Draft Report on Regulations and Stardards for Drinking - Water Quality

Report on regulations and standards for drinking-water quality

Compiled by David Drury

United Kingdom

Draft 12 November 2013

The nature of the information on which this report is based is subject to change because countries and territories modify and update their regulations and standards for drinking water quality. Comments on format and content, details of changes and errors and information on

countries and territories not yet included are very welcome. Please send them to the attention of Ms Batsirai Majuru on the following email: [email protected]

Contents

Overview ...................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Inorganic parameters ..................................................................................................... 5

Organic parameters ....................................................................................................... 5

Aesthetic parameters ..................................................................................................... 6

Radiological parameters ................................................................................................ 7

Microbiological parameters ........................................................................................... 8

Additional parameters ................................................................................................... 9

Conclusions .................................................................................................................. 9

Appendix 1 Inorganic parameters .......................................................................... 11

Appendix 2 Organic parameters ............................................................................ 24

Appendix 3 Aesthetic parameters .......................................................................... 60

Appendix 4 Radiological parameters ..................................................................... 67

Appendix 5 Microbiological parameters ................................................................ 69

Appendix 6 Other parameters ................................................................................ 73

Appendix 7 Source documentation ........................................................................ 78

1

Overview

The World Health Organisation (WHO) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality are an international reference point for the establishment of national regulations and standards for water safety. The Guidelines support the development and implementation of risk management strategies and include guidance levels (GL)1 and guideline values (GV) for constituents in drinking-water or indicators of water quality. Recognizing the benefits of a risk management approach, the Guidelines are not promoted as mandatory international standards, but as guidance that can be adapted to the specific circumstances, needs and resources of countries.

The Regulatory Scan is the first WHO report documenting the influence of the Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality on national water quality standards for chemical, aesthetic, radiological, and microbiological parameters. Various country regulations

and policy frameworks were reviewed to determine the extent to which the Guidelines are used and reflected in national standards. The report is intended for regulators and other key stakeholders in drinking-water quality, enabling them to access and compare data on national drinking water quality standards.

The report has been prepared using information received from 100 countries and territories, including the 28 Member States of the European Union; documenting the

values specified for drinking-water parameters. It does not include information on whether a risk-based approach was used for standard setting; how many samples are taken for each parameter; or whether drinking-water quality in each country and territory meets the values specified.

Data sources and methods

The report draws on legislation, standards, codes or guidelines relating to the quality of drinking water from the countries and territories. In addition to the WHO regional and

country contacts, the standards and guidelines used as source material for the database were obtained through internet literature searches or were purchased from the relevant

standards organisations. The drinking-water quality standards specified by countries and territories for inorganic chemical, organic chemical, aesthetic, radiological and

1 the term guidance levels is used for radiological parameters, while guideline values is being used

for all other parameters. In this document, GV has been used for generic purposes.

2

microbiological parameters were compared to the GL (for radiological parameters) and GV (for all other parameters) of the fourth edition of the Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality2.

The countries and territories included in the survey are Albania, Argentina, Australia, Bangladesh, Bolivia, Botswana, Brazil, Cambodia, Canada, Chile, China, Taiwan Province of China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt,

El Salvador, Ethiopia, the European Union (28 Member States), Fiji, Ghana, Guatemala, Honduras, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Israel, Japan, Jordan, Kenya, Lao Peoples

Democratic Republic, Lebanon, Malaysia, Mexico, Morocco, Mozambique, Nepal, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, the Occupied Palestinian

territory, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, the Philippines, Republic of Korea Russian

Federation, Rwanda, Samoa, Sierra Leone, Singapore, South Africa, Sri Lanka, the

Sudan, Suriname, Syrian Arab Republic, , Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, Uganda, Ukraine,

United Republic of Tanzania, United States of America, Uruguay, Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of), Viet Nam, Zambia. The Member States of the European Union are: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

These countries and territories have a total population of about 6.1 billion people, representing approximately 86 % of the world population3. Some information on standards is also available for Bahrain, Belarus, Namibia, Saudi Arabia, Tajikistan and the United Arab Emirates, but these have not been verified as in current use and have not been included. In addition, it is understood that the following countries and territories use the standards specified in the WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water

Quality without currently publishing separate documentation listing regulatory parameters and values: Kiribati, Kuwait, Mali, Nauru, Senegal, Solomon Islands, Tonga

and Tuvalu.

2 Guidelines for Drinking-water quality. Fourth edition. Geneva: World Health Organisation; 2011.

Regulations currently under review

3 Based on mid-year population estimates for 2013: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social

Affairs, Population Division (2013). World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision. Wallchart

3

Documentation and the report

Countries and territories specify their parameter values for drinking-water quality in a variety of formats; regulations, standards, specifications, laws, decrees, requirements and norms. For the purposes of this report these are all referred to as value documentation.

According to the documentation received, the oldest specifications of values for

drinking-water in current use date back to 1978 (Thailand) and 1983 (Sri Lanka). Fifteen countries and territories values, (42 including the members of the European Union (EU) through the European Drinking Water Directive) date to the 1990s. However, many EU Member States have implemented the Directive through more recent documentation but these have not been included in the survey because they differ little in requirements from the original Directive. The other 57 countries and territories have produced documentation in the year 2000 and after, including eleven in 2010 and 2011. As countries and territories often review their legislation and values, these

findings are constantly subject to change. Thirty-six countries and territories directly reference the WHO Guidelines in their regulations / standards / guideline documentation, although this number is likely to be higher because the full documentation was not available in all cases. Botswana and Pakistan list the WHO GV alongside their values.

