1 Relates to Lab 4. This module covers link state routing and the Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) routing protocol. Dynamic Routing Protocols II OSPF
Jan 26, 2016
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Relates to Lab 4. This module covers link state routing and the Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) routing protocol.
Dynamic Routing Protocols IIOSPF
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Distance Vector vs. Link State Routing
• With distance vector routing, each node has information only about the next hop:
• Node A: to reach F go to B• Node B: to reach F go to D• Node D: to reach F go to E• Node E: go directly to F
• Distance vector routing makespoor routing decisions if directions are not completelycorrect (e.g., because a node is down).
• If parts of the directions incorrect, the routing may be incorrect until the routing algorithms has re-converged.
AA BB CC
DD EE FF
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Distance Vector vs. Link State Routing
• In link state routing, each node has a complete map of the topology
• If a node fails, each node can calculate the new route
• Difficulty: All nodes need to have a consistent view of the network
AA BB CC
DD EE FF
A B C
D E F
A B C
D E F
A B C
D E F
A B C
D E F
A B C
D E F
A B C
D E F
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Link State Routing: Properties
• Each node requires complete topology information• Link state information must be flooded to all nodes• Guaranteed to converge
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Link State Routing: Basic princples
1. Each router establishes a relationship (“adjacency”) with its neighbors
2.Each router generates link state advertisements (LSAs) which are distributed to all routers
LSA = (link id, state of the link, cost, neighbors of the link)
3. Each router maintains a database of all received LSAs (topological database or link state database), which describes the network as a graph with weighted edges
4. Each router uses its link state database to run a shortest path algorithm (Dijikstra’s algorithm) to produce the shortest path to each network
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Operation of a Link State Routing protocol
ReceivedLSAs
IP Routing Table
Dijkstra’s
Algorithm
Link StateDatabase
LSAs are flooded to other interfaces
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Dijkstra’s Shortest Path Algorithm for a Graph
Input: Graph (N,E) with N the set of nodes and E the set of edges
dvw link cost (dvw = infinity if (v,w) E, dvv = 0)
s source node.
Output: Dn cost of the least-cost path from node s to node n
M = {s};
for each n M Dn = dsn;
while (M all nodes) do Find w M for which Dw = min{Dj ; j M};Add w to M;for each n M
Dn = minw [ Dn, Dw + dwn ];Update route;
enddo
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OSPF
• OSPF = Open Shortest Path First• The OSPF routing protocol is the most important link state
routing protocol on the Internet• The complexity of OSPF is significant
• History:– 1989: RFC 1131 OSPF Version 1 – 1991: RFC 1247 OSPF Version 2– 1994: RFC 1583 OSPF Version 2 (revised)– 1997: RFC 2178 OSPF Version 2 (revised)– 1998: RFC 2328 OSPF Version 2 (current version)
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Features of OSPF
• Provides authentication of routing messages• Enables load balancing by allowing traffic to be split evenly
across routes with equal cost• Type-of-Service routing allows to setup different routes
dependent on the TOS field• Supports subnetting• Supports multicasting• Allows hierarchical routing
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Example Network
10.1.1.0 / 24
.1 .2 .2
10.10.10.1
10.1.4.0 / 24
.1
.4
10.1.7.0 / 24
10.1
.6.0
/ 24
10.1
.3.0
/ 24
