DOMESTIC HOMICIDE, Intimate Partner Homicide – A Portuguese Case Review

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DOMESTIC HOMICIDE Intimate Partner Homicide – A Portuguese Case Review

António M.C. Castanho1

This review of 20 intimate partner homicides is intended to be one more component for

sustaining knowledge about domestic homicide in Portugal and at the same time to

contribute to the development of the Portuguese Risk Assessment Instrument of

Domestic Violence (RVD) for the use of the Portuguese Police Forces.

Purposes – To verify the most common risk factors in domestic homicide; to confirm

if their prevalence could indicate an increased risk of homicide; substantiate why some

indicators may be more relevant than others and detect the presence of additional

indicators / items; adjustment of risk factors present in the RVD.

Method - From a group of 55 homicide case files submitted by the Lisbon District

Attorney (Procuradoria-Geral Distrital de Lisboa) 20 homicides were selected,

corresponding to 19 case files. These homicides occurred between 2009 and 2012. The

19 cases reviewed have concurred with cases of homicide committed by an intimate

partner. The cases were selected as they provided the greatest amount of information.

Initially, the analysis focused on in depth reading of the cases files "searching" for

behaviours linked to the homicides to better comprehend the facts.

Next a risk assessment form (RVD) in construction was applied chronologically to the

cases in order to identify the risk markers that arose during the analysis.

Simultaneously complementary grids were created.

Results – The more prevalent and frequently highlighted risk factors identified were:

separation or intention of separation / estrangement; previous domestic violence;

jealous / obsessive / controlling behaviour by the offender; escalation of violence in the

month prior to the murder, possession or easy access to a firearm, use or threat to use

weapons, and threats of suicide or homicide. Other indicators that emerged were the

presence of emotional instability on perpetrators (possible depression, suicidal ideation

and social isolation).

KEYWORDS: Domestic Violence; Review, Homicide; Risk Assessment.

1 In the period of the Fourth National Plan against Domestic Violence (2011-2013), the Directorate General of

Internal Administration, with support from the University of Minho, in conjunction with the Portuguese Police

Forces, and in partnership with the Lisbon District Attorney (PGDL) and the Porto District Attorney (PGDP)

developed and validated a tool for risk assessment (RVD) for all domestic violence scenarios (domestic violence,

violence on ascending / descending or otherwise) for use in Police Forces.

The Author is member of the scientific team of the project, a psychologist and researcher.

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INTRODUCTION

Domestic abuse and specifically the violence between intimate partners is a major cause

of death and injury to women across the world and some of the most extreme acts of

violence and abuse occurring in the community takes place within the "family

harmony".

Without an appropriate and effective community intervention, domestic violence may

elevate in severity and lead to homicide. When domestic abuse results in homicide,

often is a reflection of the failure of the community in identifying its severity and

potential lethality and simultaneously plays its role in a opportune intervention.

Nearly half of women homicide in the world is caused by an ex-partner or current

partner. In some countries, women homicide reaches 70% of the total number of

homicides (WHO, 2002). In the USA in 2008, about 45% of women homicides and 5%

of male homicides were committed by an intimate partner (Cooper & Smith, 2011). In

the UK in 2009, 54% of women and 5% of men were victims of intimate partner

homicide (Smith et al., 2011)

Based on 48 population-based surveys conducted worldwide, between 10-69% of

women reported being physically abused by their intimate partner at some time in their

lives (Rennison & Welchans, 2000; WHO, 2002).

According to the Portuguese Annual Report of Homeland Security (RASI 2012) there

were recorded 22,247 crimes of domestic violence against a spouse or similar and in

2012 is the 5th most frequent crime and the 2nd most common crime committed against

persons. Also in the same year there were a total of 149 homicides, 37 of which related

to homicide against an intimate partner, 10 more than in 2011 which represent a 37%

increase.

Each year dozens of victims of domestic abuse are dying in Portugal and the figures

have not expressed a downward trend.

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Intimate partner homicide is not a random act and often follows a history of abuse and

violence. To act upon each case is necessary to understand, interpret and subsequently

announce the risk by adopting protective measures and security.

Therefore there is clearly a need to improve the recognition and attention to the risks

and threats at each stage of intervention and develop strategies to respond, engage and

solve problems facing those at risk, especially in high-risk situations.

Many times there are predictive elements, for example victims and / or perpetrators may

have contacted a number of more or less extended agencies and community services

preceding the homicide.