Although the WHO Guidelines encourages countries and territories to set their own water-quality standards by deriving health-based targets, none of the documentation

received includes a full explanation on how countries and territories derived their values where they differ from the WHO GV. Only Malaysia specifically references the

derivation of values for each parameter, others more generally reference WHO and other countries and territories values such as those of the European Union, the United States of America, Nigeria and South Africa. Some countries and territories value documentation also reference the analytical method required. In some cases the names of the members of expert committees who drew up the values are listed.

Some countries and territories include in their value documents details of the likely

origin of parameters and their associated risk. This may help the understanding of those who have to control and analyse drinking-water quality. Examples are Australia, the

Dominican Republic, Fiji, India, New Zealand, Nigeria, Pakistan, the Philippines, South

4

Africa, Uruguay and the USA. Other countries and territories may provide similar information in separate documentation or consider the information included in the

WHO Guidelines sufficient.

In addition to setting values for specific parameters, many countries and territories documentation includes a general statement along the lines of: water intended for human consumption should: not contain concentrations of compounds which could,

either alone or in combination with other compounds, be harmful to human health; and not contain any micro-organisms and parasites in such a number that could be harmful

to human health. This suggests an additional link to monitoring based on risk assessment but from the documentation provided such a link was not explicitly stated in most cases.

There is little consensus amongst countries and territories as to whether values should be specified in milligrams per litre (mg/l) or micrograms per litre (g/l) and some mix these in their list of values. The fourth edition of the WHO Guidelines lists values in

both denominations which should help to clarify matters and reduce a cause of some misunderstanding. For the purposes of this report, all values have been converted to

milligrams per litre (mg/l).

The values used in this report are the highest listed by countries and territories in their value documentation for normal (non-emergency or severe weather-affected) water supplies. Not all the values countries and territories have listed are mandatory, some

are advisory, for guidance or occasionally described as operational. This applies particularly to the aesthetic and other parameters. It should be remembered that the

WHO Guidelines suggest values with a wide margin of safety and that countries and territories are expected to adapt their drinking-water quality standards to local conditions and circumstances. In this document, a small number of countries and territories are identified which have specified their own values for the parameter in

question. This is for illustrative purposes only and it should not be interpreted as representing endorsement or criticism of any particular specified value or course of

action.

For clarity and convenience this report has adopted the terms higher or above for values greater than those specified in the WHO Guidelines and lower or below for values less than those specified in the WHO Guidelines. These terms are for used

5

illustrative purposes and should not be interpreted as having any other intended meaning. A list of source documentation used in this survey is given in Appendix 7.

Inorganic parameters

The 4th edition of the WHO Guidelines for drinking-water quality includes health based values for 90 parameters. Only China, Indonesia, New Zealand, Oman Peru, Singapore and Uganda specified values for all the parameters with health-based WHO values GV.

All these countries and territories had set their values since 2005. All countries and territories had specified values for copper, lead, manganese and nitrate. The least

specified parameters were chlorate, chlorite, molybdenum and uranium. All the median values equalled or were below the GV except for cadmium (GV 0.003 mg/l, median 0.005 mg/l). Cyanide and manganese have still been included in the survey because of the number of countries and territories specifying values for these parameters although

they no longer have health-based values in the WHO Guidelines. Further details on inorganic parameters are given in Appendix 1.

Organic parameters

The 4th edition of the WHO Guidelines for drinking-water quality includes Guideline Values for health for 73 parameters. This survey also includes cyanogen chloride, dichloroethene,1,1-, permethrin and pyriproxyfen since GVs were included in the third edition and are still specified by a number of countries and territories. No country or

territory specified values for all the organic parameters and no country or territory specified a value for cyanuric acid and sodium dichloroisocyanurate or hydroxyatrazine.

Only Australia specified a value for N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA). Differences in the number of parameters specified by countries and territories are to be expected according to the relevance of the parameters to the countries and territories concerned.

Singapore specified values for the most organic parameters (71) followed by New Zealand and Oman (70), Peru (69), Uganda (62), El Salvador (60), Nicaragua (59), Honduras (57), Costa Rica, Dominican Republic and Indonesia (57) and the Sudan 54. According to the documentation assessed the following countries and territories did not specify values for any organic parameters: India; the Lao Peoples Democratic Republic;

Mozambique; Nepal; Pakistan; Sri Lanka; the United Republic of Tanzania; and Thailand. Iraq, Panama, Tunisia and Viet Nam specified only one parameter.

6

For the organic parameters that had specifications all but four had median values equal to or below the GV. The exceptions were: cyanazine (GV 0.0006 mg/l, median 0.0007 mg/l (but only specified by five countries and territories)); dibromoacetonitrile (GV 0.07 mg/l, median 0.0775 (but only specified by 16 countries and territories)); dichloroacetonitrile (GV 0.02 mg/l, median 0.06 mg/l (but only specified by 17 countries and territories)); and vinyl chloride (GV 0.0003 mg/l, median 0.0005 mg/l (specified by 60 countries and territories)).

It should be noted that the European Union, Iceland, Morocco, Norway, Turkey and

Ukraine do not specify values for individual pesticides other than aldrin and dieldrin, heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide. Instead, they have a blanket statement that the value for all individual pesticides is 0.1g/l (0.0001 mg/l) and for total pesticides 0.5 g/l (0.0005 mg/l) (where total pesticides is defined as the sum of all individual pesticides detected and quantified in the monitoring procedure). Bolivia, Botswana, India, Iraq, Japan, Lebanon, Mozambique, Nigeria, Pakistan, Panama, and Viet Nam have similar

blanket statements about individual pesticides and some other organic parameters. Where a country does not specify a value for an individual parameter in its value

documentation, it is not included in the tables below. However the statement is shown in the notes section of the accompanying spread-sheet. Further details on organic parameters are given in Appendix 2.

