case and the compilation of current practices across the states Readers of the NASCIO guide have the opportunity to review many frameworks and tools sets for a model
that will support their environments and issues as well as an extensive reference list
The NASCIO guide offers examples of business cases and IT investment analysis
processes from as many states as possible The VMM guide devotes most of its space to a
comprehensive risk and cost alternative analysis The Smart IT guide focuses its presentation
on a set of tools and techniquesmdasha toolkit of sort and on the introduction of an analytical
framework to which public managers can apply appropriate tools from the toolkit The
Canadian guide provides the reader with a comprehensive overview targeted and actionable
summaries of activity within each step and unique among the guides providesrecommendations for the design of a project evaluation process
62 Building the research practice bridge
The selected guides were designed to build awareness of challenges to e-government
initiatives and to present useful strategies tools and techniques to overcome the challenges
The following section highlights the links between the research literature and the selected
guides through an analysis of each guide in terms of the four categories of challenges and
strategies derived from the literature review Several observations about the guides and
recommendations for future development of practitioner resources and for further research
into the relevance of research to practice are then provided (Tables 5 and 6)
621 Information and data factors
Research published in the public management literature related to the capture
organization management use and archiving of information and data appears to be limited
Coverage of the information and data challenges and the presentation of strategies related to
overcoming them is also limited The Canadian guide identifies initial data collection and
conversion of archival data as a cost category that must be taken into account when
considering the overall cost of an initiative Smart IT urges public managers to consider theinformation and data that a particular solution strategy depends on to be successful so that
cost and risk analysis can include any threats to access Other resources addressing these
factors are beginning to emerge from recent experiences with government information
integration initiatives These initiatives are providing new insights into the challenges posed
by information and data issues82 insights that need to be reflected in future practice guides
622 Information technology factors
In the case of information technology Canadarsquos guide addresses almost all the challenges
The risks section of the guide is based on research about software development done by theSoftware Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University83 All three tools discuss the
need for technical skills and expertise Two address the complexity of the technology used in
the project Two others address usefulness and ease of use as important elements
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 201
All of the guides speak to the challenges that stem from organizational and managerialrealities Each introduces the discussion of these challenges at a different level based on
their target audience and style The NASCIO guide speaks to organizational challenges
primarily at an enterprise level seeking to encourage CIOrsquos and other leaders to consider the
Table 5
E-government challenges address by selected tools
VMM CUBC BCBB MSIT
Information and data challenges
Information and data quality U
Information technology challenges
Security issues U U U
Technological incompatibility U U
Technology complexity U U
Technical skills andor expertise U U U
Technology newness U U
Organizational and managerial challenges
Project size and related complexity U U
Users or organizational diversity U
Lack of alignment between organizational
goals and IT project
U U
Multiple or conflicting goals U U
Resistance to change U
Turf and conflicts
Legal and regulatory challenges
Restrictive laws and regulations U U
One-year budget restrictions U
Potential intergovernmental relationships U U
Institutional and environmental challenges
Privacy concerns U
Institutional arrangements (eg autonomy of agencies) U
Competition or political pressures (eg timing) U U U
Identification of partners and their contributions U U U
Lessons from previous IT experiences U U U
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 202
strategic role of the enterprise The CUBC focuses more directly on initiative level
managerial challenges such as skills of the project leader planning as a management tool
and adequate funding VMM provides techniques for assessing the impact of organizationaland managerial risks such as a lack of alignment Further it provides techniques for testing
underlying assumptions about initiatives and for assessing the impact of incorrect
assumptions on an initiative plan Smart IT raises awareness about organizational and
managerial risks such as lack of attention to users a lack of alignment between initiative and
organizational goals and multiple and conflicting goals It provides techniques such as
structured service objectives visioning and a strategic framework for minimizing these
challenges All of these guides urge stakeholder involvement as a critical strategy for
overcoming organizational and managerial challenges
624 Legal and regulatory factors
Legal and regulatory challenges are well addressed in the guides The NASCIO guide
covers the topic of legal frameworks and provides guidance on reviewing governing policies
and regulations It advises public managers to be aware of regulatory frameworks in the
development of the IT initiatives Smart IT speaks to these challenges as well by providing
tools such as partisan analysis stakeholder analysis and news analysis Each guide presents a
discussion of the possible enabling and constraining influences of the regulatory environment
on e-government initiatives Managers are urged for example to carefully consider security
policies that restrict or facilitate infrastructure expansion efforts
625 Institutional and environmental factors
Challenges stemming from environmental realities and institutional practices are identified
in each the four selected guides Timing in particular is presented as a strategy for
overcoming some of the environmental and institutional challenges The NASCIO Guide for
example encourages public managers to understand the impact of election cycles on their
initiatives Smart IT also speaks to these environmental challenges and adds in the one-year
budgetary cycles of government and its challenges to multi-year multi-institutional IT
initiatives The NASCIO guide the Canadian Treasury Board guide and the Smart IT guide
speak to the need to scan the economic and political environments and to carefully choose thebtiming Q of the IT initiative Smart IT provides a number of tools and techniques for
increasing awareness environmental and institutional factors and their influence
7 Final comments and recommendations
Understanding and reducing risk in e-government initiatives is a high priority for both
researchers and practitioners One consequence of attention to risk is that organizations both
public and private are increasing their investments in standard tools for planning and managingIT initiatives This study has sought to examine whether the tools available to practitioners
benefit from research in IS We believe the answer is bYes Q Increasingly practical guides are
urging practitioners to think beyond technology to think about bsystems in context Q 84
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 204
Our comparison of selected research findings and practical guides has provided insight into
the extent to which research is reflected in guides to inform practice The analysis highlighted
the particular characteristics of the guides and provided a general review of the extent towhich these guides ref lect cur rent research Five observations about the key commonalties
among the guides (see Table 7) and four recommendations for future efforts in both research
and practice also emerged from the analysis
The four recommendations derived from the analysis of gaps between current research and
the guides are provided to inform both future IS research and practical guide development
efforts This work also informs future efforts to conduct further empirical studies of the
impact of research on the focus and content of e-government investment decision making
tools in international national state and local governments
71 Characterize risk in context
The guides introduce the concept of risk and speak to the need to identify and invest in
strategies to manage risk Risk as a concept receives very thorough treatment however
challenges tend to be characterized in general terms A more thorough characterization of the
specific risks to specific kinds of initiatives would complement the presentation of risk
identification and analysis strategies Practitioners would be more aware of the potential risks
they face and could consider the analytic methodologies in terms of a set of likely risks given
the context of a particular initiative
72 Build understanding of information and data challenges
The impact of information and data challenges such as inconsistent data structures semantic
issues and incomplete data on the success of e-government initiatives need to be explored
further in research and presented more thoroughly in practitioner guides The success of e-
government initiatives involving multi-agency information sharing and integration such as
homeland security and public health depend on greater understanding of these challenges
Table 7
Key commonalities of selected E-government practitioner guides
1 Risks sensitivities and contingencies tend to be undeveloped and that threatens the credibility of IS
initiatives (NASCIO 2003)
2 The iterative process of information gathering analysis and decision making is central to the effort to
build understanding of problems solutions alternatives costs and risks
3 Investment analysis and business case documents are living documents and if maintained and updated over
time can provide guidance to teams throughout an initiative and beyond
4 Contextualizing technology solutions is critical to success b No one size fits all Q is the underlying theme
throughout each of the guides Finding out what size does fit in which situation is the goal each guide setsout to achieve
5 Contingency thinking is necessary for planning and preparation for unexpected consequences and changes
in the bvalue cost and risk Q determinations
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 205
73 Build a business case for business case analysis
Empirical support for the investment in business case and investment analysis is lacking Theguides present common-sense rationales for using business case strategies Some outline the
necessary elements The NASCIO guide outlines a set of key value indicators for a sound business
case The Smart IT Guide is illustrated throughout with excerpts from a business case However a
robust empirical base for particular business case strategies within particular environments and
contexts would provide public managers with a more informed roadmap for their efforts
74 Explore the impact of contingency thinking in project planning and management
The guides generally focus on the how-to of investment analysis and business casedevelopment Future guides need to continue to enhance the capability of public managers to
identify influence and act on the dynamic set of contingencies that influence information
technology initiatives Project management training for IT managers for example can
contribute as well to the ability of government managers to understand and prepare for the
dynamic environment of e-government initiatives
Governments at all levels have invested in the development of guides and handbooks to
raise awareness of the challenges facing IT initiatives These practical guides are providing a
bridge between knowledge gained through research in information systems public
administration political science organization theory and management and the knowledge
gained by practitioners participating in and leading these technology initiatives These
resources provide an opportunity when developed with full knowledge of current research and
practice to build awareness about these challenges and to provide tools and techniques that can
lead to success This study supports the conclusion that although practitioners may not read IS
research directly this research is finding its way at least recently onto their desktops and into
their briefcases and presumably into their IT initiatives through the pages of research-aware
practical guides reference tools and handbooks Further empirical work focusing on the extent
to which practitioners are using these and similar guides and the nature of that use is called for
Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank Sharon Dawes Terry Maxwell Anthony Cresswell and Luis
Luna-Reyes for their valuable comments in early versions of this paper Any mistakes or
omissions are the sole responsibility of the authors
Appendix A Bibliography included in Tables 1 and 2
Ambite J L et al (2002) Data integration and access In W J McIver amp A K
Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government Technology Human Factors and
Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic Publishers
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 206
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems
In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government
Technology Human Factors and Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic PublishersDeLone W amp Mclean E (1992) Information systems success The quest for the
dependent variable Information Systems Research 3(1) 60ndash95
DeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean Model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30
Duncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public
Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group
PublishingEdmiston K D (2003) State and local e-government Prospects and challenges
American Review of Public Administration 33(1) 20ndash45
Flowers S (1996) Software failure Management failure Amazing Stories and
Cautionary Tales New York Wiley
Fountain J E (2001) Building the Virtual State Information Technology and Institutional
Change Washington DC Brookings Institution Press
Gagnon Y -C (2001) The behavior of public managers in adopting new technologies
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(4) 337ndash350
Garson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for publicadministration In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and
Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
Harris N D (2000) Intergovernmental cooperation in the development and use of
information systems In G D Garson (Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New
York Marcel Dekker Inc
Heintze T amp Bretschneider S (2000) Information technology and restructuring in public
