INTRODUCTION Background Objective Thesis Outline ABSTRACT To fulfil the growing demand for independently supplying a number of ac loads in several applications , needs separate inverters for each system. But, the main disadvantage of these system is that, this may lead to undesirable increase in system cost, size and weight. The conventional reduced switch count system consist of single phase three legs, four legs & six legs converter respectively. Thus to overcome the above drawback our project uses reduced switch topology three switch with respect to six- switch topology. There is a growing trend in power electronics for reduced switch count power converters with the aim of sustaining high power quality and enhancing the system reliability. A three switch single leg topologies are developed which are functionally to full bridge inverter working independently though with a less number of semiconductor switches and hence control and gate drive circuit components. The main objective of our project is to reduce the semiconducting switches and increase the loads. In this paper 3 semiconductor switches which is parallel connected to capacitor and using two ac loads with equal frequency and different frequency . Keywords-Reduced switch count inverter,power converter,full bridge,EF & DF.
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INTRODUCTION Background
Objective
Thesis Outline
ABSTRACT
To fulfil the growing demand for independently supplying a number of ac loads in several
applications , needs separate inverters for each system. But, the main disadvantage of these
system is that, this may lead to undesirable increase in system cost, size and weight. The
conventional reduced switch count system consist of single phase three legs, four legs & six legs
converter respectively. Thus to overcome the above drawback our project uses reduced switch
topology three switch with respect to six-switch topology. There is a growing trend in power
electronics for reduced switch count power converters with the aim of sustaining high power
quality and enhancing the system reliability. A three switch single leg topologies are developed
which are functionally to full bridge inverter working independently though with a less number
of semiconductor switches and hence control and gate drive circuit components. The main
objective of our project is to reduce the semiconducting switches and increase the loads. In this
paper 3 semiconductor switches which is parallel connected to capacitor and using two ac loads
with equal frequency and different frequency . Keywords-Reduced switch count inverter,power
converter,full bridge,EF & DF.
INTRODUCTION
There is a growing trend in power electronics for reduced switch count power converters with
the aim of sustaining high power quality and enhancing the system reliability. The two ac outputs
are independent from each other regarding both frequency and amplitude. The nine-switch
structure is a recent reduced switch count inverter topology proposed for independently
supplying two three-phase ac loads. The usual approach to fulfilling the growing demand for
independently supplying a number of ac loads in several applications is using separate inverters
for each of them. This may lead to undesirable increase in system cost, size and weight. There is
a growing trend in power electronics for reduced switch count power converters with the aim of
sustaining high power quality and enhancing the system reliability. Dual-terminal converters
provide the researches with an extra degree of freedom in realizing switch reduction of power
converters resulting in system cost, size and weight optimization. Dual-terminal reduced switch
count topologies may be utilized as ac/ac converters for conditioning the input ac power
(regulating input voltage/current) or be employed as dual-output inverters to independently
supply two ac loads.The nine-switch structure is a recent reduced switch count inverter topology
proposed for independently supplying two three-phase ac loads.
1.1. BACKGROUND 1.1.1. Power quality
The PQ issue is defined as “any occurrence manifested in voltage, current, or frequency deviations
that results in damage, upset, failure, or disoperation of end-use equipment.” Almost all PQ issues are
closely related with PE in almost every aspect of commercial, domestic, and industrial application.
Equipment using power electronic devise are residential appliances like TVs, PCs etc. business and
office equipment like copiers, printers etc. industrial equipment like programmable logic controllers
(PLCs), adjustable speed drives (ASDs), rectifiers, inverters, CNC tools and so on. The Power
Quality (PQ) problem can be detected from one of the following several symptoms depending on the
type of issue involved.
• Lamp flicker
• Frequent blackouts
• Sensitive-equipment frequent dropouts
• Voltage to ground in unexpected
• Locations
• Communications interference
• Overheated elements and equipment.
PE are the most important cause of harmonics, inter harmonics,
notches, and neutral currents. Harmonics are produced by rectifiers, ASDs, soft starters,
electronic ballast for discharge lamps, switched-mode power supplies, and HVAC using ASDs.
Equipment affected by harmonics includes transformers, motors, cables, interrupters, and
capacitors (resonance). Notches are produced mainly by converters, and they principally affect
the electronic control devices. Neutral currents are produced by equipment using switched-mode
power supplies, such as PCs, printers, photocopiers, and any triplets generator. Neutral currents
seriously affect the neutral conductor temperature and transformer capability. Interharmonics are
produced by static frequency converters, cyclo-converters, induction motors & arcing devices.
Equipment presents different levels of sensitivity to PQ issues, depending on the type of
both the equipment and the disturbance. Furthermore, the effect on the PQ of electric power
systems, due to the presence of PE, depends on the type of PE utilized. The maximum acceptable
values of harmonic contamination are specified in IEEE standard in terms of total harmonic
distortion.
Power electronics are alive and well in useful applications to overcome distribution
system problems. Power electronics has three faces in power distribution: one that introduces
valuable industrial and domestic equipment; a second one that creates problems; and, finally, a
third one that helps to solve those problems. On one hand, power electronics and
microelectronics have become two technologies that have considerably improved the quality of
modern life, allowing the introduction of sophisticated energy-efficient controllable equipment to
industry and home. On another hand, those same sensitive technologies are conflicting with each
other and increasingly challenging the maintenance of quality of service in electric energy
delivery, while at the same time costing billions of dollars in lost customer productivity.
1.1.2. Solutions to power quality problems There are two approaches to the mitigation of power quality problems. The first approach is
called load conditioning, which ensures that the equipment is made less sensitive to power
disturbances, allowing the operation even under significant voltage distortion. The other solution is to
install line-conditioning systems that suppress or counteract the power system disturbances. Passive
filters have been most commonly used to limit the flow of harmonic currents in distribution systems.
They are usually custom designed for the application. However, their performance is limited to a few
harmonics, and they can introduce resonance in the power system. Among the different new
technical options available to improve power quality, active power filters have proved to be an
important and flexible alternative to compensate for current and voltage disturbances in power
distribution systems. The idea of active filters is relatively old, but their practical development was
made possible with the new improvements in power electronics and microcomputer control strategies
as well as with cost reduction in electronic components. Active power filters are becoming a viable
alternative to passive filters and are gaining market share speedily as their cost becomes competitive
with the passive variety. Through power electronics, the active filter introduces current or voltage
components, which cancel the harmonic components of the nonlinear loads or supply lines,
respectively. Different active power filters topologies have been introduced and many of them are
already available in the market.
1.1.3. Power filter topologies
Depending on the particular application or electrical problem to be solved, active power
filters can be implemented as shunt type, series type, or a combination of shunt and series active
filters (shunt-series type). These filters can also be combined with passive filters to create hybrid
power filters.
The shunt-connected active power filter, with a self-controlled dc bus, has a topology similar to
that of a static compensator (STATCOM) used for reactive power compensation in power
transmission systems. Shunt active power filters compensate load current harmonics by injecting
equal-but opposite harmonic compensating current. In this case the shunt active power filter
operates as a current source injecting the harmonic components generated by the load but phase-
shifted by 180°.
Series active power filters were introduced by the end of the 1980s and operate mainly as a
voltage regulator and as a harmonic isolator between the nonlinear load and the utility system.
The series-connected filter protects the consumer from an inadequate supply-voltage quality.
This type of approach is especially recommended for compensation of voltage unbalances and
voltage sags from the ac supply and for low-power applications and represents an economically
attractive alternative to UPS, since no energy storage (battery) is necessary and the overall rating
of the components is smaller. The series active filter injects a voltage component in series with
the supply voltage and therefore can be regarded as a controlled voltage source, compensating
voltage sags and swells on the load side. In many cases, series active filters work as hybrid
topologies with passive LC filters. If passive LC filters are connected in parallel to the load, the
series active power filter operates as a harmonic isolator, forcing the load current harmonics to
circulate mainly through the passive filter rather than the power distribution system. The main
advantage of this scheme is that the rated power of the series active filter is a small fraction of
the load kVA rating, typically 5%. However, the apparent power rating of the series active power
filter may increase in case of voltage compensation.