Aesthetic parameters

The WHO Guidelines identify 32 aesthetic parameters. Some other parameters have

recommended values, mainly based on consumer acceptance. All the countries and territories in the survey specified values for some of the chemical and physical

parameters but none specified values for actinomycetes and fungi, animalicules, cyanobacteria or algae and iron bacteria. Egypt, the Occupied Palestinian territory and Peru included general statements that potable water should be free of algae. Most of the values that were set were guidance or indicator levels rather than mandatory standards. As with the WHO Guidelines, many countries and territories included copper and manganese in their list of aesthetic parameters.

The aesthetic parameters most often specified with values were pH (hydrogen ion) (specified by 99 countries and territories), chloride and iron (96), sulphate (92) and

7

aluminium (91). The least specified parameters were temperature (11) and dissolved oxygen (4).

In addition, 78 countries and territories including the EU had descriptive requirements for both taste and odour parameters, for example acceptable to most consumers, not offensive, not objectionable, acceptable to consumers and no abnormal change. Fifteen countries and territories had numerical values for the odour parameter and nine

for the taste parameter. More details on aesthetic parameters are given in Appendix 3.

Radiological parameters

In general, countries and territories that specified values for radiological parameters did not deviate significantly from the WHO Guidelines and advice. The WHO guidelines suggest screening levels for gross alpha and gross beta activity as the process of identifying individual radionuclides is too cost-intensive for routine monitoring given

their generally low concentration. If the screening levels for gross alpha and gross beta activity suggested by WHO are not being exceeded, the individual dose criterion (i.e. total dose) of 0.1 milli Sieverts per year (mSv/year) as recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) will not be exceeded either. The idea of screening levels is that radioactivity should be assessed against these during routine monitoring. If the screening levels are being exceeded after having taken further samples to validate the findings, the contribution of K-40 (beta) should be subtracted from the gross activity following a separate determination of total potassium. If the screening values are still being exceeded, an analytical strategy for individual

radionuclides should be determined.

Forty five countries and territories specified screening values for gross alpha and gross

beta activity, two in terms of a ratio or annual dose. Some expressed their values in terms of Pica Curie per litre (pCi/l); these have been converted to their equivalents as Becquerel per litre (Bq/l) for this report. Thirty three countries and territories specified a value for total dose in terms of mSv/yr. Only three of these also specified values for gross alpha and beta activity.

The other radiological parameters for which countries and territories specified values

were: tritium (six countries and territories); radon (four); radium-226 (three); strontium-90 (three); caesium-137 (one); iodine-131 (one); lead-210 (one); and radionuclides (one). The WHO guidelines list guidance levels for 17 radionuclides.

8

Where countries and territories specified values for gross alpha and beta activity and total dose, most included advice on the steps that should be taken if any of these values

were exceeded. Further details on radiological parameters are given in Appendix 4.

Microbiological parameters

Countries and territories in the survey designated numerical standards for 24 microbiological parameters. However, nine of these parameters were designated by

only one country and a further nine by less than ten countries and territories.

Values for Escherichia coli (or faecal coliforms or thermotolerant coliforms) were specified by 98 countries and territories (including the EU), then came Total coliforms (94 countries and territories including the EU), enterococci (faecal streptococci) (45 countries and territories including the EU), sulphite-reducing Clostridia (Clostridium perfringens) (43 countries and territories including the EU), total heterotrophic bacteria at 22C(17 countries and territories) and total heterotrophic bacteria at 37C (13 countries and territories). The other parameters were: Enteric viruses and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (eight countries and territories); Cryptosporidium and Giardia (five countries and territories); Salmonella, Somatic coliphages and Staphlococcus aureus (four countries and territories); Pathogenic protozoa and Shigella (three countries and territories); and Amoeba, Cholera vibrio, Free living organisms, Helminths, Legionella, Nematodes, Parasites and Plankton (one country).

The normal value for microbiological parameters, other than heterotrophic bacteria, was zero or absent per volume (usually 100 ml for bacterial parameters and 10 litres for protozoa) although many countries and territories values accepted that coliform bacteria would be detected in samples on occasions.

In addition to setting values for some microbiological parameters, many countries and territories documentation included a statement the same as or similar to that in the European Drinking Water Directive that drinking-water shall be free from any micro-organisms and parasites which, in numbers or concentrations, constitute a potential danger to human health.

Further details on microbiological parameters are given in Appendix 5.

9

Additional parameters

In the documentation used for this survey countries and territories specified 1,291 numerical values for 295 inorganic, organic, aesthetic and physical parameters that do not have a WHO GV.

The additional parameters most often specified were: Conductivity (51 countries and territories including the EU); Total polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) (42 including the EU);

Oxidizability (permanganate value) (41 including the EU); Heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide (36); Phenols (33 countries and territories); Detergent (anionic surfactants) (30); Magnesium (28); Calcium (27); Silver (22); Hexachlorobenzene (21); Formaldehyde (18); Odour (15); 1,1,1-trichlorethane (14); Monochlorobenzene (13); Bentazone (11); Chloral hydrate (trichloroacetaldehyde) (11); Glyphosate (11); Phosphorus / Phosphate (11); Potassium (11); Propanil (11); and Total trichlorobenzenes (10).

