The Koran
PAGE 33
The QuranDr. Ks Brief Synopsis of Key Theological, Moral, and
Judicial Themes, including the Religious Imperative to Strive and
Struggle in the Path of Allah (Jihad fi Sabil Allah) Paul
Kamolnick, Ph.D., Professor East Tennessee State
[email protected]** If citing, please use following
format. Kamolnick, Paul. Ph.D. A Brief Synopsis of Key Theological,
Moral, and Judicial Themes, including the Religious Imperative to
Strive and Struggle in the Path of Allah (Jihad fi Sabil Allah;
orig. 2006; revised 2015). Table of Contents
Absolute Crux
Chapter
1 A Prophetic Dialogue.
2 An Arabic Koran.
3 Gods Messenger: Muhammad, a Warner and Bearer of Good
Tidings.
4 Muhammads Moral Cosmos.
5 Muhammads Message, I: Gods Oneness and Absolute
Sovereignty.
6 Muhammads Message, II: The Covenant, The Last Day, and The
Just One.
7 Muhammads Message, III: Surrender, Islam, and Abrahams True
Religion.
8 Muhammads Message, IV: Allahs Justice, Mercy, Compassion,
Knowledge, and Forgiveness.
9 Norms of Communal Conduct and Elements of Law.
10 Muhammads Jihad.
Crux of the Quran: A Masterkey.
Sura 41:1-12 [FUSSILAT or HA MIM].
Distinguished
In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate
-----------------( Naming; and Seeking Favor in Life.
[1] Ha Mim --------------------(Abbreviated Letters? (See Ali,
Appendix 1, The Abbreviated Letters,
pp. 122-124.; Ha Mim in Suras 40-46)
[2] A sending down from the Merciful, the Compassionate.
---------( Transcendent Authority of Koran
[3] A Book whose signs have been distinguished as ----------(An
Arabic Koran
an Arabic Koran for a people having knowledge,
[4 ] good tidings to bear, and
warning,------------------(Muhammad as Preacher: A
Warner, and Bearer of Good Tidings
[4-5] but most of them have turned away, and do not give
ear.
They say, Our hearts are veiled from what thou callest us to,
-------( Resistance to the Messageand in our ears is a heaviness,
and between us and
thee there is a veil;so act; we are acting!
Say = Allah tells Muhammad to recite
[6] Say: I am only a mortal, like you are. ----------( Muhammad
a Mere Mortal (Son of Man)
To me it has been revealed that ----------------( Muhammads
Transcendent Authority
your God is One God; so go ------------( Muhammads
Message/Preaching:
straight with Him, and ask for His forgiveness;
(your God is One God
and woe to the idolaters
( idolaters will be punished
[7] who pay not the alms, and disbelieve in the world to come. (
Alms, After-this-Life
[8] Surely those who believe, and do righteous deeds -------(
Essence of the Covenant: If faith and works, then
Shall have a wage unfailing.
Eternal Blessings.[9] Say: What do you disbelieve in Him who
-----------------( Argument from Design as Proof of Gods
created the earth in two days, and do you
Absolute Rule Over This World
set up compeers to Him? That is the
(Signs = ayat; sign = aya; verse)Lord of all Being.
[10] And He set therein firm mountains over it,
and He blessed it, and He ordained therein
its diverse sustenance in four days, equal
to those who ask.
[11] Then He lifted Himself to heaven when it was
Smoke, and said to it and to the earth, Come
Willingly, or unwillingly! They said,
We come willingly.
[12] So He determined them as seven heavensIn two days, and
revealed its commandment
in every heaven.
And We adorned the lower heaven with lamps, and to
[preserve;
That is the ordaining of the All-mighty, the All-knowing.
Sources: (1) The Koran Interpreted (Arberry transl). vol. 2 (pp.
185-86).
(2) For verse numbering, see The Meaning of the Holy Quran (Ali
transl.)
pp. 1230-33.
Chapter 1
The Koran: A Prophetic Dialogue
The unbelievers assert that they will
never be raised up. Say: Yes indeed,
by my Lord! You shall be raised up,
then you shall be told the things you did.
That is easy for God.
Therefore believe in God and
His Messenger, and in the
Light which We have sent down.
And God is aware of the things you do.
[64:7-8]
The Creator of the heavens and the earth
How should He have a son,
seeing that He has no consort, and He created
all things, and He has knowledge of everything?
[6:101]
God
There is no god but He, the
Living, the Everlasting.
He sent down upon thee the Book
with the truth, confiming what was before it,
and He sent down the Torah and the Gospel
aforetime, as guidance to the people,and He sent down the
Salvation.
[3:2-3]
And the Outstrippers, the first of the Emigrants
and the Helpers, and those who followed them
in good-doingGod will be well-pleased with them
and they are well-pleased with Him; . . .
And some of the Bedouins who dwell around you
Are hypocrites; and some of the people
Of the City are grown bold in hypocrisy. . . .
And other have confessed their sins; they have
Mixed a righteous deed with another evil.
[9:100-102]
I.Dialogical Structure of the Koran.
A prophetic dialogue between God, the messenger Muhammad, and
those to whom Muhammad addressed his message.
( The Koran may usefully be read as a complex dialogue involving
many dialogical participants. The Koran is structured as a divine
revelation, occurring over time and represented in many
utterances/recitations, with Muhammad addressing many different
kinds of person across a range of topics.
II.Dialogical Participants.
The major dialogical activity in the Koran involves Muhammad in
dialogue with five types of person: (A) Muhammad versus traditional
Bedouin Arabic idolaters; (B) Muhammad versus People of the Book,
(ahl al-Kitab) namely Jews and Christians; (C) Muhammad versus
hypocritical believers of the new faith; (D) Muhammad versus
apostates to the new faith. (E) Muhammads dialogue with various
categories of recent converts to the new faith. The following
Koranic passages are some key examples.
A.Believers/Idolaters-Unbelievers
( The fierce, proud, polytheistic, this-worldly, tribal/clannish
Arabian pre-Muslim Bedouin are Muhammads main audience. Their
belief in many gods, a single life, the value of power and
this-worldly wealth is opposed by Muhammads proclamation of one
God, an Afterlife, a Day of Judgment, the prophetic call of
Muhammad, and the sacredness of the divine revelations that will
make up the Koran.
( e.g. K 18:32-44; 43:16-25.
( The danger of disbelievers as friends/associates (K
4:139-144)
B.Believers/Non-Idolater People of the Book
( Jews and Christians are also dialogical participants. Referred
to as the People of the Book, Muhammad challenges these other
privileged faiths by his unique interpretation of traditional
Jewish and Christian Scripture and beliefs. He accuses them of
having adulterated or only received portions (e.g. K 3:23) of Gods
(Allahs) original Word, disavowed his demand for absolute
monotheism (Tawhid), and failed to adhere to the Prophetic
messages.( K 4: 153-176; 5:15-22, 116-20;
23:91C.Believers/Hypocrites
( Muhammad condemns those recently-converted pretenders to the
new faith for their vacillation, weakness, and failure to live by
and fight for the new faith.
( K 4:142-145; 33:60; 61:2-3.
D.Believers/Apostates
( Muhammad condemns those who after embracing the faith reject
it. Apostasy is a capital crime.
( K 3:81-91.
E. Various categories of recent convert to new faith. 1.Emigres(
K 16:41-43.
2.Sectarians( K 23:51-62.
3.Intra-believer squabbling ( K 4
Chapter 2
An Arabic Koran
This Koran could not have been forged
apart from God; but it is a confirmation
of what is before it, and a distinguishing
of the Book, wherein is no doubt
from the Lord of all Being.
[10:37]
Those are the signs of the Manifest Book.
We have sent it down as an Arabic Koran;
We will relate to thee the fairest of stories
in that We have revelaled to thee this Koran,
though before it thou wast one of the heedless.
[12:2-3]
I.A central objective of the Koran and Muhammads preaching is to
establish the absolute authority of the Koran as Allahs Divine
Message. This divinity must be established in order to convince the
People of the Book to abandon their Scripture, but most especially,
for the polytheistic Bedouin Arabs to receive a revelation in their
own tongue.
II.Muhammad offers his own answer to those who cried lies to our
signs, and who claimed that Muhammads Koran was a mere forgery,
like the fairy tales of the ancients.