The key to the prevention of domestic homicide rests on a better understanding of

patterns, leading indicators and deficits in existing responses.

DEVELOPMENT

Previous violence has been identified in research as one of the most well-established

risk factors (Campbell et al 2003a; Campbell et al 2003b; Campbell et al 2007;

Moracco, Runyan & Butts 2003).

Dobash (2007) states that, there is a minority in convicted murderers who had never

exercised previous violence. It was further observed that the murderers who killed an

intimate partner were more likely to have used violence in previous relationships.

A different risk factor accepted and acknowledged is separation or intention to separate

from the abuser. Separation was recorded in almost all studies analysed as the main risk

factor for the exercise of violence or homicide (Wilson et al 1993; Walby & Myhill

2001; Aldridge et al 2003; Richards 2003; Belfrage et al 2004; Dobash, Cavanagh &

Lewis 2004; Campbell et al 2007; Dobash et al 2007;). According to Campbell et al.

(2003) attempts to end the relationship are strongly related to intimate partner homicide.

Several studies indicate that between one-third to half of all women killed by partners

had separated or had the intention to separate at the time of murder and that the initial

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phase of separation, especially the first three months, are extremely dangerous (Dawson

& Gartner, 1998; Wallace, 1986; Wilson & Daly, 1993).

The mental health issues are also regarded by some authors as an indicator of risk in

relation to the exercise of future violence or homicide (Aldridge & Browne, 2003). In

his 2013 study, Jaffe states that 56% of domestic homicide perpetrators were depressed

or had other psychopathological conditions and 51% of them threatened or attempted

suicide.

In the same study to 1,180 offenders convicted of intimate partner homicide and 251

convicted of murder of another family member, Jaffe noted that 14% of the killers of an

intimate partner and 23% of those convicted for murder of another family member had

experienced contact with mental healthcare services in the year previous to the facts;

20% of the intimate partner killers and 34% of a family member killers manifested other

symptoms of psychopathology at the time of the homicide.

Jaffe also found that offenders with symptoms of psychopathology at the time of the

homicide were less likely than those who did not have these symptoms, and that in the

past, some offenders had a problems related to consumption or alcohol abuse.

In the area of mental health, the intense jealousy is also seen as a factor that

significantly increases the risk (Belfrage et al 2004; Nicolaidis et al 2003; Serran &

Firestone 2002 and Wilson & Daly 1993), which is often anchored in suspicions of

infidelity or any intention of separation by the victim (Serran & Firestone; Wilson &

Daly 1993).

Two factors maintain jealousy: the idea of infidelity (triggered by the behaviour of the

partner) and an emotional predisposition of the individual linked to certain personality

traits (paranoid, dependent, borderline personality, etc.), or a concomitant psychiatric

disorder (Manggini 2006; Gehl 2010). The authors concluded that the persistence of

personality traits such as dependent, aggressive, suspicion and manipulation, defines

how an individual will experience and express jealousy.

Marazziti et al. (2010) explored the relationship between attachment styles and

dimensions of jealousy in healthy subjects. Found that people with insecure attachment

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styles (especially preoccupied and avoidant style) have a greater fear of losing the

partner, which could be the key phenomenon in the genesis of jealousy and triggering

obsessive thoughts and behaviour control.

Campbell et al (2003) states that when the partner is very controlling, leaving becomes

quite dangerous, especially in the period immediately after separation (see also Aldridge

et al 2003).

A study of Bossarte et al (2006) links the jealousy and possessiveness about the intimate

partner as motivational factors in the situations of homicide/suicide and emphasizes the

significance of suicide threats (even in the form of ideation) as a risk factor.

Belfrage & Rying (2004) encountered a homicidal suicide rate four times higher among

marital or intimate relationships. Campbell (2003) noted that suicide risk on offenders

in domestic homicide is significant even when there is no history of physical abuse in

the relationship.

Homicide followed by suicide or suicide attempts are strongly correlated with intimate

relationships (Barraclough & Harris 2002; Bossarte, Simon & Barker 2006; Campbell et

al 2007).

Aldridge & Brown (2003) found, in cases of murder-suicide, higher rates of depression,

alcohol abuse, history of violent behaviour and personality disorders than in cases

where the perpetrator did not commit suicide.