Australia specified by far the largest number of other parameters with 141. Other

countries and territories were as follows: New Zealand (53 parameters); the Russian Federation (51); El Salvador (33); USA (31); Guatemala (30); Canada (27); Dominican Republic (27); China (25); Albania (24); Honduras (20); Nicaragua (20); Costa Rica (18); Uruguay (18); Ukraine (18); Malaysia (18); Ghana (16); Lebanon (16); Taiwan, Province of China (16); Japan (15); Bangladesh (13); Israel (13); Brazil (11); Cambodia (11); Colombia (11); Paraguay (11); Rwanda (11); Republic of Korea (11); Zambia (11); Ethiopia (10); the United Republic of Tanzania (10); all other countries and territories including the EU (

10

For the purpose of this report, only the standards that countries and territories are specifying for different water quality parameters were reviewed. In that context, it was

found that the WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality play an overall significant role in countries and territories setting of values that define drinking-water quality. More than half the countries and territories in the survey reference the WHO Guidelines directly (e.g. Iceland) or indirectly (e.g. Norway) by referencing other countries and territories which referenced WHO. This figure is actually likely to be higher as the full value documentation was not always available. Another limitation of this report is that

direct comparison between countries and territories is difficult because standards in different countries and territories can be mandatory, recommended and/or risk-based. It must also be kept in mind that countries and territories review their specification for drinking-water quality with a different rhythm than updates to the Guidelines are published. However, the value of the Guidelines and their role in providing orientation to countries and territories is underlined by the number of countries and territories

making reference to the Guidelines in their specifications.

11

Appendix 1 Inorganic parameters

For several chemical parameters, the WHO guidelines only suggest provisional guidelines values which may be provisional for the following reasons:

A: provisional guideline value because calculated guideline value is below the achievable quantification level;

P: provisional guideline value because of uncertainties in the health database; T: provisional guideline value because calculated guideline value is below the

level that can be achieved through practical treatment methods, source protection, etc.

D: provisional guideline value because disinfection is likely to result in the guideline value being exceeded

Antimony

WHO Guideline value 0.02 mg/l

Number of countries and territories setting a regulatory / guideline value

71 (including the EU)

Number of countries and territories setting a regulatory / guideline value greater than WHO Guideline 1

Number of countries and territories setting a regulatory / guideline value less than WHO Guideline 57 (including the EU)

Maximum value set 0.05 mg/l Minimum value set 0.003 mg/l

Median value 0.005 mg/l

The majority of countries and territories (35/45) set a value below the GV as can be seen from the median value. Twenty-five countries and territories, including the EU, set 0.005 mg/l. Nicaragua had set a value of 0.05 mg/l in its 1994 standards. Australia specified the lowest value.

12

Arsenic

WHO Guideline value 0.01 mg/l (provisional A, T)




Number of countries and territories setting a regulatory / guideline value less than WHO Guideline 1

Maximum value set

13

Boron




Number of countries and territories setting a regulatory / guideline value greater than WHO Guideline 66 (including the EU)


Maximum value set 5 mg/l Minimum value set 0.2 mg/l

Median value 1 mg/l

No country set the revised GV, most countries and territories had based their value on the previous provisional GV of 0.5 mg/l. Australia (5 mg/l) and Canada (4 mg/l) specified the highest values. The Sudan set the lowest value.

Bromate

WHO Guideline value 0.01 mg/l (provisional A,T)





Maximum value set 0.025 mg/l Minimum value set 0.005 mg/l Median value 0.01 mg/l

Most countries and territories specified a value for bromate at or close to the provisional GV. Only Norway set a value below the GV. Brazil, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Egypt, Honduras, Malaysia and Nicaragua set the highest value.

14

Cadmium




Number of countries and territories setting a regulatory / guideline value greater than WHO Guideline 65 (including the EU)




Cadmium is the inorganic parameter for which the most countries and territories have specified a higher value than the GV as demonstrated by the median value. Only three

countries and territories, Australia (0.002 mg/l), the Russian Federation and Ukraine (0.001 mg/l) specified a value below the WHO level.

Chlorate

WHO Guideline value 0.7 mg/l (provisional D) Number of countries and territories setting a regulatory / guideline value

13





Only 13 countries and territories had set a value for chlorate. Canada (1.0 mg/l) and New Zealand (0.8 mg/l) have a value above the GV, Japan (0.6 mg/l) and the Dominican Republic (0.2 mg/l) are the only countries and territories specifying a lower value.

15

Chlorine

WHO Guideline value 5.0 mg/l Number of countries and territories setting a regulatory / guideline value

54





Chlorine is the inorganic parameter with the biggest range between minimum and maximum. No country had set a value above the GV. Twenty-three countries and

territories specified a level below 1 mg/l. Eleven countries and territories specified the GV. Some countries and territories set a range, specifying minimum and maximum

levels. It was not always clear if the set value referred to free or total chlorine. Indeed, it is still not clear in the fourth edition of the WHO Guidelines as to what the GV refers4.

Chlorite

WHO Guideline value 0.7 mg/l (provisional D) Number of countries and territories setting a regulatory / guideline value

26



Maximum value set 1.0 mg/l

Minimum value set 0.15mg/l Median value 0.7 mg/l

The six countries and territories with a set value above the provisional GV were Canada,

Taiwan Province of China and the USA (1.0 mg/l), Australia, Jordan and New Zealand (0.8 mg/l). The Sudan specified the lowest value.

4 Changes to this paragraph will be made at a later stage to accommodate residual disinfection

levels

16

Chromium (total) WHO Guideline value 0.05 mg/l (provisional

P) Number of countries and territories setting a regulatory / guideline value





WHO has specified a provisional GV for total chromium. The guideline value is

designated as provisional because of uncertainties in the toxicological database. Most countries and territories set a value for total chromium and the great majority set the provisional GV. USA (0.1 mg/l), the Russian Federation and Viet Nam (0.5 mg/l) set values above the WHO guideline. The Sudan specified the lowest value.

Copper







Minimum value set 0.1 mg/l


Copper is one of only four inorganic parameters with a value set by all the countries and

territories in the survey. Only the United Republic of Tanzania specified a value above the GV. Kenya set the lowest value, 0.1 mg/l.

17

Cyanide

NB The fourth edition of the Guidelines does not specify a value for cyanide because it occurs in drinking-water at concentrations well below those of health concern (except in emergency situations after spills). However it has been included here because it was in the third edition and many countries and territories still set a value for this parameter.

