1/150 taliaYsebastian.com DRINKING WATER MANUAL 101 DRINKING WATER MANUAL ADDRESSING LOCAL COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS FOR ENERGY AUTARCHY REGIONS WORLDWIDE 2012
Mar 24, 2016
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DRINKING WATER
MANUAL
101DRINKING WATER MANUAL
ADDRESSING LOCAL COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROJECTSFOR ENERGY AUTARCHYREGIONS WORLDWIDE
2012
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This project has been kindly supported by:
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PREFACE
1. INTRODUCTION
Design, Development & Drinking Water Projects
Recommended Practice on Water & Hygiene- Choosing the right combination of solutions
Community projects vs. Private Household Projects
Water and alternative Medicine
Water and Religion
Water Cycle - drinking water for people & animals; hygiene; industry & agriculture
NGOs and Government Interests
Succesful Developemnt Projects: Points to Observe for Succesful Implementation
2. METHODS WATER MANAGEMENT
2.1 COLLECTION
Rain WaterSpring WaterGroundwaterFogwater
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9
16
17 - 57
21 - 31
33 - 41
43 - 53
55 - 57
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2.2 STORAGE
Refillable Personal ContainersBucketsTanks and Reservoirs
2.3 FILTRATION
SedimentationFiltration through a MeshCharcoal and Activated CharcoalSlow Sand FilterCeramic FiltersIron Oxide Filter
2.4 NEUTRALIZATION
UVCookingChemical Disinfection
3. HUMANITARIAN HELP
Development Projects vs. Humanitarian Help
4. INFORMATION TOOLS AND SOURCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
IMPRINT
59 - 83
62 - 63
65 - 71
73 - 83
85 - 103
88 - 89
90 - 91
92 - 93
94 - 95
97 - 101
102 - 103
105 - 129
108 - 111
113 - 121
123 - 129
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133 - 145
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This manual seeks to provide basic outlines and impulses to social designers and entrepreneurs working on developing projects for safe and clean drinking water. It is a collection of basic instructions when dealing with different types of water, climate and geology and broken down into the four main processes to achieve clean and safe drinking water: Collection, Storage, Filtration, Neutralisation (in order).
Not all of these processes are always needed, but they are separate and can be combined to best suit the needs of the individuals or communities addressed, as well as the types of source water available.
This manual should be considered as a stepping stone in the right direction to inform the design. In-depth research on the chosen methods is needed to fully understand the possibilities and limitations of each of these. We conceived it to be a reference manual.
The content is divided into three sections: Chapter 1 is an Introduction with considerations to take into account when given the task of developing drinking water projects; Chapter 2 Methods is broken down into 4 sections - collection, storage, filtration, neutralization, with bullet-points and illustrations to describe the pros and cons of each sub category. Chapter 3 includes a list of identified and successfully implemented drinking water projects in development regions, as well as readily available projects when confronted with a humanitarian crisis.
PREFACE
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1. INTRODUCTION
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1. INTRODUCTION
DESIGN, DEVELOPMENT & DRINKING WATER PROJECTS
In the past, the trend has been to implement more and less successful grand engineering projects in the Global South to deal with the distribution of water for health and sanitation needs. Due to their scale these engineering projects, although at times successful, are built at the cost of the environment and often misplace entire populations, excluding the precious balance between conservation and community needs. These large scale projects profit densely populated areas but hardly the more remote communities, and often leave a massive debt at national scale. Proposing and building solutions for safe and clean water supply in remote communities goes beyond technical frames: The social frame in which this occurs marks the true success of the project and its long-term sustainability.In this sense, development projects (in the Global South) should aim to benefit
the individuals within a community and their environment
and work towards poverty reduction, food and water security and well-being.
When developing water projects that are to be implemented within communities in the Global South, a holistic approach should be implemented at the early stages of research in order to make the resultant project as meaningful as possible. Particularly important is research in interdisciplinary fields such as engineering, economy, local politics, natural sciences, social and cultural anthropology and,
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of course, design.
Just as important for the success of a project is the in-depth exchange with the right partners. It is always advisable to work with an NGO who is working on site as they will become an important communication channel, even at the early stages of research, between the design solution and the target audience. An NGO working onsite can provide in-depth knowledge on the community as well as in governmental aspects. It is usually a trustworthy entity within the community and in many cases be the administrative force behind project implementation. In this sense and NGO on-site is a key contributor to the success of development projects.
Sustainable development projects are contained within a well thought-out business model and therefore, depending on the focus of the project, consider partnering with the materials and manufacturing industries as well as outlining funding from foundations, the government and MNCs.
IDEO has created a fantastic guide on how-to Design for Social Impact (See Chapter 4. Information Tools and Sources), which can be downloaded from IDEO’s webpage.
RECOMMENDED PRACTICE ON WATER & HYGIENE -CHOOSING THE RIGHT COMBINATION OF SOLUTIONS
It is important to identify certain factors before starting the design process. Here are a few key questions which are good for a start:
1. INTRODUCTION
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• What type of water source are we dealing with? Mist/rain/Spring/river/ground/sea water
• What is the quality of the water? - turbidity/heavy metals/ bacteria/ virus/ particles/ smell
• What quantity of water is needed? Individuals/ small family/ animals/ community
• What resources does the community have? Infrastructure/energy/materials/skills
• What understanding does the community/individuals have to water? Religious/scientific
• What are the expectations of the community/individuals and their level of commitment?
All these questions will help to identify the right combination of solutions when considering collecting, storing, filtering and pasteurizing methods.
COMMUNITY VS. PRIVATE HOUSEHOLD PROJECTS
When considering water projects, it is important to be strategic about the impact –
• Should the project belong to individuals or the community? • Who in the community/household is in charge of the project? Do
they need special training?• Who pays for the project – individuals or the community as a
whole?• What expectations does the community/individual have from
you?
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Be aware of daily rituals that happen within a community through water such a socialisation, as well as the importance of integrating the community in decisions. By rule of thumb always remember the groups of individuals dealing with water : For example, most of the current efforts are focused on women and children; Women represent one of the most important target groups in regards to water supply in the global south by default because they take charge of the household and supplying it with water.
WATER, RELIGION AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE
In many communities and cultures, water is often strongly rooted in religious, spiritual or shamanic understanding. Consider contacting anthropologists and medical doctors who have had experience in the region that is the focus of your work to understand the significance of water within that community.
WATER CYCLE - DRINKING WATER FOR SELF, ANIMALS, HYGIENE, INDUSTRY, AGRICULTURE
Access to and use of clean and safe drinking water is paramount for the sustainability of life. We must be aware how many uses clean and safe drinking water has. This helps us to define what quantity is needed daily by each individual and so define which methods are best suited to their needs.
1. INTRODUCTION
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Many uses for water include drinking, cooking, agriculture, giving the animals water, cleaning oneself, washing clothes, sanitation (toilets), but also for celebratory reasons such as ritual, ceremony, divination, healing.
In small communities, particularly those in remote regions or without infrastructure, water for these many uses may come from only one source. Make sure that the quantity of water your solution offers, represents at least 120% of the daily need (to accommodate growth of community, for example) and that the sources and tools are not contaminated by unhygienic habits where cross-contamination can occur.
Important and holistic considerations in project implementation are efforts that invest in such diverse fields such as hygiene, environment, water management and education, which directly impact people and water sources.
NGOs, GOVERNMENT AND INTERNATIONAL INVESTORS’S INTERESTS
Until now we´ve considered research and design using bottom-up approaches. Since mostly projects in social design are dependant on external funding and help with dissemination (to increase impact), it is important to also implement a top-down approach and consider the agendas of local governments, NGOs social investors etc. Be aware of local and government policy – what projects are they interested in implementing? Are there any programmes planned or currently running to which your project could contribute? (education, hygiene...)
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What NGOs or network of NGOs and investors exist in the country or are connected that could help in or be the implementers of your solution? If you are already working with an NGO – what design service are they looking to receive from you?
Investors – how is the project structured so that it is interesting for rich philanthropists, organizations or companies for subsidizing or financing it?
SUCCESSFUL DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS -POINTS TO OBSERVE FOR IMPLEMENTATION
According to WASH (Water, Sanitation and Hygiene, a UNICEF strategy), there are 5 criteria which have to be considered and determine the success of a project. Many times, a project will only fulfil one or more of the criteria, but rarely all five. The following should be considered:
• Application• Technical success • Financial success • Social success • Institutional succes
From page 134 onwards a list of successful projects and their sources presents some precedents that account for the characteristics and properties of projects in development as well as humanitarian help.