A.Allahs Heavenly Tablet Sent Down. ( K 2:185 (Month of
Ramadan); 97: 1-5 (Night of Power); 4: 105, 113; 5:15; 44:1-5;
8:75; 10:37-39; 16:101-105; 85:21-22.
( Revealed in stages: 76:23; 24:1, 34B.A Literal Koran. ( K
6:115; 18:27
C.An Arabic Koran. ( K12:1-3; 26:192-196.
D.A Koran that Confirms All That Came Before ( K2:87-103Chapter
3
Gods Messenger:
Muhammad, A Warner and Bearer of Good Tidings
. . . for when it was said to them,
There is no god but God, they were ever
waxing proud, saying, What, shall we
forsake our gods for a poet possessed?
No indeed; but he brought the truth, and
confirmed the Envoys.
Now certainly you shall be tasting the painful
chastisement, and not be recompensed,
except according to what you were doing.
[37:35-38]
I.Muhammad was an example of what Max Weber (1864-1920) refers
to as ethical prophecy (see eg. M. Weber ([1920] 1978: 439-451). An
ethical prophet is one who claims to have been called by God to
deliver Gods message regarding the necessity of living for Good and
avoiding Evil. The ethical prophet reinterprets the world in terms
of a fundamental moral demand that each individual is called to
realize in their personal and social lives. The ethical prophets
words amount to sacred commandments, or to a lawgiving, and in that
sense Muhammad was a prophet-lawgiver calling persons to completely
reorganize their lives on the basis of his interpretation of Gods
sacred call. Muhammad was also a preacher, and his job was to call
persons to an ethical life.
II. A great deal of the Koran consists of Muhammads declaration
of his Messengership, and of the specific qualities of this
Messengership. The following categories capture the central
assertions in Muhammads preaching.
( For an extended specific example, see K 26:115-227.
A. Against those disbelievers who claim Muhammad was a sorcerer,
a madman, a liar and deceiver, or a mere poet, Muhammad asserts his
Divine Messengership.
( K 38:1-10; 69:38-52; 72:20-28; 36:69; 52:29-49
( Too inspired and beautiful confirms Messenger: 17: 85-93.
( Muhammads Night Journey: 17:1
B. Muhammad Insists, However, He is A Mere Mortal, Like You.
( K 39:30;
C.Muhammad is Ubiquitously Described as A Warner, and Bearer of
Good Tidings.
( K 24:54; 33:45; 79:45; K 71: entire; 72:20-28; 38:65-70.
D.Muhammads Message is Not New, but a Pure Restatement of
The
Same Message as Before, However it is no longer corrupted.
( K 4:47; 4:54; 46:7-10; but also states, they were only given a
portion of the Book: 3:23; 4:44, 51; E.Muhammad, as Gods Final
Messenger, His Seal of the Prophets (K 33:40), has also earned a
right to absolute obedience as ruler of the new faith community: K:
33:36-40; 4:59, 65-70, 115; 24:51-54, 56.Chapter 4
Muhammads Moral Cosmos:
Humankinds Moral Frailty, Good and Evil, Light and Dark, Names
and Signs
God desires to make clear to you, and to
guide you in the institutions of those
before you, and to turn towards you; God is
All-knowing, All-wise;
And God desires to turn toward you, but
Those who follow their lusts desire you
To swerve away mightily. God desires
To lighten things for you, for man was
created a weakling.
[4:26-28 Ali; 4:31-32 Arberry]
On no soul do We place a burden greater than it can bear. Before
us is a record which clearly shows the truth. They will never be
wronged. [23:62]
It is He who appointed you viceroys in the earth.
[35:39]
Perish the conjecturers
who are dazed in perplexity
asking, When shall be the Day of Doom?
Upon the day when they shall be tried at the Fire:
Taste your trial! This is that you were seeking to hasten.
Surely the godfearing shall be among gardens and fountains
taking whatsoever their Lord has given them;
they were good-doers before that.
Little of the night would they slumber,
and in the mornings they would ask for forgiveness;
and the beggar and the outcast had a share in their wealth.
[51:10-19]
I.For Muhammad, like the great Jewish prophet-lawgiver prophets
before him (especially Moses), the essential thrust of prophecy is
the (1) reinterpretation of the world as a meaningful totality, and
(2) a fundamental moral reinterpretation of the universe.
Profoundly unlike astrological fatalism, and very much like
Judaism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism, Muhammad views the world
as locked into a battle between Good and Evil.
II. Muhammads doctrine of humankind. Muhammads view of
humankinds moral status does base itself in the Old Testament view
of an original Paradisical state, the Fall, and a vision of
humankind aspiring to reacquire its original moral purity. It is
also extremely far-removed from any forms of monasticism designed
for religious virtuosos based on the desire to abolish the
sinfulness of human nature through various forms of self-negation,
self-mortification, or radical self-denial (e.g. vows of celibacy
or poverty). The following elements comprise Muhammads conception
of humankind.
A. Uniquely chosen humansAbraham, Noah, Moses, Jesus, Muhammadas
well as humans generally are viewed as Gods deputies or Viceregents
on earth.
( K 35:39 [Arberry 35:35-36]; 6:165-166.
B. Humans are created by Allah from a unique combination of
physical and biological elements. These elements include dust, mud,
clay, blood, and sperm. Several different accounts of the creation
of humans is offered, sometimes in agreement, and sometimes
differing in fundamentals. In at least one account (K20:26-29), the
animating spirit is from wind or spirit that is breathed into
humans.
Here are a couple of the most detailed accounts:
( K 22:5; 40:67-68 [Arberry 40:68-70]; K55:14-15 [Arberry
55:12-14] ; 15:33, 38:71 (from clay); 30:20 (from dust) ( Muhammad
also proclaims that a single soul was created, that was later
divided into two in order for humans to have a mate (K 39:6
( Allah takes the souls of those who die, and steals them while
persons are asleep: K39:42
C. Humans were created as morally challenged and prone to
hedonic sins and injustice, but not eternally corrupted by Adams
original sin. Nevertheless, humans are not regarded by him as they
are by the Pauline Christians as creatures whose material selves
are virtually completely compromised by a satanic inclination
toward the flesh. Life is a gift, and it is to be lived and
enjoyed, but only through submission will humankind enjoy this life
without violating the demands of righteousness. Valuing the self is
natural and Allahs gift, but selfishnessextreme focus on ones own
value in relation to othersis a sin.
( Though a Fall occurred (K 20:116-121), Allah still bestowed
Grace (K 20: 122-128). Iblis, not Eve, as Satan, Devil, Tempter (K
20: 116); also, 24:21 for clear statement of grace.( humanitys
moral frailty, weakness, and temptation to sin: 4:26-29; [Arberry
4:32-33]; 35:45.
( Every individual person is solely responsible for their own
conduct, whether righteous or unrighteous: K 16:111; 17:13-15;
35:18; 39:41; 4:105-112.
( Contra Christian monasticism: K57:27
D.A cornerstone of Muhammads moral cosmos was the belief in an
afterlife. Jews and Christians were not his principal targets, but
rather the Bedouin whose cosmology did not embody a doctrine of the
afterlife, nor a day of final judgment in which all souls would be
judged based on their faith and especially their worldly deeds.
Muhammads belief in the afterlife was virtually identical to the
pharisaic Jewish and later Christian belief in the actual
physical-bodily resurrection of the dead on the Last Day.
A few examples of insistence on the Afterlife: ( K18:32-44;
23:33-39; 44:34-37.
A few examples of insistence of a bodily resurrection of the
dead: ( 15:35-36; 38:79; 86:5-10.
III.Moral Dualism Between Heaven and Hell, Good and Evil. Like
the Jews and Christians before him, Muhammad very vividly describes
the eternal fate that awaits the righteous ones in heavenly
paradise, and the evil ones in a hellish fire. Here I only cite the
existence of this dualism. Later when discussing the covenantal
theology of Muhammad (chapter 6), I will go into greater
detail.
A.Cosmic War Between Dark and Light. ( K37:1-11.