WHO Guideline value No value established in fourth edition, previously 0.07 mg/l






Only Costa Rica and Sierra Leone did not set a value for this parameter. New Zealand set a value of 0.6 mg/l but only for short-term exposure. Botswana, Canada, Thailand, the United Republic of Tanzania and the USA set 0.2 mg/l. Argentina and Paraguay set 0.1 mg/l, Australia and Samoa 0.08 mg/l. Albania, Japan, Kenya, Nigeria, Norway,

Panama, Rwanda, Republic of Korea and Zambia set the lowest value.

Fluoride






Minimum value set 0.6 mg/l Median value 1.5 mg/l

All but two countries and territories (Columbia and the Sudan) specified a value for this parameter and two-thirds set the GV. Many specified a lower value for higher water

18

temperatures. The United Republic of Tanzania and the USA set the highest value (4 mg/l), Jordan set 2 mg/l, Argentina, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Israel and Tunisia set 1.7 mg/l. In some cases where a low value was set a higher value was allowed under certain circumstances.

Lead








Lead is one of only four inorganic parameters with a value specified by all countries and territories in this survey. The majority set the GV, some countries and territories allowed time for the 0.01 mg/l standard to apply. Of the countries and territories that set a value above the WHO Guideline, most specified 0.05 mg/l. Botswana and the United Republic of Tanzania set 0.1 mg/l, Uruguay set 0.03 mg/l and the USA 0.015 mg/l. Only El Salvador set a value below the GV.

Manganese

NB The fourth edition of the Guidelines does not specify a value for manganese as it is not of health concern at levels found in drinking-water. However it has been included here because it was in the third edition and a number of countries and territories still specify a value for this parameter.

19

WHO Guideline value No value established in the fourth edition, previously 0.4 mg/l







Manganese is one of only four inorganic parameters with a value set by all countries and territories in the survey. Two-thirds of countries and territories had set a value below the previous GV. Albania, Canada, El Salvador, the European Union, Iceland,

Japan, Norway, Turkey, Ukraine and the USA set the lowest level. Twenty-one countries and territories set their value at 0.5 mg/l. Some countries and territories listed the parameter as aesthetic, some as inorganic, some as both.

Mercury







Only Botswana, Sierra Leone, Suriname and Tunisia did not set a value for this parameter. Most countries and territories, including the European Union, set 0.001 mg/l.

Only Ecuador, Singapore and South Africa specified the GV. Japan, Norway, the Russian Federation and Ukraine set the lowest value.

20

Molybdenum



22




Only 22 countries and territories set a value for this parameter. The highest value was set by the Russian Federation (0.25 mg/l), Australia and the Sudan set 0.05 mg/l and the others set the GV.

Nickel









Most countries and territories, including the European Union, specified a value below the GV, most set 0.02 mg/l. Ecuador, Indonesia, Jordan, South Africa and Singapore set the Guideline value. Bangladesh and Taiwan Province of China set 0.1 mg/l, New Zealand set 0.08 mg/l. Japan set the lowest value.

21

Nitrate

WHO Guideline value 50 mg/l (as NO3-) Number of countries and territories setting a regulatory / guideline value




Maximum value set 100 mg/l (as NO3-) Minimum value set 45 mg/l (as NO3-) Median value 50 mg/l (as NO3-) Nitrate is one of only four inorganic parameters with a value set by all countries and territories in the survey. Many quoted their value as 10 mg/l (as N) which has been converted to 45 mg/l (as NO3-) for the purposes of this report but counted as being at the GV. India quoted a figure of 100 mg/l but stated that 45 mg/l was desirable,; Israel quoted a value of 70 mg/l (as NO3-) but recommended 50 mg/l (as NO3-). Several countries and territories including the European Union included a formula that reduces the nitrate value as the nitrite level increases.

Nitrite

WHO Guideline value 3 mg/l (as NO2-) Number of countries and territories setting a regulatory / guideline value




Maximum value set 3.3 mg/l (as NO2-) Minimum value set 0 mg/l (as NO2-) Median value 0.5 mg/l (as NO2-) Many countries and territories values for nitrite have been based on older WHO guidance. The Russian Federation (3.3 mg/l) and Canada (3.2 mg/l) were the only countries and territories with values above the revised GV. India, Israel, Kenya, Malaysia, Nepal, the Occupied Palestinian territory, Thailand and Tunisia set a value for nitrate but not for nitrite it did not appear that nitrite was included in their nitrate value. No country set a value for nitrite but not nitrate. Lebanon specified zero categorizing the

22

parameter as undesirable. Otherwise Rwanda specified the lowest level of 0.003 mg/l with Colombia and Sri Lanka specifying 0.01 mg/l. 36 countries and territories specified the revised GV (or its equivalent as mg N/l). Several countries and territories including the European Union included a formula that reduces the nitrate value as the nitrite level increases.

Selenium

WHO Guideline value 0.04 mg/l (provisional) Number of countries and territories setting a regulatory / guideline value






No country specified the new provisional GV, almost all specified the previous figure of 0.01 mg/l. Jordan, the United Republic of Tanzania and the USA specified 0.05 mg/l. The Sudan set the lowest value (0.007 mg/l). Botswana, Mexico, Nepal, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Suriname and Viet Nam did not set a value for this parameter.

Uranium

WHO Guideline value 0.03 mg/l (provisional P)


13






WHO has specified a provisional GV for uranium The guideline value is designated as provisional because of uncertainties in the toxicological database Only 13 countries and territories had so far specified a standard for uranium and these were mainly based on

23

the previous GV, no country specifying the latest. Japan and Malaysia set the lowest level; Indonesia, Oman, Peru, Singapore, South Africa and Uganda set 0.015 mg/l; Canada, Australia and New Zealand specified 0.02 mg/l; the USA specified 0.03 mg/l and the Russian Federation 0.1 mg/l.