1. INTRODUCTION
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2. METHODS WATER MANAGEMENT
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2.1 COLLECTION
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ROOF-C
ANAL-TANK
FETC
HING
HAND-DUG WELL
MACHINE-D
UG WELL
ROOF-C
ANAL GRO
UND TANK
GRAVIT
Y
FULL
SCALE
FOG
COLLECTO
RS
WELL
RAIN
WATE
R
SPRIN
G WATE
R
GROUNDW
ATER
FOG W
ATER
2.1 COLLECTION
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WAT
ER PU
MPING
CANALIZAT
ION
PIPELI
NES
CANALIZAT
ION
PIPELI
NES
ROCK-D
AM
SAND-DA
M
MACHINE-D
UG WELL
GRAVIT
Y
WELL
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2.1 COLLECTION
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RAIN WATER
Rain water harvesting is the collection and storage of rain water before it reaches an aquifer for reuse during dry seasons or to compensate water scarcity. Water is collected and stored in containers and reservoirs before it reaches underground aquifers, which are more difficult to reach.
Rain water has been used to provide drinking water, water for livestock and irrigation, as well as other typical uses. The water collected from the roofs of houses and local institutions can make an important contribution to the availability of drinking water in times of scarcity.
It is mostly suitable for areas where one or two rain seasons per year are common. The methods vary and depend on very diverse factors, like household or communitarian use and water yield.
If the collection and storage of rain water is a practice suitable for the purpose of the project, it is vital to engage people or communities in the implementation of the methods. That way acknowledgment and sensitization with the advantages and importance of the method will ensure the adoption of sustainable and long term practices.
ROOF-CANAL-TANKROOF-CANAL-GROUND TANKWELLROCK-DAMSAND-DAM
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YIELD
2.1 COLLECTION
Cover the containers to avoid access of insects or solid particles into the tank
Avoid influence of sunlight into the water container
Divert the initial flow of run-off rainwater to waste to reduce the concentration of contaminants accumulated on the roof during the dry season.
Rainwater harvested from roofs can contain animal and bird faeces, mosses and lichens, windblown dust, particulates from urban pollution, pesticides, and inorganic ions from the sea (Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, SO4), and dissolved gases (CO2, NOx, SOx).
Water not recommended for immediate human consumption!
Filtration and Neutralization needed
Low capital investment for implementation
Easy to build
Household supply
Low
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RAIN WATERROOF-CANAL-TANK
ROOF-CANAL-TANKROOF-CANAL-GROUND TANKWELLROCK-DAMSAND-DAM
Collection of rain water directly from the roofs of houses and buildings through channels that convey water into a storage unit.
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YIELD
2.1 COLLECTION
Easy to build
Household supply
Kitchen Garden irrigation
Low Running Cost
Low-Medium
Create training programs for the users and shareholders to build, operate and repair the technical equipment
Design easy access to the tank for eventual maintenance
Rainwater harvested from roofs can contain animal and bird faeces, mosses and lichens, windblown dust, particulates from urban pollution, pesticides, and inorganic ions from the sea (Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, SO4), and dissolved gases (CO2, NOx, SOx).
Water not recommended for immediate human consumption!
Filtration and Neutralization needed
High Capital Investment for implementation
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RAIN WATERROOF-CANAL-GROUND TANK
ROOF-CANAL-TANKROOF-CANAL-GROUND TANKWELLROCK-DAMSAND-DAM
Collection of rain water directly from the roofs of houses and buildings through channels that connvey water into an underground storage good.
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YIELD
2.1 COLLECTION
Cover the well to avoid access of insects or solid particles into the tank
Low-Medium
Rainwater can contain windblown dust, particulates from urban pollution, pesticides, and inorganic ions from the sea (Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, SO4), and dissolved gases (CO2, NOx, SOx).
Water not recommended for immediate human consumption!
Filtration and Neutralization needed
Open Catchment area
Moderate Capital Investment for implementation
Communitarian Supply
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1
3
2
4
RAIN WATERWELL
It consists of a hole dug in the ground with brick walls, and a combination of cement, sand and concrete. Wells for storage are also lined at the bottom to avoid water disappearing into underground aquifers.
ROOF-CANAL-TANKROOF-CANAL-GROUND TANKWELLROCK-DAMSAND-DAM
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YIELD
2.1 COLLECTION
Rock surfaces should not be fractured or cracked.Alternative: cover the catchment’s ground with impermeable material
Dam foundations must be of solid impermeable rock.
Build stone or mortar gutters across the rock to channel runoff water into the dam
Protect the catchment area against pollution and erosion
Plant abundant trees surrounding the dam to decrease the levels of evaporation
Low capital investment for implementation
Communitarian Supply
Medium-High
Rainwater can contain windblown dust, particulates from urban pollution, pesticides, and inorganic ions from the sea (Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, SO4), and dissolved gases (CO2, NOx, SOx)
Water not recommended for immediate human consumption!
Filtration and Neutralization needed
Open Catchment area
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BEFORE
AFTER
RAIN WATERROCK-DAM
Lowlands often have natural hollows or valleys which can be turned into water resevoirs by building a dam. This can be a simple stone wall, constructed around the downstream end of hollows or valleys.
ROOF-CANAL-TANKROOF-CANAL-GROUND TANKWELLROCK-DAMSAND-DAM
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YIELD
2.1 COLLECTION
Dam foundations must be of solid impermeable rock with no soil pockets or fracture lines. Alternative: cover the catchment’s ground with impermeable material
Avoid soil erosion in the catchment area
Protect the catchment area against pollution and erosion
Plant abundant trees surrounding the dam to decrease the levels of evaporation
Low capital investment for implementation
Communitarian Supply
Durability
Medium-High
Rainwater can contain windblown dust, particulates from urban pollution, pesticides, and inorganic ions from the sea (Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, SO4), and dissolved gases (CO2, NOx, SOx).
Water not recommended for immediate human consumption!
Filtration and Neutralization needed
Open Catchment area
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RAIN WATERSAND-DAM
Sand dams are reservoirs built across seasonal rivers. The dam can be built with walls of reinforced concrete or sand sacks.
ROOF-CANAL-TANKROOF-CANAL-GROUND TANKWELLROCK-DAMSAND-DAM
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2.1 COLLECTION
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FETCHINGGRAVITYCANALIZATIONPIPELINES
SPRING WATER
A spring is a source out of the ground out of which water naturally flows. This might be seasonal or permanent, depending on climatological and geographic characteristics.
Spring water has been traditionally used for collection and consumption of water directly from the source. This practice can however put the water at a high risk of contamination. Measures should be taken to protect the spring and its surrounding area from animal or human fecal contamination, as well as a daily surveillance of the spring catchment to avoid blockage of the filter from foliage, snakes, and insects. Be sure that people of the community acknowledge the privilege of having spring water by including them in the planning and building process, procuring a sense of ownership and motivating them to protect the spring and its conditions.
Biological and chemical tests should be performed to determine the water’s quality and if further treatment is necessary for its safe consumption.
In case the spring is seasonal, couple it with complementary collection techniques such as rain water harvesting and bare in mind its utilization for communitarian supply depends on a flow rate of at least 4litre/1gallon per minute previously measured at the source.
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YIELD
2.1 COLLECTION
Pay special attention to the careful usage of the spring
Good accesibility should never compromise the health of the spring
Protect the catchment area against pollution and erosion
Plant abundant trees surrounding the spring to decrease the levels of evaporation from the soil and erosion
Bio-Chemical testing necessary before human consumption
High risk of polluting the spring
Time consuming
Low Running Cost
Low - Medium
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FETCHINGGRAVITYCANALIZATIONPIPELINES
SPRING WATERFETCHING
People serve themselves with natural spring water direct from the source. It is a very time demanding method, a major development concern for women and children who are often the ones doing this chore.
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YIELD
2.1 COLLECTION
Bio-Chemical testing necessary before human consumption
High risk of polluting the spring
High
Pay special attention to the careful usage of the spring.
Be aware that a reliable water flow is available throughout the year.
Good accesibility should never compromise the wealth of the spring.
Low Running Cost
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FETCHINGGRAVITYCANALIZATIONPIPELINES
SPRING WATERGRAVITY
If the stream or spring is at higher elevations water flows naturally through the action of gravity.