10.1.5.0/24.3
.3 .5
.2
.3
.5
.5
.4
.4
.6
.6
10.10.10.2 10.10.10.4 10.10.10.6
10.10.10.2 10.10.10.5
Router IDs are selected independent of interface addresses
3
4 2
5
1
1
32
•Link costs are called Metric
• Metric is in the range [0 , 216]
• Metric can be asymmetric
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10.1.1.0 / 24
.1 .2 .2
10.10.10.1
10.1.4.0 / 24
.1
.4
10.1.7.0 / 24
10.1
.6.0
/ 24
10.1
.3.0
/ 24
10.1.5.0/24.3
.3 .5
.2
.3
.5
.5
.4
.4
.6
.6
10.10.10.2 10.10.10.4 10.10.10.6
10.10.10.3 10.10.10.5
Link State Advertisement (LSA)
• The LSA of router 10.10.10.1 is as follows:
• Link State ID: 10.10.10.1 = Router ID
• Advertising Router: 10.10.10.1 = Router ID
• Number of links: 3 = 2 links plus router itself
• Description of Link 1: Link ID = 10.1.1.1, Metric = 4
• Description of Link 2: Link ID = 10.1.2.1, Metric = 3
• Description of Link 3: Link ID = 10.10.10.1, Metric = 0
3
4
2
Each router sends its LSA to all routers in the network(using a method called reliable flooding)
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Network and Link State Database
10.1.1.0 / 24
.1 .2 .2
10.10.10.1
10.1.4.0 / 24
.1
.4
10.1.7.0 / 24
10.1
.6.0
/ 24
10.1
.3.0
/ 24
10.1.5.0/24.3
.3 .5
.2
.3
.5
.5
.4
.4
.6
.6
10.10.10.2 10.10.10.4 10.10.10.6
10.10.10.2 10.10.10.5LS Type Link StateID Adv. Router Checksum LS SeqNo LS Age
Router-LSA 10.1.10.1 10.1.10.1 0x9b47 0x80000006 0
Router-LSA 10.1.10.2 10.1.10.2 0x219e 0x80000007 1618
Router-LSA 10.1.10.3 10.1.10.3 0x6b53 0x80000003 1712
Router-LSA 10.1.10.4 10.1.10.4 0xe39a 0x8000003a 20
Router-LSA 10.1.10.5 10.1.10.5 0xd2a6 0x80000038 18
Router-LSA 10.1.10.6 10.1.10.6 0x05c3 0x80000005 1680
Each router has a database which contains the LSAs from all other routers
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Link State Database
• The collection of all LSAs is called the link-state database• Each router has an identical link-state database
– Useful for debugging: Each router has a complete description of the network
• If neighboring routers discover each other for the first time, they will exchange their link-state databases
• The link-state databases are synchronized using reliable flooding
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OSPF Packet Format
OSPF MessageIP header
Body of OSPF MessageOSPF MessageHeader
Message TypeSpecific Data
LSA LSALSA ...
LSAHeader
LSAData
...
Destination IP: neighbor’s IP address or 224.0.0.5 (ALLSPFRouters) or 224.0.0.6 (AllDRouters)
TTL: set to 1 (in most cases)
OSPF packets are not carried as UDP payload!OSPF has its own IP protocol number: 89
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OSPF Packet Format
source router IP address
authentication
authentication
32 bits
version type message length
Area ID
checksum authentication type
Body of OSPF MessageOSPF MessageHeader
2: current version is OSPF V2
Message types:1: Hello (tests reachability)2: Database description3: Link Status request4: Link state update5: Link state acknowledgement
ID of the Area from which the packet originated
Standard IP checksum taken over entire packet
0: no authentication1: Cleartext password2: MD5 checksum(added to end packet)
Authentication passwd = 1: 64 cleartext password Authentication passwd = 2: 0x0000 (16 bits)
KeyID (8 bits) Length of MD5 checksum (8 bits) Nondecreasing sequence number (32 bits)
Prevents replay attacks
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OSPF LSA Format
Link State ID
link sequence number
advertising router
Link Age Link Type
checksum length
Link ID
Link Data
Link Type Metric#TOS metrics
LSA
LSAHeader
LSAData
Link ID
Link Data
Link Type Metric#TOS metrics
LSA Header
Link 1
Link 2
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Discovery of Neighbors
• Routers multicasts OSPF Hello packets on all OSPF-enabled interfaces.