24

Appendix 2 Organic parameters

Acrylamide






No country set a value greater than the GV. 32 countries and territories (including the EU) set 0.0001 mg/l.

Alachlor



23





The Sudan set the highest value, El Salvador, Guatemala and the USA set the lowest.

All the other 19 countries and territories set the GV.

25

Aldicarb



21






Only five out of 21 countries and territories set values that differed from the GV - Australia (0.004 mg/l), Canada (0.009 mg/l), El Salvador and Guatemala (0.003 mg/l) and The Sudan (0.0075 mg/l).

Aldrin and Dieldrin







Minimum value set 0.00001 mg/l (0) Median value 0.00003 mg/l

Columbia set the highest value in its 1994 standards. Cambodia (0.0003 mg/l), Canada (0.0007 mg/l), and New Zealand (0.00004 mg/l) also set values above the GV. The Sudans (0.00002 mg/l) and Zambias (0.00001 mg/l) values were the two lowest. Bangladesh specified zero for this parameter.

26

Atrazine and its chloro-s-triazine metabolites



27




There was wide deviation from the GV in the values set for this parameter. Only the Russian Federation (0.5 mg/l) set a value above the Guideline, all the other countries and territories were well below, setting 0.002 mg/l except Australia (0.02 mg/l), Canada (0.005 mg/l), the Sudan (0.0015 mg/l) and the USA and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (0.003 mg/l).

Benzene








The highest value was specified by Nicaragua in its 1994 Regulations. Albania, Australia, the European Union, Norway, Turkey, Uganda and Ukraine specified 0.001

mg/l.

27

Benzo[a]pyrene WHO Guideline value 0.0007 mg/l







Where countries and territories also had a value for polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) (see other parameters), this parameter was usually quoted separately. The majority of countries and territories had set a value below the GV. No country had a value higher than the Guideline. Ukraine specified the lowest value.

Bromodichloromethane


25




All but four of the countries and territories specifying a value for this parameter used the GV. Albania specified the lowest value, Japan, the Russian Federation and Republic of Korea specified 0.03 mg/l, the Sudan 0.04 mg/l. Some countries and

territories which did not specify a value for this parameter included it in their value for total trihalomethanes.

28

Bromoform



22




Minimum value set 0.075mg/l Median value 0.1 mg/l

All but three of the countries and territories specifying a value for this parameter used the GV. The Sudan specified the lowest value and Japan 0.09 mg/l. Some countries and territories which did not specify a value for this parameter included it in their value for total trihalomethanes.

Carbofuran



24




Canada specified the highest value for this parameter, the USA specified 0.04 mg/l, Taiwan Province of China 0.02 mg/l, Australia and Cambodia 0.01 mg/l and New Zealand 0.008 mg/l. The Occupied Palestinian territory specified the lowest value, the

other countries and territories using a value below the GV all specified 0.005 mg/l.

29

Carbon Tetrachloride



33






26 of the 33 countries and territories specifying a value for this parameter differed from the GV. Bangladesh specified the highest level, nine other countries and territories

specified 0.005 mg/l. Three countries and territories specified 0.003 mg/l, 12 countries and territories 0.002 mg/l and one country (Syrian Arab Republic) specified 0.0013 mg/l.

Chlordane



32





Argentina, Paraguay, Rwanda and Zambia specified 0.0003 mg/l, Australia, Guatemala, Israel and the USA specified 0.002 mg/l, and Columbia, in its 1994 standards, 0.003 mg/l. The Sudan specified the lowest value.

30

Chloroform



31






The majority of countries and territories specifying a value for this parameter set a value below the GV, most specifying 0.2 mg/l. Cuba, Kenya, Rwanda and Syrian Arab

Republic specified 0.03 mg/l. New Zealand specified 0.4 mg/l. Some countries and territories that did not specify a value for this parameter included it in their value for

total trihalomethanes.

Chlorotoluron



12





Only the Sudan (0.02 mg/l) and New Zealand (0.04 mg/l) did not specify the GV.

31

Chlorpyrifos



13





Canada specified 0.09 mg/l, New Zealand and Samoa specified 0.04 mg/l. Australia specified 0.01 mg/l.

Cyanazine


5





Only five countries and territories specified a value for this parameter. Oman and

Singapore specified the GV, New Zealand specified 0.0007 mg/l, Peru 0.006 mg/l and Canada 0.01 mg/l.

Cyanogen Chloride

NB The fourth edition of the Guidelines does not specify a value for cyanogen chloride as it occurs in drinking water at concentrations well below those of health concern. However it has been included here because it was in the third edition and a number of countries and territories still set a value for this parameter.

32

WHO Guideline value No value specified in fourth edition, previously 0.07 mg/l


13

Number of countries and territories setting a regulatory / guideline value greater than previous WHO Guideline 0

Number of countries and territories setting a regulatory / guideline value less than previous WHO Guideline 1



All countries and territories specified the former GV except the Sudan (0.005 mg/l).

Cyanuric Acid

WHO Guideline value 40 mg/l


0



No country in the survey set a value for this parameter, presumably because no country uses sodium dichloroisocyanurate for disinfecting drinking-water.

2,4-D (2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid) WHO Guideline value 0.03 mg/l


40





The majority of countries and territories setting a value for this parameter designated the GV. Argentina, Canada, Columbia and Paraguay specified 0.1 mg/l, Jordan 0.09 mg/l,

33

Taiwan Province of China and the USA 0.07 mg/l and New Zealand and Samoa 0.04 mg/l. The Sudan designated 0.02 mg/l and the Occupied Palestinian territory 0.01 mg/l.