( Allah is the Light: K24:35
( Darkness and unbelief: K24:40i.Heaven and ParadiseLife (
K55:46-78; 22:23-25; 44:51-56; 76:5-23.
ii.Gehenna and FireDeath ( K22:19-22; 44:43-50; 92:14-20;
37:60-72; 15:44
B. Names and the Display of Submissive Loyalty to Absolute
Power. The magical potency arising from saying and doing things in
the name of Allah appears everywhere in the Koran. It is most
likely identical to the protective powers and favors early
Christians expected by proclaiming or doing things in the name of
Jesus the resurrected Lord. In reference to the latter the pagan
Celsus (c. 185) wrote in On the True Doctrine: Discourse Against
the Christians: they [followers of Jesus the Christ] assume that by
pronouncing the name of their teacher they are armored against the
powers of the earth and the air and that their God will send armies
to protect them. And they teach that no demon, lest it be an evil
one, could want to do them harm anyway. And they are quite
insistent on the efficacy of the name as a means of protection:
pronounce it improperly, they say, and it is ineffective. Greek and
Latin will not do; it must be said in a barbarian tongue to work.
([c. 185] 1987: 118; transl. R. J. Hoffman; NY: Oxford U Pr.)
( In light of this, consider the very first opening line of the
vast majority of suras: In the name of Allah, the Merciful, the
Compassionate, and elsewhere in the Koran when the protective
powers of Allah are invoked and demonic spirits are needing to be
kept at bay.
C.Signs as Evidence of Muhammads Charismatic Power/Truth. For
Muhammad, as for the Jews before him, Allah/God is Unseen,
Invisible, and the Absolute Spiritual Monarch of the Natural World.
The natural world, in every respect, and every event in the human
world, is evidence or a sign of God. A sign is something that
refers to something beyond itself, i.e. the signified. The most
often-invoked sign of Gods existence is the orderly arrangement and
design of the universe. This will be discussed in chapter five when
I illustrate the chief means by which Muhammad claims to proves
Gods ultimate sovereignty and power. Besides the design of the
universe, miracles, military victories, all of lifes pleasures and
sorrows, nature-defying miracles of all sorts, bodily resurrection
of the dead, etc, are invoked as signs of Gods existence and
power.
B. Allies, Friends, and Foes in the Cosmic Moral War. Besides
Allah and humankind, Muhammads moral cosmos is populated with a
variety of beingsgood and evil, and mostly spiritualthat
participate as active agents in the cosmic war of good and evil.
The omnipresence of these beings is evidence of Muhammads Arabian
context and the assimilation into Muhammads moral cosmos of
characters that on a strict reading appear to challenge the
exclusive Spiritual reality of Allah.
i. Angels. ( K 2:97-98; 35:1ii. Jinn. ( K6:112, 130; 15:27;
34:12, 41.
( Allah created the Jinn: K55:15iii. satans, Satan. ( K2:102
[2:97 in Arberry]; 22:4; 58:19-22; 24:21 iv. Iblis ( K15:30-44;
38:73-88 (38: 76: Allah created Iblis from Fire and humans (with
Allahs own hands) from clay)Chapter 5
Muhammads Message I:
Gods Oneness (Tawhid) and Absolute Sovereignty/LordshipO my
people, serve God! You have no other God than He.
Will you not be godfearing?
[23:23]
The sending down of the Book is from God
the All-Mighty, the All-knowing,
Forgiver of sins, Accepter of penitence,
Terrible in retribution,
The Bountiful;
there is no god but He,
and unto Him is the homecoming.
[40:1-3]
I. A Brief Orthodox Credal Statement: K 4: 136.
II.God is One God, There is No God Besides He. ( K 4:48, 116;
11:2; 12:37-41; 59:22-25; K40:62-68; 64:13; 14:52; 25:2-5..There is
no more fundamental absolute categorical assertion made by Muhammad
than the one proclaiming that Allah is one God and there is no god
besides Allah. The second most prevalent assertion made about
Allah, besides his oneness, is his absolute sovereignty. There are
many other attributes ascribed to Allah, in fact ninety-nine (see
Braswell, 1996: p.. 46), and the most important of these others
will be taken up in later chapters. But the oneness and absolute
sovereignty is so fundamental to Muhammads preaching that it
deserves a place of its own.
III.The Oneness or Indivisible Unity of a Single Unaccompanied
God.
The oneness and singularity of Allah, virtually identical to
that maintained by Judaism, is in opposition to any and all other
conceptions of God or gods.
A. It opposes archaic animismpostulation of a universal
non-anthropomorphic spiritualism responsible for natures existence
and fate.
B. It opposes polytheism: a plurality or gods each worshipped as
the lord of a distinct aspect of matter, lifes cycle, lifes
journey, etc. generally represented by an idol whose cult is
maintained by a priest, priestess, or priesthood charged with
regulating its power and benefits. (K?:14-25; 71:21-25.C. It
opposes henotheism: the concept of a God of gods, or Overlord of
lords, that is superior to, though accompanied by, these lesser
lords.
D. It upholds a doctrine of strict, uncompromising
monotheism/monolatry. Muhammads uncompromising monotheism occurred
in two distinct stages: (1) whereby a henotheistic Lord of
lordsAllahwho was the pre-Islamic Arabic God of gods worshipped in
Mecca, and is a tribal god (Allah of the Quraysh: God of gods)
finally is transformed into (2)
Allah the exclusive, singular ruler of the entire cosmos and all
humanity, who is without associates. This final move from
henotheistic tribal worship to the monotheistic/monolatrous worship
of a single universal deity is virtually identical to that taken by
the Israelites who transformed a tribal cult of their Lord of
lordsYahwehinto the absolute, universal God of all persons.
IV. Allahs Absolute Sovereignty. Besides Allahs oneness, Allahs
absolute sovereignty is without question the most crucial fact that
Muhammad seeks to impress among those he is preaching. The absolute
power of Allah is virtually identical to that of the Jewish
God.
(K 4:131-134; 24:33, 38, 40; 30:37-40; 36:82-83; 39:52-56;
40:1-3.
A. Allah is The Unseen. Allah is the unseen creator of all that
is created: invisible and coterminous with the cosmos. All of
creation owes its birth, life, and death to Allah; Allah is the
unconditioned first principle that is responsible for every
manifestation of the created world.
B. The Signs (pl: Ayat; sing: ayah) of the Unseen. Allah is
known through his signs and wondersevery created event in the
universe. Convincing others of Allah involves convincing others
that Allah is the necessary and sufficient condition of all signs,
i.e. of all creation. ( 30:20-27.
C. The Creator of the Seen. Allah, as the exclusive invisible
(unseen) creator of the visible (seen), is involved at every level
of creation:
i. Of cosmos: design versus the impotence of the idolater.
ii. Of all non-human life forms: design versus the impotence of
the idolater.
iii. Of man, and woman: versus the impotence of the
idolater.
V.The Power of Absolute Power. The power of absolute power is by
definition, absolute. Though this might raise difficult logical
questions for theologians regarding the free will versus
determinism debate, this is not Muhammads concern and he preaches
without question that nothing can happen at anytime in the universe
that can contradict Allahs absolute will.
( Some examples free will/Allahs determinism, see K4:31, 38-39;
35:8-9, 15-17; also, K 24:21 for Allahs grace.VI.Muhammads
Rejection of The Christian Trinity: Doctrine of the Incarnate Jesus
as Son of God. Muhammad on several distinct occasions comments on
the Christian conception of Jesuss incarnation as the risen Lord.
The following is in general an accurate account of Muhammads
preaching:
A. Jesuss immaculate conception. Jesus was born through an
immaculate conception, as the Christians declare. ( K21:91;
4:156
B. Jesuss death and resurrection. Jesus died and was raised
again (resurrected) by Allah. ( K4:158C. Jesus as prophet and
mortal messenger. Jesus has the status of a prophet who in the
Gospels is seen to have fulfilled/replaced the Jewish Torah, but is
not regarded as son of God or Lord. Like Muhammad, Jesus is
regarded as a sacred prophet, and a Messenger like Muhammad. (
K4:170-171; 5:75.D. Allah needs and has no son. Allah is one, and
Muhammads Unitarianism is contrasted with the Trinitarian formula
of the orthodox church.
( K9:30-33;19:92
E. Contra Christian monasticism. As stated in chapter 4,
Muhammads view of humanity does not involve rejection of the world
and an attempt to shed the body of all its human attachments in
order to escape physical existence. It is an affirmative doctrine
that warrants prosperity, fertility, and worldly success, but only
within the ethical framework permissible by Muhammads preaching and
lawgiving. Extreme focus on the self, not self-regard per se, is a
sin against God and the community.