METHODS

SAMPLE

Of a group of fifty five cases of domestic homicide sent by the Lisbon District Attorney,

40 occurred in similar relationships to those of spouses or partners (including former

partners or former spouses), 8 in relations of ascendancy / descendants, 2 in LGBT

relations and in 5 cases the relationship is unknown. The 20 homicides selected (from

19) case files occurred between 2009 and 2012.

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The 19 case files selected and analysed have coincided with homicides committed by an

intimate partner. The cases were chosen taking as a criterion the highest amount of

information present in files.

MATERIALS AND DATA COLLECTION

The different data related to the selected homicides and files were:

1. Proved facts existing in legal cases which included socio-demographic and

factual information (e.g. date of death, age, address, etc.) concerning the victim

along with a narrative of the circumstances in which the homicide took place.

Also present are the causes of death (e.g. trauma - cuts / stabs, shots from a

firearm, strangulation, suffocation).

2. Data on the information contained in the processes but have not moved into the

decisions of prosecution. This information emerged included a thorough review

and consideration of information on risk factors present in the RVD sheet, type

and duration of the relationship, number and gender (s) victims and aggressors.

After selection, the case files available were analysed individually for gathering the

maximum amount of information that could contribute to the understanding of some

common factors, namely patterns of behaviour.

Initially, the analysis focused on each homicide, deep reading "seeking" behaviours

linked to the homicides that allowed a better understanding of the facts behind the

personal tragedies of each of these cases. After that it was made a chronological

hindsight application of the RVD to the case files in order to detect the items that were

emerging during the analysis.

Simultaneously, as other indicators arose, additional grid analysis have been set up

aimed to ascertain the characteristics of the offenders and victims and circumstances

associated with the event such as: Relationship; Time elapsed between separation and

murder; 1st complaint filed; Homicide date; Crime scene; Reason for homicide

(claimed by the offender); Weapon or method used in the homicide; Outcome for the

offender; Age of the offender and victim; Presence of children in the household and

whether they have witnessed the homicide and other aspects that were considered

relevant or potentially significant.

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The review was conducted extensively and in detail and the events having been

screened for each case, individually.

Within the existing information it was analysed the history, circumstances and

behaviour of perpetrators, victims and families; community and systemic responses

were also examined in order to observe the primary risk factors for identifying possible

points of intervention and recommendations to prevent future deaths. This amount of

information has been only possible to retrieve in two of the case files.

RESULTS

From the victims, 85% were women aged between 22 and 49 years. 16 were

Portuguese, 3 Cape Verdean, 1 Brazilian and 1 from Sao Tome. From the 19 offenders

89.5% were men, aged between 22 and 76 years, 15 were Portuguese, 3 Cape Verdean,

1 Brazilian and 1 from Sao Tome.

In 15.8% of cases, there was a current relationship and in 84.2% existed past marital or

former relationship. One of the cases was a double homicide; one victim was the son of

the former acquaintance of offender.

In 57.9% of cases there were children in the household and in 21.1% of cases the

children witnessed the homicide.

In one case the children were used by the perpetrator of the victim approach to perform

the assassination.

Table 1 – Demographic characteristics for 20 victims and 19 offenders

Victim Offender

Sex

Female 85% 15%

Male 10,5% 89,5%

Age (Range)

22-49 22-76

Nationality

Portuguese 16 15

Cape Verdean 3 3

Brazilian 1 1

São Tome 1 1

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Relationship Status Former Current

84,2% 15,8%

Children in the household Yes No

57,9% 42,1%

Children in the household witnessed Yes No

21,1% 78,9%

In respect the time elapsed between the intended separation or homicide attempt we

found that in 52.6% of cases the time interval from separation and homicide was less

than 1 month, 21.1% occurred within a period of time between 1 and 2 months, 5.3%

occurred in the period between 2 and 6 months and 21.1% of these homicides took

place six months after separation.

Figure 1 - Time elapsed between separation and homicide

As for the crime scene, it was found that the majority of the homicides occurred in the

residence where the victims lived or the door of households (52.6%), 21.1% took place

in the street, 10.5% of homicides inside the victim`s car and 5.3% in the victim´s

parent´s home.

0

2

4

6

8

10

Less than 1month

Between 1and 2

months

More than 2and lessthan 6

months

More than 6months

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Figure 2 – Crime Scene

In the homicides examined, separation or intent of separation, estrangement, jealousy,

humiliation / honour and child custody emerge with the reasons or implied reasons

given by aggressors for the practice of homicide.