• If two routers share a link, they can become neighbors, and establish an adjacency
• After becoming a neighbor, routers exchange their link state databases
OSPF Hello
OSPF Hello: I heard 10.1.10.2
10.1.10.1 10.1.10.2
Scenario:Router 10.1.10.2 restarts
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Neighbor discovery and database synchronization
OSPF Hello
OSPF Hello: I heard 10.1.10.2
Database Description: Sequence = X
10.1.10.1 10.1.10.2
Database Description: Sequence = X, 5 LSA headers = Router-LSA, 10.1.10.1, 0x80000006 Router-LSA, 10.1.10.2, 0x80000007 Router-LSA, 10.1.10.3, 0x80000003 Router-LSA, 10.1.10.4, 0x8000003a Router-LSA, 10.1.10.5, 0x80000038 Router-LSA, 10.1.10.6, 0x80000005
Database Description: Sequence = X+1, 1 LSA header= Router-LSA, 10.1.10.2, 0x80000005
Database Description: Sequence = X+1
Sends empty database description
Scenario:Router 10.1.10.2 restarts
Discovery of adjacency
Sends database description. (description only contains LSA headers)
Database description of 10.1.10.2Acknowledges
receipt of description
After neighbors are discovered the nodes exchange their databases
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Regular LSA exchanges
10.1.10.1 10.1.10.2
Link State Request packets, LSAs = Router-LSA, 10.1.10.1, Router-LSA, 10.1.10.2, Router-LSA, 10.1.10.3, Router-LSA, 10.1.10.4, Router-LSA, 10.1.10.5, Router-LSA, 10.1.10.6,
Link State Update Packet, LSA = Router-LSA, 10.1.1.6, 0x80000006
Link State Update Packet, LSAs = Router-LSA, 10.1.10.1, 0x80000006 Router-LSA, 10.1.10.2, 0x80000007 Router-LSA, 10.1.10.3, 0x80000003 Router-LSA, 10.1.10.4, 0x8000003a Router-LSA, 10.1.10.5, 0x80000038 Router-LSA, 10.1.10.6, 0x80000005
10.1.10.2 explicitly requests each LSA from 10.1.10.1
10.1.10.1 sends requested LSAs 10.1.10.2 has more
recent value for 10.0.1.6 and sends it to 10.1.10.1(with higher sequence number)
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Routing Data Distribution
• LSA-Updates are distributed to all other routers via Reliable Flooding
• Example: Flooding of LSA from 10.10.10.110.10.10.1 10.10.10.2 10.10.10.4 10.10.10.6
10.10.10.2 10.10.10.5
LSA
LSA
Updatedatabase
Updatedatabase
ACK
AC
K
LSA
LS
A
LSA
LS
A AC
K
AC
K
ACK
ACK
LSA
LS
A
LSA
LS
A
Updatedatabase
Updatedatabase
ACK
AC
K
ACK
AC
K
Updatedatabase
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Dissemination of LSA-Update
• A router sends and refloods LSA-Updates, whenever the topology or link cost changes. (If a received LSA does not contain new information, the router will not flood the packet)
• Exception: Infrequently (every 30 minutes), a router will flood LSAs even if there are not new changes.
• Acknowledgements of LSA-updates:• explicit ACK, or• implicit via reception of an LSA-Update
• Question: If a new node comes up, it could build the database from regular LSA-Updates (rather than exchange of database description). What role do the database description packets play?
Relates to Lab 4. This module covers additional details on the Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) routing protocol.
Dynamic Routing Protocols IIIMore OSPF
Functional Requirements of OSPF
• Fast convergence and low consumption of network resources• A descriptive routing metric
– Configurable – Value ranges between 1 and 65,535– No restriction on network diameters (RIP has a limit of 15)
• Equal-cost multipath– A way to do load balancing
Functional Requirements of OSPF
• Routing Hierarchy– Support large routing domains
• Separate internal and external routes• Support of flexible subnetting schemes
– Route to arbitrary [address,mask] combinations using variable length subnet masks (VLSMs)
• Security• Type of Service Routing
OSPF Basics(The Essence)
• Distributed, replicated database model– Describes complete routing topology
• Link State Advertisements (LSAs, sometimes called Link State Announcements)– Carry local piece of routing topology
• Distribution of LSAs using reliable flooding• Link state database
– Identical for all the routers
OSPF Packet Format
OSPF MessageIP header
Body of OSPF MessageOSPF MessageHeader
Message TypeSpecific Data
LSA LSALSA ...
LSAHeader
LSAData
...