( K57:27Chapter 6
Muhammads Message II:
The Covenant, the Last Day, and The Just One
Say: O men, I am only for you a plain warner!
Those who believe, and do deeds of righteousnesstheirs
Shall be foregiveness and generous provision.
And those who strive against Our signs to void them
they shall be the inhabitants of Hell.
[22:49-51]
And those who believe, and do righteous deeds,
We shall surely lodge them in lofty chambers of
Paradise, underneath where rivers flow, therein
dwelling forever; and excellent is the wage of
those who labour, such men as are patient,
and put their trust in their Lord.
[29:58-59]
Surely those who believe, and do deeds of righteousness,
there awaits them Gardens of Bliss
therein to dwell foreverGods promise
in truth; and He is the All-mighty, the All-wise.
[31:8-9]
I.Introduction: The Just One and the Ideal Righteous Muslim.
A.Muhammads preaching has as its fundamental objective the
absolute moral imperative to live a life that is based on moral
righteousness. Righteousness is a state of heart, a state of mind,
a state of the soul. This righteousness is also, and especially for
Muhammad, manifest in righteous deeds. Muhammads vision of the just
one is found throughout the Koran and is the pivot upon which his
entire Messengership is warranted. The legal form of Muhammads
demand to live a socially just life will be considered in a
subsequent chapter and for now the focus is merely on the
centrality of righteousness for Muhammads preaching. It is also
especially important to keep in mind that a might makes right and
kinship and tribe first view of justice are for Muhammad unworthy
of the Allah of humanity. Muhammad, like Jesus before him, though
sometimes inconsistently, abolishes privileges based on kin
nepotism, and replaces them with a universal pan-tribal concept of
the just one as an ideal righteous human being.
B.To be truly just, however, one must submit to a unique
covenant between Allah and humankind. The nature, form, structure,
and substance of the covenant creates an indissoluble link between
Allah, humankind, and the possibility of justice and its
rewards.
II. Muhammads Covenantal Theology: Its Nature and Structure.
A. Origins in Jewish covenantal theology. Muhammad inherits the
essential elements of a covenantal theology from the Jews and
Christians. Whether the origins of the idea of a covenant are to be
found in (a) the ancient imperial relation between an empire and
its subject nations and peoples, the (b) monarchical relation
between an absolute sovereign and his subjects, or as I suspect,
(3) the unique nature of the parent-offspring relation, the fact is
that once originated, covenantal theology is remarkable for what
its contribution to world history.
B. Key elements of the covenant.
1.Form of the covenant.
a.Assymetry between covenantal partners. (e.g. 2:122-126, 130In
the case of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, God/Allah through an
act of divine grace initiates a covenant with merely mortal humans.
This free act of grace is not based on the virtues of humanity or a
section thereof, but simply Gods decision to create and to favor a
people of his own making. (e.g. K 17:30; 35:15-17, 39).
b.Irrevocability of the covenant. (e.g. 2:122-126). The covenant
between God and humanity or a section thereof cannot be revoked
either by God or by humanity: it is permanent and unconditional.
Because God initiated the covenant, and God has chosen to forever
honor this free gift, humanity is now eternally linked to Gods
gift.
C. Two components of the Covenant.
1.The Promise. The irrevocability of the covenant that God makes
with humanity is a freely given promise, a free gift, wherein God
commits himself to an exclusive loyalty to humanity. I am your God,
you are my people, not for what you have done, but simply because I
have chosen you as my exclusive covenantal partner. This is the
promise God makes.
2.The Law. The promise of Gods exclusive unconditional and
permanent loyaltygracehowever, whether God bestows his blessings or
curses on humanity is conditional on whether each individual human
being exhibits righteousness, especially in their conduct toward
others. God reward the just, and punishes the wicked (e.g.
4:13-14), though Gods promise of exclusive loyalty is never
threatened by ones conduct. In short, God basically demands that if
you want to be happy, be just and righteous; if you want to be
miserable, be unjust and sinful.
III. Justification as Faith and Works. Islam is virtually
identical to Judaism and quite dissimilar to orthodox Christianity
in its view of the relation of faith and works.
A.Justified by Faith. Like Judaism and Christianity, an absolute
faith in Gods existence and Gods promise in the covenant he made
with humanity is the cornerstone of Islam as a faith. (e.g K 4:125;
16:120-129; 35:36-37). For Muhammad, as for Kierkegaard twelve
centuries later, Abraham of the Jewish scriptures is the
paradigmatic man of God for he believed in God with all his heart,
soul, and might, and despite the possibility of murdering his
first-born son Isaac, offered Isaac to God on the basis of faith
alone. Abrahams leap of faith precedes the reception by Moses of
Gods Torah and Commandments on Mount Sinai and Abraham is justified
purely on the basis of faith in God, not righteous deeds based on
the Torah. It is before Torah, before the Law comes in to the
world, that Abraham is chosen by God, tested by God, and finally
justified by his willingness to sacrifice that which is dearest to
him for the sake of his belief.
( K16:120-123B. Justified by Works. While faith is essential, in
Judaism and Islam
righteous works are also essential in order to truly find favor
with God/Allah. In orthodox Christianity faith in Jesus as the
risen Lord and his Saviorship, absolutely independent of any
conduct in this world, guarantees the Christian believer eternal
life and eternal salvation. It may be that works are a practical
expression of faith, but faith in the Salvific nature of Jesus as
the Crucified and Resurrected Lord, and as ones personal Lord and
savior, guarantees for the believer all that God has to offer his
blessed ones. Judaism and Islam, on the contrary, assume the
necessity of faith but also repeatedly demand that the believer
dispense justice in acts and deeds. (However, does faith alone
justify? See K35:36-37). Each individual is regarded as morally
accountable (4:110-112; 35:118; 23:62; 16:111)III.Justification in
this Life, and After-this-Life: Covenantal Fruits of Righteousness
for Gods Viceroys.
A.In this Life. Again virtually identical to Judaism, Muhammad
emphasizes the importance of the present world as a theatre for the
realization of Gods demand to act righteously. Life, health, a
posterity, fertility, fruits, happiness, pleasures, enjoyment of
Gods creation await those who abide by Allahs ethical demands.
(e.g. K23:18-22; 21:105). Happiness in this world is Allahs gift to
those who exemplify righteousness in deed. As creatures brought
into this world along with Allahs entire creation, the just (like
Abraham, 4:125) are promised repeatedly by Muhammad the bounty of
Allahs creation. The opposite fate awaits those who fail to obey
Allahs ethical demands. Consider Muhammads description of a person
who exemplifies justice and righteousness (32:18-22; 4:13-14,
56-57, 122, 124-125; 24:55-56; 33:35):And those who avoid heinous
sins
and indecencies and when they are angry
forgive,
and those who answer their Lord, and
perform the prayer, their affair being
between them, and they expend of
that We have provided them,
and who, when insolence visits them,
do help themselves
and the recompense of evil is evil
the like of it; but whoso pardons
and puts things right, his wage falls
upon God; surely He loves not
the evildoers.
And whosoever helps himself after he
Has been wrongedagainst them
There is no way.
The way is only open against those who do
Wrong to the people, and are insolent
In the earth wrongfully; there awaits them a
Painful chastisement.
But surely he who bears patiently
And is forgivingsurely that is
True constancy.
[42:37-43]
B.After-this-Life, for all Eternity. Muhammad preached that the
fruits of ones faith and righteous deeds were also, and perhaps
especially, to be reaped during ones eternal afterlife. Allah,
following the Last Day (i.e. literally, the Day of Resurrection
(Yawm al-Qiyamah) when all souls are revived, assembled, and judged
based on their faith and deeds, allots to each soul a place in a
sensuously delightful Paradise or a horrifically dreadful and
ghastly Hell (Gehenna). The vividness of these two options is the
subject-matter of Muhammads earliest Meccan preaching, and also
persists throughout. Since the Jews and Christians of Muhammads
time certainly already believed in the resurrection of the dead,
the Day of Judgment, and the eternal afterlife as either one of
damnation or paradise/salvation, Muhammads chief dialogical
opponents were those of Muhammads own people. As discussed above,
the Bedouin, like the archaic Greek warrior aristocracy represented
in Homers epic poetry, had a fateful, this-worldly, ethic centered
in clan, tribe, power, honor, pleasure, and poetry. Absent from the
Bedouin cosmology is a Day of Doom, a concept of the afterlife, and
a single individisible absolutely sovereign Godhead concerned
virtually with the Viceroys on earth who are charged with upholding
the righteousness demanded by Allah.