The series-shunt active filter is a combination of the series active filter and the shunt active filter.
The shunt active filter is located at the load side and can be used to compensate for the load
harmonics. On the other hand, the series portion is at the source side and can act as a harmonic
blocking filter. This topology has been called the Unified Power Quality conditioner. The series
portion compensates for supply voltage harmonics and voltage unbalances, acts as a harmonic
blocking filter, and damps power system oscillations. The shunt portion compensates load
current harmonics, reactive power, and load current unbalances. In addition, it regulates the dc
link capacitor voltage. The power supplied or absorbed by the shunt portion is the power
required by the series compensator and the power required to cover losses.
Hybrid power filters are a combination of active and passive filters. With this topology the
passive filters have dynamic low impedance for current harmonics at the load side, increasing
their bandwidth operation and improving their performance. This behavior is reached with only a
small power rating PWM inverter, which acts as an active filter in series with the passive filter.
Multilevel inverters are being investigated and recently used for active filter topologies.
Three-level inverters are becoming very popular today for most inverter applications, such as
machine drives and power factor compensators. The advantage of multilevel converters is that
they can reduce the harmonic content generated by the active filter because they can produce
more levels of voltage than conventional converters (more than two levels). This feature helps to
reduce the harmonics generated by the filter itself. Another advantage is that they can reduce the
voltage or current ratings of the semiconductors and the switching frequency requirements. The
more levels the multilevel inverter has, the better the quality of voltage generated because more
steps of voltage can be created.
1.1.4. Voltage source converters
Most of the active power filter topologies use voltage source converters, which have a voltage
source at the dc bus, usually a capacitor, as an energy storage device. This topology, shown in
Figure 1.1, converts a dc voltage into an ac voltage by appropriately gating the power
semiconductor switches. Although a single pulse for each half cycle can be applied to synthesize
an ac voltage, for most applications requiring dynamic performance, pulse width modulation
(PWM) is the most commonly used today. PWM techniques applied to a voltage source inverter
consist of chopping the dc bus voltage to produce an ac voltage of an arbitrary waveform. There
are a large number of PWM techniques available to synthesize sinusoidal patterns or any
arbitrary pattern. With PWM techniques, the ac output of the filter can be controlled as a current
or voltage source device.
Figure 1.1.Voltage source converter topology for active filters.
Figure 1.2 shows the way PWM works by means of one of the simplest and most common
techniques: the triangular carrier technique. It forces the output voltage va over a switching
cycle, defined by the carrier period of Vcar, to be equal to the average amplitude of the
modulating wave Va ref. The resulting voltages for a sinusoidal modulation wave contain a
sinusoidal fundamental component Va(1) and harmonics of unwanted components. These
unwanted components can be minimized using a frequency carrier as high as possible, but this
depends on the maximum switching frequency of the semiconductors (IGBTs, GTOs, or IGCTs).
Figure.1.2. the PWM carrier Technique (triangular carrier).
The modulation strategy shown in Figure 1.3 uses a triangular carrier, which is one of many
strategies applied today to control power inverters. Depending on the application (machine
drives, PWM rectifiers, or active power filters), some modulation strategies are more suitable
than others. The modulation techniques not only allow controlling the inverters as voltage
sources but also as current sources. Figure 1.3 shows the compensating current generated for a
shunt active power filter using three different modulation techniques for current-source inverters.
These three techniques are periodical sampling (PS), hysteresis band (HB), and triangular carrier
(TC). The PS method switches the power transistors of the active filter during the transitions of a
square wave clock of fixed frequency: the sampling frequency. The HB method switches the
transistors when the error exceeds a fixed magnitude: the hysteresis band. The TC method
compares the output current error with a fixed amplitude and fixed triangular wave: the
triangular carrier. Figure 1.3 shows that the HB method is the best for this particular waveform
and application because it follows more accurately the current reference of the filter. When
sinusoidal waves are required, the TC method has been demonstrated to be better.
Figure.1.3. Current waveforms obtained using different modulation techniques for an active
A comprehensive comparison of these methods are presented in [16] for three-phase system. It is
concluded that the modified carrier redistribution PWM offer optimum performance. This
technique is further utilized in [14,17]. Hence the same technique is employed in this paper for
three-level flying capacitor type five-phase voltage source inverter.
Multiphase multilevel inverters are quite attractive solutions for high power multiphase drive
systems. However, multilevel inverters have been mainly investigated for three-phase system
and still little work has been reported on multiphase multilevel inverters except for [19-23]. The
neutral point clamped topology of five-phase inverter is considered in these papas.
Balancing the capacitors’ voltages is a major disadvantage of multilevel inverters. Therefore, in this paper we will focus on solving the problem of balancing FLC, even when lowering the switching frequency without a need to increase the size of the capacitor. The modified carrier redistribution PWM technique is employed.
OPERATION OF THREE-LEVEL FLYING CAPACITOR INVERTER
Power circuit topology of a five-phase three-level Flying Capacitor type voltage source
inverter is shown in Fig. 1. In this topology of multi-level inverter, floating capacitors are
employed to clamp the node voltages of the series connected power switching devices. Four
power switching devices are connected in series to form one leg of the inverter, five legs are used
in the proposed topology to obtain five-phase output. The complimentary switches are indicated
in the figure ( (sn1 , sn 1' ) , (sn2 , s2
' );n∈a ,b , c ,d ,e ); the top and the bottom switches and the two middle
switches are complimentary. Two power switching devices are turned on simultaneously to
provide three different voltage levels at the output phase; 0.5Vdc, -05Vdc and 0. Since the voltage
across the flying capacitors is limited to 0.5Vdc, the same voltage stress will be borne by each
switch. As the number of level increase the required voltage blocking value reduces, thus lower
rating switches can be used or alternatively higher voltage can be achieved.
The relationship between the pole voltage and the output phase voltage remains same as that of
a two-level inverter and is given as [24];
va=(4 /5 )V A−(1/5 ) (V B+V C+V D+V E )
vb=(4 /5 )V B−(1/5 ) (V A+V C+V D+V E ) vc=( 4/5 )V C−(1/5 ) (V A+V B+V D+V E )
(1)
vd=(4 /5 ) V D−(1/5 ) (V A+V B+V C+V E )
ve=( 4/5 ) V E−(1/5 ) (V A+V B+V C+V D )
However, the relationship between the pole voltages and the switching function is given as;
V k=λ−1
2V dc , k=A ,B ,C , D , E
(2)
Where λ is the switching function defined as;
λ=2 if sn1 and sn2 are on1 if sn 1 and sn2 are complimentary0 if sn 1 and sn2 are off (3)
One cycle of operation of one leg of flying capacitor inverter is depicted in Fig. 3a to 3h. The
path of current is shown in red dotted colour line. The pole voltage is 0.5Vdc and the current
either flows to or from the load in Fig. 3a and Fig. 3b. The capacitor state remains unchanged.
Fig. 2. Power Circuit of a five-phase VSI.
Fig. 3a. Switch State 1100 with positive current flow
Fig. 3b. Switch state 1100 with negative current flow
Fig. 3c. Switch state 1010 with positive current flow (Flying capacitor charges)
Fig. 3d. Switch state 1010 with negative current flow (Flying capacitor discharges)
Fig. 3e. Switch state 0101 with positive current flow (Flying capacitor discharges)
Fig. 3f. Switch state 0101 with negative current flow (Flying capacitor charges)
Fig. 3g. Switch state 0011 with positive current flow
Fig. 3h. Switch state 0011 with negative current flow
The flying capacitor charges during the switching state of Fig. 3c and Fig. 3f. The charging
current is equal to the load current. Hence the design of flying capacitor should take into account
the maximum load current. The pole voltage is zero during this operation.
The flying capacitor discharges during the switching state of Fig. 3d and Fig. 3e, once again
the current flow through the capacitor is equal to the load current. The pole voltage remains zero
during this switching state.