We found that in 42.1% of homicides firearms were used. Bladed weapons were also

used in another 42.1% of cases.

Figure 3 - Murder weapon

The dynamic murder-suicide or suicidal ideation was recorded in 26.3% of the

situations. In 15.8% of cases existed attempts, one resulted in serious injuries and in

5.3% in murder followed by suicide (in this event two attempted murders took place).

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Parent´s home

Next to the victim's residence…

Inside the victim's car

Thoroughfare (after following the…

Victim´s work place

Residence of the victim, offender

012345678

Bladedweapons

Firearm Otherobjects

Firearmand

OtherObjects

Firearmand

bladedweapons

Bladed weapons

Firearm

Other objects

Firearm and OtherObjects

Firearm and bladedweapons

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RISK FACTORS MOST COMMON MARKED

In this review process, there has distinct amount of information in each case file

however the RVD was applied to each one.

The case files were screened chronologically using the RVD, using as entry present = 1

and absent = 0 and the items were being flagged as they arose throughout the case files

and were marked as present or absent. During this process we could verify the wide

variation in the amount of information in each of the cases.

The presence of risk factors present in the case files ranged from 2 for the case with less

information (Case 8) to 18 in the case with more information (case 1). The average

number of items checked in 19 cases was 6.71.

It should be noted that the absence means that the item has not been detected in parts of

the process and does not mean it did not exist in that relationship. Such deepening could

be better researched with access to more information from the community (e.g.: Health,

testimonies from family, friends or other resources).

The risk factors most frequently marked were: separation or intention for separation,

history of domestic violence, jealousy / obsessive / control behaviour by the offender,

escalating violence in the month prior to the homicide, possession or easy access to a

firearm, the use or threat of use of firearm in a previous time, threats of suicide or

homicide to the victim or other family members and history of violence for more than a

year.

As mentioned, a zero indicated did not mean that the risk factor was not present but that

the existing information could not establish its presence. Figure 4 refers to the

frequency at which risk factors were marked in the 19 cases and demonstrates the most

frequent.

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Figure 4 – Risk Factor Presence in the Cases

Risk factors

Nº of times

Identified in

the 19 cases

21. Had the victim recently became separated / moved away, attempted or has expressed intention

to do so, to the offender (in the 6 months prior to the murder)? 19/19

3. Had the victim suffered physical violence prior to the homicide (in any other occasion)? 14/19

12. Had the offender tried to control the activities of the victim, showed excessive jealousy, and /

or stalked the victim? 14/19

5. Had the number of violent episodes or its severity increased in the preceding month to

homicide? 12/19

8. Had the offender a gun or easy access to one? 11/19

9. Has the offender used or threatened to use some kind of weapon at some point before the

homicide? 10/19

10. Had the offender threatened to commit suicide, or to kill the victim or any other relatives? 10/19

4. Has the 1st episode of violence one year before homicide? 9/19

2. Had the victim fear of being killed by this offender? 8/19

13. Had the offender showed emotional/psychological instability and was not being accompanied

by health professional and / or did not take medication that has been prescribed. 8/19

19. Had the offender significant financial problems and / or difficulty in keeping employment

(during the last year)? 8/19

1. Were there any previous complaints filed against the offender, reporting the use of physical

violence? 7/19

15. Had the offender any criminal history with detentions and / or convictions? 6/19

16. Had the offender any issues concerning violence / assault with third parties and / or stalked

others in infeasibility of directly hurting the victim? 6/19

20. Was there any conflict related to children custody or contact during the last year? 4/19

14. Had the offender any problems related to alcohol consumption, antidepressants, tranquilizers or

other drugs, hindering a normal daily life (during the last year)? 3/19

6. Had the offender carried any sexual violence on the victim? 2/19

7. Was it required any medical attention after the assault and / or had the injuries committed other

normal every day activities of the victim at some point preceding the homicide? 2/19

11. Has the offender attempted to quell, choke (tightening the neck), drowning the victim or any

other family member, prior to the murder. (Included "physical torture" -ex. burning, throwing

acid)?