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YIELD
Low running cost
Communitarian Supply
Contribution to reforestation efforts
Moderate capital investment for implementation
Bio-Chemical testing necessary before human consumption
Open catchment and stream areas
At least a 4litre /1gallon per minute flow previously messured at source
Create programs that promote the protection of the spring against pollution and erosion
Keep the water channels constantly monitored and protected
Channels can be built of halfed bamboo trunks
High
2.1 COLLECTION
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FETCHINGGRAVITYCANALIZATIONPIPELINES
SPRING WATERCANALIZATION
Water runs through open channels conveying it to a tank or cistern. The stream of water flows naturally through the action of gravity.
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YIELD
2.1 COLLECTION
Bio-Chemical testing necessary before implementation
High capital investment for implementation
Slow implementation
Specialized technical know-how necessary for the operation and maintenance of devices
At least a 4litre /1gallon per minute flow previously messured at source
Create programs that promote the protection of the spring against pollution and erosion
Develop a long term strategy for the use of the spring
Direct household supply and distribution possible
Low running cost
Comunitarian Supply
High
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FETCHINGGRAVITYCANALIZATIONPIPELINES
SPRING WATERPIPELINES
Water runs through pipes installed under the ground conveying water to a tank or cistern. The stream of water flows naturally through the action of gravity.
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2.1 COLLECTION
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HAND-DUG WELLMACHINE-DUG WELLWATER PUMPINGCANALIZATIONPIPELINES
GROUNDWATER
Groundwater is located beneath the ground surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called the water table.
Aquifers are recharged by rain. Natural discharge often occurs at springs and seeps, and can form oases or wetlands.
Typically, groundwater is thought of as liquid water flowing through shallow aquifers, but technically it can also include soil moisture, permafrost (frozen soil), immobile water in very low permeability bedrock, and deep geothermal or oil formation water.
Biological and chemical tests should be performed to determine the water’s quality and if further treatment is necessary for its safe consumption.
It is obvious that a greater effort and even specialized technical equipment is necessary to reach the aquifer and pump water for its further use or treatment. Therefore help the communities to understand the need to invest in these devices and the capacitation of personal to operate and repair them. Local organizations are the most recommended partners, since they generally have an insight in the community and are trusted partners.
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YIELD
2.1 COLLECTION
Medium
Low capital investment for implementation
Low running cost
Comunitarian Supply
At least 1,5m/3,3feet diameter for the excavation
The volume of the water in the well below the standing water table acts as a reservoir
Water table should not be lower than 6m/20feet
Bio-Chemical testing necessary before implementation
Restricted to suitable types of ground, such as clays, sands, gravels
Filtration and Neutralization needed
Open Catchment area
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GROUNDWATERHAND-DUG WELL
HAND-DUG WELLMACHINE-DUG WELLWATER PUMPINGCANALIZATIONPIPELINES
It consists of a hole dug in the ground with walls built with bricks, and a combination of cement, sand and concrete. When compared with wells for rain water collection, these wells give open access to groundwater.
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YIELD
2.1 COLLECTION
Medium - High
Low running cost
Comunitarian Supply
No access for insects or bigger particles into the reservoir
Implement the simplest methods of drilling, particularly those which can be operated by users and stakeholders themselves
The volume of the water in the well below the standing water table acts as a reservoir
Moderate High Investment
Bio-Chemical testing necessary before implementation
Spare parts for machinery
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GROUNDWATERMACHINE-DUG WELL
HAND-DUG WELLMACHINE-DUG WELLWATER PUMPINGCANALIZATIONPIPELINES
Machine-dug wells are usually quicker and cheaper to sink than hand-dug wells, need no dewatering during sinking, require less lining material, and are safer in construction and use.
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YIELD
2.1 COLLECTION
Medium - High
Implement the simplest methods of drilling, particularly those which can be operated by users and stakeholders themselves
Create training programs for the users and shareholders to build, operate and repair the equipment
Moderate High Investment
Bio-Chemical testing necessary before implementation
Spare parts for machinery & pump
Low running cost
Comunitarian Supply
No access for insects or bigger particles into the reservoir
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GROUNDWATERWATER PUMPING
HAND-DUG WELLMACHINE-DUG WELLWATER PUMPINGCANALIZATIONPIPELINES
Water pumping from a fresh water source in a lower stream is a basic and far more effective practice than scooping or lifting water in a hand-held bucket.
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YIELD
2.1 COLLECTION
Low running cost
Comunitarian Supply
Contribution to reforestation efforts
High capital investment for implementation
Bio-Chemical testing necessary before human consumption
Open catchment and stream areas
Technical know-how necessary for the operation and maintenance of devices
Create training programs for the users and shareholders to build, operate and repair the equipment
Keep the water channels constantly monitored and protected.
Channels can be built of halfed bamboo trunks
High
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GROUNDWATERCANALIZATION
Water runs through open channels that convey it to a tank or cistern. The stream of water flows through the action of mechanical devices such as water pumps.
HAND-DUG WELLMACHINE-DUG WELLWATER PUMPINGCANALIZATIONPIPELINES
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YIELD
2.1 COLLECTION
Bio-Chemical testing necessary before implementation
High capital investment for implementation
Slow implementation
Specialized technical know-how necessary for the operation and maintenance of devices
Direct household supply and distribution possible
Low running cost
Comunitarian Supply
High
Create training programs for the users and shareholders to build, operate and repair the equipment
Keep the water pipes constantly monitored and protected against leaking
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GROUNDWATERPIPELINES
HAND-DUG WELLMACHINE-DUG WELLWATER PUMPINGCANALIZATIONPIPELINES
Water runs through pipes nstalled under the ground conveying water to a tank or cistern. The stream of water flows through the action of mechanical devices such as pumps.
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2.1 COLLECTION
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FULL SCALE FOG COLLECTORS
FOG WATER
Through a process known as condensation, atmospheric water vapour from the air naturally condenses on cold surfaces into droplets of liquid water known as dew. The phenomenon is most observable on thin, flat, exposed objects including plant leaves and blades of grass.
As the exposed surface cools by radiating its heat to the sky, atmospheric moisture condenses at a rate greater than that of which it can evaporate, resulting in the formation of water droplets.
Fog collectors work best in coastal areas where the water can be harvested as the fog moves inland driven by the wind. However, the technology could also potentially harvest water for multiple uses in mountainous areas should the water be present in stratocumulus clouds, at altitudes of approximately 400m to 1200m/1300 to 3900feet.
The consequences of industrial emissions have driven fog water and rain water to be poisoned by chemicals. Therefore, in case there are doubts about the quality of the water and no chemical testing is possible, use it for toilets and practices that do not imply direct consumption.
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YIELD
2.1 COLLECTION
Bio-Chemical testing necessary before human consumption
Climatologically sensible system
Time consuming
Low capital investment for implementation
Low-Medium
Create training programs for the users and shareholders to build, operate and repair the equipment
Arrange the collection net perpendicular to the direction of the prevailing wind
In case there is no certainty about the water quality, use it for toilets and cleaning
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FOG WATERFULL SCALE FOG COLLECTORS
FULL SCALE FOG COLLECTORS
The morning dew is collected on the net. Droplets join to form larger drops that fall under the influence of gravity into a channel at the bottom of the panel, from which it is conveyed to a storage tank or cistern.
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2.2 STORAGE
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2.2 STORAGEWater is stored to have constant access to it. The amount of water required, its further distribution as well as the target group (from individual, over family to community), serve to determine what technique suits best. Accordingly the storage goods for water vary in volume capacity, material, and portability. Nearly all water systems include some form of storage, most commonly a tank.
Storage can be used to:• cover peaks in demand• smooth out variations in supply• provide water security in case of supply interruptions• save buildings, constructions or forests from fire• meet legal requirements• improve water quality• provide thermal storage and freeze protection• enable a smaller pipe to serve for a distant source• provide daily water supply for households • transport water
The containers for water collection ideally should not be the same as the containers for water storage, although this is not always the case. Stored, stagnated water can easily foul, especially if the storage good is open or the water is exposed to sunlight. Therefore water that has been stored for a longer period should be filtered and neutralized.
For the purpose of differentiation between collection and storage containers, let’s say the former are used in conjunction with water sources, the latter with the points of distribution for end-users.