Fig. 3g and 3h shows the switching state when the pole voltage attains the value of -0.5Vdc and
the flying capacitor conditions remains unchanged.
It is evident from the above discussion that the capacitor charging state changes during Fig. 3c-
3f. Thus to balance the flying capacitor voltage these switching states need special attention.
Thus the PWM technique described in the next section exploit optimally these redundant
switching states.
III. PWM TECHNIQUE TO BALANCE FLYING CAPACITOR VOLTAGE
The PWM utilized in the proposed three-level five-phase flying capacitor inverter is based on the
carrier based scheme [14, 17]. The major goal of the PWM scheme is to balance the flying
capacitor voltage and keep it constant at half of the dc link voltage. The basic idea behind
voltage balancing is equal charging and discharging time of flying capacitor.
From the switching diagram (Fig. 3) it is clear that for switch states of Fig. 3c and Fig. 3f, the
output pole voltage remains the same (zero) thus these states are redundant state. However, the
flying capacitor charges in state of Fig. 3c and Fig. 3f and discharges to the load in state of Fig.
3d and Fig. 3e. Thus states (Fig. 3c and Fig. 3f) and Fig. 3 (Fig. 3d and Fig. 3e) should persist for
the same time for equal charging and discharging of the flying capacitor. To accomplish this, the
carrier signal should be formulated as shown in Fig. 4 and Fig 5 for switch Sn1 and Sn2,
respectively. The upper carrier is used when reference voltage lies between 0.5Vdc and Vdc while
the lower carrier is used when reference voltage lies between 0 and 0.5Vdc. The gate signals are
shown in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 for the two different values of the reference voltages. The carrier
signal for four sampling period is shown. It is evident that the redundant switching state is active
in first sample and then third sample in Fig. 6. Hence, the flying capacitor charge in the first
sampling time and discharge in the third sampling time, keeping the same charging and
discharging time in four sample time. The switching time of each power switch will be equal to
2Ts as evident from Fig. 6 and Fig. 7. The similar observation can be made from Fig. 7. Thus it is
seen that for all the values of the reference voltages, the charge and discharge time of the flying
capacitors remains same. Thus the voltage is balanced at the flying capacitor terminals in
average in four sample time. This average balancing time will be higher for higher level
numbers. Vdc
0Ts 2Ts 3Ts 4Ts
Vdc/2
Vdc/2
Carrier wave for S1
Fig. 4. Carrier wave for Sn1 and Sn1’
Vdc
0Ts 2Ts 3Ts 4Ts
Vdc/2
Vdc/2
Carrier wave for S2Fig. 5. Carrier Wave for Sn2 and Sn2’
III A Start-up Procedure
One of the important requirements of a flying capacitor inverter is their start-up procedure. This
problem still persists in a five-phase inverter similar to a three-phase inverter. At start the flying
capacitor needs to be charged equal to 0.5Vdc. For this the gating signal is provided in such a way
that the switch Sn1 and Sn1’ remains on to charge the capacitor and the Switches Sn2 and Sn2’
remains off. Once the voltage of the flying capacitor build up to the required voltage level (i.e.
0.5Vdc), all the switches are kept off so that the flying capacitor voltage floats at 0.5Vdc. Then the
normal PWM inverter operation is implemented.
Fig. 6. Gate signal generation when V dc /2≤|vref|≤V dc
Fig. 7. Gate signal generation when 0≤|vref|≤V dc/2
IV. SIMULATION RESULTS
Simulation model is developed in Matlab/Simulink using simpower system block sets to validate
the PWM technique proposed in the previous section. At first R-L load is considered followed by
a five-phase induction motor load.
IVA Results with R-L Load
DC link voltage of 100 V is kept and the switching frequency is kept at 2.5 kHz, the flying
capacitor is chosen as 100 µF and the load parameters are initially R = 5 Ω and L = 0.5 mH and
then changed to R = 10 Ω and L = 1 mH. The fundamental frequncy is kept at 50 Hz. The laod is
kept constant until 100 ms and then the load is halved to observe the effect of load change on the
flying capacitor balancing. The resulting waveforms are depicted in Fig. 8-11. The carrier is
formulated according to Fig. 4 as the amplitude of the reference is assumed equal to the dc link
voltage. The output phase current is illustrated in Fig. 8, where it has initial value of 10 A which
then reduces to half the value due to change in the load. Good quality of current waveform is
achieved. The voltage across the flying capacitor is depicted in Fig. 9. The voltage builds up to
half the dc link voltage of 50 V and stay there even if there is a change in the load, except change
in the ripple voltage. Thus perfect voltage balance is obtained. The current through the flying
capacitor is also presented in Fig. 10 which shows the load current passing through the capacitor.
0 0.05 0.1 0.15-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
Time (s)
Out
put p
hase
cur
rent
s(A
)
Fig. 8. Output five-phase currents.
0 0.05 0.1 0.15-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Time (s)
Flyi
ng C
apac
itor V
olta
ge(V
)
Fig. 9. Voltage across Flying capacitor.
The phase ‘a’ voltage and non-adajacent line-to-line voltage is shown for initial setting of the
load in Fig 10 and Fig. 11, respectively. The frequency domain characteristics is also depcited in
the lower trace. The output phase voltage is 50 V with 2.5 kHz switching harmonics. This is the
typical value obtainable with the carrier-based scheme. The non-adajacent line-to-line voltage
magnitide is 90.1 V with very good spectrum and three level output.
IVA Results with Five-phase Induction Motor Load
Simulation is also carried out with five-phase induction motor load. The parameters of the
simulated induction machine are R s=10Ω , Rr=6 .3Ω , Lls=Llr=0 .04 H, Lm=0 . 42 H . Inertia and the
number of pole pairs are equal to 0 .03 kgm2 and 2, respectively. Rated phase current, phase-to-
neutral voltage and per-phase torque are 2.1 A, 220 V and 1.67 Nm, respectively. The dc link
voltage is kept at 600 V and the switching frequency is chosen as 2.5 kHz. The flying capacitor
value is taken as 750 µF. The aim of this section is to show the applicibility of the proposed
PWM technique in balancing the flying capacitor voltage even in regerenetion mode of this
motor. The motor is operated in open-loop mode. The motor is initially started at no-load then a
negative load is applied at t = 0.4 sec. The resulting waveforms are depcited in Fig. 13-15.
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1-100
-50
0
50
100
Phas
e V
olta
ge (V
)
Time (s)
101 102 103 1040
20
40
60
Spec
trum
(V)
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 10. Phase voltage time and frequency domain waveform.
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1-100
-50
0
50
100
Non
-Adj
acen
t Lin
e V
olta
ge (V
)
Time (s)
101 102 103 1040
50
100
Spec
trum
(V)
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 11. Line voltage time and frequency domain waveform.
The increase in the speed due to negative laod is clearly seen from Fig. 12 and thus the motor
is then running in regenerative mode. The balancing of capacitor voltage even under regeneration
is evident from Fig. 13.
Another test is carried out on the flying capacitor inverter by changing the switching frequency
and observing the capacitor voltage in R-L load. The resulting waveform is given in Fig. 14. The
switching frequency is kept at 1.5 kHz and is then reduced to 1 kHz. The capacitor voltage
shows correct balancing without the need to incerease the value of the capacitor. The ripple
voltage incerases with lowering the switching frequency which is an obvious effect of the choice
of load parameters. The important point is that lowering the switching frequency do not have
impact on the balaning of the clamped voltage. This validate the correct working of the modified
redistributed carrier wave.
We demonstrate a coherent imaging system based on a terahertz
(THz)frequency quantum cascade laser (QCL) phase-locked to a near-
infraredfs-laser comb. The phase locking enables coherent electro-optic
sampling of the continuous-wave radiation emitted by the QCLthroughthe
generation of a heterodyne beat-notesignal that carries the amplitude and
phase of the laser field. We use this beat-note signal to demonstrate raster
scan coherent imaging using a QCL emitting at 2.5THz. At this frequency, the
detection noise floor of our system is of 3pW/Hz and the long-termphase
stability is <3deg/hour, limited by the mechanical stability of the apparatus.