Repeatedly, with a predictable cadence and ubiquitous presence,
Muhammad castigates and admonishes and warns the Bedouin of the
fate that awaits them in an eternal Hellfire: an eternity neither
they nor their idols can prevent.
(K 4:56-57; 40:69-76; 50:16-35; 57:12-16.
Justice is absolute and applies to all righteousness, regardless
of kin relations (K 4:135).
IV. On the Concept of Moderation, Balance (al-Wasat), and the
Middle Way (al-Wassatiya). Just as Aristotle discovered the Golden
Mean between too much and too little, in this case extremes of
zealous devotion on one hand, and complete neglect on the other,
the Muhammad preaches a middle way suitable for the masses in their
everyday world that is still exemplified in a commitment to aspire
to righteous living. Islamic righteousness does not require saintly
perfection and fault-finding. See for example:
Q 2:143: Thus have We made you an Umma justly balanced, that ye
might be witnesses over the nations. . .
Q 2:185 . . . Allah intends every facility for you; He does not
want to put you to difficulties. .
Q 2:194: There is the law of equality [equal retribution]. If
then any one transgresses the prohibition against you, transgress
ye likewise against him. But fear Allah, and know that Allah is
with those who restrain themselves.
Q 31:17-19: Oh my son! Establish regular prayer, enjoin what is
just, and forbid what is wrong; and bear with patient constancy
whatever betide thee; for this is firmness (of purpose) in the
conduct of affairs. And swell not thy cheek (for pride) at men, nor
walk in insolence through the earth: for Allah loveth not any
arrogant boaster. And be moderate in thy pace, and lower thy voice;
for the harshest of sounds without doubt is the braying of the
ass.Chapter 7
Muhammads Message III:
Surrender, Islam, and Abrahams True Religion
O men, bow you down and prostrate yourselves,
and serve your Lord, and do good; haply so you
shall prosper;
and struggle for God as is His due, for He has chosen you,
and has laid on you no impediment in your religion,
being the creed of your father Abraham; He named
you Muslims.
Aforetime and in this, that the Messenger might be a witness
Against mankind.
So perform the prayer, and pay the alms, and hold you
fast to God; He is your Protectoran excellent Protector,
an excellent Helper.
[22:77-78]
Only those believe in Our
signs who, when they are reminded
of them, fall down prostrate and
proclaim the praise of their Lord, not waxing
proud.
[32:15]
Your God is one God, so to Him surrender.
[22:34]
When his Lord said to him, Surrender,
he said, I have surrendered me to
the Lord of all Being.
And Abraham charged his sons with this
And Jacob likewise: My sons, God has chosen
For you the religion; see that you die not
Save in surrender.
[2:125-26 Arberry; 131-132 Ali]
I.Islam as Surrender: The Logical Outcome of Muhammads Concept
of Allah as Absolute Sovereign, His Radical Monolatry, and Victory
over the Bedouin Polytheists. The religion that Muhammad preaches
is called Islam. Islam means to surrender, and for Muhammad
surrender means to submit absolutely and completely to Allah by
placing oneself in a position of utter and complete dependence on
Allahs will and mercy. The following syllogism accurately
represents the logical foundations of Muhammads new religion. It is
important to note that Muhammad himself declared that Islam was
merely the restored pure faith that Allah had bequeathed to Abraham
(e.g K 4:47; 4:54; 46:7-10 K 4:47; 4:54; 46:7-10) and once Jewish
and Christian corruptions of Allahs true message were removed,
Muhammad is merely a final messenger but with the identical message
to that of Abraham and many uncorrupted Messengers that preceded
him.
Given, Muhammads moral cosmos. (see Kamolnick, chapter 4)
Given, Allahs absolute sovereignty.(see Kamolnick, chapter
5)
Given, Allahs absolute oneness.(see Kamolnick, chapter 5)
Given, Allahs covenantal demand(see Kamolnick, chapter 6)
Given, Mans absolute and utter dependency. (see Kamolnick,
chapter 5)
Then, Absolute Unconditional Surrender must follow to reap the
covenantal benefits and avoid Gehennas fire. (Kamolnick, present
chapter [7])
II.Islam as Surrender and Submission, and Utter and Total
Dependence.
The surrender that is Muhammads Islam is enacted at the level
of
psychological surrender as well as ritualized in a number of
acts that exalt honor Allah. Some examples include:
A. Prostration. The ritual act of kneeling and placing ones face
to the ground.
B. Prayer and Worship. The ritual act of invoking Allahs name,
honoring Allahs absolute sovereignty and oneness, and seeking mercy
and forgiveness.
C. Monolatry. The absolute denial of any other spiritual powers
and the worship thereof.
D. Ritual humility generally. The constantly-lived awareness of
Allahs majesty and ones own utter dependence on Allahs majesty in
every facet of every day.
III.Islam and Free Will. The Koran denies any limitation to
Allahs absolute power. At the same time it proclaims that humans
are morally free to choose between good and evil, and that each
person will be held to account for their deeds and their deeds
exclusively. Who, then, is responsible for unjust acts committed by
individual persons if nothing can occur that is not permitted by
Allah, and no one is held to account for acts that do not presume
individual freedom from determinism? (E.g. 35:8-9, 17).
IV.What Does it Mean to Live Under Allah? Muhammads
uncompromising monotheism, like Judaism, has given birth to
differing interpretations of what it means to live under Allah. The
same can be said for any faith, such as Judaism or Christianity,
that locate the ultimate Authorship of all creation in a God whose
absolute sovereignty is unconditionally granted. Because Muhammad
preaches the viceregency of humanity as Allahs chosen mortal agents
on earth, and because Muhammads vision of human nature largely
affirms the this-worldly inclinations of the mass of humanity,
living under God certainly does not require world-rejectionism,
self-negationism, and indeed Muhammad strictly prohibits
monasticism as Allahs chosen ideal.
Chapter 8
Muhammads Message, IV:
Allahs Justice, Mercy, Compassion, Knowledge, and
ForgivenessSurely those who fear their Lord
in the Unseen---
there awaits them forgiveness
and a great wage.
Be secret in your speech, or proclaim it,
He knows the thoughts within your breasts.
Shall He not know, who created? And
He is the All-Subtle, the All-aware.
[67:12-14]
If God should take men to task for what
they have earned
He would not leave upon the face of the earth
one creature that crawls; but He is deferring
them to a stated term.
But when their term is comesurely God sees
His servants.
[35:45]
We have provided you; but exceed not
therein, or My anger shall alight on you;
and on whomsoever My anger alights, that
man is hurled to ruin.
Yet I am All-forgiving to him who repents
and believes, and does righteousness, and
at last is guided.
[20:81-82]
. . . for Allah doth blot out sins, and forgive again and again.
[4:43]
I.Severity of an Unyielding Just God. There is no doubt that the
essence of Allahs rule is to ensure the reign of righteousness
throughout Allahs creation. But a strict and unyielding demand for
justice is something that humans would find a crushing
impossibility. Justice requires that a person receive an exact
equivalent for their actions, deeds, and exertions of effort. It
demands a pure meritocracy equating merit and reward. Justice is a
strict ideal that regulates human interaction yet how many of us
bend the rules, seek rewards that we did not truly earn, or seek to
deny responsibility for bads that we have actually created? Humans
will always fall short if their actions are judged by an exactingly
strict measure of justice.
II.Allahs Absolute Knowledge of the Innermost Secrets of
Every
Individuals Intentions and Heart. Add to the concept of justice
the fact that Allahs knowledge extends to the innermost secrets of
an individuals intentions and heart. Not just the deed, but the
motivation and intention behind the deed, make a person righteous
in Allahs eyes. Like the Jewish prophets and Christians before him,
Muhammads focus is not on the ritual act itself, but the spirit and
intention behind the act. The morally pure soul, the pure heart,
the good heart, the well-intentioned and morally-motivated
individual, is the real point behind Muhammads preaching. Imagine,
then, an absolutely powerful and knowledgable Allah having complete
knowledge of your innermost secrets and thoughts, let alone judging
your deeds?
