Dundalk IT MALT Programme Seminar on Academic Writing for Research Reports Professor Tony Fell University of Bradford, UK.

Dundalk IT MALT Programme

Seminar on Academic Writingfor Research Reports

Professor Tony FellUniversity of Bradford, UK

<[email protected]>

Writing Skills

• IUA – Communication skills for Research Students• The nature of a Research Report / Thesis• Key issues in writing• Style• Etiquette• Report / Thesis Outlines.• Report / Thesis Planner• Structure• References• Submission

Writing SkillsIUA Graduate Skills Statement 2012

• Communication skills– Demonstrate effective writing and publishing

skills

– Effectively use and decide on appropriate forms and levels of communication

– Communicate and explain research to diverse audiences, including both specialist and non-specialist

– Teach and support the learning of undergraduate students when involved in teaching and demonstrating

Writing SkillsThe nature of a Research Report / Thesis?

A Research Report or Thesis gives a detailed account of a defined area of research with –

sufficient background information on what was known earlier, to orientate the general, interested reader

a clear statement of the ‘research question’ or problem and the related aims and objectives

a clear, logical exposition of the stages you have gone through in order to address the research question – creating new techniques, solutions and results on the way

Writing SkillsThe nature of a Research Report / Thesis?

A Research Report or Thesis will also –

present your own critical analysis of the originality and significance of the data presented, in relation to what was known or assumed beforehand

focus on your proposals for further developments in the field

(for a Thesis) be presented in a traditional format as a permanent record for access by all researchers, anywhere

(for a Thesis) be published in full or in part as an independent publication under your name after peer review

Writing Skills

• A good Literature Review should: – Be selective– Not be simply a list or summary of publications– Have a balance of primary and secondary sources – Put published work into perspective, relevant to the

Research Question– Evaluate and give a critical interpretation of

published work, with appropriate reference to the Research Question

Writing Skills

Ransom’s Rules for Scientific Writing*• If it can be interpreted in more than one way, it’s

wrong• Know your audience; know your subject; know

your purpose• If you can’t think of a reason to put a comma in,

leave it out• Keep your writing clear, concise and correct• If it works, do it.

* Nora Ransom (Kansas State University) in M. Davis et al., Scientific Papers & Presentations, Academic Press, 2012

Writing SkillsApproaches to Completion

• The optimum situation is: – Write sections more or less continuously as your

research programme moves forward – Integrate sections to compile the first draft of

your Thesis– Track progress systematically– Use a Conference, Seminar or Poster paper as the

basis for part of the Report / Thesis This important milestone gives independent peer

support & validates your Thesis

Writing Skills

Key issues

Writing Skills

• Key issues in writing a Report / Thesis: Who is going to read it?Should it be perfect?How should you write it – writing styles?

Issues of style and syntaxAcademic (“Oxford”) English versus the Personal

style of writingHow should you plan and structure it? How can you finish in time? Key things to know about good referencingStrategies for survival – the pitfalls to avoid?

Writing Skills

Readership – Who are you writing for?Researchers in your general area – but not

necessarily specialists – intelligent, same general background, not knowing all the literature in your particular topic – ‘the intelligent, informed reader’

Someone who may use your thesis/dissertation as a reference work for their own research interests

The Examiners, who do have specialist knowledge in the area and will enjoy reviewing your work

The next generation of Research Students in your area

Writing Skills

Who else are you writing for?Yourself – for your own satisfaction in expressing

a deep interest in a topic, in a way that is informative and interesting

Suggestion It can be helpful for an independent person to

read sections of your Thesis (eg a friend) to comment on the style, informativeness etc – this can be really useful for the Introduction, Conclusions, and also the Abstract

Writing Skills

• Should your Report / Thesis be perfect? If only ... but remember that readers, including the

Examiners, r e a l l y don’t expect perfection either in style or content.

The typos, mislabelled graphs, missing references will leap off the page at you – just as soon as you’ve submitted your precious tome for examination

Writing Skills

• Should your Report / Thesis be perfect? It’s really helpful to compile a list of typos, etc This is then tabled for the Examiners at the Viva

• It’s worth remembering that:Most Masters and PhD Theses are approved in

some form after the examination (70 to 80%)

Writing SkillsStyles

How should you write a Report / Thesis?With care … and with sufficient detail to describe

the important stages of your research – usually more detail than is required (or permissible) for a published paper

Imagine someone tried to repeat exactly what you did – to find where precisely you located a key historical reference or fact; or in what language? – or to adopt special methodology / equipment you used or developed for critical experiments


Common sense about writing styles

• Choose the appropriate style and use it consistently:

– Write in a uniform, grammatical, fairly formal style – clarity is of the essence, so if the syntax (structure) is becoming complex, consider cutting back to shorter, simpler sentences


Common sense about writing styles• The personal style versus the impersonal style

– This is often a question of personal taste or convention:

– The personal style: I … , my … , we … , our … , etc. – or the impersonal ‘Oxford style’:

The Author noted that … These observations were recorded in earlier

research reports on …

Note: in some areas of Social Science, Management etc, when referring to a third person, the use of alternating gender is common: he … / she … & him… / her …

Writing Skills Styles

Common sense about writing styles

• Use paragraphs to signpost a coherent group of related statements – they should not be too long.