organizations Does adoption of information technology affect organizational structures
communications and decision making Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 10(4) 801ndash830
Ho A T -K (2002) Reinventing local governments and the e-government initiative
Public Administration Review 62(4) 434ndash444
Holden S H Norris D F amp Fletcher P D (2003) Electronic government at the local
level Progress to date and future issues Public Performance and Management Review
26 (4) 325ndash344
Irvine C E (2000) Security issues for automated information systems In G D Garson
(Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New York Marcel Dekker Inc
Jiang J amp Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation success
factors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 208
Rocheleau B (2000) Prescriptions for public-sector information management A review
analysis and critique American Review of Public Administration 30(4) 414ndash435
Rocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systemsIn G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues
Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Roy J (2003) The relational dynamics of e-governance A case study of the City of
Ottawa Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 391ndash403
Smith L D Campbell J F Subramanian A Bird D A amp Nelson A C (2001)
Strategic planning for municipal information systems Some lessons from a large US City
American Review of Public Administration 31(2) 139ndash157
Tayi G K amp Ballou D P (1998) Examining data quality Communications of the ACM
41(2) 54ndash56Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
West J P amp Berman E M (2001) The impact of revitalized management practices
on the adoption of information technology A national survey of local governments
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(3) 233ndash253
Notes and References
1 Gil-Garcıa J Ramon amp Luna-Reyes Luis F (2003) Towards a definition of electronicgovernment A comparative review In Mendez-Vilas A et al (Eds) Techno-legal
aspects of information society and new economy An overview Extremadura Spain7
Formatex Information Society Series
2 Best J D (1997) The Digital Organization New York 7 Wiley
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems In
W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in digital government Technology
human factors and policy Norwell MA7 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Landsbergen D J amp Wolken Jr G (1998 October) Eliminating Legal and
Policy Barriers to Interoperable Government Systems Paper presented at theannual research conference of the association for public policy analysis and
management New York
3 Bellamy C (2000) The politics of public information systems In G D Garson (Ed)
Handbook of Public Information Systems New York 7 Marcel Dekker IncDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed)
Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
PublishingMilner E M (2000) Managing Information and Knowledge in the Public Sector New
York 7 RoutledgeRocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systems
In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management
Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group Publishing
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 210
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
impact which challenges The NASCIO guide presents a warrant for business case analysis
its unique contribution is a well-developed strategy for assessing the effectiveness of a
business case and the compilation of current practices across the states Readers of the NASCIO guide have the opportunity to review many frameworks and tools sets for a model
that will support their environments and issues as well as an extensive reference list
The NASCIO guide offers examples of business cases and IT investment analysis
processes from as many states as possible The VMM guide devotes most of its space to a
comprehensive risk and cost alternative analysis The Smart IT guide focuses its presentation
on a set of tools and techniquesmdasha toolkit of sort and on the introduction of an analytical
framework to which public managers can apply appropriate tools from the toolkit The
Canadian guide provides the reader with a comprehensive overview targeted and actionable
summaries of activity within each step and unique among the guides providesrecommendations for the design of a project evaluation process
62 Building the research practice bridge
The selected guides were designed to build awareness of challenges to e-government
initiatives and to present useful strategies tools and techniques to overcome the challenges
The following section highlights the links between the research literature and the selected
guides through an analysis of each guide in terms of the four categories of challenges and
strategies derived from the literature review Several observations about the guides and
recommendations for future development of practitioner resources and for further research
into the relevance of research to practice are then provided (Tables 5 and 6)
621 Information and data factors
Research published in the public management literature related to the capture
organization management use and archiving of information and data appears to be limited
Coverage of the information and data challenges and the presentation of strategies related to
overcoming them is also limited The Canadian guide identifies initial data collection and
conversion of archival data as a cost category that must be taken into account when
considering the overall cost of an initiative Smart IT urges public managers to consider theinformation and data that a particular solution strategy depends on to be successful so that
cost and risk analysis can include any threats to access Other resources addressing these
factors are beginning to emerge from recent experiences with government information
integration initiatives These initiatives are providing new insights into the challenges posed
by information and data issues82 insights that need to be reflected in future practice guides
622 Information technology factors
In the case of information technology Canadarsquos guide addresses almost all the challenges
The risks section of the guide is based on research about software development done by theSoftware Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University83 All three tools discuss the
need for technical skills and expertise Two address the complexity of the technology used in
the project Two others address usefulness and ease of use as important elements
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 201
All of the guides speak to the challenges that stem from organizational and managerialrealities Each introduces the discussion of these challenges at a different level based on
their target audience and style The NASCIO guide speaks to organizational challenges
primarily at an enterprise level seeking to encourage CIOrsquos and other leaders to consider the
Table 5
E-government challenges address by selected tools
VMM CUBC BCBB MSIT
Information and data challenges
Information and data quality U
Information technology challenges
Security issues U U U
Technological incompatibility U U
Technology complexity U U
Technical skills andor expertise U U U
Technology newness U U
Organizational and managerial challenges
Project size and related complexity U U
Users or organizational diversity U
Lack of alignment between organizational
goals and IT project
U U
Multiple or conflicting goals U U
Resistance to change U
Turf and conflicts
Legal and regulatory challenges
Restrictive laws and regulations U U
One-year budget restrictions U
Potential intergovernmental relationships U U
Institutional and environmental challenges
Privacy concerns U
Institutional arrangements (eg autonomy of agencies) U
Competition or political pressures (eg timing) U U U
Identification of partners and their contributions U U U
Lessons from previous IT experiences U U U
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 202
strategic role of the enterprise The CUBC focuses more directly on initiative level
managerial challenges such as skills of the project leader planning as a management tool
and adequate funding VMM provides techniques for assessing the impact of organizationaland managerial risks such as a lack of alignment Further it provides techniques for testing
underlying assumptions about initiatives and for assessing the impact of incorrect
assumptions on an initiative plan Smart IT raises awareness about organizational and
managerial risks such as lack of attention to users a lack of alignment between initiative and
organizational goals and multiple and conflicting goals It provides techniques such as
structured service objectives visioning and a strategic framework for minimizing these
challenges All of these guides urge stakeholder involvement as a critical strategy for
overcoming organizational and managerial challenges
624 Legal and regulatory factors
Legal and regulatory challenges are well addressed in the guides The NASCIO guide
covers the topic of legal frameworks and provides guidance on reviewing governing policies
and regulations It advises public managers to be aware of regulatory frameworks in the
development of the IT initiatives Smart IT speaks to these challenges as well by providing
tools such as partisan analysis stakeholder analysis and news analysis Each guide presents a
discussion of the possible enabling and constraining influences of the regulatory environment
on e-government initiatives Managers are urged for example to carefully consider security
policies that restrict or facilitate infrastructure expansion efforts
625 Institutional and environmental factors
Challenges stemming from environmental realities and institutional practices are identified
in each the four selected guides Timing in particular is presented as a strategy for
overcoming some of the environmental and institutional challenges The NASCIO Guide for
example encourages public managers to understand the impact of election cycles on their
initiatives Smart IT also speaks to these environmental challenges and adds in the one-year
budgetary cycles of government and its challenges to multi-year multi-institutional IT
initiatives The NASCIO guide the Canadian Treasury Board guide and the Smart IT guide
speak to the need to scan the economic and political environments and to carefully choose thebtiming Q of the IT initiative Smart IT provides a number of tools and techniques for
increasing awareness environmental and institutional factors and their influence
7 Final comments and recommendations
Understanding and reducing risk in e-government initiatives is a high priority for both
researchers and practitioners One consequence of attention to risk is that organizations both
public and private are increasing their investments in standard tools for planning and managingIT initiatives This study has sought to examine whether the tools available to practitioners
benefit from research in IS We believe the answer is bYes Q Increasingly practical guides are
urging practitioners to think beyond technology to think about bsystems in context Q 84
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 204
Our comparison of selected research findings and practical guides has provided insight into
the extent to which research is reflected in guides to inform practice The analysis highlighted
the particular characteristics of the guides and provided a general review of the extent towhich these guides ref lect cur rent research Five observations about the key commonalties
among the guides (see Table 7) and four recommendations for future efforts in both research
and practice also emerged from the analysis
The four recommendations derived from the analysis of gaps between current research and
the guides are provided to inform both future IS research and practical guide development
efforts This work also informs future efforts to conduct further empirical studies of the
impact of research on the focus and content of e-government investment decision making
tools in international national state and local governments
71 Characterize risk in context
The guides introduce the concept of risk and speak to the need to identify and invest in
strategies to manage risk Risk as a concept receives very thorough treatment however
challenges tend to be characterized in general terms A more thorough characterization of the
specific risks to specific kinds of initiatives would complement the presentation of risk
identification and analysis strategies Practitioners would be more aware of the potential risks
they face and could consider the analytic methodologies in terms of a set of likely risks given
the context of a particular initiative
72 Build understanding of information and data challenges
The impact of information and data challenges such as inconsistent data structures semantic
issues and incomplete data on the success of e-government initiatives need to be explored
further in research and presented more thoroughly in practitioner guides The success of e-
government initiatives involving multi-agency information sharing and integration such as
homeland security and public health depend on greater understanding of these challenges
Table 7
Key commonalities of selected E-government practitioner guides
1 Risks sensitivities and contingencies tend to be undeveloped and that threatens the credibility of IS
initiatives (NASCIO 2003)
2 The iterative process of information gathering analysis and decision making is central to the effort to
build understanding of problems solutions alternatives costs and risks
3 Investment analysis and business case documents are living documents and if maintained and updated over
time can provide guidance to teams throughout an initiative and beyond
4 Contextualizing technology solutions is critical to success b No one size fits all Q is the underlying theme
throughout each of the guides Finding out what size does fit in which situation is the goal each guide setsout to achieve
5 Contingency thinking is necessary for planning and preparation for unexpected consequences and changes
in the bvalue cost and risk Q determinations
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 205
73 Build a business case for business case analysis
Empirical support for the investment in business case and investment analysis is lacking Theguides present common-sense rationales for using business case strategies Some outline the
necessary elements The NASCIO guide outlines a set of key value indicators for a sound business
case The Smart IT Guide is illustrated throughout with excerpts from a business case However a
robust empirical base for particular business case strategies within particular environments and
contexts would provide public managers with a more informed roadmap for their efforts
74 Explore the impact of contingency thinking in project planning and management
The guides generally focus on the how-to of investment analysis and business casedevelopment Future guides need to continue to enhance the capability of public managers to