REFILLABLE WATER BOTTLEBUCKETSTANKS AND RESERVOIRS
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PLAST
IC
CEMEN
T REIN
FORC
ED
TANK GRO
UND TANK
REFIL
LABL
E WAT
ER BO
TTLE
METAL
REFIL
LABL
E PER
SONAL
CONTA
INER
S
BUCK
ETS
TANKS
AND
RESE
RVOIRS
2.2 STORAGE
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WELL
WAT
ER TO
WER
EART
H WARE
GROUND TA
NK
METAL
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YIELD
2.2 STORAGE
Water Quality can not be determined
Low Cost
Portability
Low (Personal)
Refill containers regularly and do not let water stored for longer periods
Transparent plastic PET-bottles are widely used for solar disinfection (see SODIS in NEUTRALIZATION)
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REFILLABLE WATER BOTTLE
REFILLABLE WATER BOTTLEBUCKETSTANKS AND RESERVOIRS
There is a huge offer in the market of refillable containers with different capacity, quality, and materials. Plastic and aluminium bottles are the most popular.
64/150
2.2 STORAGE
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BUCKETS
REFILLABLE WATER BOTTLEBUCKETS:
PLASTIC BUCKETSMETAL BUCKETSEARTH WARE BUCKETS
TANKS AND RESERVOIRS
A variety of buckets with different volume capacity, quality, and materials are available in the market.
Containers should in their shape and form discourage water contamination. The contamination can happen because of variety of reasons, such as dipping bacterially contaminated hands or utensils into the water as well as the water becoming a breeding ground for insects and vegetation.
Choosing the right material for storing water in buckets is crucial and often dependant on the type of water: for example, if water is acidic it may react with specific metals; scratches in plastic buckets become bacterial breeding ground that is hard to clean; the usage of transparent containers for long term storage is not recommended, since sunlight can encourage the development of vegetation, which at the same time can feed bacteria.
66/150
YIELD
2.2 STORAGE
Water quality cannot be determined
High risk of contamination
Transportation
Clean containers regularly and do not let water stored for longer periods
Cover the containers to avoid access of insects or solid particles into the tank
Promote creative sanitation practices that restrain users from deeping objects or body parts into the water
Low Cost
Portability
Shock resistant
Low (Personal)
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PLASTIC BUCKETS
REFILLABLE WATER BOTTLEBUCKETS:
PLASTIC BUCKETSMETAL BUCKETSEARTH WARE BUCKETS
TANKS AND RESERVOIRS
Highly popular because of their price, low weight and high durability. However, how does the introduction of plastic encourages environmental issues and interferes with local production?
68/150
YIELD
2.2 STORAGE
Water quality cannot be determined
High risk of contamination
Corrossion (Iron, Steel, Tin)
Clean containers regularly and do not let water stored for longer periods
Take care that the chemical quality of water does not react with the metal
Cover the containers to avoid access of insects or solid particles into the tank
Promote creative sanitation practices that restrain users from deeping objects or body parts into the water
Low Cost
Reparability
Low (Personal)
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METAL BUCKETS
REFILLABLE WATER BOTTLEBUCKETS:
PLASTIC BUCKETSMETAL BUCKETSEARTH WARE BUCKETS
TANKS AND RESERVOIRS
Although metal can be significantly more expensive than plastic its main advantage is it can be locally manufactured and repaired. Copper & Brass are among the most popular and widesrpead options.
70/150
YIELD
2.2 STORAGE
Water quality cannot be proved
High risk of contamination
High Weight
Clean containers regularly and do not let water stored for longer periods
Cover the containers to avoid access of insects or solid particles into the tank
Promote creative sanitation practices that restrain users from deeping objects or body parts into the water
Low Cost
Local Production
Low (Personal)
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EARTH WARE BUCKETS
REFILLABLE WATER BOTTLEBUCKETS:
PLASTIC BUCKETSMETAL BUCKETSEARTH WARE BUCKETS
TANKS AND RESERVOIRS
Earthenware containers are less popular because of their comparatively higher weight and low durability, especially when compared with plastic. However, they have a high social impact as they can normally be locally produces, and the raw material has a low environmental footprint.
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2.2 STORAGE
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REFILLABLE WATER BOTTLEBUCKETSTANKS AND RESERVOIRS:
PLASTIC VERTICAL TANKSGROUND TANKSWELLSCEMENT REINFORCED TANKSWATER TOWERS
TANKS AND RESERVOIRS
Several methods of construction for water storage can be found around the world. Communities adapt different solutions, mostly for the collection of water. In most cases, according to the volume of water stored, there is no difference between water collection and water storage goods (i.e. rain water harvesting).
Tanks are defined by their size and capacity. Starting at 100litres/27gallons full tanks cannot possibly be moved around without the help of specially designed tools and carriers. That is why tanks are stationary and used for both collection and storage of water. They also vary on their materiality and placement, from plastic through to reinforced concrete and either underground or even on water towers.
Reservoirs are micro-infrastructural projects (see Rock and Sand-Dams) designed to collect and store a far greater quantity of water for communitarian use.
Projects of this size should be consulted by water experts and engineers, to properly build, together with the community, to identify the most adequate location.
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YIELD
2.2 STORAGE
High capital investment for implementation
Logistics of building materials
Place the tank on a safe space away from objects or tools that can damage it
Positioning of the water outlet is informed by the sediment build-up on the bottom of the tank
Low running cost
Easy installation
Protection from sunlight
Medium
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PLASTIC VERTICAL TANKS
Plastic vertical water tanks are used for multiple purposes including above-ground residential cisterns that store safe drinking water, rainwater harvesting, long-term water storage, emergency potable water storage, fire protection water tanks and farm irrigation.
REFILLABLE WATER BOTTLEBUCKETSTANKS AND RESERVOIRS:
PLASTIC VERTICAL TANKSGROUND TANKSWELLSCEMENT REINFORCED TANKSWATER TOWERS
76/150
YIELD
High capital investment for implementation
Logistics of building materials
Low Reparability
Pumping device necessary
Low running cost
Protection from sunlight
Durability
Medium - High
Create training programs for the users and shareholders to build, operate and repair the equipment
Design easy access to the tank for eventual maintenance
2.2 STORAGE
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Plastic or cement water tanks are installed underground to store water.
GROUND TANKS
REFILLABLE WATER BOTTLEBUCKETSTANKS AND RESERVOIRS:
PLASTIC VERTICAL TANKSGROUND TANKSWELLSCEMENT REINFORCED TANKSWATER TOWERS
78/150
YIELD Medium
Low capital investment for implementation
Low running cost
Comunitarian Supply
Cover the well to avoid access of insects or solid particles into the tank
At least 1,5m/3,3feet diameter for the excavation
The volume of the water in the well below the standing water table acts as a reservoir
Create training programs for the users and shareholders to build, operate and repair the equipment
Water not recommended for immediate human consumption!
Restricted to suitable types of ground,
Filtration and Neutralization needed
Open Catchment area
2.2 STORAGE
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WELLS
REFILLABLE WATER BOTTLEBUCKETSTANKS AND RESERVOIRS:
PLASTIC VERTICAL TANKSGROUND TANKSWELLSCEMENT REINFORCED TANKSWATER TOWERS
It consists of a hole dug in the ground with walls built with bricks, and a combination of cement, sand and concrete. Wells for storage are also lined with bricks at the bottom and do not give access to underground water streams or reservoirs.
80/150
YIELD
2.2 STORAGE
High capital investment for implementation
Logistics of building materials
Cover the well to avoid access of insects or solid particles into the tank
Place the tank on a safe place away from objects or (agricultural) tools that can damage it
The tank should be partially installed underground to secure it
Create training programs for the users and shareholders to build, operate and repair the equipment
Make sure to design an opening for eventual cleaning and maintenance
Low running cost
Easy installation
Protection from sunlight
Durability
Medium - High
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CEMENT REINFORCED TANKS
REFILLABLE WATER BOTTLEBUCKETSTANKS AND RESERVOIRS:
PLASTIC VERTICAL TANKSGROUND TANKSWELLSCEMENT REINFORCED TANKSWATER TOWERS
Depending on the quality of construction and the climate of its location, cement reinforced water tanks are remarkably durable constructions with almost zero maintenance and high durability.
82/150
YIELD
2.2 STORAGE
Water not recommended for immediate human consumption!
High capital investment for implementation
Maintenance
Specialized technical know-how necessary for the operation and maintenance of devices
Only recommended when larger budget is available
Building site should be stable, flat and not endangered by landslides or earthquakes
Create training programs for the users and shareholders to build, operate and repair the equipment
Medium - High
Functionality
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WATER TOWERS
A water tower is an elevated structure supporting a water tank. The elevated water builds sufficient pressure to provide for domestic water distribution systems.