2/19

18. Has the offender violated a court order (e.g. .: prohibition on contacts / go-out order ...) 2/19

23. Was the victim pregnant or had a baby in the last 18 months? 2/19

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22. Had the victim or someone else in the household special needs (e.g. .: due to physical or mental

illness, old age, disability, addiction to alcohol / drugs ...)? 1/19

24. Was the victim with no regular support from others (family, friends, neighbours, colleagues,

supporting institution ...)? 1/19

17. Had the offender abused, threatened or killed mistreat any household pet (e.g. .: for pleasure /

revenge / to affect the victim) 0/19

ITEMS THAT MAY INDICATE AN INCREASED RISK OF

HOMICIDE

We looked at presence of the items and found that in all cases separation/intended

separation or estrangement had been present.

In 73.7% of the homicides existed previous episodes of violence and control, excessive

jealousy and persecution; in 63.2% of cases there was an increase in the intensity or

severity of the violence in the month before the murder; in 57.9% of cases the offender

had a firearm or an easy access to one; in 52.6% of the situations the offender had

already threatened to use some kind of weapon and this was the same percentage

recorded for the presence of threats of suicide-homicide by the offender; in 47.4% of the

cases the 1st episode of violence occurred at least one year before the homicide.

Chart 4 - Items logged between 9-19 times in the 19 cases

In 42.1% of cases were present the fear of the victim in being murdered, emotional or

psychologically unsettled of the offender, significant financial problems and or

difficulty maintaining a job by the offender (over the last year).

0

20

40

60

80

100

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Earlier complaints filed with the use physical violence appear in 36.8% of homicides

and 31.6% appear the criminal history (any crime) with detentions or convictions of

murder, as well as problems with third parties regarding violence/assault and/or stalking

in the infeasibility of mistreating the victim directly.

Situations of prior conflicts related to the custody or contact with the children over the

past year were observed in 21.1% of situations. In 15.8% of cases the offenders had

problems with alcohol, antidepressants, tranquilizers or other drugs that didn´t let them

have a normal daily life in the last year.

In 10.5% of cases, the offender had already performed sexual violence on the victim,

the victim needed medical care following the assault and/or the injuries have

compromised the victims normal daily activities on previous occasions, attempted

strangulation, suffocation, drowning the victim or other family member (including

"physical torture" ex. burning, throwing acid) (this or another victim) existed, there had

been violation of court order (e.g.: ban on contacts / removal of the victim's residence ...

) and the victim was pregnant or there was birth of a baby in the prior 18 months.

In 5.3% of the cases the victim or someone else in the household had special needs

(e.g.: due to physical or mental illness, old age, disability, addiction to alcohol / drugs

...), and absence of regular support from third parties (family, friends, neighbours,

colleagues, supporting institution...);

In no event was noted the presence of abuse, threats of abuse or death of domestic

animals by the offender (e.g.: for pleasure / revenge / to affect the victim).

DISCUSSION

The primary objective outlined of this homicide review was to collect as much

information as possible to contribute to the understanding of some common factors in

domestic homicide in Portugal, particularly behavioural patterns on the part of the

offenders, and rose out some recurring patterns in the existing extensive international

research as: Separation, intention of separation or estrangement followed by other more

"expressive" factors such as the existence of previous episodes of violence occurred in

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73.7% of cases, 1st episode of violence one year before the homicide in 47.4% of cases;

behaviour control, excessive jealousy and stalking appeared in 73.7% of cases; in 63.2%

of cases there was an increase in the intensity or severity of violence in the month prior

to the homicide; in 57.9% the offender had a firearm or easy access to one and in 52.6%

the offender had already threatened to use some kind of weapon; in 52.6% of cases there

was a presence of threats of suicide/homicide by the offender.

These data confirm the resemblance of our study with the data obtained in other

international studies in respect to the most linked indicators to intimate partner

homicide.

Coming back to the items from our study and with regard to the most prevalent factor,

separation, we find that in the analysed cases the offenders have not allowed the victims

to leave the relationship. Offenders triggered attempts to preserve the abusive

relationship using an escalation of violence to the point of lethality, and in two of the

cases the victims packed up their belongings to be able leave home when they were

surprised and killed by offender.

Leaving a domestic abuse relationship is frequently a very difficult, complex and

dangerous process, compounded by the specific contexts of life and the intersection of

submission of forms of oppression. In risk assessment the nature of the relationship, the

context of separation, levels of possessiveness, jealousy and the control the victim by

the offender may be key factors.

The assessment of the level and intensity of these factors may constitute a key element

in this dynamic process and the risk assessment and risk management is strongly

influenced by the time available for intervention that may prove limited.