identify influence and act on the dynamic set of contingencies that influence information
technology initiatives Project management training for IT managers for example can
contribute as well to the ability of government managers to understand and prepare for the
dynamic environment of e-government initiatives
Governments at all levels have invested in the development of guides and handbooks to
raise awareness of the challenges facing IT initiatives These practical guides are providing a
bridge between knowledge gained through research in information systems public
administration political science organization theory and management and the knowledge
gained by practitioners participating in and leading these technology initiatives These
resources provide an opportunity when developed with full knowledge of current research and
practice to build awareness about these challenges and to provide tools and techniques that can
lead to success This study supports the conclusion that although practitioners may not read IS
research directly this research is finding its way at least recently onto their desktops and into
their briefcases and presumably into their IT initiatives through the pages of research-aware
practical guides reference tools and handbooks Further empirical work focusing on the extent
to which practitioners are using these and similar guides and the nature of that use is called for
Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank Sharon Dawes Terry Maxwell Anthony Cresswell and Luis
Luna-Reyes for their valuable comments in early versions of this paper Any mistakes or
omissions are the sole responsibility of the authors
Appendix A Bibliography included in Tables 1 and 2
Ambite J L et al (2002) Data integration and access In W J McIver amp A K
Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government Technology Human Factors and
Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic Publishers
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 206
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems
In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government
Technology Human Factors and Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic PublishersDeLone W amp Mclean E (1992) Information systems success The quest for the
dependent variable Information Systems Research 3(1) 60ndash95
DeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean Model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30
Duncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public
Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group
PublishingEdmiston K D (2003) State and local e-government Prospects and challenges
American Review of Public Administration 33(1) 20ndash45
Flowers S (1996) Software failure Management failure Amazing Stories and
Cautionary Tales New York Wiley
Fountain J E (2001) Building the Virtual State Information Technology and Institutional
Change Washington DC Brookings Institution Press
Gagnon Y -C (2001) The behavior of public managers in adopting new technologies
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(4) 337ndash350
Garson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for publicadministration In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and
Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
Harris N D (2000) Intergovernmental cooperation in the development and use of
information systems In G D Garson (Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New
York Marcel Dekker Inc
Heintze T amp Bretschneider S (2000) Information technology and restructuring in public
organizations Does adoption of information technology affect organizational structures
communications and decision making Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 10(4) 801ndash830
Ho A T -K (2002) Reinventing local governments and the e-government initiative
Public Administration Review 62(4) 434ndash444
Holden S H Norris D F amp Fletcher P D (2003) Electronic government at the local
level Progress to date and future issues Public Performance and Management Review
26 (4) 325ndash344
Irvine C E (2000) Security issues for automated information systems In G D Garson
(Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New York Marcel Dekker Inc
Jiang J amp Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation success
factors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 208
Rocheleau B (2000) Prescriptions for public-sector information management A review
analysis and critique American Review of Public Administration 30(4) 414ndash435
Rocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systemsIn G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues
Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Roy J (2003) The relational dynamics of e-governance A case study of the City of
Ottawa Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 391ndash403
Smith L D Campbell J F Subramanian A Bird D A amp Nelson A C (2001)
Strategic planning for municipal information systems Some lessons from a large US City
American Review of Public Administration 31(2) 139ndash157
Tayi G K amp Ballou D P (1998) Examining data quality Communications of the ACM
41(2) 54ndash56Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
West J P amp Berman E M (2001) The impact of revitalized management practices
on the adoption of information technology A national survey of local governments
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(3) 233ndash253
Notes and References
1 Gil-Garcıa J Ramon amp Luna-Reyes Luis F (2003) Towards a definition of electronicgovernment A comparative review In Mendez-Vilas A et al (Eds) Techno-legal
aspects of information society and new economy An overview Extremadura Spain7
Formatex Information Society Series
2 Best J D (1997) The Digital Organization New York 7 Wiley
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems In
W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in digital government Technology
human factors and policy Norwell MA7 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Landsbergen D J amp Wolken Jr G (1998 October) Eliminating Legal and
Policy Barriers to Interoperable Government Systems Paper presented at theannual research conference of the association for public policy analysis and
management New York
3 Bellamy C (2000) The politics of public information systems In G D Garson (Ed)
Handbook of Public Information Systems New York 7 Marcel Dekker IncDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed)
Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
PublishingMilner E M (2000) Managing Information and Knowledge in the Public Sector New
York 7 RoutledgeRocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systems
In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management
Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group Publishing
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 210
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
All of the guides speak to the challenges that stem from organizational and managerialrealities Each introduces the discussion of these challenges at a different level based on
their target audience and style The NASCIO guide speaks to organizational challenges
primarily at an enterprise level seeking to encourage CIOrsquos and other leaders to consider the
Table 5
E-government challenges address by selected tools
VMM CUBC BCBB MSIT
Information and data challenges
Information and data quality U
Information technology challenges
Security issues U U U
Technological incompatibility U U
Technology complexity U U
Technical skills andor expertise U U U
Technology newness U U
Organizational and managerial challenges
Project size and related complexity U U
Users or organizational diversity U
Lack of alignment between organizational
goals and IT project
U U
Multiple or conflicting goals U U
Resistance to change U
Turf and conflicts
Legal and regulatory challenges
Restrictive laws and regulations U U
One-year budget restrictions U
Potential intergovernmental relationships U U
Institutional and environmental challenges
Privacy concerns U
Institutional arrangements (eg autonomy of agencies) U
Competition or political pressures (eg timing) U U U
Identification of partners and their contributions U U U
Lessons from previous IT experiences U U U
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 202
strategic role of the enterprise The CUBC focuses more directly on initiative level
managerial challenges such as skills of the project leader planning as a management tool
and adequate funding VMM provides techniques for assessing the impact of organizationaland managerial risks such as a lack of alignment Further it provides techniques for testing
underlying assumptions about initiatives and for assessing the impact of incorrect
assumptions on an initiative plan Smart IT raises awareness about organizational and
managerial risks such as lack of attention to users a lack of alignment between initiative and
organizational goals and multiple and conflicting goals It provides techniques such as
structured service objectives visioning and a strategic framework for minimizing these
challenges All of these guides urge stakeholder involvement as a critical strategy for
overcoming organizational and managerial challenges
624 Legal and regulatory factors
Legal and regulatory challenges are well addressed in the guides The NASCIO guide
covers the topic of legal frameworks and provides guidance on reviewing governing policies
and regulations It advises public managers to be aware of regulatory frameworks in the
development of the IT initiatives Smart IT speaks to these challenges as well by providing
tools such as partisan analysis stakeholder analysis and news analysis Each guide presents a
discussion of the possible enabling and constraining influences of the regulatory environment
on e-government initiatives Managers are urged for example to carefully consider security
policies that restrict or facilitate infrastructure expansion efforts
625 Institutional and environmental factors
Challenges stemming from environmental realities and institutional practices are identified
in each the four selected guides Timing in particular is presented as a strategy for
overcoming some of the environmental and institutional challenges The NASCIO Guide for
example encourages public managers to understand the impact of election cycles on their
initiatives Smart IT also speaks to these environmental challenges and adds in the one-year
budgetary cycles of government and its challenges to multi-year multi-institutional IT
initiatives The NASCIO guide the Canadian Treasury Board guide and the Smart IT guide
speak to the need to scan the economic and political environments and to carefully choose thebtiming Q of the IT initiative Smart IT provides a number of tools and techniques for
increasing awareness environmental and institutional factors and their influence
7 Final comments and recommendations
Understanding and reducing risk in e-government initiatives is a high priority for both
researchers and practitioners One consequence of attention to risk is that organizations both
public and private are increasing their investments in standard tools for planning and managingIT initiatives This study has sought to examine whether the tools available to practitioners
benefit from research in IS We believe the answer is bYes Q Increasingly practical guides are
urging practitioners to think beyond technology to think about bsystems in context Q 84
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 204
Our comparison of selected research findings and practical guides has provided insight into
the extent to which research is reflected in guides to inform practice The analysis highlighted
the particular characteristics of the guides and provided a general review of the extent towhich these guides ref lect cur rent research Five observations about the key commonalties
among the guides (see Table 7) and four recommendations for future efforts in both research
and practice also emerged from the analysis
The four recommendations derived from the analysis of gaps between current research and
the guides are provided to inform both future IS research and practical guide development
efforts This work also informs future efforts to conduct further empirical studies of the
impact of research on the focus and content of e-government investment decision making
tools in international national state and local governments
71 Characterize risk in context
The guides introduce the concept of risk and speak to the need to identify and invest in
strategies to manage risk Risk as a concept receives very thorough treatment however
challenges tend to be characterized in general terms A more thorough characterization of the
specific risks to specific kinds of initiatives would complement the presentation of risk
identification and analysis strategies Practitioners would be more aware of the potential risks
they face and could consider the analytic methodologies in terms of a set of likely risks given
the context of a particular initiative
72 Build understanding of information and data challenges
The impact of information and data challenges such as inconsistent data structures semantic
issues and incomplete data on the success of e-government initiatives need to be explored
further in research and presented more thoroughly in practitioner guides The success of e-
government initiatives involving multi-agency information sharing and integration such as
homeland security and public health depend on greater understanding of these challenges
Table 7
Key commonalities of selected E-government practitioner guides
1 Risks sensitivities and contingencies tend to be undeveloped and that threatens the credibility of IS
initiatives (NASCIO 2003)
2 The iterative process of information gathering analysis and decision making is central to the effort to
build understanding of problems solutions alternatives costs and risks
3 Investment analysis and business case documents are living documents and if maintained and updated over
time can provide guidance to teams throughout an initiative and beyond
4 Contextualizing technology solutions is critical to success b No one size fits all Q is the underlying theme
throughout each of the guides Finding out what size does fit in which situation is the goal each guide setsout to achieve
5 Contingency thinking is necessary for planning and preparation for unexpected consequences and changes
in the bvalue cost and risk Q determinations
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 205
73 Build a business case for business case analysis
Empirical support for the investment in business case and investment analysis is lacking Theguides present common-sense rationales for using business case strategies Some outline the
necessary elements The NASCIO guide outlines a set of key value indicators for a sound business
case The Smart IT Guide is illustrated throughout with excerpts from a business case However a
robust empirical base for particular business case strategies within particular environments and
contexts would provide public managers with a more informed roadmap for their efforts