Significant scientific effort over recent yearshas aimed at the realizationof terahertz (THz)
frequency imaging systemsbased on quantum cascade lasers (QCLs). Even though the
continuous-wave output power of these devices can be as high as tens of mW[1-3], there are still
several technological issues that need to be addressed with the detection in order to realize a
system that is sufficiently sensitive, as well as fast and compact. For this reason, several groups
have tested different detection techniquesand configurations. Incoherent imaging systems have
been demonstrated using Golay cells, pyroelectric detectors, cryogenically cooled bolometers,
andcommercial focal plane array microbolometric cameras [4-7]. More recently,a QCL-based
imaging system was also demonstrated using an amorphous-silicon microbolometric camera that
was specifically developed for operation in the THz range [8]. Coherent imaging techniques have
also been reported in the literature, includinga pseudo-heterodyne technique based on mixing
between longitudinal modes of a multimode QCL [9], self-mixing[10],andexploiting the
heterodyne mixing between a QCL and gas laser [11]. In the latter, the THz QCL was frequency-
locked to the gas laser line in order to reduce the phase instability of the emitted radiation field
and allow the application of an inverse synthetic aperture radar technique. Our work here is
based on a coherent imaging technique that was first demonstrated by Loffler et al. [12], who
usedan harmonic of the repetition rate of a mode-locked Ti:S laser as a local oscillator, and
mixed it with a quartz-stabilized Gunn oscillatoremitting at 0.6THz. In this case,
both sources were free running since their intrinsic phase/frequency stability
was sufficiently high. However, recently,it has been demonstrated that
although THz QCLs have sub kHzquantum noise limited linewidths[13,14], up to a
Fourier frequency of ~10kHz they are affected by a ~1/f2noise component, giving rise to theline
broadenings and frequencydriftsthat have been observed in several heterodyne experiments
[15,16].As a consequence the scheme of Ref.[12] cannot be implemented with
a THz QCL without active stabilization.
Over the last few years, techniques have been developed tostabilize THz
QCLs to near-IR frequency combs produced by fs-mode-locked fiber lasers [17-
20].Theseexploit the sampling (electro-optic or photoconductive) of the radiation field emitted by the
QCL using the mode-locked pulses from the fs-laser. In the RF domain, this sampling gives rise to a
series of heterodyne beatsignalsbetween the harmonics of the fs-laser repetition rate and theTHz field.
The lowest frequency beat-notesignal can be fed into standard RF electronics and used to phase-lock the
QCL to the fs-laser repetition rate, thus eliminating the phase jitter between the two sources. The sub-Hz
beat-note linewidth obtained with this techniqueallowsthe coherent accumulation of the QCL signal over
long integration times and the achievement of high signal to noise ratios [20]. In theworkpresented here,
this harmonic sampling technique has been used to implement a coherent imaging setup using a single-
mode 2.5THz QCL and a frequency doubled fs-laser comb as local oscillator. We have achieved imaging
with a noise detection limit of 3pW/Hz, anda long-term phase stability of less than 3 °/hour.
Themaximum detection bandwidthis determined only by the sampling rateand not by the detector rise
time as found when usinga Golay cell or bolometer.
The QCL used in our experiments operates at 2.5THz and is based on a 2.5mm-long,
240m-wide, ridge-waveguide Fabry-Perot cavity that was fabricated by optical-lithography and
wet-etching (details on the waveguide and active region design can be found in Ref.[3]). The
QCL was kept at a stabilized temperature of 20K using a continuous-flow, liquid-helium
cryostat, and driven at a constant current of 1.49A with a commercial power supply. Under these
operating conditions, the emission is single-mode and the output power measured with a
calibrated THz power-meter (Thomas Keating Ltd.) is 2mW. For the near-IR laser comb, we
usea frequency doubled, mode-locked fs-fiber laser (Menlo Systems, M-fiber) operating at =
780nm and emitting a train of ~100fs-long pulses at a repetition rate of ~250MHz.
The experimental apparatusis shown in Fig. 1 and is based on two identical electro-optic (EO)
detection units, labeled EO1 and EO2, that are used respectively to (i) lock the QCL frequency to the fs-
laser comb, and (ii) detect the QCL beam after it has been reflected by the imaged target[12].For our
experiments, the QCL and near-IR comb beams areeach split into two using separate beam splitters
(labeled BS), and detection is achieved in both units by collinearly focusing the beams onto a 2mm-
thick, <1,-1,0> oriented ZnTe crystal,which is followed by /4 and /2 waveplates, and a
polarizing beam splitter. These elements form an ultrafast, near-IR electro-optic amplitude
modulator driven by the THz ac field (see Ref. [17] for details of the operating principle).
Assuming for simplicity that the QCL is single mode, this modulator generates two sideband
combs at ±2.5THz from the comb carrier centered at 780nm (385THz). Since the comb
bandwidth is approximately twice the QCL frequency, the carrier overlaps with the sideband
combs producing a series of heterodyne beat-notes, oscillating at frequencies|(QCL – n xfrep)|,
where QCL is the emission frequency of the QCL, frep is the fs-laser repetition rate (250MHz), and
n is an integer number [17]. Therefore,the lowest frequency beating, fbeat, corresponds to n
=Int(QCL/frep) ~ 104(= 2.5THz/250MHz), and has a frequency fbeat<frep/2 ~ 125MHz.This beat-note
is detected using shot-noise limited balanced detection, based on a pair of Si-photodiodes, and is
followed by a fast amplifier with a bandwidth of approximately 200MHz. Ultimately, the
detection bandwidth of the system is limited by the Nyquist criterion to half the sampling rate,
i.e. 125MHz.
To lock the QCL frequency, the beat-note generated by EO1 is compared, using a mixer, to
a signal atfRF1 ~10MHz produced by an RF synthesizer (RF1). The error signal oscillating at (fbeat-
fRF1) is then used to control the QCL current through a phase-lock loop (PLL) circuit with a
bandpass of ~2 MHz, and phase-lock QCLto the ~ 104harmonic of the fs-laser repetition rate. In
Fig. 2(a) we show an example of the spectrum of the phase-locked beat signal,fbeat, acquired with
a spectrum analyzer with a resolution bandwidth of 10Hz, and a THz power impinging on EO1
of 250W. This phase-locking is critical to allow image acquisition using a conventional lock-in
amplifier.
The second half of the QCL beam isfocused on the imagedtargetusing an f/1, gold-coated,
off-axis parabolic mirror (identical to the one used to collimate the QCL beam).Approximately
half of the THz radiation reflected from the targetis finallyfocused on EO2. As found in previous
experiments [13,17-19], the QCL is affected by optical feedback which, in this case, mainly
arises from the fraction of the beam reflected from the target that is transmitted through the beam
splitter. As shown in Ref. [13], optical feedback has a strong influence on the QCL frequency
noise. In particular, in the present case, the phase of the radiation reflected into the QCL cavity,
as well as the intensity,, changed markedly when the beam was raster scanned across the imaged
object owing to changes in the surface profile and morphology. We found experimentally that
this effect couldsuddenly drive the QCL out of lock,thus compromising the image acquisition.
To limit the effect of this feedback we inserted an optical isolator, consisting ofa wire-grid
polarizer (WGP) oriented parallel to the TM-polarised light from the QCL. This wasfollowed,
after the beam splitter, by a 3.1mm-thick, quartz quarter-waveplate with its fast-axis at 45° with
respect to the polarizer [13]. As a result, after the quarter-wave plate,the THz light emitted by the
QCL is left circularly polarised, and the polarisation is changed from left- to right-circular after
reflection from the target. Going back through the quarter-waveplate,the reflected beam recovers
its linear polarisation, now orthogonal to the wire grid polariser (and to the QCL polarisation),
thus providing the isolation. Using a power meter we measured an isolation of ~16dB. However,
this wasnot sufficient to suppress the random un-locking of fbeatcompletely during image
acquisition. Therefore an additional ~10dB of attenuation was added (~5dB attenuation per
pass).