2,4-DB (2,4-Dichlorophenoxybutyric Acid) WHO Guideline value 0.09 mg/l Number of countries and territories setting a regulatory / guideline value

16





Only 16 countries and territories designated a value for this parameter. The Dominican Republic, Honduras, New Zealand and Nicaragua designated 0.1 mg/l, the Sudan

designated 0.067 mg/l.

DDT and metabolites



38




Columbia designated 0.05 mg/l in its 1994 standards. Cambodia designated 0.05 mg/l, the Sudan 0.015 mg, Australia 0.009 mg/l and 14 countries and territories 0.002 mg/l.

34

Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate WHO Guideline value 0.008 mg/l


9



Maximum value set 0.009 Minimum value set 0.0054 Median value 0.008

Only nine countries and territories designated a value for this parameter. New Zealand designated the highest value, Guatemala 0.006 mg/l, and the Sudan 0.0054 mg/l. Egypt, Indonesia, Nicaragua, Oman, Singapore, and Uganda set the GV.

Dibromoacetylnitrile



16






Only 16 countries and territories designated a value for this parameter. Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Honduras, Malaysia, Nicaragua, Peru and the Republic of Korea designated 0.1 mg/l. Egypt designated the lowest value.

35

Dibromochloromethane



26





New Zealand designated the highest value, the Russian Federation 0.08 mg/l, the Sudan 0.075 mg/l, the USA 0.06 mg/l, Peru 0.05 mg/l and Ukraine 0.01 mg/l.

1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane



21






Only four out of 26 countries and territories differed from the GV. El Salvador and the USA specified 0.0002 mg/l, Republic of Korea 0.003 mg/l and The Sudan 0.007 mg/l.

36

1,2-Dibromoethane



7






Ecuador, Malaysia, New Zealand, Oman, Peru, the Philippines and Singapore all specified the GV for this parameter.

Dichloroacetate

WHO Guideline value 0.05 mg/l (provisional D)


16




Of the 16 countries and territories specifying a value for dichloroactetate only Japan (0.04 mg/l) and Peru (0.02 mg/l) did not specify the GV.

37

Dichloroacetonitrile



17





Peru specified the highest value but this is possibly a typographical error. Japan set the

lowest value. Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Egypt, Honduras, Malaysia, Nicaragua and the Republic of Korea specified 0.09 mg/l and the Sudan 0.06 mg/l.

Dichlorobenzene,1,2-

WHO Guideline value 1 mg/l Number of countries and territories setting a regulatory / guideline value

24



Maximum value set 1.5 mg/l Minimum value set 0.0005 mg/l Median value 1 mg/l

There was a wide difference in values specified for this parameter according to whether countries and territories followed the WHO health-based Guideline or a value based on taste and odour thresholds. Some specified values for both. Argentina specified the

lowest value. The Russian Federation specified 0.002 mg/l but the parameter is labelled as dichlorobenzenes. The Sudan specified 0.7 mg/l, El Salvador, Guatemala and the

USA 0.6 mg/l and Canada 0.2 mg/l. Australia and New Zealand specified the highest value but also specified 0.001 mg/l as an aesthetic value.

38

Dichlorobenzene,1,4-



22






There was a wide difference in values specified for this parameter according to whether countries and territories followed the WHO health-based guideline value or a value

based on taste and odour thresholds. Some specified values for both. Argentina specified the lowest value. The Russian Federation specified 0.002 mg/l but the

parameter is labeled as dichlorobenzenes. Canada specified 0.005 mg/l, El Salvador, Taiwan Province of China and the USA 0.075 mg/l and Australia 0.04 mg/l. New Zealand specified the highest value but 0.0003 mg/l as an odour threshold.

Dichloroethane,1,2-








Albania, Australia, Iceland, the EU, Turkey and Ukraine specified the lowest value, Ghana and Indonesia the highest.

Dichloroethene,1,1- (Vinylidene chloride) NB The fourth edition of the Guidelines does not specify a value for dichloroethene 1,1- as it occurs in drinking water at concentrations well below those of health concern. However it

39

has been included here because it was in the third edition and a number of countries and territories still set a value for this parameter.

WHO Guideline value No value established in the fourth edition, previously 0.03 mg/l


29





Japan specified the highest value, Argentina and Paraguay the lowest.

Dichloroethene,1,2-


21





Australia and New Zealand specified 0.06 mg/l, the USA 0.07 mg/l and Israel 0.1 mg/l. Japan specified 0.04 mg/l and the Sudan 0.035 mg/l.

40

Dichloromethane



25





Canada (0.05 mg/l) and Bangladesh (0.03 mg/l) were the countries and territories specifying higher than the GVGLV. The USA (0.005 mg/l), Australia (0.004 mg/l), El Salvador (0.003 mg/l) and the Sudan (0.014 mg/l) specified values below.

1,2-Dichloropropane



19




New Zealand specified the highest value, El Salvador and the USA specified the lowest. Honduras, Nicaragua and The Russian Federation specified 0.02 mg/l and The Sudan 0.015 mg/l.

41

1,3-Dichloropropene



15





Only the Sudan set a value that differed from the GV.

Dichlorprop


19





Only the Sudan set a value that differed from the GV.

Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate WHO Guideline value 0.008 mg/l


16





42

Japan (0.1 mg/l), Australia (0.01 mg/l) and New Zealand specified values above the GV. El Salvador and the USA (0.006 mg/l) and Honduras (0.003 mg/l) specified below.

Dimethoate


11





Only China (0.08 mg/l), Canada (0.02 mg/l) and New Zealand (0.008 mg/l) specified values that differed from the GV.

Dioxane,1,4-


5




Only Ecuador, Japan, New Zealand, Singapore and Uganda specified a value for this parameter and all specified the GV.

43

Edetec Acid (EDTA) WHO Guideline value 0.6 mg/l Number of countries and territories setting a regulatory / guideline value

17





New Zealand specified the highest value, the Sudan the lowest. Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Egypt, Ghana, Honduras and Nicaragua specified 0.2 mg/l and

Australia 0.25 mg/l.