REFILLABLE WATER BOTTLEBUCKETSTANKS AND RESERVOIRS:
PLASTIC VERTICAL TANKSGROUND TANKSWELLSCEMENT REINFORCED TANKSWATER TOWERS
84/150
2.3 FILTRATION
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2.3 FILTRATIONSEDIMENTAITIONFILTRATION THROUGH A MESHCHARCOAL & ACT. CHARCOALSLOW SAND FILTERCERAMIC FILTERSIRON OXIDE FILTERFiltration is the first step in purifying water to remove
solids from the water, (from stones, foliage, insects to micro-particles), turbidity, dissolved metals and chemicals which may interfere with subsequent purification steps. Filtration not only makes the water look clearer; by removing particles you are removing potential breeding ground for pathogens.
Water should be filtered BEFORE treating it against pathogens. Filtration not only makes the water look clearer; by removing particles you are removing potential breeding ground for pathogens.The process requires water to be driven through one or more physical barriers that free it from physical particles and even micro-particles. There are even some filtration techniques that are highly effective in filtering out bacteria and germs (see Slow Sand Filter and Ceramic Filters, reverse osmosis).
The techniques hereby presented are most effective when they are combined in order, according to the size of particles that are intended to be eliminated from water. The most effective techniques outlined here are for domestic use, therefore most suited for point-of-use implementation. Engage the community in their construction and promote a strong, solid awareness campaign that sensitizes people and encourages them to implement, properly care for and build upon the techniques that best suit their needs.
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SEDIM
ENTA
TION
SLOW
SAND FI
LTER
CERAMIC
CANDLES
IRON O
XIDE F
ILTER
FILTR
ATIO
N THRO
UGH
A MES
H
BIO FI
LTERS
CERA
MIC FIL
TERS
2.3 FILTRATION
SILVE
R IMPR
EGNAT
ED
POTS
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CHARCOAL &
ACTIV
ATED
CHARCOAL
FILTR
ATIO
N THRO
UGH
A MES
H
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YIELD
2.3 FILTRATION
Time consuming
Does not remove dissolved metals or chemicals
Simple
Moderate capital investment
Low - High
Sedimentation processes can be used to treat waste waters
Sedimentation can not be the only step of the purification process for drinking water
Create training programs for the users and shareholders to build, operate and repair the equipment
Moringa Oleifera seeds accelerate the processes of flocculation and coagulation of particles and speed up the sedimentation process
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SEDIMENTATION
SEDIMENTATIONFITRATION THROUGH A MESH CHARCOAL & ACT. CHARCOALSLOW SAND FILTERCERAMIC FILTERSIRON OXIDE FILTER
Sedimentation is a process used to settle suspended solids in water under the influence of gravity. Its purpose is to reduce the content of suspended solids as well as the pollutant embedded in the suspended particles.
90/150
YIELD
2.3 FILTRATION
Does not remove dissolved metals or chemicals
Low capital investment for implementation
Versatility
Adaptability
Effective
Create training programs for the users and shareholders to build, operate, clean and replace the equipment
Beware: depending on mesh density, water can be filtered from large particles or micro-particles such as pathogens
When designing a system, make meshes accessible for easier maintenance
Low - High
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FILTRATION THROUGH A MESH
SEDIMENTATIONFITRATION THROUGH A MESH CHARCOAL AND ACT. CHARCOALSLOW SAND FILTERCERAMIC FILTERSIRON OXIDE FILTER
Meshes are physical barriers of inter-woven fibres that retain particles while letting fluids flow through. The more dense, the higher the retention of particles, but also the more energy needed to pass the water through.
92/150
YIELD
2.3 FILTRATION
Does not remove dissolved metals
Should not be used as a filter to remove suspended particles
Low capital investment for implementation
Easy to make
Effective removal of removing chlorine, mercury, iodine, and some inorganic compounds
Low - Medium
Activated charcoal can be “cleaned” by exposing it to sunlight
Create training programs for the users and shareholders to build, operate, clean and replace the equipment
When designing a system, make filter accessible for easier maintenance
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1
3
2
CHARCOAL & ACTIVATED CHARCOAL
SEDIMENTATIONFITRATION THROUGH A MESH CHARCOAL & ACT. CHARCOALSLOW SAND FILTERCERAMIC FILTERSIRON OXIDE FILTER
Charcoal consists of elemental carbon in its graphite configuration. These filters are employed in commercial home water treatment systems as well as in large scale municipal treatment facilities to remove chemicals such as chlorine from the water.
Activated charcoal is charcoal that has been especially treated with O2 to open up millions of tiny pores between the carbon atoms, giving it a larger surface area for a highly effective chemical filtration.
94/150
YIELD
2.3 FILTRATION
Not usable against most inorganic chemicals
No removal of viruses
Slow flow rate
Proper care can be tricky because of the delicate biofilm
Low capital investment for implementation
Can be locally and easily produced
Effective removal of organic substances and micro-organisms
Versatile
Low - Medium
Filters should be cleansed regularly
Create training programs for the users and shareholders to build, operate, clean and replace the equipment
The water from a well-managed slow sand filter can be of exceptionally good quality with 90-99% bacterial reduction.
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Slow sand filters work thanks to a biofilm that formed in the top few millimetres of the fine-sand layer within the first 10–20 days of operation. This layer provides the effective purification in potable water treatment. Slow sand filters are typically 1-2m/3-6feet deep, depending on the desired flow rate.
SLOW SAND FILTER
SEDIMENTATIONFITRATION THROUGH A MESH CHARCOAL & ACT. CHARCOALSLOW SAND FILTERCERAMIC FILTERSIRON OXIDE FILTER
COVER
MESH
OUTLET
PIPE
SAND
GRAVELCHARCOAL
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2.3 FILTRATION
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CERAMIC FILTERS
SEDIMENTATIONFITRATION THROUGH A MESH CHARCOAL & ACT. CHARCOALSLOW SAND FILTERCERAMIC FILTERS
SILVER IMPREGNATED POTSCERAMIC CANDLES
IRON OXIDE FILTER
The properties of ceramic are used to filter water, by letting it seep through the tens of millions of pores in the ceramic material, which is usually in a cartridge form, blocking the way for solids which accumulate in it´s large surface area.
Household-scale ceramic filter technology is considered among the most promising options for treating drinking water at the household level in developing countries. Although several different kinds of ceramic filters are used for household water treatment worldwide, among the most widespread are those promoted by Potters for Peace, a US and Nicaragua-based NGO.
98/150
YIELD
2.3 FILTRATION
Low - Medium
Filters should be cleansed regularly
Create training programs for the users and shareholders to build, operate, clean and replace the equipment
The water from a well-managed filter can be of exceptionally good quality with up to 99% bacterial reduction
Low capital investment for implementation
Can be locally and easily produced
Effective removal of organic substances and micro-organisms
Does not remove dissolved metals or chemicals
No removal of viruses
Slow flow rate
Improper care can greatly reduce the effectiveness of the filter
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SILVER IMPREGNATED CLAY POTS
SEDIMENTATIONFITRATION THROUGH A MESH CHARCOAL & ACT. CHARCOALSLOW SAND FILTERCERAMIC FILTERS
SILVER IMPREGNATED POTSCERAMIC CANDLES
IRON OXIDE FILTER
Silver impregnated ceramic filters dramatically increase the effect of the ceramic filter since silver is an effective bactericidal. Most common impregnation is made with Silver Nitrate (AgNO3) or colloidal silver, 3-4 days after the pots have been hard-baked.
100/150
YIELD
2.3 FILTRATION
Limited flow rate (~2 liter/hour)
Prone to stuck through highly turbid water
Low capital investment for implementation
Can be locally produced
Effective removal of organic substances and micro-organisms and anorganic substances
Simple
Low - Medium
Ceramic candles should be cleansed regularly
Do not pour water too rashly or above the candle
The water from a well-managed filter can be of exceptionally good quality with up to 99% bacterial reduction
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CERAMIC CANDLES
SEDIMENTATIONFITRATION THROUGH A MESH CHARCOAL & ACT. CHARCOALSLOW SAND FILTERCERAMIC FILTERS
SILVER IMPREGNATED CLAY POTSCERAMIC CANDLES
IRON OXIDE FILTER
Ceramic candles are clay cylinders that take advantage of the ceramic’s micro-scale pores. They are used to remove turbidity, suspended materials and pathogens.