For the measurement of the radiation reflected by the imaged object, we used a standard
lock-in amplifier (SRS model SR830), and a reference oscillator, RF1. As shown in Fig. 1, in
order to bringfRF1= 10MHz (= fbeat)within the lock-inreference frequency range (1mHz to
100kHz),the latter was down-converted to 70kHz by mixing with another synthesiser, labelled
RF2, oscillating atfRF2= 10MHz + 70kHz. The same synthesiser was mixed with fbeat generated by
EO2 to providethe lock-in input signal.It is important to note that the phase-lockingofQCLis a
crucial requirement for the realization of our coherent imaging system.Indeed, whilst in principle
the free-running fbeat generated in EO1 could be used as a reference to demodulate the output of
EO2, as in Ref [12], in practice this is not possible. In fact, withoutphase-locking, the coherence
between QCL and frepis dominated by thelow frequency noise component of QCL,
proportional to ~1/f 2, produced by mechanical vibrations and thermal and/or current
fluctuations in the device[13,14]. As can be derived from the frequency noise spectral density of
the QCL (identical to the present one) reported in Ref. [13], this generates an fbeat with an
“instantaneous” linewidth of the order of 10kHz on a1ms timescale, and is subject to drifts of
several MHz/s [15,16,21].As a consequence the “free running”fbeat is not sufficiently stable to
provide a reference signal for typical commercial DSP lock-in amplifiers including the one used
here[22].On the other hand, phase-locking of QCLensures coherence withfrep, eliminating their
mutual jitter, and thus allows use offbeatas a reference.
Before proceeding to the image acquisition, we evaluated the sensitivity of our EO
detection. Using a calibrated power meter, we measured THz powers of 250W and 60W
impinging on the ZnTe crystals of EO1 and EO2 respectively. Given the 2mW emitted power
from the THz QCL, these values are in agreement with the attenuations from the optical elements
shown in Fig.1, including the attenuator used to decrease the optical feedback and, in the case of
EO2, the reflection from the flat part of a 10 cent Euro coin that we used as a test target for our
imaging system. In Fig. 2(b) we show the power in dBmof the phase-locked fbeatmeasured at the
output of EO2 with a spectrum analyzer with a resolution bandwidth of 1Hz. The THz power
was progressively attenuated from 60W to 10pW by superimposing up to 14 A4 paper sheets.
Down to 2nW, the power was measured with a Golay cell detector that had been previously
calibrated using a THz absolute power meter, while the two points below the 300pW detection
limit of the Golay cell were obtained using calibrated attenuators. The noise floor of -140dBm is
determined by the shot noise of the photocurrent generated by the 15mW of near-IR power
incident on the balanced detection, and corresponds to the minimum detectable THz power of
~3pW (3pW/Hz noise equivalent power). This is consistent with the spectrum of Fig.2(a) at the
output of EO1 where 250W of THz power yielded a SNR of ~70dB in a 10Hz bandwidth,
which corresponds to a noise equivalent power of ~2.5pW/Hz (the SNR scales linearly with the
bandwidth).
Figs. 3(a), (b) and (c) show respectively the amplitude, power and phase image in grey-
colour scale of a 10cent Euro coin, obtained by raster scanning the object in the focal plane of
the mirror using a motorized XY stage. The image was obtained by continuous line scanning
along the Y direction (from left to right in the figure) at a speed of 2.2mm/s, with a step between
each line of 100min the X direction (the acquisition rate along the Y direction was set to obtain
the same spatial resolution of 100m). The lock-in time constant was 30ms, which allowed a
dynamic range of 60dB, as shown in Fig.3(b).The width of the vertical lines on the left side of
the coin was measured with a profilometer(top graph in Fig.3) and was found to be 160m,
showing that the system resolution is diffraction limited. Fig.3(c) displays the phase image, as
recorded from the lock-in amplifier. As expected, compared to the amplitude or power plots
where the edges of the reliefs appear very clear in black owingto scattering, here the various
reliefs are displayed in different grey colors corresponding to different heights, and hence
different phases owingto changes in the optical path. By monitoring the phase with time we
measured a phase stability, with a shift of < 3 °/hour, corresponding to an uncertainty of <1m in
the determination of the profile height. This phase stability is completely limited by the
mechanical stability of the experimental apparatus. We verified with the profilometer that the
height of most of thefeatures is largerthan /2 = 60m; however,the phase displayed by the lock-
in amplifieris limited to ±, which reduces the effective length over which the phase changes
continuously to/2. This, together with the fact thatthe coin is not perfectly parallel to the focal
plane (a ~0.3°inclination is enough to produce a phase change of 2 across the coin),partially
explains why the phase image does not display clearly the different shapes. Another difficulty is
related to small details, such as the stars and stripes on the top left corner, where the size is close
to the resolution limit of the system, resulting in a poor phase contrast. Moreover, as shown by
the height profile in Fig.3, some of the details such as the vertical lines, have a height that is
close to /2. In contrast, the amplitude image, resulting fromscattering,allows much clearer
identification of these details.Fig.3(d) displays a processed phase image where the effect of the
limited phase-range of the lock-in amplifier has been partially removed by adding or subtracting
2 to a fraction of the pixels of Fig.3(c).
The imaging speed in these experiments is solely limited by the speed of the acquisition
software. From Fig.2(a), an integration time of 10s would still allow a signal to noise ratio of
more than 30dB, which would allow acquisition of in Figs. 3 without degradation. This could be
achieved by replacement of the XY translation stage with a fast steering mirror,enabling
acquisition within a few seconds.
Acknowledgments
We acknowledge partial financial support from the AgenceNationale de
la Recherche (project HI-TEQ), the EPSRC (UK), and the European Research
Council programme ‘TOSCA’. We thank Pierre Gellie for taking the scan of
the profile shown in the top panel of Fig. 3.
Figures
Fig.1Experimental apparatus.The fs-laser comb and QCL beams are split into two parts, using
two beam splitters (BS), and are focused onto EO detection units EO1 and EO2. EO1 is used to
phase-lock fbeatto fRF1, and therefore to phase-lock QCLto~ 104 xfrep. EO2 is used to detect the THz
radiation back-reflected from the imaged target. This is achieved by mixing fbeat(= fRF1) with fRF2
= fbeat + 70kHz and monitoring the difference frequency, oscillating at 70kHz, with a lock-in
amplifier. The reference of the lock-in amplifier is obtained from the difference frequency fRF2 -
fRF1 = 70kHz. All mirrors used to collimate and focus the radiation from the QCL are 90° off-
axis, gold coated parabolic mirrors. The fs-laser comb is a frequency doubled 1550nm fiber laser
emitting a train of ~100fs pulses at a repetition rate frep = 250MHz.There is approximately 15mW
of optical power at 780nm impinging on each EO detection unit.
Fig.2 Measurement of the noise equivalent power of the imaging system. The THz power
focused on EO2 was decreased from 60W to 8pW using calibrated attenuators. The noise floor
at -140dBm is set by the shot noise of EO2 in a 1Hz bandwidth and gives a noise equivalent
power of 3pW/Hz. Inset: Spectrum of fbeatdetected on EO1 and recorded on the spectrum analyzer
with a resolution bandwidth of 10Hz. The THz power used for EO detection is 250W.
Fig.3 THz image of a 10 cent Euro coin:(a) amplitude, (b) power. (c) raw phase image, and (d)
phase image corrected for the limited phase range of the lock-in amplifier (see text). The coin
diameter is 19.75mm. The imageswere acquired with lines scans from left to right at a speed of
2.2mm/s, with a step between each line of 100min the vertical direction. The lock-in amplifier
time constant was set to 30ms. Top: Height profile obtained by scanning with a profilometer
along the red dashed line of (a).