Endrin



16






Israel, Jordan, Uruguay and the USA specified the highest value, New Zealand 0.001 mg/l. Guatemala specified the lowest value, Zambia specified 0.0002 mg/l and Colombia 0.0005 mg/l.

44

Epichlorohydrin








Albania, Australia and New Zealand specified the highest value. The USA specified 0.0002 mg/l as a treatment standard only where epichlorohydrin is used in treatment.

The Sudan specified 0.0003 mg/l, the EU, Iceland, Norway, Turkey and Uganda specified 0.0001 mg/l.

Ethylbenzene



25





Guatemala and the USA specified 0.7 mg/l; Honduras and Jordan specified0.5 mg/l. Brazil and the Sudan specified 0.2 mg/l.

45

Fenoprop


13





There is variation from the GV for this parameter. Australia and New Zealand specified the highest value, the Sudan the lowest value.

Hexachlorobutadiene


19






There is l variation from the GV for this parameter. Australia and New Zealand

specified the highest value, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Honduras and Nicaragua specified the lowest value.

Hydroxyatrazine



0



No country or territory in the survey specified a value for this parameter.

46

Isoproturon


18






There is variation from the GV in the values specified for this parameter. Only New Zealand (0.01 mg/l) and the Sudan (0.007 mg/l) did not specify the WHO guideline value.

Lindane



40






Australia specified the highest value, Colombia 0.005 mg/l, Jordan and the Occupied Palestinian territory 0.004 mg/l and Argentina, Paraguay and Zambia 0.003 mg/l. El Salvador, Taiwan Province of China and the USA specified 0.0002 mg/l and the Sudan specified 0.0015 mg/l.

47

MCPA (4-(2-Methyl-4-chlorophenoxy) acetic acid) WHO Guideline value 0.002 mg/l


21






All countries and territories specified the GV except the Sudan (0.015 mg/l), Australia (0.04 mg/l and Canada (0.1 mg/l).

Mecoprop



16






Only Indonesia (0.001 mg/l) and the Sudan (0.007 mg/l) did not specify the GV.

Methoxychlor



36




48

There is c variation in the values for this parameter. Canada specified the highest value and the Sudan the lowest. Australia specified 0.3 mg/l, Colombia and Paraguay 0.1

mg/l, the USA 0.04 mg/l and Argentina, Paraguay and Zambia 0.03 mg/l.

Metolachlor


20






All countries and territories specified the GV for this parameter except Australia (0.3 mg/l), Canada (0.05 mg/l) and the Sudan (0.007 mg/l).

Microcystin-LR



11





Australia specified 0.0013 mg/l and Canada 0.0015 mg/l. Brazil, China, Ecuador, New Zealand, Oman, Peru, Singapore, South Africa, and Uruguay specified the GV.

49

Molinate


20






Of the 20 countries and territories specifying a value only New Zealand (0.007 mg/l) as well as Australia and the Sudan (0.004 mg/l) did not specify the GV.

Monochloramine

WHO Guideline value 3 mg/l


19



Maximum value set 4 mg/l

Minimum value set 2 mg/l

Median value 3 mg/l

Of the 19 countries and territories specifying a value only Costa Rica, Honduras and Nicaragua (4 mg/l) and the Sudan (2 mg/l) did not specify the GV. China specified 3 mg/l ex-works but 0.05 mg/l in distribution.

50

Monochloroacetic Acid (Monochloroacetate) WHO Guideline value 0.02 mg/l


7






Peru specified the highest value. New Zealand, Oman, the Philippines, Singapore, Uganda and Uruguay specified the GV.

Nitrilotriacetic Acid



18





Of the 18 countries and territories specifying a value only Canada (0.4 mg/l) and the Sudan (0.15 mg/l) did not specify the GV.

51

N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) WHO Guideline value 0.0001 mg/l


1






Only Australia has so far specified a value for this parameter.

Pendimethalin


20





Of the 20 countries and territories specifying a value only Australia (0.4 mg/l) and the Sudan (0.015 mg/l) did not specify the GV.

Pentachlorophenol (PCP) WHO Guideline value 0.009 mg/l Number of countries and territories setting a regulatory / guideline value

32





52

Canada specified the highest value, El Salvador, Guatemala and USA the lowest. Argentina, Australia, Paraguay and The Russian Federation specified 0.01 mg/l,

Bangladesh 0.03 mg/l and The Sudan 0.007 mg/l.

Permethrin

NB The fourth edition of the Guidelines does not specify a value for permethrin because it is not recommended for direct addition to drinking-water as part of WHOs policy to exclude the use of pyrethroids for larviciding of mosquito vectors of human disease. However, it has been included here because it was in the third edition and a number of countries and territories retain a value for this parameter. This does not mean that permethrin is still used in these countries and territories.



17

Number of countries and territories setting a regulatory / guideline value greater than the previous WHO Guideline 0

Number of countries and territories setting a regulatory / guideline value less than the previous WHO Guideline 14


Indonesia, Singapore and Uganda specified 0.3 mg/l, Australia 0.2 mg/l. The other 13 countries and territories specified 0.02 mg/l.

Pyriproxyfen

NB The fourth edition of the Guidelines does not specify a value for pyriproxyfen because it is not considered appropriate to set guideline values for pesticides used for vector control in drinking-water. However, it has been included here because a guideline was set in the third edition and a number of countries and territories retain a value for this parameter. Under the WHO Pesticides Evaluation Scheme (WHOPES) the recommended dosage of pyriproxyfen in potable water in containers should not exceed 0.01mg/l.

53



5

Number of countries and territories setting a regul

Draft Report on Regulations and Stardards for Drinking - Water Quality

Documents