Dirty water from the upper container flows through a ceramic candle into the lower container.
102/150
YIELD
2.3 FILTRATION
Not usable against chlorine
No removal of viruses
Not effective against pathogens
Low capital investment for implementation
Can be locally and easily produced
Effective removal of arsenic
Low - Medium
Create training programs for the users and shareholders to build, operate, clean and replace the equipment
In case there is uncertainty about the water’s content of arsenic, a layer of old rusty nails can be added to common filters to reduce the content of arsenic
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IRON OXIDE FILTER
SEDIMENTATIONFITRATION THROUGH A MESH CHARCOAL & ACT. CHARCOALSLOW SAND FILTERCERAMIC FILTERSIRON OXIDE FILTER
Iron Oxide effectively removes arsenic from water through a chemical process, essentially absorbing it out of the water. The simplest method is to include iron nails in a filter system.
Arsenic has been linked to cancer of the bladder, lungs, skin, kidney, nasal passages, liver, and prostate.
104/150
2.4 NEUTRALIZATION
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2.4 NEUTRALIZATION UV COOKING CHEMICAL DISINFECTION
After filtration, the water may look clear and therefore safe and clean to drink. However, most filtration methods do not remove pathogens – viruses, bacteria, of fungi that cause disease and so must be submitted to a pathogen neutralizing process. Attention: dissolved metals and chemicals can only be removed through previous filtration methods.
Bear in mind that most contamination happens at point-of-use through cross-contamination: open sources of collection and storage; infected hands dipped into the water; containers that are used for the daily rations of water have been used as a bath for toddlers and babies and have not been fully disinfected prior to use for drinking water etc.
However, many other factors affect the level of contamination in water, including the length of time water has been stored and therefore stagnant, the amount of algae in the air, upriver contamination through animal activity etc. The list is endless, and it is known for a fact that pathogens are the biggest and most direct killer, causing diseases, specially diarrhoea – particularly when a body is already malnourished, it becomes harder for it to fight minimal pathogen infection.
106/150
SODIS®
SOLA
R DIST
ILLAT
ION
CHLORIN
E
NaCl O
XIDAT
ION
SILVE
R IMPR
EGNAT
ED
POTS
(see
Filtra
tion)
GRAVIT
Y
SLOW
SAND FI
LTER
(see F
iltrati
on)
UVC-LA
MP
UV DISI
NFECT
ION
COOKIN
G
CHEM
ICAL D
ISINFE
CTIO
N
FILTE
RS
2.4 NEUTRALIZATION
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ELECTR
ICITY
GAS
NaCl O
XIDAT
ION
CHLORA
MINES
GRAVIT
Y
SLOW
SAND FI
LTER
(see F
iltrati
on)
UVC-LA
MP
108/150
YIELD
2.4 NEUTRALIZATION
UVA radiation varies according to latitude, altitude, air pollution and cloud cover
Very slow
Low capital investment for implementation
Can be locally and easily produced
Effective removal of pathogens
Versatile
Low (Personal)
Create training programs for the users and shareholders to build, operate, clean and replace the PET-Bottles
PET can not be replaced by glass, because a lot of glass bottles have built in UV-filters
Paint the base of the PET-Bottles in black to retain more radiation
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SODIS® (SOLAR DISINFECTION) UVA
UVSODIS® UVAUVC-LAMP
COOKING CHEMICAL DISINFECTION
Clear PET bottles are filled with water and set out under skylight for some hours. The UVA rays of sunlight kill germs such as viruses, bacteria and parasites. The method also works when air and water temperatures are low.
110/150
YIELD
2.4 NEUTRALIZATION
Not usable against chlorine or arsenic
High capital investment for implementation
Requires regular power supply
Encourage local entrepreneurship
Highly effective on a broad range of pathogens
Low running cost
Community supply
Medium - High
Create training programs for the users and shareholders to build, operate, clean and replace the technical equipment
Promote creative self-sustaining, long term models that ensure all users have access to clean drinking water
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UVC-LAMP
UVSODIS® UVAUVC-LAMP
COOKING CHEMICAL DISINFECTION
The biological effect of UVC radiation is to destroy the capacity of living organisms to reproduce. Through it germs are neutralized and inhibited to produce any negative consequences on humans.
112/150
2.4 NEUTRALIZATION
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COOKING
UVCOOKING
SOLAR DISTILLATIONWOOD, ELECTRICITY & GAS
CHEMICAL DISINFECTION
Boiling or heating water has been used to pasteurize household water since ancient times. Pathogens are killed at temperatures that exceed 65°C, however the WHO recommends bringing the water to a rolling boil as an indication that a sufficient temperature has been reached to kill bacteria and co.
It is further recommended that boiled water be consumed soon after it has cooled down and preferably within the same day.
A major disadvantage of boiling is its energy consumption in relation to the availability, cost and sustainability of fuel. Areas of the world where wood, other biomass fuels or fossil fuels are in limited supply and must be purchased make the costs of boiling water prohibitive. However, where affordable and sustainable sources of fuel are available without causing environmental degradation, boiling household water is an effective and accessible method of neutralization.
114/150
YIELD
2.4 NEUTRALIZATION
Time consuming
Rather a short term solution
Dependant on hot atmospheric temperatures
Low capital investment for implementation
Can be locally produced
Effective removal of pathogens
Can be used to make drinking water from salt water
Avoid access of insects or bigger particles into the tank
Create training programs for the users and shareholders to build, operate and repair the technical equipment
This solution is rather recommended for disaster relief and emergency cases
Low
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SOLAR DISTILLATION
UVCOOKING
SOLAR DISTILLATIONWOOD, ELECTRICITY & GAS
CHEMICAL DISINFECTION
A solar still is a simple way of distilling water, using the heat of the Sun to drive evaporation from humid soil, and ambient air to cool a condenser film. The pure water vapor condenses on the cool inside plastic surface and drips down from the weighted low point, where it is collected and removed.
116/150
YIELD
2.4 NEUTRALIZATION
Rather a short term solution
Burning wood for water disinfection increases the pressure on the forests
High CO2 emissions
Low capital investment for implementation
Removal of pathogens
Create training programs to raise awareness regarding the use of wood and effects of deforestation
Promote creative self sustaining, long term models that ensure all users have access to clean drinking water
Low
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WOOD
UVCOOKING
SOLAR DISTILLATIONWOOD, ELECTRICITY & GAS
CHEMICAL DISINFECTION
Boiling low turbid water is one of the most effective methods for neutralization, but the great amount of energy is a major concern for sustainable, long term development. It is estimated that 1kg of wood is needed to boil 1 liter/0,25gallon of water.
118/150
YIELD
2.4 NEUTRALIZATION
Not usable against chemical pollution
High capital investment for implementation
Requires regular power supply
Removal of pathogens
Effective
Create training programs to raise awareness regarding the use of energy in relation to the environment
Promote creative self sustaining, long term models that ensure all users have access to clean drinking water
Low
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ELECTRICITY
UVCOOKING
SOLAR DISTILLATIONWOOD, ELECTRICITY & GAS
CHEMICAL DISINFECTION
The great amount of energy needed and the infrastructure to supply it are major issues. Electric devices are also not very suitable because of the high amount of energy they consume and their availability in remote areas.
120/150
YIELD
2.4 NEUTRALIZATION
Production of gas not applicable to all climates
High capital investment for implementation
Can be locally produced
Low running cost
Effective removal of pathogens
Community supply of gas
Create training programs to raise awareness regarding the use of energy in relation to the environment
Promote creative self sustaining, long term models that ensure all users have access to clean drinking water
Low
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GAS
UVCOOKING
SOLAR DISTILLATIONWOOD, ELECTRICITY & GAS
CHEMICAL DISINFECTION
The great advantage of using gas is it can be locally produced. Manure and human feces can be managed through especially designed containers and toilets to produce methane.
122/150
2.4 NEUTRALIZATION
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CHEMICAL DISINFECTION
UVCOOKINGCHEMICAL DISINFECTION
CHLORINENaCl OXIDANTCHLORAMINES
Chemical disinfection is considered by WHO the essential and most direct treatment to inactivate or destroy pathogenic and other microbes in drinking water.
Today, chemical disinfection of drinking water is widely recognized as safe and effective and is promoted and practiced at communitarian as well as at individual point-of-use levels. The most widely used chemical treatments of drinking water are all relatively strong oxidants of chlorine.