A. Energy Efficient Motor Drive Systems
1) IntroductionSince the industrial revolution, motors have replaced humans and animals as the primary source of useful work. James Watt observed that a horse pulling 180 pounds of force made 144 trips around the circle in an hour, at an average speed of 181 feet per minute. The horse generated 33,000 ft. lbs. per minute, which Watt called one “horsepower”. At the time, generating 1 hp required a 1,000 pound, 6 foot tall horse that in today’s dollars costs about $5,000 per year to board. Today, generating 1hprequires a 32 lb motor (30x less than a horse), which is about 4 x 6 inches (12x less than a horse) and costs about $250 per year to power (20x less than a horse). Thus, motors are essential to our modern economy and can be viewed as a primary generator of wealth in modern society.
Today, motors consume about 75% of all the electricity used by industry. Their popularity is a testament to their reliability, versatility and efficiency. However, the large quantity of energy consumed by motors means that small improvements in motor drive system efficiency result in large savings. This chapter discusses fundamentals of motor drive systems and how to make them more efficient.
2) How Motors WorkMotors produce useful work by causing a shaft to rotate. By far the most common type of motor is the squirrel cage induction motor; its operation is described here. Other motor types include shaded pole, synchronous, permanent magnet, reluctance and DC motors for precise speed control.
Squirrel cage induction motors consist of a rotating shaft to which a rotor is attached. The rotor is made of solid, uninsulated metal bars connected to solid metal rings of the same material at each end. The rotor has no external electrical connections. The stator surrounds the rotor, and has two or more poles. Each pole consists of an iron bar wrapped in conductive aluminum or copper wire. The poles create
magnetic fields when electrical current passes through their wire wrappings. The magnetic fields are rotated from pole to pole around the stator, causing the rotor to rotate.
The rotor rotates at a synchronous speed given by the following equation:
rpm = frequency of applied voltage (Hz) x 60 / number of pair poles
Thus, a two pole motor with a 60 Hz power supply rotates at 3,600 rpm and a four pole motor rotates at 1,800 rpm. The difference between the synchronous speed and the actual speed is called the slip. For example, most motors with a synchronous speed of 1,800 rpm rotate at about 1,750 rpm. Slip generally decreases with motor size.
Source: Nadel et al., 1991
a) Synchronous MotorsSynchronous motors can run at low speeds, and are thus good fits for low speed applications such as reciprocating compressors. Synchronous motors are also slightly more efficient than induction motors. Finally, synchronous motors can generate or absorb reactive power, whereas induction motors can only absorb reactive power. Thus, large synchronous motors are sometimes able to correct the power factor of an entire plant.
b) Direct Current MotorsDirect current motors use direct, rather than alternating, current. In DC motors, the speed can be varied simply by varying the voltage.
3) Motor Selection a) NEMA ClassThe National Electric Manufacturers Association (NEMA) classifies motors as NEMA A, B, C, and D, depending on the relationship between torque and speed. Design B motors are by far the most common and are used for most fan, pump and compressor applications.
Source: Nadel et al., 1991
b) Motor SpeedMotors are also selected according to synchronous speed. Common speeds are 3,600, 1,800, 1,200, …, rpm. The most common motor speed is 1,800 rpm.
c) Enclosure TypeMotors come with different enclosure types for different surroundings. NEMA defines about 20 enclosure types divided into two basic groups: open and totally enclosed. The most common types are open drip proof (ODP) and totally enclosed fan cooled (TEFC).
d) Service FactorThe service factor indicates the capacity of the motor to withstand prolonged overloading. Service factor 1.0 indicates that the motor should only be operated at 100% load or less. Service factor 1.3 indicates that the motor could be operated at 130% capacity without failing, although the life of the insulation may be reduced.
e) Frame SizeThe frame defines the shape and size of the motor. For motor replacements, the frame size of the new motor must match the frame size of the older motor to avoid expensive mounting modifications. In 1952, the industry standardized U-frames, such that all 254U frames were identical. In 1964, the industry standardized T-frames, which are smaller and lighter. Most current motors are T-frames.
4) Determining Motor Input PowerThe best way to determine motor power consumption is with a power meter. Power meters simultaneously measure the current, voltage and power factor and combine these measurements to determine power. For a three-phase motor, the power consumption is:
Power (kW) = Average Current of 3 Phases (A) x Voltage (V) x √3 x PF (W/VA)
Many motors are sized to be 75% to 80% loaded. Thus, power can be estimated as:
Power (kW) =
Rated Output (hp ) x 0 . 746 kW/hp x FractionLoadedEfficiency
Example:
If a motor draws 100 A at 480 V with PF = 0.80, calculate input power:
Pin = 100 A x 480 V x 0.8 kW/kVA x 31/2 / 1,000 VA/kVA = 66 kW
Alternately, if motor power input is measured, fraction loaded can be determined as the ratio of actual output power to rated output power.
Example:
Calculate fraction loaded of a 100 hp, 95% efficient motor drawing 66 kW
Output Power = 66 kW x 0.95 / 0.75 kW/hp = 84 hp
Fraction Loaded = 84 hp / 100 hp = 84%
5) Motors and Power FactorMany types of electrical equipment, such as motors or lighting ballasts, require that more power be supplied to the equipment than is actually consumed by the equipment. The ratio of the actual power consumed by equipment (Pa) to the power supplied to equipment (Ps) is called the power factor. The reactive power (Pr) is a measure of the unusable power.
In inductive motors, the current lags the voltage, creating unusable reactive power. Because of this, the power factor of inductive motors is always less than 1.0 and declines under decreasing load.Typical power factors as functions of rated load and horsepower areshown in the table below.
Load / hp 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
10 0.54 0.70 0.77 0.80
20 0.58 0.72 0.79 0.81
25 0.58 0.73 0.79 0.81
30 0.59 0.73 0.79 0.81
40 0.61 0.74 0.80 0.82
50 0.63 0.76 0.81 0.82
60 0.65 0.77 0.82 0.83
75 0.67 0.78 0.83 0.84
100 0.70 0.80 0.84 0.85
Moving Motor Use to Off-Peak Shift
Some motors are used only during one shift. Moving use to an off-peak shift can reduce electrical demand charges.
Example:
Calculate the savings from moving a grinding operation to off-peak shift, if the 50-hp grinder motor is 80% loaded and 90% efficient. The cost of electrical demand is $10 /kW-month.
Annual Savings:
50-hp x 80% / 90% x 0.75 kW/hp = 33 kW
33 kW x $10 /kW-mo x 12 mo/yr = $4,000 /yr
Note that most motors operate at 900, 1,800 or 3,600 RPM.
Thus, although motors typically draw more current (power) as the motor comes up to speed, they typically come up to speed in a few seconds. Most utilities calculate peak electrical demand over a 15 or 30 minute period. Thus, a few seconds of high power draw is rarely enough time to significantly increase total use during demand period. Hence, there is negligible demand penalty from motor start up, and motors should be turned off motors when not in use.
6) Turning Off Motors When Not Equipment is IdleMotor power consumption depends on the load on the motor. In some types of manufacturing equipment, such as CNC machines, the load on the motor powering the lathe is very small when the equipment is idling. Thus, the savings from turning off CNC machines when the equipment idles are relatively small. However, motors in other equipment, such as stamping machines with flywheels and hydraulic power systems, are typically highly loaded even when the equipment is idling. Thus, turning off this this type of equipment when not in use can result in large savings.
Example
A stamping press motor is 80% loaded while stamping and 65% loaded when the press is idle. Thus, 81% of peak power is dissipated as heat due to friction. Calculate the savings from turn off a 90% efficient, 50-hp stamping press motor for 2,000 hr/yr when the press idles. The cost of electricity is $0.10 /kWh.
Annual Savings:
50 hp x .65 / 90% x .75 kW/hp x 2,000 hr/yr = 54,167 kWh/yr
54,167 kWh/yr x $0.10 /kWh = $5,417 /yr
Example
A 20-hp hydraulic system motor draws 8 kW while the machine it powers is loaded and 5 kW while the machine idles. Thus, it draws 63% of loaded power when the machine idles by forcing the unneeded hydraulic fluid through a bypass valve. Calculate the savings from turning off the hydraulic motor for 2,000 hr/yrwhen the equipment it powers idles. The cost of electricity is $0.10 /kWh.