74 Explore the impact of contingency thinking in project planning and management
The guides generally focus on the how-to of investment analysis and business casedevelopment Future guides need to continue to enhance the capability of public managers to
identify influence and act on the dynamic set of contingencies that influence information
technology initiatives Project management training for IT managers for example can
contribute as well to the ability of government managers to understand and prepare for the
dynamic environment of e-government initiatives
Governments at all levels have invested in the development of guides and handbooks to
raise awareness of the challenges facing IT initiatives These practical guides are providing a
bridge between knowledge gained through research in information systems public
administration political science organization theory and management and the knowledge
gained by practitioners participating in and leading these technology initiatives These
resources provide an opportunity when developed with full knowledge of current research and
practice to build awareness about these challenges and to provide tools and techniques that can
lead to success This study supports the conclusion that although practitioners may not read IS
research directly this research is finding its way at least recently onto their desktops and into
their briefcases and presumably into their IT initiatives through the pages of research-aware
practical guides reference tools and handbooks Further empirical work focusing on the extent
to which practitioners are using these and similar guides and the nature of that use is called for
Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank Sharon Dawes Terry Maxwell Anthony Cresswell and Luis
Luna-Reyes for their valuable comments in early versions of this paper Any mistakes or
omissions are the sole responsibility of the authors
Appendix A Bibliography included in Tables 1 and 2
Ambite J L et al (2002) Data integration and access In W J McIver amp A K
Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government Technology Human Factors and
Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic Publishers
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 206
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems
In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government
Technology Human Factors and Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic PublishersDeLone W amp Mclean E (1992) Information systems success The quest for the
dependent variable Information Systems Research 3(1) 60ndash95
DeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean Model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30
Duncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public
Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group
PublishingEdmiston K D (2003) State and local e-government Prospects and challenges
American Review of Public Administration 33(1) 20ndash45
Flowers S (1996) Software failure Management failure Amazing Stories and
Cautionary Tales New York Wiley
Fountain J E (2001) Building the Virtual State Information Technology and Institutional
Change Washington DC Brookings Institution Press
Gagnon Y -C (2001) The behavior of public managers in adopting new technologies
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(4) 337ndash350
Garson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for publicadministration In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and
Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
Harris N D (2000) Intergovernmental cooperation in the development and use of
information systems In G D Garson (Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New
York Marcel Dekker Inc
Heintze T amp Bretschneider S (2000) Information technology and restructuring in public
organizations Does adoption of information technology affect organizational structures
communications and decision making Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 10(4) 801ndash830
Ho A T -K (2002) Reinventing local governments and the e-government initiative
Public Administration Review 62(4) 434ndash444
Holden S H Norris D F amp Fletcher P D (2003) Electronic government at the local
level Progress to date and future issues Public Performance and Management Review
26 (4) 325ndash344
Irvine C E (2000) Security issues for automated information systems In G D Garson
(Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New York Marcel Dekker Inc
Jiang J amp Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation success
factors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 208
Rocheleau B (2000) Prescriptions for public-sector information management A review
analysis and critique American Review of Public Administration 30(4) 414ndash435
Rocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systemsIn G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues
Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Roy J (2003) The relational dynamics of e-governance A case study of the City of
Ottawa Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 391ndash403
Smith L D Campbell J F Subramanian A Bird D A amp Nelson A C (2001)
Strategic planning for municipal information systems Some lessons from a large US City
American Review of Public Administration 31(2) 139ndash157
Tayi G K amp Ballou D P (1998) Examining data quality Communications of the ACM
41(2) 54ndash56Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
West J P amp Berman E M (2001) The impact of revitalized management practices
on the adoption of information technology A national survey of local governments
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(3) 233ndash253
Notes and References
1 Gil-Garcıa J Ramon amp Luna-Reyes Luis F (2003) Towards a definition of electronicgovernment A comparative review In Mendez-Vilas A et al (Eds) Techno-legal
aspects of information society and new economy An overview Extremadura Spain7
Formatex Information Society Series
2 Best J D (1997) The Digital Organization New York 7 Wiley
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems In
W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in digital government Technology
human factors and policy Norwell MA7 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Landsbergen D J amp Wolken Jr G (1998 October) Eliminating Legal and
Policy Barriers to Interoperable Government Systems Paper presented at theannual research conference of the association for public policy analysis and
management New York
3 Bellamy C (2000) The politics of public information systems In G D Garson (Ed)
Handbook of Public Information Systems New York 7 Marcel Dekker IncDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed)
Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
PublishingMilner E M (2000) Managing Information and Knowledge in the Public Sector New
York 7 RoutledgeRocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systems
In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management
Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group Publishing
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 210
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
strategic role of the enterprise The CUBC focuses more directly on initiative level
managerial challenges such as skills of the project leader planning as a management tool
and adequate funding VMM provides techniques for assessing the impact of organizationaland managerial risks such as a lack of alignment Further it provides techniques for testing
underlying assumptions about initiatives and for assessing the impact of incorrect
assumptions on an initiative plan Smart IT raises awareness about organizational and
managerial risks such as lack of attention to users a lack of alignment between initiative and
organizational goals and multiple and conflicting goals It provides techniques such as
structured service objectives visioning and a strategic framework for minimizing these
challenges All of these guides urge stakeholder involvement as a critical strategy for
overcoming organizational and managerial challenges
624 Legal and regulatory factors
Legal and regulatory challenges are well addressed in the guides The NASCIO guide
covers the topic of legal frameworks and provides guidance on reviewing governing policies
and regulations It advises public managers to be aware of regulatory frameworks in the
development of the IT initiatives Smart IT speaks to these challenges as well by providing
tools such as partisan analysis stakeholder analysis and news analysis Each guide presents a
discussion of the possible enabling and constraining influences of the regulatory environment
on e-government initiatives Managers are urged for example to carefully consider security
policies that restrict or facilitate infrastructure expansion efforts
625 Institutional and environmental factors
Challenges stemming from environmental realities and institutional practices are identified
in each the four selected guides Timing in particular is presented as a strategy for
overcoming some of the environmental and institutional challenges The NASCIO Guide for
example encourages public managers to understand the impact of election cycles on their
initiatives Smart IT also speaks to these environmental challenges and adds in the one-year
budgetary cycles of government and its challenges to multi-year multi-institutional IT
initiatives The NASCIO guide the Canadian Treasury Board guide and the Smart IT guide
speak to the need to scan the economic and political environments and to carefully choose thebtiming Q of the IT initiative Smart IT provides a number of tools and techniques for
increasing awareness environmental and institutional factors and their influence
7 Final comments and recommendations
Understanding and reducing risk in e-government initiatives is a high priority for both
researchers and practitioners One consequence of attention to risk is that organizations both
public and private are increasing their investments in standard tools for planning and managingIT initiatives This study has sought to examine whether the tools available to practitioners
benefit from research in IS We believe the answer is bYes Q Increasingly practical guides are
urging practitioners to think beyond technology to think about bsystems in context Q 84
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 204
Our comparison of selected research findings and practical guides has provided insight into
the extent to which research is reflected in guides to inform practice The analysis highlighted
the particular characteristics of the guides and provided a general review of the extent towhich these guides ref lect cur rent research Five observations about the key commonalties
among the guides (see Table 7) and four recommendations for future efforts in both research
and practice also emerged from the analysis
The four recommendations derived from the analysis of gaps between current research and
the guides are provided to inform both future IS research and practical guide development
efforts This work also informs future efforts to conduct further empirical studies of the
impact of research on the focus and content of e-government investment decision making
tools in international national state and local governments
71 Characterize risk in context
The guides introduce the concept of risk and speak to the need to identify and invest in
strategies to manage risk Risk as a concept receives very thorough treatment however
challenges tend to be characterized in general terms A more thorough characterization of the
specific risks to specific kinds of initiatives would complement the presentation of risk
identification and analysis strategies Practitioners would be more aware of the potential risks
they face and could consider the analytic methodologies in terms of a set of likely risks given
the context of a particular initiative
72 Build understanding of information and data challenges
The impact of information and data challenges such as inconsistent data structures semantic
issues and incomplete data on the success of e-government initiatives need to be explored
further in research and presented more thoroughly in practitioner guides The success of e-
government initiatives involving multi-agency information sharing and integration such as
homeland security and public health depend on greater understanding of these challenges
Table 7
Key commonalities of selected E-government practitioner guides
1 Risks sensitivities and contingencies tend to be undeveloped and that threatens the credibility of IS
initiatives (NASCIO 2003)
2 The iterative process of information gathering analysis and decision making is central to the effort to
build understanding of problems solutions alternatives costs and risks
3 Investment analysis and business case documents are living documents and if maintained and updated over
time can provide guidance to teams throughout an initiative and beyond
4 Contextualizing technology solutions is critical to success b No one size fits all Q is the underlying theme
throughout each of the guides Finding out what size does fit in which situation is the goal each guide setsout to achieve
5 Contingency thinking is necessary for planning and preparation for unexpected consequences and changes
in the bvalue cost and risk Q determinations
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 205
73 Build a business case for business case analysis
Empirical support for the investment in business case and investment analysis is lacking Theguides present common-sense rationales for using business case strategies Some outline the
necessary elements The NASCIO guide outlines a set of key value indicators for a sound business
case The Smart IT Guide is illustrated throughout with excerpts from a business case However a
robust empirical base for particular business case strategies within particular environments and
contexts would provide public managers with a more informed roadmap for their efforts
74 Explore the impact of contingency thinking in project planning and management
The guides generally focus on the how-to of investment analysis and business casedevelopment Future guides need to continue to enhance the capability of public managers to
identify influence and act on the dynamic set of contingencies that influence information
technology initiatives Project management training for IT managers for example can
contribute as well to the ability of government managers to understand and prepare for the
dynamic environment of e-government initiatives
Governments at all levels have invested in the development of guides and handbooks to
raise awareness of the challenges facing IT initiatives These practical guides are providing a
bridge between knowledge gained through research in information systems public
administration political science organization theory and management and the knowledge
gained by practitioners participating in and leading these technology initiatives These
resources provide an opportunity when developed with full knowledge of current research and