Alternative chemical disinfectants sometimes used for drinking water are acids and bases; these agents inactivate microbes by creating either low or high pH levels in the water, respectively. The combined use of multiple treatment processes or “barriers” is a widely embraced principle in drinking water science and technology that is widely applied in community drinking water supplies, especially for surface waters.
There is a risk of over-saturating water with chemicals, which can cause long-term health problems. Chemical disinfection strategies require clear communication tools between experts and users that teach people about the right use and dosage of these substances.
124/150
YIELD
2.4 NEUTRALIZATION
It generates particular taste and odour
Restricted availability in rural and remote areas
It can cause health issues in the long run
Moderate continual investment for implementation
Effective removal of pathogens
Low - High
Promote creative self sustaining, long term models that ensure all users have access to clean drinking water
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CHLORINE
UVCOOKINGCHEMICAL DISINFECTION
CHLORINENaCl OXIDANTCHLORAMINES
Free chlorine is the most easy and affordable chemical disinfection method. It is also highly effective against nearly all waterborne pathogens. At doses of a few and contact times of about 30 minutes, chlorine inactivates more than 99% of enteric bacteria and viruses.
126/150
YIELD
2.4 NEUTRALIZATION
Moderate capital investment for implementation
Requires regular power supply
Low running cost
Can be locally produced
Effective removal of pathogens
Low - Medium
Create training programs for the users and shareholders to build, operate, clean and replace the technical equipment
It can be generated on site by electrolysis of table salt
Promote creative self sustaining, long term models that ensure all users have access to clean drinking water
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EC GENERATED OXIDANT FROM NaCl
UVCOOKINGCHEMICAL DISINFECTION
CHLORINENaCl OXIDANTCHLORAMINES
The availability of chemical disinfectants is limited in many parts of the world due to lack of production facilities, transport limitations and high cost. It has been known for many decades that chlorine, perhaps mixed with other oxidants, can be generated on-site by the electrolysis of a solution of table salt.
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YIELD
2.4 NEUTRALIZATION
High capital investment for implementation
Not suitable for drinking water
Requires regular power supply
Effective removal of pathogens
Community supply
Bare in mind it is not as effective as free chlorine treatment
Create training programs for the users and shareholders to build, operate, clean and replace the equipment
High
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CHLORAMINES
UVCOOKINGCHEMICAL DISINFECTION
CHLORINENaCl OXIDANTCHLORAMINES
Chloramines are most commonly formed when ammonia is added to chlorine to treat drinking water. The most typical purpose of chloramines is to protect water quality as it moves through pipes and it is therefore NOT recommended for point-of-use applications.
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DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS VS. HUMANITARIAN HELP
Humanitarian relief/aid deals with the displacement of a large amount of people and so solutions must be delivered quickly and for a limited time. Usually pre-manufactured solutions are delivered in terms of safe and clean drinking water, and do not provide a sustainable structure. They serve purely to bridge the gap in infrastructure and the urgent need behind these solutions, relying on large-scale logistical and organizational efforts.
Development projects, on the contrary, ask us to think into the long term future in terms of sustainability - economically, ecologically and in a socio-cultural context. They must be framed bottom-up as well as top-down to ensure meaningfulness and success of the project. In this sense, every development project should begin with local NGO´s and experts working in the designated pilot region; these ensure trusted access to the target group and area and are valuable suppliers of important information in socio-cultural terms, or information as to what the government is interested in implementing (if at all), and under what context any project is implemented in the region.
It is worth investigating successful social design projects, both in humanitarian aid and development areas, and the terms under which they worked, who they partnered with, issues that caused difficulties and how these difficulties were overcome. It is also worth noting that a social design project should be developed hand-in-hand with a thorough social business plan, which by all means increases the chances of succesful sustainability. It is also worth
3. HUMANITARIAN HELP3. HUMANITARIAN HELP
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while understanding that, in the past, different projects have found support and praise by different disparate players: the end user (who in a direct or indirect sense is the owner), the government (who has the power and money to decide to further implement and disseminate the project) and international investors (who by rule of thumb support beautiful design projects that have unfortunately shown little value to the end-user). Ideally, the project should be appealing to all, as social projects must be meaningful to the end-user, approved by the government so that it is subsidized and therefore the impact disseminated, and appealing to international investors who will donate making the project accessible to the largest amount of people possible.
3. HUMANITARIAN HELP
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4. INFORMATION TOOLS AND SOURCES
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CAPTION
COLLECTION
RAIN WATER HARVESTING
STORAGE
FILTRATION
NEUTRALIZATION
CHEMICAL DISINFECTION
SANITATION
SAFE CONSUMPTION
Humanitarian Aid
Development
Outdoors
Project Tools
4. INFORMATION TOOLS AND SOURCES
The following list is a collection of significant projects that deal with water, sustainable development and/or humanitarian help.
We find it important to draw on other people´s experiences for the future design and implementation of projects of this nature. This list should help gain insight, and will grow together with the Social Design movement.
We´ve added three major catalogues for social and humanitarian design at the end of this chapter.
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AQUAPLENTY®
ROCK-DAM
SAND DAM
HIPPO WATER ROLLER
The Aquaplenty® produces water out of air, using the humidity in the air. It is a simple and robust water-production device, powered by a wind wheel. It has a water production rate of about 1000litres/264gallons per day, with about the quality of rain water.
Rock catchments utilise the surface run-off of water from flat rocky outcrops on hill tops. By building channels around the rock, rainwater is guided into a pipeline that supplies one or more water tanks. Rock catchments can collect up to 150,000 litres per tank for domestic use.
A cost-effective and innovative solution to compensate water shortages in semi-arid areas. Despite having been built successfully in Africa, Asia and South America for at least the last fifty years, they are still an under-utilised solution for providing clean water and improving the environment.
It’s a barrel-shaped container that con store up to 90litres/24gallons of water. Its design enables people to transport almost five times of water than the traditionally used 20kg buckets by rolling the barrel, which is attached to a steel wireframe to pull or pull.
PROJEC
T
WHAT I
S IT
4. INFORMATION TOOLS AND SOURCES
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H2OnSite S.V. Hans van der Vliet
Excellent
Excellent
Emily Piloton,Project H
H2OnSite S.V.
Excellent – Pioneers of Sand Dams
Excellent – Pioneers of Sand Dams
The Hippo WaterRoller Project
h2onsite.com
excellentdevelopment.com
excellentdevelopment.com
hipporoller.org
DESIG
N
ORGANIZA
TION
MORE
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RAM PUMP
FOG WATER COLLECTION
WATER BOBBLE®
A pump that pushes water with the pressure from down streams up through pipes. The Aid Foundation Inc. has been working on its design to meet sustainability goals of humanitarian projects (like local production and repairability). In field the highest delivery of the pump has been 200m/656feet.
The technology employed today essentially mimics the function of trees and other natural features, using large polypropylene mesh nets erected on ridgelines to intersect moving fog that is being carried by the wind. During the dry season the water collectors are able to produce water for a small community.
A reusable water bottle which filters water as is been drunk, using a replaceable carbon filter. Intended for the consumption of municipal tap water, the carbon filter removes chlorine and organic contaminants making tap water taste better.
PROJEC
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WHAT I
S IT
LIFESAVER® A reusable water bottle that removes all bacteria, viruses, cysts, parasites, fungi and all other microbiological waterborne pathogens without the aid of any foul tasting chemicals like iodine which is now banned within the European Union.
4. INFORMATION TOOLS AND SOURCES
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Karim Rashid
Aid Foundation Inc.
NEWAH (Nepal Water for Health) Water Aid UK
Bobble,MOVE Collective
aidfi.org
newah.org.npwateraid.org
waterbobble.com
DESIG
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Michael Pritchyard LIFESAVER® Systems lifesaversystems.com
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SUPER DELIOS
LIFESAVER®JERRYCAN
LIFESTRAW®
It is a portable water filter that can produce safe and clean water by squeezing the container connected to the filter, consisting of a micro-mesh and activated carbon. The produced water can be used for drinking, cleaning wounds and so on.
A reusable can that uses the same principles of the LIFESAVER Bottle, removing all bacteria, viruses, cysts, parasites, fungi and all other microbiological waterborne pathogens without the aid of any foul tasting chemicals like iodine which is now banned within the European Union.