III. The Need for Allahs Mercy, Forgiveness, and Compassion.
Strict justice, unaccompanied by mercy and foregiveness, is an
unbearable and impossible burden for Allahs created mortals. Hence,
Muhammads preaching emphasizes repeatedly and emphatically that
Allah demands justice, but also completely forgives those who seek
His complete foregiveness and that recommit themselves to living a
morally righteous life. In short, strict justice is inhumane, if
unaccompanied by Allahs mercy and foregiveness.
A.In the Name of Allah, the Compassionate and Merciful. Consider
also that the opening of 113 out of 114 quranic surat begin, In the
name of Allah, most gracious (al-Rahman), most merciful (al-Rahim)
(Bismillah ir Rahman ir Rahim). It is only in the Name of Allah,
with complete surrender and a completely humbled soul, that Allah
will consider the request for mercy and foregiveness from the
strict requirements of absolute justice.
B.The psychological power of Allahs mercy, foregiveness, and
compassion. Muhammad exhibits in his preaching the recognition of
humanitys imperfect moral nature. Recall, for example, from chapter
four how Muhammad viewed human nature as morally challenged and
prone to disregard righteousness and its demands. Imagine the power
that comes from the willingness of Allah to remain unconditionally
loyal to a creature whose acts do not deserve it, and for Allah to
forgive and exercise mercy and compassion toward those who violated
Allahs moral demands? Consider that ten of Allahs 99 names in the
Quran (see George Braswell, Islam: Its Prophet, Peoples, Politics,
and Power. Nashville, TN: Broadman and Holman, 1996, p. 46), are
based in Allahs mercifulness, not strict justice: Forgiving
(al-Tawwab), Pardoner (al-Afuw), Compassionate (al-Rauf), Merciful
(Al-Rahman), Clement (Al-Rahim) Forgiver (al-Ghaffar), Forbearing
(al-Halim), Forgiving (al-Ghafur), Forgiver (al-Ghafir), Gracious
(al-Mannan), and Generous One (al-Karim). Consider the following
quranic verses: Quran 2:109: Quite a number of the People of the
Book wish they could turn you (people) back to infidelity after ye
have believed. From selfish envy, after the Truth hath become
manifest unto them: But forgive and overlook, till Allah
accomplishes his prupose: for Allah hath power over all things.
Quran 2:194: There is the law of equality. If then any one
transgresses the prohibition against you, transgress ye likewise
against him, but fear Allah, and know that Allah is with those who
restrain themselves.
Quran 4:43: For Allah doth blot out sins and forgive again and
again
Quran 4:48: Allah forgiveth not that partners should be set up
with Him; but He forgiveth anything else, to whom he pleaseth; to
set up partners with Allah is to devise a sin most heinous
indeed.
Quran 4:116: Allah forgiveth not (the sin of) joining other gods
with Him; but He forgiveth whom he pleaseth other sins than this:
one who joins other gods with Allah, hath strayed far, far away
(from the right).
Quran 4:110: If anyone does evil or wrongs his own soul but
afterwards seeks Allahs forgiveness, he will find Allah
Oft-Forgiving, Most merciful.
Quran 7:199: Hold to forgiveness; command what is right; but
turn away from the ignorant.
Quran 39:53: Say: O my servants who have transgressed against
their souls! Despair not of the Mercy of Allah: for Allah forgives
all sins for he is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.
Quran 16:126-128: And if ye do catch them out, catch them out no
worse than they catch you out: but if ye show patience, that is
indeed the best (course) for those who are patient. And do thou be
patient, for thy patience is from Allah; nor grieve over them: and
distress not thyself because of their plots. For Allah is with
those who restrain themselves, and those who do good.
Quran 20:82: But, without doubt, I am (also) He that forgives
again and again, to those who repent, believe, and do rightwho in
fine, are ready to receive True guidance.
Quran 35:45: If Allah were to punish men according to what they
deserve, he would not leave on the back of the (earth) a single
living creature: but He gives respite for a stated term: when their
term expires verily Allah has in His sight all His servants.
Quran 42:5: The heavens are almost rent asunder from above them
(by His glory): and the angels celebrate the praises of their Lord,
and pray for forgiveness for all beings on earth: behold! Verily
Allah is He, the Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.
Quran 42:37, 40: Those who avoid the greater crimes and shameful
deeds, and when they are angry forgive.. . The recompense for an
injury is an injury equal thereto (in degree): but if a person
forgives and makes reconciliation, his reward is due from Allah:
for (Allah) loveth not those who do wrong.
Quran 45:14: Tell those who believe, to forgive those who do not
look forward to the Days of Allah: It is for him to recompense (for
good or ill) each people according to what they have earned.
Quran 53:32: Those who avoid great sins and shameful deeds, only
(falling into) small faultsverily thy Lord is ample in forgiveness.
. .
Quran 57:21: Be ye foremost (in seeking) forgiveness from your
Lord, and a Garden (of bliss), the width whereof is as the width of
heaven and earth, prepared for those who believe in Allah and His
messengers: That is the Grace of Allah, which he bestows on whom he
pleases: and Allah is the Lord of Grace abounding.
Quran 67:12-14: As for those who fear their Lord unseen, for
them is forgiveness and a great reward. And whether ye hide your
word or publish it, He certainly has (full) knowledge, of the
secrets of (all) hearts. Should He not know he that created? And He
is the One that understands the finest mysteries (and) is
well-acquainted (with them).
C.The mercy of the powerful: charity, generosity, beyond
resentment.
IV.The Delicate Balance of Justice and Mercy.
A.Mans moral frailty does not seek submission in times of
plenty.
B.Moral freedom, intention, crime, punishment, repentance,
forgiveness.
Chapter 9
Norms of Communal Conduct and Elements of Law
O Prophet, when you divorce women, divorce them
When they have reached their priod. Count the
Period, and fear God your Lord. Do not expel
Them from their houses, nor let them go forth,
Except when they commit a flagrant indecency.
. . . . Then, when they have reached their term, retain
them honourably, or part from them honourably.
And call in to witness two men of equity from
among yourselves; and perform the witnessing
to God himself.
[65:1-2]And of His signs
is that He created you of dust; then lo,
you are mortals, all scattered abroad.
And of His signs
is that He created you, of yourselves,
spouses, that you might repose in them,
and He set between you love and mercy.
Surely in that are signs for a people who consider.
[20:20-21]And slay not the soul God has forbidden, except by
Right. Whosoever is slain unjustly, We have appointed to
his next-of-kin authority; but let him not exceed in
slaying;
he shall be helped.
[17:33]He said, What, has thou slain a soul innocent, and that
not
to retaliate for a soul slain? Thou hast indeed done a
horrible
thing.[17:74]I.Muhammad as Prophet-Lawgiver, Commander of the
Faithful, Supreme Governor, and Allahs Supreme Envoy and Viceroy.
Muhammads preaching, like that of Moses and the Jewish prophets, is
directed at attaining the Kingdom of God on earth. The earth and
all its creatures are to be practically organized in social and
communal relationships that honor Allahs ethical demands.
( See (K17:23-39; 4:36-39) for a kind of Ten Commandments of
Islam.
II.Religious Rites, Worship, Taboos, Prescriptions, and
Proscriptions. Muhammad specifies that Islam be practically
institutionalized and ritualized as a religious faith. The
religious duties of the surrenderer, the Muslim, are identified in
several closely clustered surahs in the Koran.( For example, for
taboo foods see K16:115.
III.Elements of Criminal, Civil, and Domestic Relations (Family)
Law. Because Muhammad was the head of an emergent community of
faith, and this community was a factual reality participating in
daily life, Muhammad also supplies authoritative legal judgments in
matters of criminal law, civil law, and most especially, domestic
(family) relations.
( See K4:2-150, for civil, domestic, marriage, contracts, women,
prayer;
contra usury, 2:275; 30:39; 3:135-136.( See K 24:2-34, for
fornication, criminal procedure, slander, responsibilities of haves
toward have-nots, forgiveness, illegal home entry, sexual modesty
and dress, treatment of women and slaves, table fellowship, and
house fellowship. \ See, K 4:92 for unintentional intra-Muslim
homicide; 4:93 for intentional intra-Muslim homicide.