practice to build awareness about these challenges and to provide tools and techniques that can
lead to success This study supports the conclusion that although practitioners may not read IS
research directly this research is finding its way at least recently onto their desktops and into
their briefcases and presumably into their IT initiatives through the pages of research-aware
practical guides reference tools and handbooks Further empirical work focusing on the extent
to which practitioners are using these and similar guides and the nature of that use is called for
Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank Sharon Dawes Terry Maxwell Anthony Cresswell and Luis
Luna-Reyes for their valuable comments in early versions of this paper Any mistakes or
omissions are the sole responsibility of the authors
Appendix A Bibliography included in Tables 1 and 2
Ambite J L et al (2002) Data integration and access In W J McIver amp A K
Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government Technology Human Factors and
Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic Publishers
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 206
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems
In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government
Technology Human Factors and Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic PublishersDeLone W amp Mclean E (1992) Information systems success The quest for the
dependent variable Information Systems Research 3(1) 60ndash95
DeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean Model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30
Duncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public
Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group
PublishingEdmiston K D (2003) State and local e-government Prospects and challenges
American Review of Public Administration 33(1) 20ndash45
Flowers S (1996) Software failure Management failure Amazing Stories and
Cautionary Tales New York Wiley
Fountain J E (2001) Building the Virtual State Information Technology and Institutional
Change Washington DC Brookings Institution Press
Gagnon Y -C (2001) The behavior of public managers in adopting new technologies
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(4) 337ndash350
Garson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for publicadministration In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and
Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
Harris N D (2000) Intergovernmental cooperation in the development and use of
information systems In G D Garson (Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New
York Marcel Dekker Inc
Heintze T amp Bretschneider S (2000) Information technology and restructuring in public
organizations Does adoption of information technology affect organizational structures
communications and decision making Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 10(4) 801ndash830
Ho A T -K (2002) Reinventing local governments and the e-government initiative
Public Administration Review 62(4) 434ndash444
Holden S H Norris D F amp Fletcher P D (2003) Electronic government at the local
level Progress to date and future issues Public Performance and Management Review
26 (4) 325ndash344
Irvine C E (2000) Security issues for automated information systems In G D Garson
(Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New York Marcel Dekker Inc
Jiang J amp Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation success
factors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 208
Rocheleau B (2000) Prescriptions for public-sector information management A review
analysis and critique American Review of Public Administration 30(4) 414ndash435
Rocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systemsIn G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues
Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Roy J (2003) The relational dynamics of e-governance A case study of the City of
Ottawa Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 391ndash403
Smith L D Campbell J F Subramanian A Bird D A amp Nelson A C (2001)
Strategic planning for municipal information systems Some lessons from a large US City
American Review of Public Administration 31(2) 139ndash157
Tayi G K amp Ballou D P (1998) Examining data quality Communications of the ACM
41(2) 54ndash56Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
West J P amp Berman E M (2001) The impact of revitalized management practices
on the adoption of information technology A national survey of local governments
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(3) 233ndash253
Notes and References
1 Gil-Garcıa J Ramon amp Luna-Reyes Luis F (2003) Towards a definition of electronicgovernment A comparative review In Mendez-Vilas A et al (Eds) Techno-legal
aspects of information society and new economy An overview Extremadura Spain7
Formatex Information Society Series
2 Best J D (1997) The Digital Organization New York 7 Wiley
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems In
W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in digital government Technology
human factors and policy Norwell MA7 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Landsbergen D J amp Wolken Jr G (1998 October) Eliminating Legal and
Policy Barriers to Interoperable Government Systems Paper presented at theannual research conference of the association for public policy analysis and
management New York
3 Bellamy C (2000) The politics of public information systems In G D Garson (Ed)
Handbook of Public Information Systems New York 7 Marcel Dekker IncDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed)
Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
PublishingMilner E M (2000) Managing Information and Knowledge in the Public Sector New
York 7 RoutledgeRocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systems
In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management
Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group Publishing
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 210
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
strategic role of the enterprise The CUBC focuses more directly on initiative level
managerial challenges such as skills of the project leader planning as a management tool
and adequate funding VMM provides techniques for assessing the impact of organizationaland managerial risks such as a lack of alignment Further it provides techniques for testing
underlying assumptions about initiatives and for assessing the impact of incorrect
assumptions on an initiative plan Smart IT raises awareness about organizational and
managerial risks such as lack of attention to users a lack of alignment between initiative and
organizational goals and multiple and conflicting goals It provides techniques such as
structured service objectives visioning and a strategic framework for minimizing these
challenges All of these guides urge stakeholder involvement as a critical strategy for
overcoming organizational and managerial challenges
624 Legal and regulatory factors
Legal and regulatory challenges are well addressed in the guides The NASCIO guide
covers the topic of legal frameworks and provides guidance on reviewing governing policies
and regulations It advises public managers to be aware of regulatory frameworks in the
development of the IT initiatives Smart IT speaks to these challenges as well by providing
tools such as partisan analysis stakeholder analysis and news analysis Each guide presents a
discussion of the possible enabling and constraining influences of the regulatory environment
on e-government initiatives Managers are urged for example to carefully consider security
policies that restrict or facilitate infrastructure expansion efforts
625 Institutional and environmental factors
Challenges stemming from environmental realities and institutional practices are identified
in each the four selected guides Timing in particular is presented as a strategy for
overcoming some of the environmental and institutional challenges The NASCIO Guide for
example encourages public managers to understand the impact of election cycles on their
initiatives Smart IT also speaks to these environmental challenges and adds in the one-year
budgetary cycles of government and its challenges to multi-year multi-institutional IT
initiatives The NASCIO guide the Canadian Treasury Board guide and the Smart IT guide
speak to the need to scan the economic and political environments and to carefully choose thebtiming Q of the IT initiative Smart IT provides a number of tools and techniques for
increasing awareness environmental and institutional factors and their influence
7 Final comments and recommendations
Understanding and reducing risk in e-government initiatives is a high priority for both
researchers and practitioners One consequence of attention to risk is that organizations both
public and private are increasing their investments in standard tools for planning and managingIT initiatives This study has sought to examine whether the tools available to practitioners
benefit from research in IS We believe the answer is bYes Q Increasingly practical guides are
urging practitioners to think beyond technology to think about bsystems in context Q 84
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 204
Our comparison of selected research findings and practical guides has provided insight into
the extent to which research is reflected in guides to inform practice The analysis highlighted
the particular characteristics of the guides and provided a general review of the extent towhich these guides ref lect cur rent research Five observations about the key commonalties
among the guides (see Table 7) and four recommendations for future efforts in both research
and practice also emerged from the analysis
The four recommendations derived from the analysis of gaps between current research and
the guides are provided to inform both future IS research and practical guide development
efforts This work also informs future efforts to conduct further empirical studies of the
impact of research on the focus and content of e-government investment decision making
tools in international national state and local governments
71 Characterize risk in context
The guides introduce the concept of risk and speak to the need to identify and invest in
strategies to manage risk Risk as a concept receives very thorough treatment however
challenges tend to be characterized in general terms A more thorough characterization of the
specific risks to specific kinds of initiatives would complement the presentation of risk
identification and analysis strategies Practitioners would be more aware of the potential risks
they face and could consider the analytic methodologies in terms of a set of likely risks given
the context of a particular initiative
72 Build understanding of information and data challenges
The impact of information and data challenges such as inconsistent data structures semantic
issues and incomplete data on the success of e-government initiatives need to be explored
further in research and presented more thoroughly in practitioner guides The success of e-
government initiatives involving multi-agency information sharing and integration such as
homeland security and public health depend on greater understanding of these challenges
Table 7
Key commonalities of selected E-government practitioner guides
1 Risks sensitivities and contingencies tend to be undeveloped and that threatens the credibility of IS
initiatives (NASCIO 2003)
2 The iterative process of information gathering analysis and decision making is central to the effort to
build understanding of problems solutions alternatives costs and risks
3 Investment analysis and business case documents are living documents and if maintained and updated over
time can provide guidance to teams throughout an initiative and beyond
4 Contextualizing technology solutions is critical to success b No one size fits all Q is the underlying theme
throughout each of the guides Finding out what size does fit in which situation is the goal each guide setsout to achieve
5 Contingency thinking is necessary for planning and preparation for unexpected consequences and changes
in the bvalue cost and risk Q determinations
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 205
73 Build a business case for business case analysis
Empirical support for the investment in business case and investment analysis is lacking Theguides present common-sense rationales for using business case strategies Some outline the
necessary elements The NASCIO guide outlines a set of key value indicators for a sound business
case The Smart IT Guide is illustrated throughout with excerpts from a business case However a
robust empirical base for particular business case strategies within particular environments and
contexts would provide public managers with a more informed roadmap for their efforts
74 Explore the impact of contingency thinking in project planning and management
The guides generally focus on the how-to of investment analysis and business casedevelopment Future guides need to continue to enhance the capability of public managers to
identify influence and act on the dynamic set of contingencies that influence information
technology initiatives Project management training for IT managers for example can
contribute as well to the ability of government managers to understand and prepare for the
dynamic environment of e-government initiatives
Governments at all levels have invested in the development of guides and handbooks to
raise awareness of the challenges facing IT initiatives These practical guides are providing a
bridge between knowledge gained through research in information systems public
administration political science organization theory and management and the knowledge
gained by practitioners participating in and leading these technology initiatives These
resources provide an opportunity when developed with full knowledge of current research and
practice to build awareness about these challenges and to provide tools and techniques that can
lead to success This study supports the conclusion that although practitioners may not read IS
research directly this research is finding its way at least recently onto their desktops and into
their briefcases and presumably into their IT initiatives through the pages of research-aware
practical guides reference tools and handbooks Further empirical work focusing on the extent
to which practitioners are using these and similar guides and the nature of that use is called for
Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank Sharon Dawes Terry Maxwell Anthony Cresswell and Luis
Luna-Reyes for their valuable comments in early versions of this paper Any mistakes or
omissions are the sole responsibility of the authors
Appendix A Bibliography included in Tables 1 and 2
Ambite J L et al (2002) Data integration and access In W J McIver amp A K
Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government Technology Human Factors and
Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic Publishers