We should remember that in 52.6% of cases the time interval from separation and

homicide was less than 1 month, and in some cases under a week after separation;

21.1% occurred in a time period between 1 and 2 months.

As we also saw previously in certain relationships, separation can constitute the turning

point in which violence may increase in frequency or severity and in other cases where

before there was any violence, this will start after separation.

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Leaving the relationship can represent a change in risk factors and an increase in the

ratio of violence and in the risk assessment dynamics and process, for the victim and

family. Thus, it becomes essential to understand that the separation may be the

"solution" to end a violent relationship or when poorly managed, a trigger to a lethal

outcome.

Equally significant is to realize that, according to the available data, only in 36.8% of

homicide existed prior complaints registered.

Nevertheless as mentioned before a situation of domestic abuse that results in the death

of the victim is often not a first assault and is likely to have been preceded by

psychological and emotional abuse and some people and institutions may have had

knowledge of previous incidents - the neighbours may have heard of violence, a

physician might have examined the injuries, colleagues and friends may hold valuable

information and the police might have been called and there may be previous cases

filled.

Jaffe (2013) states that in 73% of cases family knew the situation, in 65% of cases the

police were aware, in 57% lawyers, 42% co-workers, family physicians in 33% of cases

and in 22% of cases the victim support services. Websdale (2000) in is critical analysis

about lethality assessment tool states “sharing information, albeit in the form of

impersonal enumeration, may enhance communication among service professionals,

lead to increased awareness and greater proactive interventions, and, hopefully launch

further discussions about how best to curb these atrocities”.

In this respect too, the Fourth Annual Report of the Domestic Violence Review

Committee (Ontario, 2006) mentioned that most of the domestic abuse homicides could

be prevented if professionals and/or the public were more aware of the risk of existing

lethality and the dynamics of domestic abuse. Consequently we realize the importance

of networking and joining information for a better prevention.

Most of the homicides took place in the residence where the victims lived or at the door

of the victim's households suggesting that in most cases the offenders tracked and knew

the routines of victims.

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Regarding the offenders mental health, it was found that the morbid jealously existed in

most circumstances irrespective of any personality disorders, which may include

schizophrenia, mood disorders, alcohol abuse and others, many on comorbid conditions.

Some of the offenders in our study were characterized by obsessive jealously and

obsessive checking behaviour of partners.

The selected cases showed a strong "clinical" component associated with that. The

homicide appears linked to suicide as a dyad being always present. It was also evident

an omnipotent and pathological need to control the other. Moreover psychopathological

factors were also present in the intentionality and motivation of the perpetrators.

In all cases, suicidal ideation was present, although it was not possible to access clinical

information that supported this information. In the case of double homicide and

homicide followed by suicide, there are strong indicators, either by actions of the

murderer either the utterances addressed to various people over the years that suicide

was a recurring idea in the functioning of the aggressor.

CONCLUSIONS

This work have deepened somewhat the knowledge about potentially lethality and signs

of violence ongoing in cases of domestic violence in Portugal, particularly between

partners on intimate relationships, especially in respect to stalking, obsessive jealousy,

emotional instability, the severity/escalating violence and coercive behaviour

immediately after separation.

Our review has identified a further set of data or indicators which can be important in

assessing the risk of homicide joining the previously accepted, namely the existence of

clinical depression and social withdrawal of the offender both in employment and in

social situations.

It was confirmed that, as in other studies, unlike murder committed by strangers,

homicide on domestic abuse is not typically a sudden and unexpected crime. These

homicides were often the climax of violence increased in a relationship where there was

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already a history of violence and a pattern of abuse. The episodes of domestic abuse

have been often repeated by the offenders and the violence has escalated in most cases

over time.

We found in these 19 cases, those efforts of a rupture in the relationship and on

cessation of violence where were present patterns of physical or emotional coercion was

determining factors for the lethal outcome.

Contextual and situational factors included in the majority of these cases, a history of

violence from offenders towards victims, especially aggravated after the separation and

often translated into death threats perceived as reliable by the victims.

In a more systemic perspective we establish that although there were perturbing

indicators, like requests for help made by victims to the community system and share of

fears with family and friends, in some cases neither the informal networks or system

operators recognized the signs of warning, revealing that sometimes we are inept "to

connect the dots" and we only see the isolated incidents or individual signs, rather than

patterns of behaviour.