See, K: 4: 65-70, for political obligation to Muhammads
authority/state;
See, K 4: 71-104, for offensive jihad.IV.In Conclusion: Islam as
Religion of Household, Clan, Tribe, and State: The Righteous Muslim
versus the Loyal member of ones blood and kin. It is hard to
appreciate the revolution Muhammad brought to the traditional legal
conceptions of the pre-Islamic Arabian Bedouin. The most
significant revolution of all, without question, was the
elimination of the authority of kinship and blood, and its
replacement with a universal concept of justification freely
granted by the absolute sovereign of all creation, Allah. Not all
elements of Bedouin or Arabic customary norms were eliminated from
Muhammads new polity, but the ideal of might makes right rooted in
the warrior aristocracy of a strictly tribal polity was rent
asunder. The universalized ethic of social compassion, the
elevation of the weak, the rights granted to daughters and females
generally, marked an enormous innovation for its time. The faith
community organized under Allah, not the tribal kinship structure
organized under the most powerful shayk, would now serve as the new
normative yardstick for those accepting the preaching of
Muhammad.Chapter 10
Muhammads JihadO believers, devour not usury, doubled
and redoubled, and fear you God; haply so
you will prosper.
And fear the Fire prepared for the unbelievers,
and obey God and the Messenger; haply so
you will find mercy.
And vie with one another, hastening to forgiveness
from your Lord, and to a garden whose breadth
is as the heavens and earth, prepared
for the godfearing
who expend in prosperity and adversity in
almsgiving, and restrain their rage, and pardon
the offences of their fellowmen; and God
loves the good-doers;
who, when they commit an indecency or wrong
themselves, remember God, and pray for forgiveness for
their sinsand who shall forgive sins but God?
and do not persevere in the things they did unwittingly.
Thosetheir recompense is forgiveness from
their Lord, and gardens beneath which rivers flow,
therein dwelling forever;
and how excellent is the wage of those who labour [strive]!
[3:125-29 Arberry; Ali 3:135-36]No compulsion is there in
religion.[2:256]And Say: I believe in whatever Book God has sent
down;
I have been commanded to be just between you.
God is our Lord and your Lord.
We have our deeds, and you have your deeds;
There is no argument between us and you;
God shall bring us together, and unto Him is the homecoming.
[42:15]And fight in the way of God those
who fight with you, but aggress not: God loves
not the aggressors.[2:190]
Fight those who believe not
In Allah nor the Last Day,
Nor hold that forbidden
Which hath been forbidden
By Allah and His Messenger,
Nor acknowledge the Religion
Of Truth, from among
The People of the Book,
Until they pay the JizyahWith willing submission,
And feel themselves subdued.
[9:29; Ali transl.]
When you meet the unbelievers, smite their necks,
Then, when you have made wide slaughter among them,
tie fast the bonds;
then set them free, either by grace or ransom,
till the war lays down its loads.
So it shall be; and if God had willed,
He would have avenged Himself upon them;
But that He may try some of you by means of others.
And those who are slain in the way of God, He
Will not send their works astray.
He will guide them, and dispose their minds aright,
and He will admit them to Paradise,
that He has made known to them.
[47:4]I.The Importance of Jihad in the Koran. Jihad, or
striving/fighting in the way of Allah, is prescribed by Muhammad as
the superlative form of commitment to practically implementing
Allahs absolute sovereignty. Based on my reading of the Arberry and
Ali English translations of the Arabic text, about 96 of the Korans
114 surahs do not contain any passages that even generously can be
construed to prescribe jihad. The eighteen surahs that do contain
passages prescribing jihad and proscribing the motivations, means,
rules and norms governing it, are the following: 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9,
22, 29, 33, 47, 48, 49, 57, 59, 60, 61, and 73.
II.Interpreting Muhammads Prescription for Jihad. Two distinctly
different conceptions of jihad are maintained among Koranic
commentators.
A. The Modernist Perspective. Many though not all modernists
view the Koran
as an integrated and inseparable whole, and while not denying
the offensive military dimension of jihad in the Koran, view these
passages as exceptional expedients designed purely out of the need
for self-defense, and having been forced on Muhammads pacific and
righteous new faith. These modernists view jihad as a personal
psychological quest of the individual to rid themselves of moral
evil, to non-violently foment social justice and social compassion
amongst Muslims and humanity generally, and finally, as a
legitimate means of self-defense (a kind of just war doctrine)
rightfully claimed by all free and sovereign nations as an
inalienable right. It is also claimed that those who read a
primarily militant intent into the Koran are victims of
orientalism, i.e. a Eurocentric and prejudicial scholarly approach
upholding Western colonial ambitions. Whatever violence that may be
equated with Islam is not integrally related to the Koran itself,
but to intentional or unintentional recognition of Islam as
primarily a religion peacefully preaching a superior moral
universal, and the legitimate use of militant means when, and only
when, this superior moral universal comes under attack from within
or without. B. The Classical and Traditional Perspective. Many
though not all classical traditionalists hold a radically opposed
interpretation of Muhammads prescription for jihad in the Koran.
Muhammad, they claim, held a developmental-historical conception of
jihad, one that is reflected in the changing substantive
prescriptions for jihad as Muhammads community moved from a
position of extreme vulnerability and political-military weakness,
to a position of relatively favorable political-military strength.
According to the classic traditionalists, as Allahs community found
itself in a stronger and stronger position, earlier
revelations/recitations of the prophet were replaced or abrogated,
and that Allahs demands on the faith eventually found expression in
surahs requiring the offensive military projection of Islam as a
world-conquering faith. Like the modernists the classical
traditionalists also view the personal moral-spiritual quest to
purify ones intentions, thoughts, and soul as a highly regarded
means of fighting/striving in the way of Allah. And all of the
duties of a traditional Muslim as manifest in the five pillars of
Islamcreed, prayer, alms, fasting, and the Hajj pilgrimage as
crucial manifestations of righteousness. Also like the modernists,
self-defense is regarded as an inalienable and essential right of
Muslims who seek to ensure the free practice of their faith
community and its polity. However, for the classical
traditionalists these three forms of jihad (more below) are
incomplete without the fourth and possibly most important of all:
the expansionist military quest to bring the entire earth under
Islam under penalty of conversion, submission, or death in battle.
A logical progression of revelation exists, the classical
traditionalists assert, that ultimately and finally prescribes
offensive military jihad (for pure motives, and by just means) as a
prescription that earns its most loyal combatants a privileged
place in Allahs paradise. This logical progression is especially
evident as one begins with the 2nd surah, and charts the evolution
of revelation from counseling pacific pluralism and relative
tolerance, to militant monism and the unequivocal options of
conversion, surrender and submission, or death.
C. Classical traditionalists accuse modernists of turning a vice
(relative
weakness of the early umma) into a virtue, rather than properly
understanding Muhammads developmental revelatory experience that
led him ultimately to transform his emergent power and its
projection as the supreme virtue, and indeed, as evidence of Allahs
will. Modernists accuse classical traditionalists of cherry picking
the Koran to suit their own militant interpretations, failing to
comprehend the spirit rather than the letter of what it means to
strive/fight in the way of Allah, transforming what was only a
historically contingent military expedient into a matter of
permanent religious significance, and finally, of failing to
consider the Koran as a wholeunderstood as an indivisible
integrity, devoid of any notion of abrogation, repeal, or
replacement of lesser with fuller substantive revelations.I.Four
Forms of Jihad. What it actually means to fight in the way of Allah
is subject to extensive debate within and without the Islamic
world. Some of the key points of disagreement are noted above.
Regardless, it is accurate to interpret the concept of jihad in
four distinct and possibly interrelated ways.
A. Fighting in the Way of Allah, I. Jihad as the personal moral
struggle that each individual must constantly wage within
themselves to be righteous in intentions, thoughts, and deeds. This
vision of jihad is exclusively pacific and is focused inward toward
purification of the soul. Muhammad enjoins individuals to abide by
the dictates of a genuine righteousness and such righteousness
requires the pious individual to constantly struggle against their
own worst inclinations. This vision of jihad as personal-moral
crusade against ones own worst inclinations is similar to that
enjoined by Jewish rabbis and Christian preachers who call their
flocks to account for seeking opportunistic and unjust avenues for
personal aggrandizement rather than purification of ones
intentions.
B. Fighting in the Way of Allah, II. Islam requires the faithful
to practically enact their faith in the form of social justice,
mercy, and social compassion. While the first form of jihad is
focused on purity of intention and the state of ones heart and
soul, this second form of jihad embodies the universal ethical and
dutiful thrust of Islam, at least toward those who are adherents of
the faith. Such fighting in the way of allah involves the pen,
prayer and devotion, ritual humility and alms, repentance,
foregiveness, and kindly deeds. The practical organization of ones
conduct in relation to others is the focus of this form of
jihad.