.

• Keep sentences at a reasonable length – this helps avoid over-complicated statements and ensures your writing is clear and readable

• Use the direct form rather than the impersonal form:– Based on these data, it would seem that …

These data would indicate that …


More common sense about writing styles• Consistent use of tense– Decide on what tense to use for writing (present,

past, etc) and be consistent – if in doubt, read it out or read it to a friend

– If you use the past tense, you will need the ‘past in the past’ :

e.g. The device had malfunctioned before this work was started.


Even more common sense about writing styles

• Things to avoid:– Undefined abbreviations – make a list defining all

abbreviations and repeat the definition (at least once) in the text

– Any form of slang– Jargon – if unavoidable, define it– Incomplete comparisons: e.g. These data were

better.– ‘Over the top’ superlatives: e.g. We consider

these highly impressive results to have very significant global implications.

Writing SkillsEtiquette

• Punctuation issues:– The colon is often used for:

Introducing a list of itemsSeparating a general statement from a more specific one

– The comma is often used:For separating items in a listFor qualifying or defining a preceding word or phrase:

The SPSS method, which is now well established, is widely used for the analysis of data in the Social Sciences.

Where a natural break occurs in mid-sentence:

These data seem rather dubious, although they come from a highly reliable source.

Writing Skills Etiquette

• More about punctuation:– The semi-colon is often used for

Separating items within a listSeparating two closely related statements

– The hyphen is often used:To separate parts of a sentence or to introduce

a qualifying statement – as for example hereTo link adjective and noun in a single phrase

e.g. long-term therapyTo link two adjectives: e.g. red-hot, dark-blueTo link adjective and participle: e.g. easy-going


• Even more about punctuation:– The apostrophe is used:

To indicate possession

e.g. the system’s features (=1) and

the systems’ features (>1)

For elision or shortening:

e.g. It’s clear that (It is …) / That’s … /

NB Exceptionally:

“its” is possessive (without an apostrophe)

They noted its significance …

(They noted the significance of it …)


• Note: one datum point is … – and several data points (or data) are …

• Good referencing is an essential feature of a successful Report / Thesis– It’s the hallmark of true professionalism– Unfortunately plagiarism is currently one of the

big issues in Postgraduate research– Increasing reliance by Examiners on “Turnitin”

and similar monitors of plagiarism

Writing SkillsPlanning

Planning a Report / PhD ThesisDevelop an outline time-plan for your writing-up

programme Remember that all plans are there to be changed –

flexibility is keyComplete one section at a time – in many areas

it’s not essential to write sections sequentiallyAsk for feedback on drafts from your Supervisor,

a colleague or a friendYou might consider using a simplified Gantt

Chart, for example – well known to be flexible

Writing Skills Gantt Chart approach to Planning a Report / Thesis

Writing Skills

Report / Thesis Outlines

Writing Skills Report / Thesis Outlines

• A Report / Thesis Outline starts with the following sections, typically:– Title page– Abstract (written later in the process)– Acknowledgements– Lists of Contents – Tables – Figures –– List of Appendices– List of Abbreviations– List of presentations made/publications submitted

• The Chapters or Sections that follow depend on the research area – cf. ‘Science’ versus ‘Humanities’


[See printed copy] • Typical outline plan for Report / Thesis in Science,

IT, Engineering – Part 1

– Title, Abstract, List of Contents etc– Introduction

– Literature Review

– Clear statement of Research Question (Project) Aims & Objectives

– Theoretical background

– Materials

– Research Methods

– Validation of Methods

[ Continued ]


[See printed copy]

• Typical outline plan for Report / Thesis in Science, IT, Engineering – Part 2

– Ethical issues (if any)

– Results & Discussion

– Conclusions & Suggestions for further work

– References (Harvard or numerical system)

– Appendices


[See printed copy]

• Typical outline plan for Report / Thesis in Humanities Liberal Arts, Media etc – Part 1

– Title, Abstract, List of Contents etc

– Introduction

– Clear statement of Research Question and related issues

– Literature Review

– Framework and rationale for Exhibition, Display, Performance (for Practice-based Doctorates)

[ Continued ]


[See printed copy] • Typical outline plan for Report / Thesis in Humanities,

Liberal Arts, Media etc – Part 2– Research Methods– Justification for selection of methods

Sources of information, informants, samples Basis of selection for respondents (eg to Questionnaire)

– Ethical issues (if any)– Results & Discussion– Conclusions & Suggestions for further work– Bibliography & References

Harvard or numerical system

– Appendices

Writing Skills

Report / Thesis Planner

Writing Skills Research Report Planner

• The Report / Thesis Planner can be developed as follows:– To each Chapter Heading add 2 Sub-headings – The Headings and Sub-headings are inserted into

the Report / Thesis Planner”

• This simple Project Planning device can be formed using MS Word or Excel– It helps keep track of writing progress – – At the same time it informs Supervisors /colleagues

about progress

Generic Research Report Planner – 1

Generic Research Report Planner – 2

Writing Skills Research Report Planner

• The Report / Thesis Planner:Is a very flexible systemGives an immediate overview of the writingEmpowers the authorHelps monitor progress and identify missing

sections – helps check progressShortens writing up time by ca 10 – 20%.Monitors word count.