Destination IP: neighbor’s IP address or 224.0.0.5 (ALLSPFRouters) or 224.0.0.6 (AllDRouters)
TTL: set to 1 (in most cases)
OSPF packets are not carried as UDP payload!OSPF has its own IP protocol number: 89
OSPF Packet Format
source router IP address
authentication
authentication
32 bits
version type message length
Area ID
checksum authentication type
Body of OSPF MessageOSPF MessageHeader
2: current version is OSPF V2
Message types:1: Hello (tests reachability)2: Database description3: Link Status request4: Link state update5: Link state acknowledgement
ID of the Area from which the packet originated
Standard IP checksum taken over entire packet
0: no authentication1: Cleartext password2: MD5 checksum(added to end packet)
Authentication passwd = 1: 64 cleartext password Authentication passwd = 2: 0x0000 (16 bits)
KeyID (8 bits) Length of MD5 checksum (8 bits) Nondecreasing sequence number (32 bits)
Prevents replay attacks
OSPF LSA Format
Link State ID
link sequence number
advertising router
Link Age Link Type
checksum length
Link ID
Link Data
Link Type Metric#TOS metrics
LSA
LSAHeader
LSAData
Link ID
Link Data
Link Type Metric#TOS metrics
LSA Header
Link 1
Link 2
LSAs (1)
• Identifying LSAs– LS type field– Link State ID field
• Mostly carries addressing information• E.g. IP address of externally reachable network
– Advertising Router field• Originating router’s OSPF router ID
LSAs (2)
• Identifying LSA instances– Needed to update self-originated LSAs– LS Sequence Number field
• 32 bit values• Monotonically increasing until some max value• 600 years to roll over!• LSA checksum and LS Age guard against potential
problems
LSAs (3)
• Verifying LSA contents– LS Checksum field
• Computed by the originating router and left unchanged thereafter
• LS age field not included in checksum• Removing LSAs from databases
– LS Age field• Ranges from 0 to 30 min.• Max Age LSAs used to delete outdated LSAs
LSAs (4)
• Other LSA Header fields– Options field
• Sometimes used to give special treatment during flooding or routing calculations
– Length field• Includes LSA header and contents• Ranges from 20-65535 bytes
Link State Database
• Collection of all OSPF LSAs• Databases exchanged between neighbors• Synchronization thru reliable flooding• Gives the complete routing topology• Each OSPF router has identical link-state database
Reliable Flooding
• Robustness– Updates flooded over all the links , so failure of any link
does not affect database synchronization– LSAs refreshed every 30 minutes– LSA checksum field detects corruption– Flooding loops avoided by LS Age field– MinLSInterval limits rate of LSA origination– Receivers can refuse to accept LSA updates if they
received an update less than a second ago
Routing Calculations
• Link costs configurable by administrator• Smaller values for more preferred links• Must make sense to add link costs• Different costs for each link direction possible• Dijkstra’s shortest path algorithm
– Incrementally calculates tree of shortest paths– Each link in the network examined once– Computes multiple shortest paths (equal-cost multipath)
IP Multicast to Send/Receive Changes
• Multi-Access networks– All routers must accept packets sent to the AllSPFRouters
(224.0.0.5) address– All Designated Router (DR) and Backup Designated Router
(BDR) must accept packets sent to the AllDRouters (224.0.0.6) address
• Hello packets are sent to the AllSPFRouters address (Unicast for point-to-point and virtual links)
Hierarchical Routing
• Technique used to build large networks• Minimizes consumption of network resources:
– Router memory– Router computing resources– Link bandwidth
• Flat Routing: linear increase in routing table size• Hierarchical Routing: size increases logarithmically
An Example of Hierarchical Routing (1)
10.0.3
10.3.110.3.2
10.1.3
10.1.1 10.1.2
10.2.3
10.2.110.2.2
10.0.0.0/8
10.1.0.0/16
10.3.0.0/16
10.2.0.0/16
An Example of Hierarchical Routing (2)
• Consider a router in 10.1.1• Assume 16 entries in each of the first level partitions• With flat routing, 9*16 = 144 entries/router• With 3 level hierarchy, the router has 16 entries
within 10.1.1.0/24 + entries for 10.1.2.0/24, 10.1.3.0/24,10.2.0.0/16 and 10.3.0.0/16 for a total of 20 entries.