C. Fighting in the Way of Allah, III. Jihad as Purely
Self-Defensive Warfare to
Protect Allahs Faithful from Attack. Jihad as self-defensive
military action is prescribed as a legitimate means for ensuring
the free practice of the Islamic faith and its right to exist as a
sovereign faith community.Self-defense against aggressors is
justified in order to ensure the existence of Allahs Messenger and
Message. More generally, Muslims have the right to defend their
rights to worship Allah and organize the Islamic umma on the basis
of Allahs revealed ethical and legal injunctions. Even in
self-defense, enemies are viewed as a potentially non-hostile party
and if an enemy ceases attack and permits freedom of the faith,
Muhammad counsels an end to military hostilities. D. Fighting in
the Way of Allah, IV: Jihad as Permanent Offensive Warfare to
Expand Universally and until a Final Triumph Allahs Faith. The
Koran in many key passages prescribes offensive, expansionist,
military jihad as the superlative form of jihad, one that is
ultimately most privileged by Allah. The options offered to
unbelievers encountered in this offensive military jihad are three:
conversion and entitlement to full rights as members of the Islamic
umma; submission, and subjection to the payment of tribute (jizya)
and the status of dhimmi or protected subject-population; or, death
by refusal to accept the first two options.
II.Waging Jihad: Motivations; Means; Strategy and Tactics; Peace
and Peace Treaties.
A. Motivation for Jihad. Only one motivation is acceptable in
the waging of
jihad, no matter which form it takes: love and devotion to
Allah, and to a lesser extent, his Messenger. Personal and selfish
motivation is strictly proscribed by Muhammad when waging jihad.
The desire to maximize ones possessions or secure favor with Allah
for personal or familial reasons is strictly proscribed.
B. Means for Waging Jihad. The means that may be used to fight
the military jihad, whether defensive or offensive, are proscribed:
captives may be taken and enslaved; women, children, the elderly,
and religious monks, are not to be killed; planted orchards, e.g
date palms and fruit trees, of ones enemies are not to be cut
down.
C. Military Strategy and Tactics for Waging Jihad. Muhammad
makes mention of several military strategies and tactics involving
fighting in ranks, concentration or dispersion of forces, ambush,
surprise-attack, reconnaissance and spying.
D. Peace and Peace-Treaties. The cessation of hostilities and/or
formation of pacts and alliancesare also addressed in the Koran.
III.Warriors, Martyrdom, and the Privileges of a Privileged
Paradise.A. The prescription to militarily defend and especially to
offensively fight to
conquer lands occupied by unbelievers occupies a uniquely
privileged role in the Koran. Like Christianity before it, Islam
promises to those who die while fighting in the way of Allah a
unique status, that of martyr (shahid). Martyrdom in Christianity
was attained by those who refused to disavow their faith in Jesus
as the Risen Lord, and non-violently suffered torture and often a
gruesome death. These martyrs were later often sanctified and
provided a unique proximate relation to God in Gods heavenly
paradise. The promise of a place at Gods table in paradisea
privilege for sureis done for love of God, but also it seems
because it is an honor and privilege to occupy an exalted status in
Gods world.
B. The Koran similarly privileges martyrs in Paradise, and like
Christianity
though dying in the process of fighting for Allah is strictly
and exclusively done to honor Allahs majesty, and out of love for
Allah, many sensuous and fleshly-worldly enticements often figure
in Muhammads preaching regarding the motivation and benefits to the
believer, of martyrdom.
C.Profoundly unlike Christianity, however, martyrdom is not
attained through the non-violent suffering unto death of an
individual who refuses a tortured confession and disavowal of their
faith. For Muhammad, martyrdom is achieved by Allahs military
forces in the midst of their expansionist offensive during which a
member of this faith community--while attempting to convert, exact
submission, or kill unbelieversis killed instead.
Key Koranic passages that identify fighting/striving in the way
of Allah, including all four forms referenced above(Ali
numbering)
2: 148, 190-193, 216-218, 246, 256, 262-263.
3: 13, 104, 121-123, 134-136, 150-58, 167-171, 195.
4: 71-78, 89-96.
5: 35.
8:12-19, 30, 38-48, 59-75.
9: 1-16, 20-24, 29, 36-49, 111, 123.
22: 39-41, 58-59, 78.
29: 68-69.
33: 18-27, 60-62.
47: 4-11, 20, 33-38.
48: 15-29.
49: 15.
57:10.
59: 2-14.
60: 1, 7-9.
61: 4, 11-13.
73: 20
_________
Appendix
Some Reflections on the Relationship between Islamic Modernists
and Fundamentalists over the Prescription for Jihad in the
Koran.
Paul Kamolnick, Ph.D., Associate Professor (2/2006 rev.)
(R. Peters ed. . Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam: A
Reader.
Princeton, NJ: Marcus Weiner, 1996. (1996: esp chapters 7 and
8).
R. Peters, ed
I. The Debate within Islam between Modernists (and among
Modernists) and Fundamentalists.
A.Islamic Modernists as Apologetic Defenders of the True but
Unfairly Reviled Caricature of an Islam Produced by Western
Orientalists.
1E.g. Mahmud Shaltuts Treatise, Koran and Fighting, pp. 72-80;
Peters [1979] 1996: 148.
2.How is this True Islam authorized? (1) An ahistorical method
of value-prejudiced Quranic interpretation (Shaltut, in Peters
1996:60-61).; (2) An idealized Past-Perfect presumed to have
historically and factually existed (Shaltut, in Peters 1996: e.g.
p. 62-63, 65, 68-69, 76f; p. 115-119).
3.What is the proper name that should be given to the Modernist
project, if not True Islam? Reformed or Revised Islam. Why? The
method of Quran interpretation and idealization of the Islamic past
are invalid fictions, and Islam must reform or revise the classical
doctrine of jihad because it is no longer morally acceptable to
Muslims and non-Muslims, or to God.
B.Islamic Fundamentalists as Defenders of the Classical True
Islam Forsaken by Modernists and Unbelievers in the Interest of
Peaceful Relations and an Abandonment of Gods Message, Prophet, and
Moral Demands.
1.E.g. Mawdudi, Hasan al-Banna, Sayyid Qutb.
2.How is this True Islam authorized? (1) An historical method of
value-prejudiced Quranic interpretation (e.g. Shaltut, in Peters
1996: 60-61; Peters 1996:115-118); (2) An idealized Past-Perfect,
and Future-Perfect, based on the earliest years of Islam as a
Shariah-based Caliphate rule.
II.Islam versus the West.
A. Islamic Modernists. Islam anticipates and exemplifies
virtually every major virtue of modern Western civilization, if
only it is truly understood. Islam is an ideal to which the West
should aspire, and there is no justification whatsoever in
believing that Islam promotes or condones a ceaseless war between
Islam and non-Islam, or that expansionist violence is authorized in
the Quran in any manner whatsoever.
B. Islamic Fundamentalism. Islam must replace the West because
the West is ruled by the doctrine that elevates the Sovereignty of
Man over the Sovereignty of God. The Western division of religion
and state, conceptions of pluralism, freedom, and rights are
diametrically opposed to those demanded of true adherents of the
pure Shariah state. Peaceful jihad is a capitulation to the West by
those who abandon Islam and attempt to mimic and find favor with
the West.
III.How to Reconcile these Two?
The Quran, and its classical interpretation, is in general, not
in dispute regarding the core meaning of jihad. The fundamentalists
are correct here.
The Quran does present contradictory passages, however, and
historically understood, along with other source material, permit
some room for interpretation.
The classical vision of Islamic jihad is incompatible with
modern international relations, and must be revised. The
alternative is a state of permanent warfare between True Believers
and their enemies, i.e. unbelievers and false-believers
(apostates).
Fundamentalists have more doctrinal and historical authority
than modernists, but modernists are willing to embrace major
aspects of secular/scientific modernity as compatible with Islam
(though they mistakenly call it True Islam rather than Reformed
Islam).
Is there a way to bring fundamentalist orthodoxy to relinquish
the classical doctrine of jihad, on the basis that selective
appropriation of aspects of the modern world are compatible with a
revised view of what it means to live under God and the religious
laws (shariah) required to uphold such?