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 206
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems
In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government
Technology Human Factors and Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic PublishersDeLone W amp Mclean E (1992) Information systems success The quest for the
dependent variable Information Systems Research 3(1) 60ndash95
DeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean Model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30
Duncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public
Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group
PublishingEdmiston K D (2003) State and local e-government Prospects and challenges
American Review of Public Administration 33(1) 20ndash45
Flowers S (1996) Software failure Management failure Amazing Stories and
Cautionary Tales New York Wiley
Fountain J E (2001) Building the Virtual State Information Technology and Institutional
Change Washington DC Brookings Institution Press
Gagnon Y -C (2001) The behavior of public managers in adopting new technologies
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(4) 337ndash350
Garson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for publicadministration In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and
Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
Harris N D (2000) Intergovernmental cooperation in the development and use of
information systems In G D Garson (Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New
York Marcel Dekker Inc
Heintze T amp Bretschneider S (2000) Information technology and restructuring in public
organizations Does adoption of information technology affect organizational structures
communications and decision making Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 10(4) 801ndash830
Ho A T -K (2002) Reinventing local governments and the e-government initiative
Public Administration Review 62(4) 434ndash444
Holden S H Norris D F amp Fletcher P D (2003) Electronic government at the local
level Progress to date and future issues Public Performance and Management Review
26 (4) 325ndash344
Irvine C E (2000) Security issues for automated information systems In G D Garson
(Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New York Marcel Dekker Inc
Jiang J amp Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation success
factors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 208
Rocheleau B (2000) Prescriptions for public-sector information management A review
analysis and critique American Review of Public Administration 30(4) 414ndash435
Rocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systemsIn G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues
Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Roy J (2003) The relational dynamics of e-governance A case study of the City of
Ottawa Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 391ndash403
Smith L D Campbell J F Subramanian A Bird D A amp Nelson A C (2001)
Strategic planning for municipal information systems Some lessons from a large US City
American Review of Public Administration 31(2) 139ndash157
Tayi G K amp Ballou D P (1998) Examining data quality Communications of the ACM
41(2) 54ndash56Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
West J P amp Berman E M (2001) The impact of revitalized management practices
on the adoption of information technology A national survey of local governments
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(3) 233ndash253
Notes and References
1 Gil-Garcıa J Ramon amp Luna-Reyes Luis F (2003) Towards a definition of electronicgovernment A comparative review In Mendez-Vilas A et al (Eds) Techno-legal
aspects of information society and new economy An overview Extremadura Spain7
Formatex Information Society Series
2 Best J D (1997) The Digital Organization New York 7 Wiley
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems In
W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in digital government Technology
human factors and policy Norwell MA7 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Landsbergen D J amp Wolken Jr G (1998 October) Eliminating Legal and
Policy Barriers to Interoperable Government Systems Paper presented at theannual research conference of the association for public policy analysis and
management New York
3 Bellamy C (2000) The politics of public information systems In G D Garson (Ed)
Handbook of Public Information Systems New York 7 Marcel Dekker IncDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed)
Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
PublishingMilner E M (2000) Managing Information and Knowledge in the Public Sector New
York 7 RoutledgeRocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systems
In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management
Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group Publishing
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 210
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
Our comparison of selected research findings and practical guides has provided insight into
the extent to which research is reflected in guides to inform practice The analysis highlighted
the particular characteristics of the guides and provided a general review of the extent towhich these guides ref lect cur rent research Five observations about the key commonalties
among the guides (see Table 7) and four recommendations for future efforts in both research
and practice also emerged from the analysis
The four recommendations derived from the analysis of gaps between current research and
the guides are provided to inform both future IS research and practical guide development
efforts This work also informs future efforts to conduct further empirical studies of the
impact of research on the focus and content of e-government investment decision making
tools in international national state and local governments
71 Characterize risk in context
The guides introduce the concept of risk and speak to the need to identify and invest in
strategies to manage risk Risk as a concept receives very thorough treatment however
challenges tend to be characterized in general terms A more thorough characterization of the
specific risks to specific kinds of initiatives would complement the presentation of risk
identification and analysis strategies Practitioners would be more aware of the potential risks
they face and could consider the analytic methodologies in terms of a set of likely risks given
the context of a particular initiative
72 Build understanding of information and data challenges
The impact of information and data challenges such as inconsistent data structures semantic
issues and incomplete data on the success of e-government initiatives need to be explored
further in research and presented more thoroughly in practitioner guides The success of e-
government initiatives involving multi-agency information sharing and integration such as
homeland security and public health depend on greater understanding of these challenges
Table 7
Key commonalities of selected E-government practitioner guides
1 Risks sensitivities and contingencies tend to be undeveloped and that threatens the credibility of IS
initiatives (NASCIO 2003)
2 The iterative process of information gathering analysis and decision making is central to the effort to
build understanding of problems solutions alternatives costs and risks
3 Investment analysis and business case documents are living documents and if maintained and updated over
time can provide guidance to teams throughout an initiative and beyond
4 Contextualizing technology solutions is critical to success b No one size fits all Q is the underlying theme
throughout each of the guides Finding out what size does fit in which situation is the goal each guide setsout to achieve
5 Contingency thinking is necessary for planning and preparation for unexpected consequences and changes
in the bvalue cost and risk Q determinations
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 205
73 Build a business case for business case analysis
Empirical support for the investment in business case and investment analysis is lacking Theguides present common-sense rationales for using business case strategies Some outline the
necessary elements The NASCIO guide outlines a set of key value indicators for a sound business
case The Smart IT Guide is illustrated throughout with excerpts from a business case However a
robust empirical base for particular business case strategies within particular environments and
contexts would provide public managers with a more informed roadmap for their efforts
74 Explore the impact of contingency thinking in project planning and management
The guides generally focus on the how-to of investment analysis and business casedevelopment Future guides need to continue to enhance the capability of public managers to
identify influence and act on the dynamic set of contingencies that influence information
technology initiatives Project management training for IT managers for example can
contribute as well to the ability of government managers to understand and prepare for the
dynamic environment of e-government initiatives
Governments at all levels have invested in the development of guides and handbooks to
raise awareness of the challenges facing IT initiatives These practical guides are providing a
bridge between knowledge gained through research in information systems public
administration political science organization theory and management and the knowledge
gained by practitioners participating in and leading these technology initiatives These
resources provide an opportunity when developed with full knowledge of current research and
practice to build awareness about these challenges and to provide tools and techniques that can
lead to success This study supports the conclusion that although practitioners may not read IS
research directly this research is finding its way at least recently onto their desktops and into
their briefcases and presumably into their IT initiatives through the pages of research-aware
practical guides reference tools and handbooks Further empirical work focusing on the extent
to which practitioners are using these and similar guides and the nature of that use is called for
Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank Sharon Dawes Terry Maxwell Anthony Cresswell and Luis
Luna-Reyes for their valuable comments in early versions of this paper Any mistakes or
omissions are the sole responsibility of the authors
Appendix A Bibliography included in Tables 1 and 2
Ambite J L et al (2002) Data integration and access In W J McIver amp A K
Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government Technology Human Factors and
Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic Publishers
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 206
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems
In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government
Technology Human Factors and Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic PublishersDeLone W amp Mclean E (1992) Information systems success The quest for the
dependent variable Information Systems Research 3(1) 60ndash95
DeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean Model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30
Duncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public
Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group
PublishingEdmiston K D (2003) State and local e-government Prospects and challenges
American Review of Public Administration 33(1) 20ndash45
Flowers S (1996) Software failure Management failure Amazing Stories and
Cautionary Tales New York Wiley
Fountain J E (2001) Building the Virtual State Information Technology and Institutional
Change Washington DC Brookings Institution Press
Gagnon Y -C (2001) The behavior of public managers in adopting new technologies
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(4) 337ndash350
Garson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for publicadministration In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and
Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
Harris N D (2000) Intergovernmental cooperation in the development and use of
information systems In G D Garson (Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New
York Marcel Dekker Inc
Heintze T amp Bretschneider S (2000) Information technology and restructuring in public
organizations Does adoption of information technology affect organizational structures
communications and decision making Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 10(4) 801ndash830
Ho A T -K (2002) Reinventing local governments and the e-government initiative
Public Administration Review 62(4) 434ndash444
Holden S H Norris D F amp Fletcher P D (2003) Electronic government at the local
level Progress to date and future issues Public Performance and Management Review
26 (4) 325ndash344
Irvine C E (2000) Security issues for automated information systems In G D Garson
(Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New York Marcel Dekker Inc
Jiang J amp Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation success
factors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 208
Rocheleau B (2000) Prescriptions for public-sector information management A review
analysis and critique American Review of Public Administration 30(4) 414ndash435
Rocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systemsIn G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues
Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Roy J (2003) The relational dynamics of e-governance A case study of the City of
Ottawa Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 391ndash403
Smith L D Campbell J F Subramanian A Bird D A amp Nelson A C (2001)
Strategic planning for municipal information systems Some lessons from a large US City
American Review of Public Administration 31(2) 139ndash157
Tayi G K amp Ballou D P (1998) Examining data quality Communications of the ACM
41(2) 54ndash56Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
West J P amp Berman E M (2001) The impact of revitalized management practices
on the adoption of information technology A national survey of local governments
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(3) 233ndash253
Notes and References
1 Gil-Garcıa J Ramon amp Luna-Reyes Luis F (2003) Towards a definition of electronicgovernment A comparative review In Mendez-Vilas A et al (Eds) Techno-legal
aspects of information society and new economy An overview Extremadura Spain7
Formatex Information Society Series
2 Best J D (1997) The Digital Organization New York 7 Wiley
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems In
W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in digital government Technology
human factors and policy Norwell MA7 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Landsbergen D J amp Wolken Jr G (1998 October) Eliminating Legal and
Policy Barriers to Interoperable Government Systems Paper presented at theannual research conference of the association for public policy analysis and