• The Planner gives strong encouragement and confidence as writing progresses to completion

• Helps timely completion

Writing Skills

Structure & References

Writing Skills Research Report Structure

Structure of typical Research Report or ThesisThe Outline Plan forms the basic structural

template for your Report / ThesisNB Sections / Subsections / Appendices

Max number of subsections for readability is 3 – eg 1.0 – 1.1 – 1.1.1 – 1.1.1(a)

Note: If you find that there are too many subsections, a powerful solution is to simply raise the first subsection to Chapter level.

The structure evolves progressively as the writing approaches completion

Writing Skills References

• General issues

– Computer-based records / traditional systems

– Harvard system versus Numerical system

– Section references vs Cumulative Reference List

– Reference layout – style – page-to-page?

– With or without titles?


• General issues– Footnotes?

– Back-up files daily – keep 2 updated copiesin d i f f e r e n t places!

– Ratio of Introductory material to the rest – balance (ca. 1:3)

– Impersonal vs personal style – check best practice in research area


• Tracking the references– Ethical issues & IPR– Citing the competition!– Duplication – non-citation – total accuracy– Reference to own publications – Citing the Internet – give URL and date accessed

• Citing Personal Communications:– A.B. Contact, Personal communication, February

2012 – or: – J.G. Friend (Email, 13 February, 2012)

[using reference style adopted]


• Tracking the References (cont’d)– Citing Unpublished Work:

M.Y. Self (Unpublished data September, 2012) or M.Y. Self (Unpublished observations, May, 2012)

Avoid: M.Y. Self (in preparation)

– Citing submitted but so far not accepted work: P.G. Slave and D.R. Supervisor, submitted for

publication to X.Y.Z., 12 June, 2012

– Citing accepted but so far not published work: P.G. Slave and D.R. Supervisor, accepted for

publication by X.Y.Z., 1 December, 2012


• Avoiding the pitfalls– Proper acknowledgement of sources

Verbal – casual – printed but unpublished – published

Purple patchesIPR – 2-way street Ethics of authorshipMutual recognition – academic generosityConsequences . . .


• Avoiding the pitfalls (cont’d)Proper acknowledgement of graphics

Figures – written permission from publishers for each figure/diagram essential

Must add to the figure legend: “Reproduced from X.Y. Zymbal, Arch. Data 100, 1 –20 (2008) by kind permission of the

Publishers”A useful work-around is to change some

details in the figure itself and add to the legend:

“Adapted from X.Y. Zymbal, Arch. Data 100, 1-20 (2008)”

Writing Skills

• Good Practice– Appendix out wherever appropriate (or use DVD or

CD-ROM): Sections of supplementary dataParenthetical resultsReference materialsProtocolsComputer programmesAny text / data that distracts from the flow of the main theme

/ developmentCite the Appendices in strict sequential order and list them

with the Contents

Writing Skills

• Good Practice– Add a List of Abbreviations

really useful always appreciated

– Include a list of your own presentations & publications (if any), however modest

• Writer’s block– Universal – including the famous– Change to doing another section – or some other

activity

Writing Skills Submission

• Find a friend to read your Abstract / Summary– Find another friend to read your Conclusions for

clarity

• Check final version of Report / Thesis with your Supervisor(s) or colleagues– NB Make plenty of time in your planning schedule

to allow them to give their best shot

Writing Skills Submission

• Check:– all pages run sequentially – all Figures and Tables are listed in the Contents – all Appendices are listed in order of citation– There’s no duplication of references– Any printed materials (eg short publications,

reference materials) are put securely into the end pocket

• Submit …

Writing Skills

Developing an Abstract

Writing Skills Developing an Abstract

• Types of Abstract / Summary• Function • Readership • Title / Key words• Structure & Organisation– Introduction – Aims – Methods – Results –

Conclusions• Writing Style – tense – sentence length – construction • Word count• Iterative process for development / completion • Initial & concluding sentences / statements

Dundalk IT Seminar on Academic Writing

for MALT Students

Discussion Groups:

Developing an Abstract

/Drafting the initial & concluding statements

Dundalk IT MALT Programme Seminar on Academic Writing for Research Reports Professor Tony Fell University of Bradford, UK.

Documents

thesis slide

writing skills styles

writing skills approaches

writing skills readership

academic writing

writing clear

scientific writing

writing skills key issues