To be able act on the indicators one must first get to know them, interpret them and

thereafter declare the danger. There is therefore a need to improve the recognition and

attention to the risks and dangers at every stage of intervention providing the entire

network with information and training, and enabling it to respond and solve problems

facing those at risk.

As with the reviewed literature, our sample also indicates a strong relationship between

the offender potential suicidal ideation (related to possible depression) and homicide of

the victims. Therefore, we believe that the training of qualified professionals can

explore suicide risk, personality disorders and depression to develop an instrument for

risk assessment.

When we started this analysis we considered the hypothesis that cases of murder and

homicide followed by suicide could not be predicted or anticipated. Having reviewed

these 19 cases in detail from different angles this possibility may exist.

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Throughout this report we came across a large diversity of information in procedural

contents that were reviewed and major limitations were found on the missing

information that were not only confined to the fact finding for prosecution.

In a review methodology it is essential to have access to wide-ranging data, since when

trying to understand retrospectively the homicides in domestic violence we must bear in

mind that in order to improve or change procedures to be put in place to prevent other

homicides from happening, any information might change the risk management.

An improvement in data collection should be adopted with or without a mechanism for

reviewing domestic violence homicides.

Practices shall include, improvements in law enforcement information systems,

ensuring signalling homicides related to domestic violence more systematically and

precisely, creating and keeping in operation a database for monitoring homicides related

to domestic violence, developing therefore a mechanism for the identification and

reporting of suicides related to domestic violence.

Conducting domestic homicide reviews is a way to acquire a better understanding about

the nature and pattern of domestic violence and its lethality. Using this and other

strategies, homicide by an intimate partner in Canada experienced a decline of 32% in

the period between 1980 and 2010. In Portugal this crime has remained without

significant variation reduction, as is evident from the existing reports.

The homicide prevention is thus an important criminal strategy goal in all countries and

the prevention of intimate partner homicide is a crucial part of this goal, especially for

female victims. Conducting reviews of homicide allows identifying weaknesses in

services and making recommendations on policies, services and resources to fill these

deficiencies.

We found empirically that the understanding of the true magnitude of the problem is

hampered by the existing data systems being necessary viable approaches to

systematically collect information on behaviours and relationships between victims and

offenders.

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In the homicides emerged, separation or intent of separation; coercive control,

surveillance, stalking, jealousy and other indicators related to emotional instability of

the attackers. These factors should be addressed with special emphasis on the training to

professionals who work with domestic violence to certify they can be properly screened

and understood. For a deep understanding, risk assessment should be monitored

periodically by collecting more complete and updated on events or key indicator

elements.

The collection of information should include the relationship of violence against

previous partners especially just as "emotional” assessment followed by evaluation of

the mental health of offenders (depression). A significant minority of perpetrators of

homicide in the study appeared to have symptoms of depressive psychopathology up to

the homicides. We were unable to determine if some of the offenders have had contact

with mental health services in the year preceding the crime.

Risk reduction can be attained through initiatives to encourage individuals with mental

health issues to pursue health services and simultaneously an improvement in

networking including social services, security forces and support services for victims

and perpetrators of domestic violence.

On this investigation some questions were answered by the case files but many more

remained unanswered and it is essential to review the systemic problems to prevent and

resolve gaps in existing community responses.

As we have seen, there is a body of evidence that demonstrates that the domestic /

family homicide may be undervalued considering some of the above indicators. In its

most extreme form, domestic violence can be fatal, and although the murder is a

relatively infrequent occurrence in Portugal we consider that conducting a homicide

review in domestic violence is a way to get better information and understanding the

nature, pattern and lethality of domestic violence.

One of the early experiences in domestic violence homicide review made by an

appropriately established team occurred in 1993 in California (Los Angeles County) in

the United States and is considered the forerunner of other models of existing

20

international review, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand and in those

countries it is possible to find numerous literature, some of it very influenced from these

reviews. In the USA the National Domestic Violence Fatality Review Initiative

(NDVFRI) Directed by Professor Neil Websdale, is one of the references in the world

on this subject.

Overall a domestic homicide review generally intends to develop an extended

understanding of the phenomenon of homicide in domestic violence and how can it be

prevented. In some reviews the use of experts to more specific issues may be

appropriate.

We may learn from the death of victims and with this learning the deficiencies can be

addressed.

21

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