management New York
3 Bellamy C (2000) The politics of public information systems In G D Garson (Ed)
Handbook of Public Information Systems New York 7 Marcel Dekker IncDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed)
Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
PublishingMilner E M (2000) Managing Information and Knowledge in the Public Sector New
York 7 RoutledgeRocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systems
In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management
Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group Publishing
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 210
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
73 Build a business case for business case analysis
Empirical support for the investment in business case and investment analysis is lacking Theguides present common-sense rationales for using business case strategies Some outline the
necessary elements The NASCIO guide outlines a set of key value indicators for a sound business
case The Smart IT Guide is illustrated throughout with excerpts from a business case However a
robust empirical base for particular business case strategies within particular environments and
contexts would provide public managers with a more informed roadmap for their efforts
74 Explore the impact of contingency thinking in project planning and management
The guides generally focus on the how-to of investment analysis and business casedevelopment Future guides need to continue to enhance the capability of public managers to
identify influence and act on the dynamic set of contingencies that influence information
technology initiatives Project management training for IT managers for example can
contribute as well to the ability of government managers to understand and prepare for the
dynamic environment of e-government initiatives
Governments at all levels have invested in the development of guides and handbooks to
raise awareness of the challenges facing IT initiatives These practical guides are providing a
bridge between knowledge gained through research in information systems public
administration political science organization theory and management and the knowledge
gained by practitioners participating in and leading these technology initiatives These
resources provide an opportunity when developed with full knowledge of current research and
practice to build awareness about these challenges and to provide tools and techniques that can
lead to success This study supports the conclusion that although practitioners may not read IS
research directly this research is finding its way at least recently onto their desktops and into
their briefcases and presumably into their IT initiatives through the pages of research-aware
practical guides reference tools and handbooks Further empirical work focusing on the extent
to which practitioners are using these and similar guides and the nature of that use is called for
Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank Sharon Dawes Terry Maxwell Anthony Cresswell and Luis
Luna-Reyes for their valuable comments in early versions of this paper Any mistakes or
omissions are the sole responsibility of the authors
Appendix A Bibliography included in Tables 1 and 2
Ambite J L et al (2002) Data integration and access In W J McIver amp A K
Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government Technology Human Factors and
Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic Publishers
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 206
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems
In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government
Technology Human Factors and Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic PublishersDeLone W amp Mclean E (1992) Information systems success The quest for the
dependent variable Information Systems Research 3(1) 60ndash95
DeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean Model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30
Duncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public
Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group
PublishingEdmiston K D (2003) State and local e-government Prospects and challenges
American Review of Public Administration 33(1) 20ndash45
Flowers S (1996) Software failure Management failure Amazing Stories and
Cautionary Tales New York Wiley
Fountain J E (2001) Building the Virtual State Information Technology and Institutional
Change Washington DC Brookings Institution Press
Gagnon Y -C (2001) The behavior of public managers in adopting new technologies
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(4) 337ndash350
Garson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for publicadministration In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and
Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
Harris N D (2000) Intergovernmental cooperation in the development and use of
information systems In G D Garson (Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New
York Marcel Dekker Inc
Heintze T amp Bretschneider S (2000) Information technology and restructuring in public
organizations Does adoption of information technology affect organizational structures
communications and decision making Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 10(4) 801ndash830
Ho A T -K (2002) Reinventing local governments and the e-government initiative
Public Administration Review 62(4) 434ndash444
Holden S H Norris D F amp Fletcher P D (2003) Electronic government at the local
level Progress to date and future issues Public Performance and Management Review
26 (4) 325ndash344
Irvine C E (2000) Security issues for automated information systems In G D Garson
(Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New York Marcel Dekker Inc
Jiang J amp Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation success
factors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 208
Rocheleau B (2000) Prescriptions for public-sector information management A review
analysis and critique American Review of Public Administration 30(4) 414ndash435
Rocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systemsIn G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues
Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Roy J (2003) The relational dynamics of e-governance A case study of the City of
Ottawa Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 391ndash403
Smith L D Campbell J F Subramanian A Bird D A amp Nelson A C (2001)
Strategic planning for municipal information systems Some lessons from a large US City
American Review of Public Administration 31(2) 139ndash157
Tayi G K amp Ballou D P (1998) Examining data quality Communications of the ACM
41(2) 54ndash56Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
West J P amp Berman E M (2001) The impact of revitalized management practices
on the adoption of information technology A national survey of local governments
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(3) 233ndash253
Notes and References
1 Gil-Garcıa J Ramon amp Luna-Reyes Luis F (2003) Towards a definition of electronicgovernment A comparative review In Mendez-Vilas A et al (Eds) Techno-legal
aspects of information society and new economy An overview Extremadura Spain7
Formatex Information Society Series
2 Best J D (1997) The Digital Organization New York 7 Wiley
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems In
W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in digital government Technology
human factors and policy Norwell MA7 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Landsbergen D J amp Wolken Jr G (1998 October) Eliminating Legal and
Policy Barriers to Interoperable Government Systems Paper presented at theannual research conference of the association for public policy analysis and
management New York
3 Bellamy C (2000) The politics of public information systems In G D Garson (Ed)
Handbook of Public Information Systems New York 7 Marcel Dekker IncDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed)
Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
PublishingMilner E M (2000) Managing Information and Knowledge in the Public Sector New
York 7 RoutledgeRocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systems
In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management
Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group Publishing
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 210
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems
In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government
Technology Human Factors and Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic PublishersDeLone W amp Mclean E (1992) Information systems success The quest for the
dependent variable Information Systems Research 3(1) 60ndash95
DeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean Model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30
Duncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public
Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group
PublishingEdmiston K D (2003) State and local e-government Prospects and challenges
American Review of Public Administration 33(1) 20ndash45
Flowers S (1996) Software failure Management failure Amazing Stories and
Cautionary Tales New York Wiley
Fountain J E (2001) Building the Virtual State Information Technology and Institutional
Change Washington DC Brookings Institution Press
Gagnon Y -C (2001) The behavior of public managers in adopting new technologies
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(4) 337ndash350
Garson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for publicadministration In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and
Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
Harris N D (2000) Intergovernmental cooperation in the development and use of
information systems In G D Garson (Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New
York Marcel Dekker Inc
Heintze T amp Bretschneider S (2000) Information technology and restructuring in public
organizations Does adoption of information technology affect organizational structures
communications and decision making Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 10(4) 801ndash830
Ho A T -K (2002) Reinventing local governments and the e-government initiative
Public Administration Review 62(4) 434ndash444
Holden S H Norris D F amp Fletcher P D (2003) Electronic government at the local
level Progress to date and future issues Public Performance and Management Review
26 (4) 325ndash344
Irvine C E (2000) Security issues for automated information systems In G D Garson
(Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New York Marcel Dekker Inc
Jiang J amp Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation success
factors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 208
Rocheleau B (2000) Prescriptions for public-sector information management A review
analysis and critique American Review of Public Administration 30(4) 414ndash435
Rocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systemsIn G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues
Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Roy J (2003) The relational dynamics of e-governance A case study of the City of
Ottawa Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 391ndash403
Smith L D Campbell J F Subramanian A Bird D A amp Nelson A C (2001)
Strategic planning for municipal information systems Some lessons from a large US City
American Review of Public Administration 31(2) 139ndash157
Tayi G K amp Ballou D P (1998) Examining data quality Communications of the ACM
41(2) 54ndash56Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
West J P amp Berman E M (2001) The impact of revitalized management practices
on the adoption of information technology A national survey of local governments
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(3) 233ndash253
Notes and References
1 Gil-Garcıa J Ramon amp Luna-Reyes Luis F (2003) Towards a definition of electronicgovernment A comparative review In Mendez-Vilas A et al (Eds) Techno-legal
aspects of information society and new economy An overview Extremadura Spain7
Formatex Information Society Series
2 Best J D (1997) The Digital Organization New York 7 Wiley
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems In
W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in digital government Technology
human factors and policy Norwell MA7 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Landsbergen D J amp Wolken Jr G (1998 October) Eliminating Legal and
Policy Barriers to Interoperable Government Systems Paper presented at theannual research conference of the association for public policy analysis and
management New York
3 Bellamy C (2000) The politics of public information systems In G D Garson (Ed)
Handbook of Public Information Systems New York 7 Marcel Dekker IncDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed)
Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
PublishingMilner E M (2000) Managing Information and Knowledge in the Public Sector New
York 7 RoutledgeRocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systems
In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management
Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group Publishing
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 210
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems
In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in Digital Government
Technology Human Factors and Policy Norwell MA Kluwer Academic PublishersDeLone W amp Mclean E (1992) Information systems success The quest for the
dependent variable Information Systems Research 3(1) 60ndash95
DeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean Model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30
Duncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public
Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group
PublishingEdmiston K D (2003) State and local e-government Prospects and challenges
American Review of Public Administration 33(1) 20ndash45
Flowers S (1996) Software failure Management failure Amazing Stories and
Cautionary Tales New York Wiley
Fountain J E (2001) Building the Virtual State Information Technology and Institutional
Change Washington DC Brookings Institution Press
Gagnon Y -C (2001) The behavior of public managers in adopting new technologies
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(4) 337ndash350
Garson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for publicadministration In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and
Management Issues Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
Harris N D (2000) Intergovernmental cooperation in the development and use of
information systems In G D Garson (Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New
York Marcel Dekker Inc
Heintze T amp Bretschneider S (2000) Information technology and restructuring in public
organizations Does adoption of information technology affect organizational structures
communications and decision making Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 10(4) 801ndash830