Annual Savings:
5 kW x 2,000 hr/yr = 10,000 kWh/yr
10,000 kWh/yr x $0.10 /kWh = $1,000 /yr
7) Power TransmissionThe drivetrain, or transmission, connects the motor shaft to the load. The most common types of drivetrains are direct shaft couplings, gears, belt drives and chains.
a) Direct Shaft CouplingsDirect shaft couplings transfer virtually 100% of the power from the motor to the load and are the most energy efficient type of power transmission.
b) Gear DrivesGears are typically used for loads which must run slowly and which require high torque such that a belt may slip. Helical and bevel gears are widely used and have an efficiency of about 98% per stage. Worm gears allow a large reduction ratio in a single stage and are usually cost less than helical or bevel gears. Worm gears have efficiencies between 55% and 95%. Gear drive efficiency decreases significantly at low load and low speeds.
c) V-Belt DrivesBelt drives allow flexibility in the positioning of the motor and load. In addition, the desired rotating speed of the load can be achieved by selecting pulleys (sheaves) with the proper diameters. Because of these advantages, belt-drives are very common.
The most common type of belt is a V-belt. As V-belts travel around the pulleys, they flex and heat up. This heat is energy supplied to from the motor and reduces the efficiency of power transmission between the motor and the load.
Standard V-belts have a smooth inner surface. Cogged, or notched, V-belts work are identical to standard V-belts, but are notched on their inner circumference. The notches make them more flexible and improve the efficiency of power transmission.
Standard and cogged V-belts. Source: Dayco CPT, www.cptbelts.com
A belt manufacturer (Dayco, www.cptbelts.com) reports that:
Cogged V-belts are 98% efficient compared to 94-95% efficient standard V-belts. Life of cogged V-belts is 50% longer than standard V-belts Cost of cogged V-belts is about 50% more than standard V-belts
Another study of motor electricity consumption with variable loads showed electricity savings of 2% to 3.75% when standard V-belts were replaced with cogged V-belts. In general, the savings increased with motor loading (see Figure and reference below).
Source: MichiganManufacturingTechnologyCenter, Manufacturing Efficiency Decision Support, Case Study - Cog Belts, http://meds.mmtc.org/casestudy.asp?X=Cog%20Belts
Another source reports that cogged V-belts increase the efficiency of transmission by about 2% (Energy Tips: Replace V-Belts with Cogged or Synchronous Belt Drives, DOE/GO-102000-0972, Office of Industrial Technologies, U.S. Department of Energy).
In addition to significantly improving power-transmission efficiency, cogged V-belts also last at least 50% longer than standard V-belts. Some maintenance personnel report that cogged V-belts last four times as long as standard V-belts. This longevity reduces equipment downtime and replacement costs, which more than compensates for the 20% to 50% higher cost of cogged V-belts.
Because of these advantages, we recommend using cogged V-belts in virtually all V-belt applications except for clutching applications because of their aggressive grip (Grainger, 2001-2002) or in noise sensitive environments since cogged V-belts are slightly noisier than standard V-belts.
Example
Replace smooth with notched V-belts on 100-hp, 91% efficient motor if the end use load is 75% of rated motor output. The motor operates 6,000 hours per year and the cost of electricity is $0.10 /kWh.
100 hp x 75% / 0.91 x (1/.92-1/.95) x 0.75 kW/hp = 2.12 kW
2.12 kW x 6,000 hours/yr x $0.10 /kWh = $1,273 /year
Implementation Cost
Notched belts last 50% to 400% longer than smooth belts, but cost only 30% more than smooth belts, thus implementation cost is negligible
Simple Payback
Immediate
d) Synchronous Belt DrivesSynchronous belts have teeth that engage in the teeth of the sprocket pulley. Because synchronous belts are designed for maximum flexibility and have virtually no slippage, they are about 98% efficient and last about 4 times as long as V-belts.
However, synchronous belt drives are more costly than V-belts and typically require more attention to alignment to operate properly. Thus, they are typically used on large motors with long operating hours where energy savings outweighs the other issues.
De Almeida and Greenberg estimate that synchronous belts last about 24,000 hours, and cost between $8 and $16 per horsepower, with large drives at the low end of this spectrum.
Source: Nadel et al., 1991
Example
Replace smooth V-belt with synchronous belt drive on 100 hp, 91% efficient motor if end use load is 75% of rated motor power output.The motor operates 6,000 hours per year and the cost of electricity is $0.10 /kWh.
Annual Savings
100 hp x 75% / 0.91 x (1/.92-1/.98) x 0.75 kW/hp = 4.11 kW
4.11 kW x 6,000 hours/yr = 24,680 kWh/year
24,680 kWh/year x $0.10 /kWh = $2,468 /year
Implementation Cost
$12 /hp x 100 hp = $1,200
Simple Payback
$1,200 / $2,468 = 6 months
8) Motor EfficiencyThe cost of electricity for operating a motor is typically many times greater that the cost of the motor. The figure below shows typical electricity costs for various size motors and annual operation hours.
Source: Motor Decisions Matter, www.motorsmatter.org).
In fact, the cost of energy during the first year of use alone typically exceeds the purchase cost.
Example
Compare the $1,200 purchase cost of a 20-hp, 93% efficient motor to the annual energy cost if the motor operates 6,000 hours per year, is 75% loaded, and the cost of electricity is $0.10 /kWh.
Annual energy cost:
20 hp x 75% / 93% x .75 kW/hp x 6,000 hr/yr x $0.10 /kWh = $7,258 /yr
Thus, it is usually highly cost effective to purchase the highest efficiency motor available. Besides energy savings, high-efficiency motors offer several other important benefits. First, high-efficiency motors run cooler than standard motors because of lower losses and because they operate at a higher power factor. In addition, high-efficiency motors often use heavier duty bearings. Because of these changes, high-efficiency motors typically run longer than standard motors.
In the 1980s, most motor manufacturers began offering energy-efficient motors (EEMs) with efficiencies 2% to 10% higher than standard-efficiency motors (SEMs). As of October 1997, all motors manufactured or imported into the United States had to meet new, higher efficiency standards. Today, these motors are typically called "energy-efficient" motors (EEMs). Today’s highest efficiency motors are called "premium-efficiency" motors (PEMs). The table below shows the efficiency of standard motors before 1997, minimum efficiency ratings for all motors after 1997 (energy-efficient motors), and minimum efficiency ratings to qualify as a NEMA premium-efficiency motor after 1997.
Efficiencies for Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled, 4 Pole, ~1740 RPM Motors.
Size (hp) StdEff
Before 10/1997
EngyEff
After 10/1997
PremEff
After 10/1997
1 78.5 82.5 85.5
2 84.0 84.0 86.5
5 86.5 87.5 89.5
10 88.5 89.5 91.7
15 88.5 91.0 92.4
20 90.2 91.0 93.0
25 91.0 92.4 93.6
30 91.0 92.4 93.6
40 91.7 93.0 94.1
50 93.0 93.0 94.5
60 92.4 93.6 95.0
75 93.0 94.1 95.4
100 93.0 94.5 95.4
125 93.0 94.5 95.4
150 93.6 95.0 95.8
200 95.0 96.2
Source: StdEff Before 10/1997: Grainger 1995
Source: EngyEff After 10/1997: The Impacts of the Energy Policy Act of 1992 on Industrial End Users of Electric Motor-Driven Systems, U.S. Department of Energy, http://www.oit.doe.gov/bestpractices/motors/factsheets/e-pact92.pdf.
Source: PremEff After 10/1997: NEMA Premium, Product Scope and Nominal Efficiency Levels, www.nema.org/premiummotors.
9) Replace or Repair?Most motors failures are due to electrical or mechanical failure.The primary cause of electrical failure is degradation of winding insulation. Over time, winding insulation degradesdue to heating, aging and over-voltage transients. As winding insulation degrades, the efficiency of the motor may also degrade, causing its operating temperature to increase. Another indication of winding failure is a greater than 10% difference in the amperage drawn by each leg of a three-phase motor. Eventually, winding failure can lead to shock, fire hazard and total motor failure. Sometimes motor failures are related to mechanical breakdowns, especially for motors in high-vibration environments. 75% of all mechanical failures are due to bearing failure.
a) Deciding Whether to Repair or Replace MotorsWhen motors fail, they can be replaced or repaired. The decision to replace or repair must often be made quickly, because the costs of lost production may outweigh energy savings. For this reason, we recommend establishing a motor replacement plan before motors fail. This plan may include pre-selecting energy-efficient replacement motors before key existing motors fail. It may also include working with your motor vendor to ensure that the replacement motors you want can be obtained quickly.