• Significant reduction in routing table size• But might lead to suboptimal routing
• Two-level hierarchical routing scheme through the use of areas
• Areas identified by 32-bit id• Each area has its own link state database
which is a collection of network-LSAs and router-LSAs
• Area’s topology hidden from all other areas• Interconnection of areas through area border
routers (ABRs) • ABR leaks IP addressing information to other
areas through summary LSAs
OSPF Areas
OSPF Areas
• Reduction in link state databases of an area• Reduction in amount of flooding traffic needed for
synchronization• Reduction in the cost of the shortest path
calculations• Increased robustness
Area Organization
• All the areas are connected to area 0.0.0.0 also called the Backbone Area
• Need not have a direct physical connection though– Virtual links provide logical link to backbone– Summary LSAs tunneled across non backbone areas
• Exchange of routing information between areas using Distance Vector Protocol– Absence of redundant paths between areas– Not subject to convergence problems
OSPF Areas
• Group of nodes/networks
• Per area topology DB– Invisible outside the area– Reduces routing traffic
• Backbone Area is contiguous– All others areas must connect to
the backbone
• Virtual Links Area 1Area 4
Area 0
Backbone Area
Area 2 Area 3
Router Classification
• Internal Router (IR)• Area Border Router
(ABR)• Backbone Router (BR)• Autonomous System
Border Router (ASBR)Area 1
IR/BR
Area 0
Area 2 Area 3
IR
ABR/BR
To another AS
ASBR
OSPF Route Types
Intra-Area Route– All routes within an area
Inter-Area Route– Routes announced from area to
another by an ABR
External Route– Routes imported into OSPF from
another protocol or Static routes
Area 0Area 2 Area 3
ABR
To Another AS
ASBR
Inter-Area Route Summarization
• Prefix or all subnets• Prefix or all networks
1.A 1.B 1.C
FDDI
Dual Ring
R1 (ABR)
R2
Network
1
Next Hop
R1
Network
1.A
1.B
1.C
Next Hop
R1
R1
R1
With
Summarization
Without
Summarization
Backbone
Area 0
Area 1
External Routes
• Redistributed into OSPF• Flooded without changes throughout the AS• OSPF supports two type of external metrics
– Type 1– Type 2 (Default)
RIP
IGRP
EIGRP
BGP
etc.
OSPF
Redistribute
Topology/Links-State DB
• A router has a separate DB for each area it belongs to
• All routers within an area have an identical DB
• SPF calculation is done separately for each area
• LSA flooding is limited to the particular area
Protocol Functionality
• Bringing up adjacencies• LSA Types• Area Classification
The Hello Protocol
• Responsible to establish and maintain neighbor relationships
• Elects designated router in multi-access networks
FDDI
Dual Ring
Hello
HelloHello
Designated Router (DR)
One per multi-access network
Generates network links advertisements
Assists in DB synchronization
Designated
Router
Backup
Designated
Router
Designated Router by Priority
• Configured priority (per interface)
• Otherwise determined by the highest router ID
144.254.3.5
R2 Router ID = 131.108.3.3
131.108.3.2 131.108.3.3
R1 Router ID = 144.254.3.5
DR
Neighbor States
• 2-way– The router sees itself in other Hello packets
– DR is selected from neighbors in state 2-way or greater
DR BDR
2-way
Neighbor States
• Full– Routers are fully adjacent– DB is synchronized– Relationship to the DR and
BDR
DR BDR
Full
When to Become Adjacent
• Underlying network is point-to-point• Underlying network type is virtual link• The router itself is the DR• The router itself is the BDR• The neighboring router is the DR• The neighboring router is the BDR
LSAs Propagate Along Adjacencies
• LSAs acknowledged along adjacencies
DR BDR
Different Types of LSAs
• Five LSA types– Type 1 : Router LSA– Type 2 : Network LSA– Type 3 y 4: Summary LSA– Type 5 y 7: External LSA
Router LSA (Type 1)
• Describes the state and cost of the router’s link to the area
• All the router’s links in an area must be described in a single LSA
• Flooded throughout the particular area and not beyond
• Router indicates whether it is an ASBR, ABR, or the end point of a virtual link
Network LSA (Type 2)
• Generated for every transit broadcast or NBMA network
• Describes all the routers attached to the network
• Only the DR originates this type of LSA• Flooded throughout the area and not beyond
Summary LSA (Type 3 y 4)
• Describes a destination outside the area but still within the AS
• Flooded throughout a single area• Originated by an ABR• Only intra-area routes are advertised into
the backbone (Area 0)• Type 4 is the information about the ASBR
External LSA (Type 5)
• Defines routes to destinations outside the AS• Default route is also sent as external• Two Types of external LSA:
• E1: Considers the total cost of to the external destination• E2: Considers only the cost of the outgoing interface to the
external destination
Issues not covered
• OSPF Network Types– Broadcast subnets– NBMA Subnets
• OSPF Extensions• Multicast Routing using OSPF (MOSPF)• OSPF Management• and a whole lot of others!
Further Reading
• John T. Moy, OSPF - An Anatomy of an Internet Routing Protocol
• Christian Huitema, Routing in the Internet• RFC 2178