Ho A T -K (2002) Reinventing local governments and the e-government initiative
Public Administration Review 62(4) 434ndash444
Holden S H Norris D F amp Fletcher P D (2003) Electronic government at the local
level Progress to date and future issues Public Performance and Management Review
26 (4) 325ndash344
Irvine C E (2000) Security issues for automated information systems In G D Garson
(Ed) Handbook of Public Information Systems New York Marcel Dekker Inc
Jiang J amp Klein G (2000) Software development risks to project effectiveness The Journal of Systems and Software 52 3ndash10
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation success
factors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 208
Rocheleau B (2000) Prescriptions for public-sector information management A review
analysis and critique American Review of Public Administration 30(4) 414ndash435
Rocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systemsIn G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues
Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Roy J (2003) The relational dynamics of e-governance A case study of the City of
Ottawa Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 391ndash403
Smith L D Campbell J F Subramanian A Bird D A amp Nelson A C (2001)
Strategic planning for municipal information systems Some lessons from a large US City
American Review of Public Administration 31(2) 139ndash157
Tayi G K amp Ballou D P (1998) Examining data quality Communications of the ACM
41(2) 54ndash56Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
West J P amp Berman E M (2001) The impact of revitalized management practices
on the adoption of information technology A national survey of local governments
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(3) 233ndash253
Notes and References
1 Gil-Garcıa J Ramon amp Luna-Reyes Luis F (2003) Towards a definition of electronicgovernment A comparative review In Mendez-Vilas A et al (Eds) Techno-legal
aspects of information society and new economy An overview Extremadura Spain7
Formatex Information Society Series
2 Best J D (1997) The Digital Organization New York 7 Wiley
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems In
W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in digital government Technology
human factors and policy Norwell MA7 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Landsbergen D J amp Wolken Jr G (1998 October) Eliminating Legal and
Policy Barriers to Interoperable Government Systems Paper presented at theannual research conference of the association for public policy analysis and
management New York
3 Bellamy C (2000) The politics of public information systems In G D Garson (Ed)
Handbook of Public Information Systems New York 7 Marcel Dekker IncDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed)
Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
PublishingMilner E M (2000) Managing Information and Knowledge in the Public Sector New
York 7 RoutledgeRocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systems
In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management
Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group Publishing
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 210
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
Rocheleau B (2000) Prescriptions for public-sector information management A review
analysis and critique American Review of Public Administration 30(4) 414ndash435
Rocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systemsIn G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues
Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Roy J (2003) The relational dynamics of e-governance A case study of the City of
Ottawa Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 391ndash403
Smith L D Campbell J F Subramanian A Bird D A amp Nelson A C (2001)
Strategic planning for municipal information systems Some lessons from a large US City
American Review of Public Administration 31(2) 139ndash157
Tayi G K amp Ballou D P (1998) Examining data quality Communications of the ACM
41(2) 54ndash56Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
West J P amp Berman E M (2001) The impact of revitalized management practices
on the adoption of information technology A national survey of local governments
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(3) 233ndash253
Notes and References
1 Gil-Garcıa J Ramon amp Luna-Reyes Luis F (2003) Towards a definition of electronicgovernment A comparative review In Mendez-Vilas A et al (Eds) Techno-legal
aspects of information society and new economy An overview Extremadura Spain7
Formatex Information Society Series
2 Best J D (1997) The Digital Organization New York 7 Wiley
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems In
W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in digital government Technology
human factors and policy Norwell MA7 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Landsbergen D J amp Wolken Jr G (1998 October) Eliminating Legal and
Policy Barriers to Interoperable Government Systems Paper presented at theannual research conference of the association for public policy analysis and
management New York
3 Bellamy C (2000) The politics of public information systems In G D Garson (Ed)
Handbook of Public Information Systems New York 7 Marcel Dekker IncDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed)
Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
PublishingMilner E M (2000) Managing Information and Knowledge in the Public Sector New
York 7 RoutledgeRocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systems
In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management
Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group Publishing
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 210
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
Rocheleau B (2000) Prescriptions for public-sector information management A review
analysis and critique American Review of Public Administration 30(4) 414ndash435
Rocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systemsIn G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues
Hershey PA Idea Group Publishing
Roy J (2003) The relational dynamics of e-governance A case study of the City of
Ottawa Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 391ndash403
Smith L D Campbell J F Subramanian A Bird D A amp Nelson A C (2001)
Strategic planning for municipal information systems Some lessons from a large US City
American Review of Public Administration 31(2) 139ndash157
Tayi G K amp Ballou D P (1998) Examining data quality Communications of the ACM
41(2) 54ndash56Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
West J P amp Berman E M (2001) The impact of revitalized management practices
on the adoption of information technology A national survey of local governments
Pubic Performance and Management Review 24(3) 233ndash253
Notes and References
1 Gil-Garcıa J Ramon amp Luna-Reyes Luis F (2003) Towards a definition of electronicgovernment A comparative review In Mendez-Vilas A et al (Eds) Techno-legal
aspects of information society and new economy An overview Extremadura Spain7
Formatex Information Society Series
2 Best J D (1997) The Digital Organization New York 7 Wiley
Dawes S S amp Pardo T (2002) Building collaborative digital government systems In
W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds) Advances in digital government Technology
human factors and policy Norwell MA7 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Landsbergen D J amp Wolken Jr G (1998 October) Eliminating Legal and
Policy Barriers to Interoperable Government Systems Paper presented at theannual research conference of the association for public policy analysis and
management New York
3 Bellamy C (2000) The politics of public information systems In G D Garson (Ed)
Handbook of Public Information Systems New York 7 Marcel Dekker IncDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed)
Public Information Technology Policy and Management Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
PublishingMilner E M (2000) Managing Information and Knowledge in the Public Sector New
York 7 RoutledgeRocheleau B (2003) Politics accountability and government information systems
In G D Garson (Ed) Public Information Technology Policy and Management
Issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group Publishing
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 210
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
4 Bozeman B amp Bretschneider S (1986) Public management information systems
Theory and prescriptions [Special issue] Public administration review Vol 46
(pp 475ndash487)Caffrey L (1998) Information Sharing between and within Governments A Study Group
Report London7 Commonwealth SecretariatGarson G D (2003) Toward an information technology research agenda for public
administration In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and
management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group PublishingSouthon G Sauer C amp Dampney K (1999) Lessons from a failed information
systems initiative Issues for complex organizations International Journal of Medical
Informatics 55(1) 33ndash46
5 Khazanchi D amp Munkvold B E (2001) Expanding the notion of relevance in IS
research A proposal and some recommendations Communications of the Association for
Information Systems 6
6 Cresswell A M (2001) Thoughts on relevance of IS research Communications of the
Association for Information Systems 6
7 Mathieson K amp Ryan T (2001) A broader view of relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
8 Gray P (2001) Introduction to the special volume on relevance Communications of the
Association of Information Systems 6
9 Ibid p 8
10 Ho J amp Pardo T A (2004 January 5ndash8) Toward the Success of eGovernment Initiatives Mapping Known Success Factors to the Design of Practical Tools Paper
presented at the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)
organized by the College of Business University of Hawairsquoi at Manoa USA
11 The Public Administration journals reviewed were Public Administration Review
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory American Review of Public
Administration Administration and Society and Public Performance and Management
12 Chengalur-Smith I amp Duchessi P (2000) Client-server implementation Some
management pointers Transactions on Engineering Management 47 (1) 127ndash145
Ibid p 2 DawesDeLone W amp Mclean E (2003) The DeLone and McLean model of information
systems success A ten year update Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4)
9ndash30DeSanctis G amp Poole M S (1994) Capturing the complexity in advanced technology
use Adaptive structuration theory Organization Science 5(2) 121ndash147
Ibid p 2 Landsbergen and WolkenOrlikowski W J (2000) Using technology and constituting structures A practice lens
for studying technology in organizations Organization Science 11(4) 404ndash428
13 Redman T C (1998) The impact of poor data quality on the typical enterprise
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 79ndash8214 Kaplan D Krishnan R Padman R amp Peters J (1998) Assessing data quality in
accounting information systems Communications of the ACM 41(2) 72ndash77
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 211
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
38 Scott W Richard (2000) Institutions and organizations Thousand Oaks CA7 Sage
Publications
39 Andersen D F amp Dawes S S (1991) Government information management A primer
and casebook Englewood Cliffs NJ7 Prentice Hall
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 3 Milner
Joshi J B D Ghafor A Aref W G amp Spafford E H (2002) Security and privacy
challenges of a digital government In W J McIver amp A K Elmagarmid (Eds)
Advances in digital government Technology human factors and policy Norwell MA7
Kluwer Academic PublishersDuncan G T amp Roehrig S T (2003) Mediating the tension between information
privacy and information access The role of digital government In G D Garson (Ed) Public information technology Policy and management issues Hershey PA7 Idea Group
Publishing
Ibid p 33 Edmiston
40 Ibid p 19
Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 35 Fountain
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
41 Ibid p 3 Bellamy
Ibid p 3 Rocheleau
42 Wang R Y (1998) A product perspective on total data quality management
Communications of the ACM 41(2) 58ndash63
43 Keil M (1995) Pulling the plug Software project management and the problem of
escalation MIS Quarterly 19(4) 421ndash447
Ibid p 42
Ibid p 21
44 CTG (2000) The insiderrsquos guide to using information in government Albany NY7
Center for Technology in Government httpdemoctgalbanyedustaticusinginfo
45 Orr K (1998) Data quality and systems theory Communications of the ACM 41(2)
66ndash7046 Ibid p 44
47 Ibid p 22 Davis
Ibid p 22 DeLone and Mclean
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 4 Garson
48 Ibid p 4 Caffrey
Ibid p 2 Dawes and Pardo
49 Ibid p 25 Barki et al
Jiang J Klein G amp Balloun J (1996) Ranking of system implementation successfactors Project Management Journal 27 50ndash55
Ibid p 21
Ibid p 33 Jiang J and Klein
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 214
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216
64 Brown M M amp Brudney J L (1998) A bsmarter cheaper and faster Q governmentContracting for geographic information systems Public Administration Review 58
335ndash345
Ibid p 33 Barret and Green
Chen Y -C amp Perry J (2003) Outsourcing for e-government Managing for success
Public Performance and Management Review 26 (4) 404ndash421
65 CIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology Highlights Washington DC7
CIO Council Best Practices CommitteeCIO Council (2002) The value measuring methodology How-to-guide Washington
DC7 CIO Council Best Practices Committee66 Ibid p 65
67 Ibid p 65
68 Ibid p 65
69 Treasury Board of Canada (1998) Creating and using a business case for information
technology projects Ottawa ON7 Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
70 Ibid p 69
71 Ibid p 69
72 Ibid p 69
73 Ibid p 69
74 Ibid p 69
75 NASCIO (2003) Business case basics and beyond A primer on state government IT
business cases Lexington KY7 National Association of State Chief Information Officers
76 Ibid p 75
77 Ibid p 75
78 Dawes S S Pardo T A Simon S Cresswell A M LaVigne M Andersen D amp
Bloniartz P A (2004) Making smart IT choices Understanding value and risk in
government IT investments Albany NY7 Center for Technology in Government
79 Ibid p 78
80 Ibid p 7881 Ibid p 75
82 Ibid p 44
83 Ibid p 69
84 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering at the National
Science Foundation has created a bSystems in Context Q cluster This cluster bsupports
research and education on the interaction between information computation and
communication systems and users organizations government agencies the scientific
community and the external environment Q More information is available at http
wwwcisensfgovdivclustercfmdiv=iisampcluster _
id=3947
JR Gil-Garcıa TA Pardo Government Information Quarterly 22 (2005) 187ndash216 216