Efficiency and cost data to determine the economics of replacing or repairing motors is incorporated into the MotorMaster+ software. MotorMaster+ includes a database of most motors currently on the market, is available free of charge from the U.S. D.O.E.Typical costs and efficiencies from MotorMaster+ are shown in the table below.
These data can be used to determine the payback of replacing rather than repairing failed motors. In general, the payback timefor replacing rather than repairing failed motors is short, but increases with motor size.
Example
Determine the simple payback of replace rather than rewinding a 20-hp motor. The motor operates 6,000 hours per year, is 75% loaded, and the cost of electricity is $0.10 /kWh.
Annual Savings
20 hp x 75% x (1/.883-1/.935) x 0.75 kW/hp = 0.71 kW
0.71 kW x 6,000 hours/yr = 4,251 kWh/year
4,251 kWh/year x $0.10 /kWh = $425 /year
Implementation Cost
$1286 - $536 = $750
Simple Payback
$750 / $425 = 21 months
Example
Determine the simple payback of replace rather than rewinding a 100-hp motor. The motor operates 6,000 hours per year, is 75% loaded, and the cost of electricity is $0.10 /kWh.
Annual Savings
100 hp x 75% x (1/.917-1/.955) x 0.75 kW/hp = 2.44 kW
2.44 kW x 6,000 hours/yr = 14,645 kWh/year
14,645 kWh/year x $0.10 /kWh = $1,464 /year
Implementation Cost
$6,167 - $1,716 = $4,451
Simple Payback
$4,451 / $41,464 = 36 months
10) Motor MaintenanceA good motor maintenance program can extend the lifetime of motors, reduce production downtime from unexpected motor failures and reduce motor repair costs. Key elements of a good motor maintenance program are discussed below.
a) CleaningClean motors run better. Dirt acts as an insulator and causes the motor to run hotter. Dirt can also damage lubricants, bearings and insulation.
b) LubricationMost small motors and motors with factory-sealed bearings do not require lubrication. For motors that do require lubrication, we recommend carefully following manufacturer guidelines. Do not over lubricate and be careful not to introduce contaminants. For motors used seasonally, we recommend lubrication before the season of use.
c) MountingCheck the mounting system and hold-down bolts at every maintenance interval. Loose bolts, cracks or failure of the mounting structure can cause vibration and deflection that can damage bearings.
d) Belt DrivesCheck belt drives for proper tension or wear frequently. Loose v-belts vibrate, wear rapidly and waste energy. If the belts are too tight, high lateral loading may damage motor bearings. Always replace all belts on a drive at the same time. Check belts frequently until they are broken in, usually after about 48 hours of use.
e) Electrical, Thermal and Vibration TrackingWe recommend measuring and logging the current draw, voltage, temperature and vibration of large, process-critical motors. By tracking these key indices, process downtime can be avoided and repair expenses minimized.
Measure and log motor current draw and voltage across each phase. Voltage imbalances are not usually indicative of motor problems, but can cause current imbalances. Balanced voltage with unbalanced current may indicate motor problems. Some maintenance personnel send motors in for repair when the current imbalance between legs exceeds 10%. Changes in the current draw usually indicate changes in the load. This may indicate clogged filters or other problems.
Always make temperature and vibration measurements on the same spot on the motor. Simple hand-held contact thermometers and vibration meters work well. Make measurements after the motor is warmed up and when under the same motor loading conditions. An increasing temperature trend can indicate electrical or bearing problems. An increasing vibration trend indicates bearing wear.
f) Storage and TransportMotors can have a shorter life in storage than while operating. If the motor shaft is not periodically rotated, lubricant may drain away from bearings causing metal-to-metal contact and rust. Stored motors are especially susceptible to bearing damage from vibration, since lubricant may be pushed away allowing metal-to-metal contact. Insulation on the motor windings can absorb moisture from humid air.
When storing motors, rotate the shaft or operate the motor at least once per month. Avoid storing motors near vibratory machinery. Don’t store motors in cold or damp spaces where the relative
humidity exceeds 70%. Before shipping a motor, block the shaft, drain the oil, and label the motor as needing oil.
11) Oversized MotorsMost motors are sized to operate at 75% to 80% of full load power. At this level of loading, motor efficiency and power factor remain relatively high. However, motor efficiency and power factor decrease rapidly at less than 25% loading. Thus, dramatically oversized motors should be replaced with appropriately sized motors.
Example
Right-size a 100-hp, 10% loaded motor.The motor operates 6,000 hours per year and the cost of electricity is $0.10 /kWh.
From the figure above, the efficiency of a 100-hp motor at 10% load is about 60%. At this load and efficiency, input power is:
100 hp x 10% / 60% x .75 kW/hp = 12.50 kW
Output power is:
100 hp x 10% = 10 hp.
Thus, the load could be driven with a 10-hp motor. From the figure above, the efficiency of a 10-hp motor at 100% load is about 82%. Input power of a 10-hp motor at 82% efficiency is:
10 hp / 82% x .75 kW/hp = 9.15 kW
Annual savings:
(12.5 kW - 9.15 kW) x 6,000 hr/yr = 20,100 kWh/yr
20,100 kWh x $0.10 /kWh = $2,012 /yr
Implementation Cost
A 10-hp motor costs about $500
Simple Payback
$500 / $2,012 /yr x 12 mo/yr = 3 months
12) Soft-Start ControlsWhen a motor starts under a high-torque load, it typically draws much more than full load power as it comes up to speed. The time for a motor to come up to speed varies according to the load, but is usually less than 10 seconds. Over time, full-voltage hard starts with high in-rush currents can damage the motor. The high in-rush current may also trip circuit breakers.
Source: Power Efficiency Corporation product literature, www.performancecontrol.com, 734-975-9111.
Soft-start controls limit the in-rush of current during motor startup to create smoother but longer starts. Because of this, soft-start controls may extend motor life, especially for motors that frequently cycle on and off. Soft-start controls have minimal affect on peak electrical demand because the high inrush startup current typically lasts only a few seconds and the peak demand is usually averaged over 15 minutes to one hour.
Soft-start controls can also reduce electricity consumption for under-loaded motors by modifying the voltage waveform. Soft-start controller manufacturers claim energy savings of between 20% and 50% for lightly-loaded motors. The controllers react fast enough to track variable loads without difficulty. Reduced energy consumption also results in cooler running motors. In addition, soft-start controls may also reduce current imbalance between phases and improve power factor.
Ideal applications for soft-start controls are motors that are frequently cycled on and off, and/or motors that run at reduced load most of the time. Typical prices for soft-start controls are shown below.
In addition, manufactures report that the installation time for a qualified electrician is about two hours.
13) ReferencesAmbs, L. and Frerker, M., 1997, “The Use of Variable Speed Drives to Retrofit Hydraulic Injection Molding Machines”, National Industrial Energy Technology Conference, Houston, TX, April.
Danfoss, “Application Reference Guide”, Version 0.00, Danfoss, Inc.
Machelor, J., 1999, “Root Cause Failure Analysis on AC Induction Motors”, Energy Matters, Office of Industrial Technologies, US Department of Energy, May 1999.
McCoy, G. and Douglass, J., 1997, “Energy Management for Motor-Driven Systems”, Motor Challenge Program, US Department of Energy, Washington, DC.
MotorMaster+ 3.0, U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Technologies, Washington, D.C.
Nadel, S., Shepard, M., Greenberg, S., Katz, G., and Almeida, A., 1991, “Energy Efficient Motor Systems”, American Counsel for an Energy Efficient Economy, Washington D.C.