A personal combination of water filters for the direct consumption of contaminated water. To use it, a person sticks the LIFESTRAW® directly into the water and drinks as using a normal straw. After finished, the user blows air to clear the filter. LIFESTRAW® can filter up to 1000litres/264gallons of water
PROJEC
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LIFESTRAW®FAMILY
A stationary combination of water filters through which water flows through the action of gravity. Down the running tube a chlorine-saturated purification filter riddled with micro-pores acts as a sieve for bacteria. It can provide water at household level and filter up to 18.000litres/4755gallons of water
4. INFORMATION TOOLS AND SOURCES
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Urban Tech
LIFESAVER® Systems
Vestergaard Frandsen S.A.
Vestergaard Frandsen S.A.
LIFESAVER® Systems
Urban Tech
lifesaversystems.com
delios.net
vestergaard-frandsen.com
DESIG
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ORGANIZA
TION
MORE
Vestergaard Frandsen S.A.
Vestergaard Frandsen S.A.
vestergaard-frandsen.com
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3 POT SEDIMENTATION
POTTERS FOR PEACE
SONO WATER FILTER
This method treats water by moving it between three different clean pots, or containers, over time to allow water to settle so that germs and solid matter fall to the bottom of the container. This is safer than settling water in one pot, but it does not make the water completely free of germs.
Active since 1998 this initiative has been assisting local partners in certain countries of the Global South to set up filter production and distribution facilities. The advantages of the silver impregnated clay pots are used to encourage entrepreneurship, capitalizing humanitarian help into a social business.
An arsenic filter using three pitchers containing cast iron turnings with sand in the first pitcher and activated carbon with sand in the second. Test results indicate SONO can remove arsenic, manganese (a neurotoxin), iron, and all transition metal ions. Filters can last at least fourteen years at the present usage rate of 100l/26gal per day.
PROJEC
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S IT
JOMPYIt is an innovative, environment-friendly, fuel-efficient water boiler. It can be used over any open flame and de-contaminates the water as it passes through.
4. INFORMATION TOOLS AND SOURCES
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Dr. Fernando Mazariegos
Abul Hussam
Abul K. M. Munir
Manob Sakti Unnayan Kendro
Potters for Peace
Burkinabe Red Cross Society
GhanaRed Cross Society
pottersforpeace.com
ghanaredcross.org
msuk-bd.org
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David OsborneJompy – Instant Hot Water Outdoors
jompy.co.uk
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X-RUNNER
WADI
A portable toilet for private households in poor urban areas, where the population is living in small crowded spaces without sewage systems. Every 3-5 days the tank’s content is shipped to a local biogas-plant for processing. Gas and electrical energy and then produced for the community.
It is an inexpensive high-tech tool that traces the progress of solar water disinfection (SODIS). Designed to fit in most common PET-Bottle tops, solar it serves as a tool to inform users if the process has been finished and if the water can be consumed.
PROJEC
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WHAT I
S IT
4. INFORMATION TOOLS AND SOURCES
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Martin Wesian
Noa Lerner
Helioz R&D GmbH
X-Runner Venture
helioz.org
xrunner-venture.com
DESIG
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ORGANIZA
TION
MORE
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SUSTAINABLE SANITATION & WATER MANAGEMENT BOX
This toolbox recognizes that sectoral approaches are not going to solve the global water and sanitation challenges. It highlights that holistic approaches are needed and the consideration of the entire water cycle from source to see, and back, is imperative for the successful implementation of strategies, understanding that human influence on the water and nutrient cycle are at the center.
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eTOOLKIT ON RAINWATER HARVESTING
DESIGN FOR SOCIAL IMPACT GUIDE
This electronic toolbox has been designed to assist planners, developers and stakeholders for the implementation and construction of rain water harvesting systems. The content is kept at a level that development workers as well as engineers can understand the concept. The modules are designed for a study time of around 20-30 hours in total.
The downloadable pdf summarizes the bulk of IDEO’s learnings and presents them as an invitation to the design industry to participate in the initiative. In addition to the design principles and modes of engagement developed by IDEO, the book includes case studies and prompts to inspire continued learning and involvement.
4. INFORMATION TOOLS AND SOURCES
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Conradin, K., Kropac, M.,Spuhler, D. (Eds)
Seecon International GmbH
sswm.info
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MORE
Elizabeth Khaka, UNEP Nairobi; Maimbo Malesu, RELMA Nairobi; Dirk Hangstein, Margraf Publishers Weikersheim; Hans Hartung, FAKT Weikersheim
IDEO
UNEP, Nairobi
IDEOThe Rockefeller Foundation
rainwater-toolkit.net
ideo.com
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alternativas de Captación de Agua, Nicaragua; Cajina, Ing. Mauricio; CATIE, 2006.
Analysis and Comparison of Sustainable Water Filters; Mc. Allister, Skye; WHO/Unicef, 2005.
A Critical Look at the Development of Fog Water Collection in Nepal; Apigian, Jeffrey; Nepal Community Development Foundation & Nepal Water for Health, 2005.
Biosand Household Water Filter Project in Nepal; Lee, Tse-Luen; Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2001.
Cultures Connect Report; Tautscher, Gabriele; June 2011
Household Water Storage, Handling and Point-of-Use Treatment; Nath,Prof. KJ; Bloomfield, Prof. Sally; Jones, Dr Martin; International Forum on Home Hygiene, 2006.
Human-Centered Design Toolkit; IDEO, 2009
Multiple-Use Water Service Implementation in Nepal and India; Mikhail, Monique; Yoder, Robert; IDE, CPWF & IWMI, 2008
Re-Thinking Water and Food Securit; Martinez-Cortina, Luis (ED); Garrido, Alberto (ED); López-Guna, Elena (ED); CRC Press, 2010
Use of Ceramic Water FIlters in Cambodia; Water and Sanitation Program, UNICEF, 2007
WASHtech Review 2012WASHtech Africa review
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Water Aid, Technology Notes; www.wateraid.org, 2012
Water Technology and Society: Learning the Lessons of River Management in Nepal; Gyawali, Dr. Dipak; ZED Books, 2003
Compedium of New and Emerging Health Technologies; www.who.int, 2011
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This manual has been realised thanks to the support of many people and institutions. Among them AWS (Austrian Commerce Service) has been indisputably an indispensable financial support thanks to their funding programme Impuls XS.
We have been very lucky to count with the support of Architecture for Humanity, through which we first embarked on a hands-on water project and so found the need for a manual such as this. Our partner organisations Edge of Seven (US) and The Small World (Nepal), who have introduced us to wonderful people and take us to beautiful places that despite their display of generosity and abundace would benefit most from interventions that include a combination of the techniques we have presented here.
We are deeply grateful (in no particular order) to,Cameron Sinclair, Matthias Reisinger and the HUB-Vienna, Karma Sherpa, Emily Stanley, Petra Busswald, Tulga Beyerle, Doris Fröhlich, Franziska Zibuschka, Andreas Gmeiner, Sangitha Sundaresan, Bandana Pradhan, Basudha Gurung, Indira Shankar, Kalayan Gurung, Harald Gründl, Willibald Loiskandl, Lena Goldsteiner and her graphic skills, Stephan Lutter, Vitus Angermeier, the girls of Salleri Girls Hostel, Suman Shakya, Tatjana Pernkopf, Krishna Mani, Barry Katz.
The pressure we are putting on our planet and its treasures require the best humans have to offer. We feel as well, that we can contribute. And this manual is our first step.
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IMPRINT
taliaYsebastian
taliaYsebastian is small Industrial Design Studio based in Vienna, Austria and founded in 2011 by Talia Radford and Juan Sebastián Gómez. Responsible sustainable design with consideration for nature and human needs is taliaYsebastian’s central concern. Their mission is social change - a conscious transformation of behaviour and consumption for a better co-existence with oneself, one another and our envionment - through design. In short, quality of life. By involving expert opinions from disparate disciplines in hard and soft sciences and the economy as well as from experienced Social Designers, their developments are precisely targeted to meet user needs.
Following international internships with Michael Young in Hong Kong and Spime Technologies in India, taliaYsebastian have specialized on “Human Design” in conjunction with new technologies. They have already received several awards, among them the 2011 Victor J. Papanek Social Design Award; the 2012 red dot Design Award and the iF Design Award 2013 for product design.
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101 Drinking Water ManualAdressing Local Community Development Projects for Energy Autarchy Regions Worldwide
Edited and Produced by: taliaYsebastian, 2012
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution - NonCommercial - NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License.
Graphic Design: Talia Radford, Juan Sebastián Gómez, Lena Goldsteinerwww.taliaYsebastian.com
This project has been kindly supported by: