DOCUMENT RESUME - ERICDOCUMENT RESUME ED 246 529 EA 016 979 1 AUTHOR Avis, Joan P.; Bigelow, Elizabeth D. TITLE Improving the Human Environment of Schools: Facilitation. INSTITUTION

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 246 529 EA 016 9791

AUTHOR Avis, Joan P.; Bigelow, Elizabeth D.TITLE Improving the Human Environment of Schools:

Facilitation.INSTITUTION California State Dept. of Education, Sacramento.PUB DATE 84NOTE 105p.; For a related documerit, see ED 186 076.AVAILABLE FROM Publications Sales, California State Department of

Education, P.O. Box 271, Sacramento, CA 95802-0271($5.50; California residents add sales tax).

PUB TYPE Guides Non-Classroom Use (055)

EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.DESCRIPTORS Change Strategies; Communication Skills; Conflict

Resolution; Divergent Thinking; *EducationalEnvironment; Elementary Secondary Education; GoalOrientation; Group Dynamics; *Group Guidefice; Mode*Participative Decision Making; *Problem Solving;Recordkeeping

IDENTIFIERS Consensus; *Facilitatots

ABSTRACTThis training guide and reference manual helps

educational leaders learn to be facilitators in the program called"Improving the Humananvironment of Schools" (IHES), a participativeproblem-solvingmethod designed to improve a school's "quality oflife." An introductory chapter reviews the'history of IHES andoutlines IHES facilitator training. Chapters 2 through 6 follow the3-day IHES training program. Chapter 2 presents the building blocksof IHES facilitation, including a review of basic-communicationskills and the advanced skills of managing.cOnflict and anger.Chapter 3 describes the components of IHES facilitation and theprocess of facilitating IHES group meetings. Chapter 4 outlines theprinciples and techniques of problem solving in small groups. Chapter5 discusses background material on small-group processes andstrategies for maintaining an IHES group as a fully functioningentity in the school. Chapter 6 provides information on advanced IHESfacilitation methods and suggestions for improving skills. Next, theappendix describes how an IHES group is established. finally, theauthors present a list of references on small-group processes,conflict management,' communication, and facilitation. (Author/MCG)

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**********************-*************************************************Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made r*

from the original document.***********************************************************************

IMINIATSONNATIONAL NATITUTII OP IIOLIOATION

IOUCATION L hspunces INFORMATIONCINTIR IIRICI

xthis rl mom his ham *produced asrecoil from the parson or organVallonorigin long itMon changes hays been made to improversp uction duality.

Pints of kriffw or opinions stat.d on this docurant do not necessarily tiplesent official Nil

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Improvingthe Human

Environmentof Schools

Joan P. AvisCa Worn& State Department of Education'

Elizabeth D. BigelowUniversity of San Francisco

olf

Publishing Information

This manual was written by Joan P. Avis and Elizabeth aBigelow undar the direction of the Office of IntergroupRelations, State Department of Education. The manual wasedited by Edward O'Malley and was prepared for photo-offsetproduction by the staff of the Bureau of Publications, StateDepartment of Education, with layout and artwork by Paul Lee.The document was published by the State Department ofEducation, 721 Capitol Mall, Sacramento, CA 95814'4785; wasprinted by the Office of State Printing; and was distributedunder the provisions of the Library Distribution Act andGovernment CodeSection 11096.

Copyright, 1984California State Department of Education

Copies of this publication are available for $5.50 each, plus salestax for California residents, from Publications Sales, CaliforniaState Department of Education, P.O. Box 271, Sacramento,CA 95802-0271. A list of other publications available from theDepartment may be found on page 98 of this manual.

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'Chapter IIntrodiiction to IHES Facilitation 1

What Are: III ES Groups?Ilistray of the, IHES 'Concept 2Oveivim of IIIES 4OverVft nw of the IVianu41 5In Conclusion Begianing V 6

,.Chapter 4, Communication Skills for the Facilitator .I.

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DevelOping Accurate Perceptions

7

7Active Listening ,i, 9Responding and Clarifying - 10'Resolving, onflicts '14

,,,

Chapie 3Basic IHES Facilitation 196

EJses of, the IHES Facilitation Method 19

Roles'and Responsibilities of the Facilitator .22Fundamentals of ,Facilitation ..-. 24Summary. of Phases aria Steps in the IliES Facilitation Process 33Role and Responsibilities of the Recorder . 34Duties of the Recorder 35

Chapter 4Problem-Solving C ncepts and MethodsWhat Is a Problem9Consensus 7Problem-Solving SequenceTechniques . ,

rChapter 5Maintaining an Effective IHES Group

,. .

IHES Group PrpcesS ,

Life Cycles of a Group , ..

Motivation of an IHES Group ,

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Chapter 6Advanced Facilitation , 75

Physical 'F,nvironment 75Shaping and Pacing d i 77Probtem Members 81

qualities of a Good Facilitator 87

AppendixA Postscript: Establishing an DIES Group 91'

Preconditions for a Successful IHES Group. 91

c:omposition of an 1HES Group 92

Selected References 95

Comments and Suggestions on WES Facilitation . 97

iv

/manual, entitled Improving thr11nmini

Envirinunem of Schools was writtento golde school leadershipporsoruiel in their effits tosolve school Problems throu iAthe involvement ;Oldparticipation of the school Inutility: teachers,students, parents, staff, and cOmmunity members.Although these persons often hold diverse poi.litit:.ofview. they have it common interest in improving 4,411school's human environment. 4!

IIIES facilitation presents the philosetphy ofJ.\

-

collaborative dMiSii)11 making as well as !mit:Mures fve",group problem' solving developed in Ow' Offitx ofIntergroup Relations, CalitOrnia State Department ofEducation.

The RIS facilitation method haS'been taught to..1,school district and school pet-sot-Tel in northernsouthern California and has been empIOYed.si vessfully rip several schools to solve schoolen% mment-re Wed problems that. Mite affitcting

*student iwhievfiment. The manual was designedprimarily as a reference guide foe persons wllopaticipao; in the RIES facilitation (mining provided lwthe Office of Intergroup Relations. It also can serve asa valuable text for those who have not had the trainingbut who wish tp learn the method.

We extend our special thanks to .foan,P Avis,Consilium( in the Office of Interizou Relations 'andprincipal author of the manual an ncipal trainer inthe WES facilitation method, and, : lizabeth D.Bigelow, Asistant Professor at thf Vniversity.i.of SanFrancisco and a major contqujeorto the developmentof the manual. k

JAMES R tir>1,1111Minify SuileririirruLrit.t'urnuilloryl andInstructional 1.1,a(ircship

7 7 1

2.-77271

PEES A GRIFFINChief Office of

,k intergroup' Refibtions

1

Improving the /Inman Environment of Schools IMES/FaciiitiltiliT is a manual' designed to assist yoti duringthe course of``/vote' training in facilitation andafterwart4 wn' you are leading an IllES group. Youare encouraged during your training to write notes inthe 'mantra' and ito read it between sessions.manual is not a substitute for training.and cannotprovide the. most valuable learning experience ofall repeated practice, together with feedbacklimnskilled facilitatoN and other participants iii training awell as vour own assessments of your strengths andareas fir' improvement. However, the manual can lieenormous help to you after yisu have completed voulf'training, expecially when you are planning an INESmeeting, developing a process agenda, reviewingproblem-solving methods, or leading an INIZS group.

This chapter contains, an introduction to the INESgroup, a discusSion of the history of the INES concept,and an overview of INES training.

ithat Ire IIIES Crimple?

INES (pronounced "eyes") groups are established and,maintained to assist a school community in addressingissues related to the human environment in the school.

goal of INES groups is to improve the quality of

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Ie in the siJoul The groups vok,t() inereitse(itliportunities tor the growth and development ()Iindividual 111(.1111)(4s ()I the school community and topromote constructive interaction These importantle:Mies of IIIES groups, art reflected in the name. Inessence, HIES groups

Is "They interested who representthviliseives, even thinimil the,' representative ofin5ny school (111111111Init.v groupsFcs. They view ,the school from an expanded perSI WiliVe, SVVi pil)bleiiiS itid envisioning solutions.,lye.S. 'HWY aflirnl t h e goal of improving the human.c,ivironmpnt of the school and support the work ofdie group.

By, taking responsibility for addressing issues, cuiecerns,and problems in the school's human environment andworking in it systematic %vav to'effect change, the WESgroups themselves lyecome an important and integralpart of the school.

An IIIES greitip begins I)/ identitVing and analyzingareas for improvement, examining many solutions, andchoosing tlw most appippriate solution. Next, thegroup usually enlists the support. and assistance ofothers t() move its plans into action. The groupmonitors its, imPact on the area of the human,environment selected for intervention and continues toidentity nev areas for, improvement. The IVES processis a positive one; it encourages constructive problemsolving and collaborative decision making. In itsworkingS the IHES group nrocleLs many of the qualitiesit hopes to promote in the larger school environment,

usuch as respect for others, commitment to corlitil0t1goals, task orientation, and appreciation of differences.

of the IIII,S Concept

In IV the Office of Intergroup Relations, CgliforniaState Department of Education, commissioned a groupof educators to analyze the social aspects of schoolproblems and formulate strategies for change. lwcommittee's charge was to develop a Il1aliUal to assist

9

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of the committee resolled in the puhliationItiom.); the Ili Ecnient (1I S/Hints:l'(ohlem.s and tStategies (Sarament() (,itlili)rnia State1)(.1)atment of Education, 19791 The purposes of thatmanual air. hi lit! ) principals identity and iiiwithwhuman relations issties and concerns and to assist1)1114.0 of the school community in becomingmore .m.ar of Mese inlibh.ms and their own ,

responsihility lor finding solutions \Ithough diccommittee (lid not intend to povid(2 specificimplementation methods or approaches, it didrecommend that a group be established in each shoblIn elentib. and prioritize-key school specific issues,concerns. or problems This itroup \vas called a SchoolHuman Environment Assessment Group, and sonnetgeneral recommendations lor its composition andprocess \very offered.

Atte the publication of the 1979 manual, the (Aliceof httergroulr Relations initiated a series of.mie-daytraining sessions to introduce educators lo the manualand to provide them with More specific infOrmation onluny to ernahlish groups in their schools. In responseto the need expressed by educators for additionaltraining in the process of concluding such groups, the(Mice of Intergroup Relations designed and sponoeda three -dad' training program that provided particiOantsvitli the 11147VSSiliV skills to conduct small-groupproblem- solving sessions related to the humanenvironment in the school. In recognition of the tactthat the school groups perform mom than assessment,the name of the groups was changed in 1981 toImproving the Human Environment of Schools IIIIES1groups.

As the concepts of school climate and receivedincreasing attention, the Office of Intergr6up Relationsrelined its tr. Iiing program further tokassist schooldistrict a cl )1 site staff members in establishing'and inaintail -ongoing II 1 1.1S programs tailored totheir s.peifi needs and environments. manual

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needed di consultant meets %%Alt local1.11 111t.Inrl9 sIS .1 1411/111) it) conduct ad%aticetr traiiiio.; 141attends subsequent group oterlings lo out 1(11'.Issilani I' Mill II) Ili(' facilitators \I onsollaul frnill the ()Ilicc ()I lolt,grotip

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Clialtit.rs 2 thrmigh 6 are dtsigned lo comespoodhie contents ()I Ihre -ditv III ES training program InChapter 2 III' authors present Ihe building blocks t)I111U.S tac ilitannii. including .1 ivvieNv of basicCommunication skills and the advanced skills ofmanaging conflict and anger Chapter 3 contains .1description of the components of WES facilitation aridthe process lit lailitaiing WES group meetingsChapter .3 outlines the principles and techniques ofproblem solving in small groups In Chapter 5background matenal un sinall-grytip proccssi.s andstrat.;is tot maintaining an 111115 grim') hills

12 5 .

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-;functioning entity in the school in J"Chapter6 provides inform'ptIon on advanced IHES facilitationmethods and' suggestions fog improving fills. Next, theappendix contains a description of how.ari IHES groupis established. Finally, the authors present a list ofreferances on small-group processes, conflictmanagement, communication, and facilitation.

As you become more familiar with and experiencethe role and responsibilities of an IHES facilitator, youwill find that much of your past learning incommunications and in small groups Will be usefuland adaptable to this new situation. In addition, youwill learn new approaches and methods that will bringincreased confidence and competence in taking on therole of an IHES facilitator.

136.

Educators are, in general, excellent communicators.After all, exchanging information and ideas is theirstock-in-trade and. the basis of their professionalexpertise. However, training as an IHES facilitatorrequires the use of-a specific set of communicationskills that may differ somewhat from those used everyday.

To prepare youfor the role of facilitator, this chapterreviews the fundamentals of communication that areparticularly useful in the resolution of problemsencountered in attempts to improve the humanenvironment.of schools. These skills include:

Developing accurate perceptionsActive listeningResponding and clarifying

' Resolving conflicts

Developing Accurate Perceptions

School problems come in all sizes and dimensions.Sometimes you may need to redirect the behavior of asingle student or confront the negative attitudes of aparent. At other times you may be called upon toparticipate in a districtwide effort to reshape thecurriculum to improve academic achievement. Whateverthe scope of the problem in which you find yourself

engagedwhether it involves just ydu.and anothern'person or the competing needs of/a number of

persons or groupsthe first stet /in coming to termswith the problem is to see it forwhat it is, to perceiveit accurately.

To do so is not easy because you must, in your newrole as facilitator, put aside your own values andbiases and strive to view the problem from theperspectives of others. To (start with, you need torecognize that each person is different and acts andreacts to different experiences and aspects of theenvironment. Respect for individual differences and agenuine desire to understand the other person's pointof view are, essential attitudes of the professional IHESfacilitator. These attitudes are the'very foundation ofcommunications aimed at improving the humanenvironment of schools.

A useful strategy for improving one'sperceptionsand thus for improving problemanalysisis to keep in mind the distinctions among(1) observations; (2) inferences; and (3) judgments.

Observations are those qualities that can beperceived with the sense organswhat can be seen or,to a lesser extent, heard, touched, smelled, or tasted.Strictly _speaking, observations have nothing to do withthihking or feeling about what is being perceived.Because observations are about as close to pure fact aspossible, one can also be confident that high levels ofagreement will occur among all parties observing thesame phenomenon. -z_

Interpretation based on the contextthe how, when,and whereof an observation is referred to as.inference. Through interpretation a person decides themeaning, the underlying story, of what has beenobserved, on the basis of one's own social, cultural,intellectual, or emotional dispositions. Although thisprocess is perfectly natural in that it enables a personto make sense of experiences, the inferences drawn areoften based on individual stereotypes and prejudicesthat may not be appropriate to the situation at hand.

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When a person makes judgments about what isobserved, that person is stating how he or she feelsabout something on the basis of a personal valuesystem. Approval or disapproval of what is seen isbased on one's sense of good and bad, right andwrong. This, of course, will determine how one willsubsequently tend to act in relation to the situation orproblem.

As an exercise, try to describe someone as fully aspossible, using only observational statements. You willprobably find that it is hard to stick with specificbehavioral attributes without drawing conclusions orgeneralizations about that person. Next, notice theinferences and judgments you make. How are yourattitudes affected by the age, sex, or race of theperson? How are your attitudes affected by the ,context,in which the person is observed? What- do you think isthe basis of your inferences or judgments?

When you are in the role of private citizen, yourinferences and judgments are entirely your own affair.In the role of IHES facilitator, however, your neutralityin the course of the problem-solving process isabsolutely essential, as will be discussed in more detailin Chapter 3. As facilitator it is your duty to be asobservant as possiblein other words, to stick withbehaviors and specificsso that you do not impedethe fact-finding process or cause divisiveness amongthe parties concerned:

,tetive 1,istening

In conjunction with observational skills, activelistening must also be developed. Both are crucial toeffective facilitation and problem solving. Activelistening, as opposed to just hearing, is more difficultthan is commonly realized. Often, when persons thinkthey are listening, they are in reality mentally engagedin forming an answer to what the other person issaying or in evaluating what it means. IHES facilitatorsmust try to understand what the message means fromthe other person's perspective.

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Listening, then, t a ssiv processduring which the other person talks on. , t eP, it isactive, requiring energy and effort to hend andremember what the person is trying tct communicatewhile suspending your own judgments about thecontent. To become a better listener, try to apply theserules:

1. Get ready to listen. Just because only your earsare involved, do not think that you can listen wellwhile thumbing through papers or doingsomething else with your hands. Give the otherperson your full attention by putting other thingsaside and assuming a physically relaxed position.You will then be mentally alert and ready. toengage in this communication.

2. Listen to understand rather than to refute. Post-.pone your judgment of what the person is sayingand strive to ascertain what the person means. Onthe basis-of your ov(rn experience, imagine howyou might feel in his or her situation.

3. Control your emotions. If you find yourselfreacting strongly to what is being said to you withanger, annoyance, or irritation, try to put yourfeelings aside for the time being. If you can defineor locate the source of ybur reaction, so much thebetter.

Now that the importance of careful observation andactive listening has been discussed, it is appropriate todiscuss how you, as an IHES facilitator and problemsolver, can improve the quality of communication by(1) encouraging other persons to express themselvescompletely; and (2) helping them to identify theessence of the problem, issue, or concern they.aretrying to discuss. Using the techniques described herewill enable yOu and the grOup to arrive together at areasoned analysis of the problem and to share in itseventual solution.

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14Ing Nonverbal Attending Baba fors

.Comn-munication involvg nonverbal as. well as verbalcomponents.. For example, some experts contend thatwords,alone,constiiute only, 7 percent of a4.message;tone of -voice and inflection ayeount for 38 percent;and facial expressions, posture, and body gesturesaccount for 55 percent (Huinan Behavior andLeadership, 19771. It is useful for us, therefore, tei-Nconsider what'we convey to .others nonverbally andperhaps unconsciously.

A tew simple techniques and behaviors will commu-nicate your interest ijni and respect-or IHES group'members, your openness to each of their ideas, andyour attentiveness to the grup'sprocess:

1. Eye contact, indicates your interest and serves tokeep the person speaking focused on the commu-nication process. Looking. away fromthe person isnot only discourteous \but may also be frustratingto the speaker. On the-other hand, be careful notto stare; just relax and be natural. In addition,you should be aware of cultural differences inholding eve contact..Forrample, children fromsome ethnic groups are taught to look away ordown in the presence of an adult because tomaintain eve contact would be considereddisrespectful.

9. Body language and gestures are also signals ofyour receptivity to others. Try to relax your body,-particularly your upper body, shoulders, and antis.A facilitator with tightly folded arms or hunchedshoulders may appear tense and defensive andmay impede communication and provide aninappropriate model for the group.

3. Nodding as a person is speaking is an excellenttechnique for encouraging open communication. Itis the essential nonverbal expression Of the aveportion of the ,IHES philosophyaffirming thecontributions,,of the group members and theprocess as a whole.

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77(awiting Expression and DiscussionIn conjunction with r )Qnverbal attending behaviors,

certain minimal verbal encouragers are also useful ipopening avenues of communication and inviting fullparticipation of IHES group members. As a person istalking, you might try the following respoltS'es to keephim or her going: "Umm-hmm ..." 9r "Uh-huh ...""Oh ..." "So ..." "Then ..." "And..." 'Tell me more." Oryou might repest one or two key words, simply restatethe other persoris words exactly, or remain silent.

In addition, as an IHES facilitator you will be askingmany questions of the group to stimulate discussionand clarify or analyze an idea or' slwestio You can

guidethis process by applying these guide nes:1. Ask open-ended rather than closed wiesti ns,

Open questions generally begin with the words"What ...?" or "How...?" or "Could/Would ...?"Questions such as "What is 'your perception of theproblem?" or "Could you tell me more about whathappened?" have the advantage of helping peopleto elaborate a point and to clarify specific types ofbehavior. In addition, the questions enable you to.focus attention on the group's feelings. Closedquestions, on the other hand, tend to cut offcommunication because they can generally beanswered with a simple yes or no, such asquestions beginning with "Have you ...?" or Willyou Questions beginning with "Why ... ?" arealso usually closed because they tend to elicitdefensive responses.

2. Avoid leading questions. Be careful not to entrapthe group with a question that lea& toward yourown conclusion as opposed to theirs. A questionsuch as Are you doing that because the principalpressured you?" carries certain assumptions whichmay result in your alienation from the group.Keep your questions open-ended.

3. Tnr to phrase questions in a positive manner. Donot ask, "What went wrong at this meeting?"

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Instead, ask, "What might We have done differentlyto make this meeting more succekgy?"

Paraphrateing

Paraphrasing, or restating what a person has sa d,can contribute to open communications.-First, it letsthe person know that yOu have heard and are trying tounderstand %that.vas said, and it nicely 'acknowledgesthe contribution. In addition, it provides a check onthe accuracy of' the facilitator's perceptions and willassist you in developing_your active listening skills.Fina lv, it assists. the recorder in capturing the essenceof the comm,m4c2atiob.

Fieflecthfg Feelings

Paraphrasing de s th the content of what wassaid. Statements-th t hasize and clarify the feelibgtone of the mesSaue can also further- commun,ication

rand trust in a vroilu-O.'Reflecting feelings is, however, adifricirlt skill and should be attempted only when youconfidently perceive the need to reveal the emo nalcomponent of a message-or when a distinctdiscrepancy exists between what a person has saidand how it was said. What is important herelsempathy, the ability to sense;1,aecurately the emotional

ttworld of another. Proceed caution, hoWever, asoffending a group member With an off-target commentcould seriously impede the progress of the group.

. Summarizing

Summarizing is an attempt to recapitulate, condense,and crystallize what has been said. It is .important aswell as rewarding to the group for you, as facilitator, tosummarize at the conclusion of each activity orsegment of a large task. To do so reminds the grkup ofwhere it has come from, what has occurred, and whatdecisions were made. It also tends to shape thedirection of future actions. Be sure to ascertain thegroup's agreement with your summar' becauseunintentional distortions or inaccuracies should becorrected before moving on.

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Conflict is,at some level, a part of everyday life. It isa naturai social process that can take various forms.add have various outcomes. Ina supportive,task-oriented environment, it is possible to resolveconflict cooperatively rather than ,competitively, withdefinite gains rather than losses for the partiesinvolved.

Within any group of individuals, especially one asdiverse and as committed to change as an IHES group,conflict is bound to occur. For one thing, just being ina group poses new tensions for an individual who mayWyrry about acceptance or rejection by other groupmembers. In addition, each group member may feel aspecial need or obligation to prbmote or defend thevalue system he or she is expected to represent withinthe group, thus engendering some level of conflict.Finally,.the problem-solving process itself can bestressful as the group strives for consensus.

As an IHES 'facilitator you must prepare yourself toaddress the occurrence of conflict within your groupby becoming are of your own response to conflictand learning to address it directly. You will, it ishoped, come to view the incidence of conflict as anecessary and creative dynamic within the group andto treat it not only as a useful and productive even)but also as a special opportunity for problem solving.This section is designed to heighten your awareness ofsome issues relevant to your role in resolving conflictin the context of an IHES group.Value of Conflict

Conflict occurs when the concerns, goals, or valuesheld by two or more parties are perceived to beincompatible or mutually exclusive. Conflict is oftencharacterized by behavior intended to defeat orsuppress one's adversary or to create an imbalance ofpower. As such, its destructive potential, if leftunchecked or unmediated, may result in hurt feelings,the inhibition of other members of the group, or,

14 21

worse, the sidetracking of progress toward your goals.Yet, in additiorito its obvious dangers, conflict has a

number of personal and social values Tilley, 1975).Specifically, within the IHES group problem-solvingprocess, conflict can produce some particularly fruitful

1. It can stimulate the search .for new facts or rsolutions. tVhen two parties disagree aboutalternative ideas or courses totbllow, they may bemotivated to seek another solution acceptably toboth.

2. It may increase the probabflitv of -ttin-win"solutions. Although conflict may resolve itself in ain-lose manner, with one side the victor and theother the vanquished, it also allows for the airingof even the most negative and emotional aspectsof the situation. In so doing, a certain amount oftension and antagonism is released andcommunicated, thereby becoming factored into thedevelopment of consensus and betteringintragroup relations in the long run.

:3 It may lead to increased trust among the membersas problems are resolved without the exclusion ofany individual member's position. It can alsosimultaneously reinforce the individuality of groupmembers.

Responses to Conflict

In the face of conflict, a person's behavior cangenerally be characterized by one of these five differentstyles (Amine and others, 1978):

1. Competing/forcingstriving to 'satisfy your concernat any cost, even at the expense of others.

2. Avoiding withdrawing from conflict by failing ,toacknowledge its existence or refusing to deal withit.

:3. Accommodating/smoothingattempthig to preservethe relationship by focusing on areas of agreementand ignoring areas of disagreement. The result isto give in to the other's concern at the expense ofyour own.

4-77271 22 15

N^;

4. Compromisingbargaining so that each side getspart of what it wants and gives up part of what itwants. Sometimes compromise is the bestresolution to a conflict. Often, however, acompiumise is rushed into without anexamination of all the alternatives because it ispresumed that -splitting the difference is the bestpossible outcome.

5. Problem solving'collaborating---Agreeing to look !Orsome way of satisfying both your concern and theother's so that the feeling of losing is avoided anda -win-win- solution is achieved.

When it comes to facilitating, you will need todevelop and use the problem-solving mode tar morethan any other. Nevertheless, all five modes repres6ht aset of useful social skills entirely appropriate in certainsituations. For example, it can sometimes be wise tolet well enough alonelavoiding) or to -kill them with

kindness- (accommodating). Although everyone iscapable of using all five modes, most persons tend touse some modes more effectively or frequently thanothers. It is important for you to be aware of whichmode is comfortable or uncomfortable for''you andwhich you may use infrequently:

Forms of Conflict

In addition to knowing your preferred style or modeof dealing with conflict, you need to consider %vhich ofthe forms of conflict you feel most able and least ableto deal with:

1. Intrapesonal struggles within yourself2. Interpersonal struggles between yourself and

another3. Intragroup- --struggles between, yourself and other

members within a given group4. Intergroup struggles involving yourself as repre-

sentative of a group and other representatives ofanother group

5. Institutionalstruggles between yourself andagents of a given institution

b

2316

Again, no single form is inherently better or worsethan another, but it is important for you to beconscious of your own preferences and sensitivities sothat you can handle conflicts more effectively as theyarise ind the course of facilitating. In addition, you %Yinbe inure able to identify the conflict styles of groupmembers and alter your own approach accordingly.

Management of Anger

As a facilitator you will also need to prepare yourselfto deal with anger as an almost inevitable expressionof conflict within the group. Remember that, in tryingto improve the human environment of schools, youwill be trafficking in the realm of personal valuesystems. As a result you are hound to encounterintense emotional reactions along the way. Try to(1)- anticipate that emotional reactions will occur sooneror later; (2) deal with them as a natural occurrence;(3) protect the other members of the group from attack;and 14) stay uninvolved personally, even when theanger may be directed at you.

As a strategy for resolving a person's angry feelings,the following easy-to-remember five-step process shouldbe kept in mind:

Acknowledge angry feelings in the other person.Remember that reflecting the feeling level of aperson's communication can often have a defusingeffect.

%wire reactive feelings in yourself For example, ifyou feel yourself wanting to attack or withdraw,remind yourself of your responsibility to addressthese issues directly.

Give a summary and reflection of the content. Youthereby acknowledge the person's contribution asvaluable to the task at hand while refi)cusing onthe task.

Evolve a shared problem 'statement. Both of you arethereby united in your attempts to understand thepinblem.

Restth,e through action-oriented problem solving,which is at the heart of the 111ES process itself.

24 17

114

f

The key tc? transforming conflict into a productiveencounter is to remain 'neutral, relaxed, and flexible.Do not let the situation frighten or distress NIOUpersonally and help the group members by makingsuggestions about how they might deal with tlwconflict cooperatively In doing so you will also modelthese important attributes for tlw other groupmembers.

.\s an IHEti liwilitator you %%ill also need to practiceUsing the problem-solving modality mentioned earlierbecause %vin-win solutions air the goal of tlw IHIagroup process It is also well to remember)hat tlwII1ES group is first and foremost task-oriented. It is notmeant to provide 1.)ychotherapv or human relationstraining. In tlw otn:,\.ie of this manual and tlw tIlEStraining, you will be Pisacided with manyprAlem-solving tools that should enable vott tomanage conflicts that might occur during artmeeting.

25

1

Adie, //irs

I he ptirr)()sc (it (imply!. 3 is to teach the ppliti)it (.(111111111111(.111()11 skills II) a spicitic ii)(.111()(1 of

facilitation di.signvil for use in 111V SCI1Muls. Qatowthod a Called I 11V HILS livingtraincil iondouting according to thisnwthnd ,,\111 enable and y"1". gru+I) (Ivl .inure1111111% il1(1 etlicientI %vil 11 the ViiiMIS 1)11)1)11111S of

improving 1111. human (.tivironment of schools.a 11,,,1(.,, and ivititiwrvinvio of training

till 1 Mat( 11'N. (11SULISSII)11 ()I the t)llmving items isinuludi.(1 in this rhaptvr:

l'ses of the 1111.:S facilitation tni.thodHoly and rpsponsibilitivs of the facilitatorhindaniviltals of facilitation

and responsibilities of 11w recod(

as

lheo of the HIES Facilitalima %Ilelho(11

Tlw inigoviwss of die lifES facilitation method canhe highlighted by a brief consideration of t1wtraditional leader incthod of condulin.; meetingsleady nielliod is gi.rwally is(41 in conductingdi.partitictit or faculty niu(lings and directing the worklit committees and conference presentations This

.15515 51st fat iittation 111 itieetonA4 day lloyli arid Straw, 11976' .11)51

\mins. .Iiist Soy .11.1) Itlicr lo(1 rtrvticl Is II .it.41 us111.11111.11

2619

method is particularly valuable when the purpose of ameeting is to impart information or obtain feedback oncurrent or proposed policies and procedures.

In this model the person designated as group leaderis generally the same person who acts as theadministrator of the oronization and to whom isdelegated most authority for day-to-day operations.Included in his or her institutional role is

`responsibility for calling meetings, setting agendas,acting a4 chairperson, and conducting and controllingthe discussion. During meetings, therefore,aie leaderplays a dual role a power role and a process role.That is, he or she must control not only the content ofthe meetings but also the process used to engage thecontent.

When the major purpose of a meeting is to come toterms with a significant institutional problem byanalyzing, sharing perceptions, evaluating alternativesolutions, and so forth, the traditional leader-led groupcan quickly get bogged down; Some of the problemsthat can be readily observed in meetings are thefollowing (Doyle and Straus; 1976):

1. Tendency of members to go off in severaldirections at once as a result of individualperceptions, interests, anxieties, or problems

2. Such poor control that members of the group aremore likely to attack each other or each other'sideas than to address the task at hand

3. Wasted time, wheel spinning, and repetition ofideag

4. 1.mination of the meeting by the chairperson,who generally talks most of the time

5. Tendency of the chairperson to manipulate thediscussion, especially when he or she has aninvestment in the issue under discussion

6. Tendency of group members to tell the leader orchairperson' what they think he or she wants tohear to be manipulative for personal advantage

,7. Poor quality of data produced by thesediscussions because the group members areplaying it safe by not stating how they really feel

1

S

8. Feelings of impotence and low morale on the partof the group members because no real changesare produced

9. Restrictions placed on the leader that prevent himor her from reflecting on and learning from thecomments of contributors

The IHES facilitation method eliminates theseproblems by separating the power and process aspectsof conducting meetings. This is accomplished by theintroduction of a facilitator whose sole resp risibility isto guide the problem-solving process of the roup andwhose personal interest in the outcome I completelyneutral. This situation leaves the administrator orchairperson free to, focus on the content and toparticipate fully in the group discussions withoutgiving up legitimate power and authority. That personis also protected from having to mediate interpersonaldisputes or differences of opinion while at the same.time protecting group members from manipulation; bythe leader.

The most important characteristic of the IHESfacilitation method is that it allows for collaborativeproblem solving and consensus decision maki4or"win-win" solutions to problems. In other forms ofdecision making, such as majority vote, executivedecision, or even arbitration, some parties involved willwin and some will lose. But the IHES faciliffitionmethod works to include every member's point of viewand to arrive at a group consensus. An individual'sopinion or suggestion that cannot be incorporated isnever dropped from consideration but only deferred forlater discussion and action. For this reason the IHESfacilitation method is said to be based on "win-win"outcomes.

In sum , then, the IHES facilitation method ofgroup pro7m solving does the following:

1. Reduces the confusion produced by the failure todistinguish between the content (the issue,problem, or task) and the process (the way ofworking or deciding) -of a group

2g 21

2. Re Nices ii}e potential for manipulation by theleader oh by other group members

3. Achieveg. more democratic means of including allpoints of view, no matter how diverse

4. Protects the rights and opinions of all groupmembers, regardless of the amount of power orauthority they might hold in the group

5. Provides a readily accessible record of what hasbeen said

6. Provides for "win-win" solutions through the useof consensus decision-making methods

(See Figure 1, which contrasts the traditional leadermethod and the IHES facilitation method.

liolt.% and Iterp)luqibilitirs toi the Facilitator

As stated previously, the facilitator's role is to attendto the process of a group meeting. In other words, youneed to ensure that the tasks or problems or issuesthat the group has been assembled to address aredealt with and worked through to closure. You mustpay close attention to the following:

For the participants to stay involved, the facilitatOrneeds to pay attention to the personal andinterpersonal expression of ideas and feelings.For the participants to explore all relevant issuessafely and thoroughly, the facilitator must know howand when to respond accurately andno?* c, :Llgmentally.For the participants to come to a fullerunderstanding of the problem and assumeresponsibility, the facilitator needs to makeconnections between ideas and clatify the opinionsoffered.For the group to move forward to action plans andsolutions, the facilitator must be adept at methodsthat will take the group to closure.In addition, as a facilitator you must educate the

group about this new method of decision making bymodeling and demonstrating the values of consensus

22A A

I.

Figure 1

TYPICAL SCHOOL COMMITTEE

1. MEETINGS ARE LED BY THE CHAIR-PERSON.

2. CHAIRPERSON AND GROUP ATTEND TOBOTH CONTENT AND PROCESS.

3. RECORD OF MEETING, IF ONE IS MADE,CONSISTS OF ONE MEMBER'S NOTES4

4. DECISIONS ARE TYPICALLY REACHED BYVOTING, DEFAULT, OR FtAT.

5. CONTENT OFTEN INCLUDES MULTIPLEAGENDAS, DISTRACTIONS, DIFFUSION OFTHINKING, AND DISRUPTIVE CONFLICT.

6. STATUS DIFFERENCES AMONG MEMBERSARE APPARENT.

7. MEMBERS SIT AROUND A TABLE.

IHES GROUP

1. MEETINGS ARE CONDUCTED BY THEFACILITATOR.

2. GROUP ATTENDS TO CONTENT;FACILITATOR ATTENDS TO PROCESS.

3. POSTED GROUP RECORD, VISIBLE TO ALLMEMBERS, IS COMPILED BY A RECORDER.

4. DECISIONS ARE REACHED BYCONSENSUS METHODS.

5. CONTENT IS FOCUSED AND TASK-ORIENTED. CONFLICT IS MEDIATED BYTHE FACILITATOR.

6. ALL MEMBERS ARE AFFORDED EQUALSTATUS.

7. MEMBERS SIT IN A SEMICIRCLE FACINGFACILITATOR AND GROUP RECORD.

211

and collaboration in your own behavior. You must!Oster in the group such attitudes as:

I. Democracyensuring that each member has anequal opportunity to participate and respects theopinions and ideas of others without prejudice

2. Itesponsibilityreminding yourself and the group ,

of how important individual participation is andhow, it affects the 'content and process of thegroup

3. Cooperation working togetheto achieve commongoals

4. Honestyincluding your own values, feelings, /concerns, and priorities

Further, as a facilitator you must continuallymaintain awareness of your primary responsibility tothe group in order to prevent potential abuses of yourposition. For example, as a facilitator you mustcarefully define your role in the work Of the group.Because most participants automatically relate to youas an authority figure, it is important that you resistthe temptation to use the power delegated to you tofulfill your own needs for attention, respect, orfriendship..Remember that your job is to help thegroup find its own solUtions to its problems and thatthe end product will be only as good as the processyou provide.

The role of facilitator generally requires-a majoradjustment in your own concept of leadership and inthe group's expectations of a leader. For this reason-you need specialized training and much practice.

(See Figure 2, which presents a summary of the rolesand behaviors of the IHES facilitator.)

You may notice that the IHES model of facilitation ismore structured and directive than are other similarmodels. The reason is that you are being trainedspecifically to help out with task-orientedproblem-solving groups. Following this prescribed

24 31

Figure 2

THE IHES FACILITATORIS REPONSIBLE FOR MANAGING IHESGROUP PROCESS BY PLANNING A TASK - PROCESS AGENDA FOR EACH MEETING

BY CLARIFYING IDEAS,,:YNTHESIZING IDEAS, ANDSUMMARIZING GROUP WORK AND DECISIONS

BY SUGGESTING ALTERNATIVE METHODS AND PROCEDURES

BY PACING THE GROUP

IS NON EVALUATIVE AND NEUTRAL BY CREATING A CLIMATE WHERE ALL CAN PARTICIPATEAND FEEL FREE FROM CENSURE

lrBY NOT CONTRIBUTING CONTENT IDEAS

IS TASK ORIENTED B FOCUSING GROUP'S ATTENTION ON THE TASK

Y NOT TALKING TOO MUCH

BY USING PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUES

MODELS VALUES OF COLLABORATIONAND CONSENSUS ' BY USING CONSENSUS METHODS OF DECISION MAKING

BY OBTAINING THE GROUP'S AGREEMENT ON THEPROCEDURES YOU USE

BY MAINTAINING A POSITIVE ATTITUDE AND COMPLIMENTINGTHE GROUP ON ITS WORK

BYSUPPORTING THE WORK OF THE RECORDER

EDUCATES THE GROUP IN IHES PROCESS BY DEFINING YOUR ROLE AND EXPLAINING THE OBJECTIVESAND PURPOSES OF THE METHODS AND PROCEDURES USEDIN THE GROUP'S PROCESS

32

format enhances the productivity and efficiency of theproblem-solving process. You are advised not to takeliberties with the process until you feel that you havethoroughly mastered this method and have used itwith a number of groups; that is, until you can presenta solid rationale for any modifications you may wish tomake. The four phases of the INES facilitation processare presented as follows:Phase One: Preparing for the Meeting

Step 1. Generally, the invitation to facilitate ameeting will be offered by the person inchargeusually the principal or, superintendent.Having agreed to help, you should then proceed towork collaboratively to set the agenda and to decideupon such logistics as time frames and meetingfacilities. It is also important that the principal feelsconfident and informed about your role as a processfacilitator so that he or she does not feel threatenedby a potential loss of power. Remember to becooperative, democratic, and so forth.Step 2. The principal can help you immeasurably byprpviding background on the problem and themembership of the group. Plan 'to spend some timeinterviewing him or her about the situation,including such matters as:

a. How the problem developedb. What other attempts have been made to deal

with itc. What some of the root issues or hidden

agendas are if perceivedd. How this group was formede. What the criteria for membership aref. What the goals of the group are as currently

perceived by the membershipStep 3. The more you know about a group beforeyou begin the session, the better able you will be toprepare yourself to meet the group's needs andexpectations. If the problem is based at a particularschool site, you might want to visit there in

26

.r 33

advance. However, do not gossip with othersinvolved belire the meeting. It is your job tomaintain yOur objectivity and neutrality. To do sowill he extremely difficult if you allow everybody toinfluence you in advance.Step 4. Finally, prior to the meeting, assemble yourmaterials and prepare the room. For the IHESmethod of meeting facilitation, you will need toarrange on appropriate riumbertof chairs in asemicircle near enough to a wall where the groupmemory can be displayed, as. shown in Figure 3.

.,..._Arranging the group in a semicircle is the best wayto get a group to focus on a task, while alsomaintaining contact with each other. Obviously, too,It is the best way for you, the facilitator, to maintaincontrol in the group. A few more hints on preparingthe room are as follows:

a. Remove all tables or detks from the facilitationarea. You will not want any physical obstaclesbetween you and the group members.

h. Try to provide chairs that are comfortableenough but not too comfortable. You do notwant group members to lounge their waythrough the task.

C. Arrange the semicircle so that it faces awayfrom the door. In this way the group's workwill not be interrupted by the inevitable comingand going of people.

d. Choose a wall to face that is long enough andsmooth enough .on which to tape four to sixpieces of butcher paper. Try using a movablechalkboard or partition for this purpose if wallspace is inadequate..

e. Use only as many chairs as there areparticipants. Any empty chair is a barrier tocommunication and an energy drain in thegroup.

f Make sure there are sufficient quantities ofbutcher paper, felt-tip markers, and maskingtape.

M1

34 27

r00 IIA II

el 0 DIE Cd

raj .,

co[7.1,

X rajLU

I

'sharer Intrtmleaciltm"

Step t. As the group 11119111/V1'S arrive, notice 011,11'

11100d and observe 111Vir 1111(4'M:11MS. 1h) 111VV mixfreely with each other? If they are talking to eachother, what are they talking about? Observations likethese will give you necessary clues about how wellpeople will work with each other.Step .. The principal or chairperson of the meetingshould introduce you, giving the group members therelevant background on how you came to beinvolved and what your role will be in the group'sproblem solving' process. This procedureaccomplishes the transfer of the job of finning themeeting to you while allowing the chairperson to bestill in charge. It also provides the sanction ofauthority tbr this method. You should then ,

introduce yourself, presenting the "credentials- thatjustify your presence. To put the group members atease, let them get to know you as a person as wellas an expert so that they will perceive' you asaccessible to them. A little humor always helps.Step 3. You shotild then have the group membersintroduce themselves individually. Even if somegroup members know each other fairly' well, this isa good way to loosen up. It is very important thatyou know everyone's name. Therefore, name tagsshould be used, even if only one or two people arenewcomers to the group. And, of course, wear aname tag yourself.Step 4. Next, you should describe briefly the formatof the meeting, explaining the purpose of the IHESfacilitation method if this is the first time the grouphas utilized the process. Focus on the fact that thisis a tried-and-proven method for solving a variety ofinstitutional and educational problems and forenabling broad participation by everyone in atask-oriented context. There is no nee to expoundon the method beyond this because you will onlyconfuse the group. Remind the group members thatthey will learn more about the method as they go

36 28

along and that you will he happy to answerquestions about the process later. You should alsospecify the time frame for the session, includingbreaks, ending time, and so On.Step 5. As part of this orientation, you shoufd nowintroduce the recorder, who will describe thepurpose of the group memoly and how it will bedeveloped. (See the information on the recorderinvsyntpd further On in this chapter. If it is notpossible to have a recorder trained in the IIIESmethod present and one must he selected from 11wgroup, you should explain the role of the recorderand the group memoiy.

Phase Three: Facilitating the Work of the Group

Step 1. The first crucial step in this phase ofmeeting facilitation is to state in question form theproblem that the group is to address. If the purposeof the meeting is to develop an agenda for action,you might slate the question as follows: ''What arethe problems, issues, and concerns related to ourschool human environmentr If, however, the grouphas been formed to address a particular problem,the question should be posed according to thedegree of' specificity of the problem. For example,you might ask: (a -flow can we increase parentinvolvement in the school program?" or (b) -Whatsteps can be taken to decrease the level ofvandalism- at our school?" If the agenda of thegroup is preset, the question should be arrived at inadvance in collaboration with the principal orchairperson of the group. In any case the question.should be posed as clearly as possible, even thoughthe issues to he addressed may be wide-ranging oreven vague. It is good to remind the group that youare aware that there may he many other pressingissues of importance but that at this time you willbe focusing only on the stated question. Therecorder should then write the question in boldletters on top of the first sheet of paper so thatevery member can see it and think about it for afew momerfts.

3730to

Step .. You will then proceed to 'elicit the group'sideas according to the selected prohlein-solvingnwthods described in the next chapter. Generally,you will twgi9 with some form of brainstormingbecause that method allows for the free flow ofideas. Your job here is to encourage and rewardparticipation, accept and record each contribution,.111a111111111 1.0(118 On the .task, and proteck the grout')from domination by any member. Specifictechniques in this process are as follows:

a. Let ideas flow as spontaneously as possiNedNotice who wishes to speak and call on 6achperson in order. It is helpful to acknowledgethe lineup, saying, "First George, then Martha,then Virginia." In this way individuals willknow they have been recognized and wilt) notconsume their eller& waiting to get your "attention.

h. Help the recorder by restating the idea orparaphrasing it if necessary. Check to makesure the idea is recorded accurately.

o:. Move around the interior of the semicircle aseach member speaks, thereby encouraging thecontributor to focus his or her thoughts andincreasing your own attention to the ideaspresented.

d. Remain neutral. Never let your own judgmentsor your own thoughts enter into the process.You must accept every idea, no matter howyou feel about it personally.

e. Remind the group, if some members begin todisagree with or criticize another member'sideas, that the task at hand is to generate asjnany ideas or alternatives as possible withoutevaluating them. Let the group know also thatthere will be a time later on when the ideaspresented can be analyzed.

f. Stimulate the group to make positive, creativecontributions. If one member wants tocomplain or criticize, try to state And recordthat person's comments as positive ideas.

6-77271 3831

p; Educate the group in the IIIES method Ityreminding evenme about the ground rules ofparticipation and the porpoise of facilitation,you can usually forestall Occasional attacks onthe process Or on other group ineinl)ers.

h Keep the group energized and Inctised byattending to the pace of the group Try io keepdie contributions short and flowing so dial d".group does not get bored or restlessReorient the group to the current task if issuesunrelated to the stated prOblvIll should arise Ifthe side issues seem especially significant. havethe recorder %%lite them doxvil on a separatepiece of paper, place the paper off to the side,and tell the grout) that you xvill return to theside issues %%lien the current task is completet1

; Learn to anticipate the probable next steps,using break times to prepare for thesetransitions so that group lime will not Ix.$.% .31,1(41

group to nave expended itsenergy M1 tile palliCtIlar exercise in (11111'1'

%%111'11 y011 itleati all' runningOils 11:1 \1' the group observe one minute ofsilence l0 reviexv %Olin appears On the groupmemory and to see whether anything shouldbe added.

Finally. and most important, the facilitator mustmaster the problem-soling sequence and theproblem-solving methods descrilxql in Chapter 4.Knining and being able to use Ihese tools will, c la Iexoti to proceed to completion (I! the task in theproductive and efficient manner. These are the tools of%Anil. trade and ao. xvhat makes the difference betxvvenan amateur and professional facilitator.

Phew, Four: Achieving Chneure

Sup 1. At the end of each session, the facilitatorshould summarize the work of the group duringThat period. You should mention where the groupstarted, what it accomplished, and where it ended.

32 39

In adelitin, you should recall any side issues thatwere raised and tabled for later discussion.Step 2. Finally, you should plan fur the future To(I() so may include restating specific actions that thegroup agreed to take in the course of its work anddiscussing and coordinating the scheduling of futuremeetings and the agendas for those sessions. Ifthere is homework the group members need to dbin the meantime, such as rank-ordering certainitems, they should he reminded of that task. Thisstep is usually accomplished in collaboration withthe chairperson of the group.

Plt.o.c. .111(1 SIcioN ;it ilti 1111 1

I iiil.11 iiiii 1',I Hi

Phase I. Preparing for the MeetingStep 1. Collaborate with the chairperson on

meeting purposes and logistics.Step 2. Become educated atxt the problem.Step 3. Become educated about the group.Step 4. Assemble materials and prepare the

room.

Phase II: IntroductionsStep i Notice the mood of the group.Step 2. Be introduced and introduce yourself.Step 3. Have group introduce itself.Step 4. Introduce 111ES method and the format of

the meeting.Step 5. Introduce the recorder.

Phase III: Facilitating the Work of the GI-mil)Step 1 State the problem in question form.Step 2. Begin the problem solving process.

Phase IV: Achieving Closure!

Step 1. Summarize the progress of the session.Step 2. Plan fellow action.

3340

a.

The role of the recorder is to create a g ?oup memoryby writing down what is said during a meetiqg onlarge sheets of paper posted in full view of all- theparticipants. During a discussion, being able to seewhat points have been made helps to focus the groupenergy on the task and enables each individual toanalyze and build on previous contributions. It is alsohelpful for groups that meet on a regular basis to referto past discussions and decisions.

Like the faCilitator, the recorder must play a neutral,nonevaluative role in the group, thus supporting thework of the facilitator. Because the job of recordingcan influence how the group perceives what it is doingand where it is going, it is important that the recorderaccurately represent the individual and collectivecontrtibutions of the group, regardless of whether thesecontributions conform to his 'or her own opinions orbeliefs. Creation of an 'accurate common record of thegroup's work will help greatly in the facilitationprocess because it fosters listening and the acceptanceof the ideas of others' by all the group members and isuseful later in organizing these ideas for problemsolving.

Whenever possible, the recorder should use the exactwords of the contributor and, for this reason, mustpractice excellent listening skills, as described inChapter 2. When an idea is too lengthy to recordverbatim, then the recorder must assist the contributorand the facilitator in synthesizing and paraphrasing theexp"ed thought (see Chapter 2). For example, therecorar might ask the contributors "Can you think ofa shOrter way of saying that?" If.tliat question does notproduce a recordable comment, then the recorder (incollaboration with the facilitator) might suggest aparaphrase by asking the contributor, "Does thisaccurately represent your idea?"

Because the IHES problem-solving process requiresindividual and group ownership olthe problem, it is

4134

extremely important that each member feel thRt his orher ideas are a valuable contribution to the work ofthe group. Even when an idea is complex or confusing,it is worth the time of the group to clarify and "

summarize each contribution. The major responsibilityfor coming to that agreement falls on the recorderbecause he or she is the guardian of the visual record.Of cq114-1 se, it is also each participant's responsibility toensu& that his or her ideas are represented accurately.

In general, it is recommended that each group bestaffed with two persons trained in the IHES meetingfacilitation method. Then one can help the other,thereby providing better service to the group. One canperform as facilitator and the other as recorderbecause having a skilled person in the role of recordercan relieve the primary facilitator. Team facilitation alsoallows for the two persons to switch roles, therebygiving each person a break from particular tasks whileproviding the group with a broader perspective of itsown process. When it is not possible to have a trainedrecorder, the facilitator should ask someone from thegroup to perform that function. The facilitator shouldthen spend some time explaining the recorder's roleand responsibilities and should make sure as themeeting progresses that the group memory is beingdeveloped appropriately.

The duties that a recorder is expected to performare listed as follows:

1. The recorder needs to make sure that sufficientquantities of papereither large pads of newsprintor'rolls of butCher paperare available for thework of the session. There should beat least eightto ten pieces of paper for a two-hour meeting.

2. The recorder should stand in front of the group,positioned somewhat behind and to the side ofthe facilitator, as shown in Figure 3. The papershould be tacked or taped on the wall in clearview of the group. If an easel is used, each sheet

35A A

should be removed as it is filled and placed inorder on the wall.

3. The recorder needs to be skillful at organizingmaterial in a visual form. He or she should labeleach sheet appropriately and write clearly andlargely enough so that each member can read it.Enough space should be left between each ideaso that each stands out distinctly. Do not beafraid to use as much space as is needed to make

, the record clear.4. The recorder should have at least two each of

three different-colored wide-nibbed felt-tip markers.These should be fresh and new because themarkers dry out rapidly, especially when writing isdone on a vertical surface.

5. The recorder should write each group member'sidea or contribution in a color different from thetwo preceding it. It is best, for example, to followa fixed sequence, such as red-blue-green,red-blue-green, and so on. In this wpy each ideacan be clearly distinguished without' reference towhoever contributed it. Ideas are never identifiedby their individual author as they might be in theminutes of a traditional leader-led meeting. Rather,they becofie the work of the group as a whole.That is what is meant by group memory.

6. As the work of the group progresses, the facilitatorwill often return to the lists of ideas that appearon the sheets and guide the group towardconsolidating some of the ideas. Although it is

--everyone's responsibility to achieve consensus, therecorder must be especially careful not toeliminate or alter any idea without the expresspermission of the contributor.

7. If comments or suggestions are offered that areoutside of the immediate task of the group, therecorder may note these on a sheet of paper forlater reference.

8. At the conclusion of the session, the recordershould number each sheet, remove the sheets,and roll them up for the next session.

36 A I-%

As an IHES facilitator your primary goal is to assistyour group in accomplishing its task in a systematicway. Because IHES groups are conducted according toa collaborative decision-making and problem-solvingmodel, you need to understand the concept ofconsensus and the problem-solving sequence to ,behelpful to your group, regardless of the content of thegroup's work. In addition, various techniques andmethods are available for assisting groups in reachingconsensus and in moving efficiently through theprocess of problem solving. As a good facilitator youneed to know when and how to use them. In thischapter background information on problemconceptualization, consensus, and the problem-solvingsequence is provided. In addition, frequently usedtechniques and methods for working with an IHESgroup are described and illustrated.

WINO Is a Problem?

A problem may be defined as a discrepancy betweenthe way things are and the way one would like themto be. The goal of problem solving is to find ways toreduce the discrepancy between these two points, asshown in Figure 4.

44 .37

Figure 4

WHEN IS THERE Ai PROBLEM?

Desired state of affairs

45

Most persons view problems negatively. They assumethat having problems reflects an inadequacy ordeficiency within an individual, a group, or a socialsystem. In contrast, within the IHES model problemsare viewed as presenting opportunities for change, forgrowth, and for improvement. Problems can also beidentified in areas in which some things are beingdone quite effectively but in which a person wants tohave an even greater impact. A view of problems asdiscrepancies to be reduced and as areas to be workedon, as opposed to depressing situations that appeardifficult or impossible to handle, makes problemsamenable to intervention and control. This approach toproblems makes having them acceptable and leadsnaturally to a positive and constructive approach toaddressing them.

As a facilitator you can create an atmosphere inwhich group mem4ers feel free to express theirperceptions of problems realistically and candidly,without being made to feel that they are being disloyal,negative, or excessively critical for having revealedthem. You do so by telling your group about problemsas perceived and about how this approach representsthe, first step in beginning to do something collectivelyand cooperatively about them.

The other advantage of viewing problems asdiscrepancies between the way things are and the wayone would like them to be is that this approachenables a group to have a goal, a clear sense of whereit will be if its interventions are successful. Sometimesyou asjacilitator will have to assist your group informulating a realistic or attainable goal. If a group isaddresSing a vandalism problem, for example, it mightideally )vant to have no broken windows. Regardless ofthe effectiveness of'its interventions, however, somewindows will bg broken for reasons beyond the controlof the IHES group or the school. A realistic goal wouldbe to reduce the number of broken windows.

Similarly, you assist the group in formulating severalin-process check points or subgoals against which tomeasure the progress of its interventions. Because

7-77271 46 39

nvny if not most human environment problems can beaffected only aftek a considerable amount of time haspassed, a group could become discouraged if itsrealistic goal" is perceiyed as too distant Achieving.subgoals enables a group to monitor its progress aswell as eXperience pride in accomplishment at variouspoints along the way. Because human environmentproblems often require multiple interventions in avariety of,arenas or with various groups in the school

,,,Commimity,,the establishment of subgoals for eachintervention helps a group to assess its impact on thelarger problem.

Problems are like people; they come in a variety ofshapes)and sizes. Like the 'forms of conflict discussedin Chapter 2, human problems can be expressed at fivedifferent levels: (1) intrapersonal; (2) interpersonal; (3)intragroup; (4) intergroup; and (5) organizational.Most school-related probleins addressed by an IHESgroup involve some combination of these five levels.Human environment problems typically reflect someunderlying conflict--in peceptions, attitudes, beliefs,and/or behavior (see also Chapter 2). As a facilitatoryou may find i it useful to classify in your own mindpeople's perceptions of problems and to listen forwhere the possible sources of conflict might be as anaid in your understanding of what the group isdiscussing. In aildition, the levels at which problemsare.exprsed"can be:used to assist a group in thefyllowing: in\

, y1., Determining th xtent to which a problem exists

( ,a greater awareness of its/complexity or magnitude.

2. roCusing On one level if a problem appews to bemanifesstecramost seriously there or if it appearsthat that levl is most amenable to intervention.

3. Mir imizing. conflict when the group appears toagree.thak a larger problenexists but is having

IT/ difficulty in agreeing on the specifics of how theproblem is expressed or where to begin. The useof ,the five levels allows all expressions to be

heard and recorded, often leading to a naturaldecision about what is most important.

C()Ii tp,u%

Consensus means general agreement. In the IHESgroup process, you as the facilitator seek to obtain theagreement of all members on all group decisions,whether related to content or process. Agreement isactually a continuum ranging from "I enthusiasticallysupport" to "I am willing to go with the group'sdecision, even though I have some reservations." Thepurpose of obtaining group consensus is to increaseevery member's ownership of the decision and toestablish a firmer sense of a group's life or identityseparate from the individual member. Each time agroup reaches consensus, it increases its identity andcohesiveness and feels rewarded for reaching closure.

Methods for reaching consensus usually make use ofprioritization. In essence this approach involvesassessing the relative merits of various ideas and thenranking them in terms of some criterion, such asimportance. Establishing group priorities enables agroup to say "now" to one idea, "next" to another,"later" to a third, and "much later" to still another. Asyou can see, this approach is quite different fromtaking a vote, an approach that tends to divide a groupinto winners and losers. The "win-win" group climatethat is created when the group decides "notnow-"... later" to some ideas is much more conduciveto continued high involvement of individual groupmembers than the "win-lose" group climate that iscreated when the grOup decides not now ...neve' tosome ideas.

As shown in Figure 5, the outcome of groupconsensus is the result of a process that enables theIHES group to Accomplish important tasks in terms ofits content as well as its own process. From thestandpoint of the group's content, ideas are generated(or shared and recorded on the group memory),elaborated or expanded, evaluated, and, finally,

'48 41

Figure 5

SEQUENCE OF GROUP PROCESSWITHIN

PROBLEM-SOLVING STEPS

General

Many Ideas

IndividualContributions(ownershipof ideas)

Idea Generation

Idea Elaboration

Idea Evaluation

Idea Prioritization

Specific

Few Ideas

Group Ownership

1

OUTCOMEGroup Consensus

prioritized. From a process standpoint the groupmoves from general to specific ideas, from having manyideas to having a few ideas, and, most important, from40x/dual contributions of ideas to group ownership ofideas. How to assist yclur group in reaching consensusis..iescribed further on in this chapter.

Finally, the concept of consensus is based on thevalues of cooperation and compromise. In conductingthe IHES group, you contribute to creating a groupclimate suitable for-collaborative decision making bymodeling these values in action. This is the teachingrole of the facilitator because many people may nothave had the opportunity to work together in this waybefore. Because most persons prefer Ito Work in suchan atmosphere, in contrast to one characterized byintragroup conflict an competition, IHES groupmembers are usually vety supportive of consensusvalues.

Problem-Solving Sequence

The problem-solving sequence involves seven steps:1. Identify the problem.2. Analyze the problem.3. Generate multiple solutions.4. Develop a plan for action.5. Determine the consequences of the action plan.6. Implement the plan.7. Evaluate the action or actions taken.

A group functions optimally in terms of its process aswell as the quality\of its content when it movesthrough the sequence in order, giving focused attentionto each step in turn. Because most persons are eagerto find solutions to problems, sometimes even beforeagreement is reached on what the problems are, theyoften need your assistance in following the steps in acareful, systematic way. As mentioned in Chapter 3,you must educate the group about the problem-solvingsequence, describe briefly the benefits of following it,and initiate the first step competently so that the

111

group can see, in practice, the validity of your openingremarks.

Step One: [deadly the Problem

The first step in the problem-solving sequence is themost important as well as the most time-consuming.Generally, the group begins by asking the question,"What are the,problems, issues, and concerns in ourschool human environment?" Your goal is to assist thegroup in identifying one problem statement thateveryone in the group agrees at some level to work on.What the group identifies and defines as a problemcan have many alternative problem statements that inlarge measure determine what the group will or willnot do to solve the problem. As stated previously,agreement on a common problem ensures groupownership and strong individual participation as theproblem-solving sequence progresses.

To identify and reach agreement on the problem, thegroup needs to:

1. Brainstorm perceptions of problems.2. Elaborate on the problem statements: %NJ lo? What?

Where? When?3. Determine whether the problem statements reflect

actual problems.4.,Assess the relative importance of the problems.5. Reach consensus on the problem to be addressed

first.

You can contribute to the quality and quantity of thegroup's work in Step One by:

1. Informing group members of the importance ofspending time on problem identification anddefinition.

2. Encouraging group members to generate multipleproblem statements and to refine their definitionsof the problem as the group progresses.

3. Pointing out the difference between symptomstatements and problem statements. SyMptomstatements are usually very specific and describeone aspect of what is actually a larger problem.

Lncou 'problem statements is more helpfulat t VAP:s

4. Assi rig individuals in stating problemsbeklmiorally to the extent that they can ratherthan attitudinally. Problem statements that reflectwhat people do are easier to work with later thanare those Ott do not involve action verbs.

4

Step 'Two: Analyze the Problem

The second step in the problem-solving sequenceprovides the groundwork for generating qualitysolutions. More important, it establishes a common

4 level of information and understanding among groupmembers about what the nature of the problem is andhow it is manifested. During this phase various aspectsof the problem are elaborated, and the group agreeson which are most important. Step Two involves someof the same elements as Step One except that now youare working with only one problem, and the level ofunderstanding about it is. what you are seeking todeepen. When analyzing a problem, consider thefollowing:

1. Make sure that the problem statement is wordedclearly and that the meanings of all terms aremade clear to all members by:a. Asking the group whether the posted problem

statement is clear and recording anymodifications

b. Obtaining definitions of terms that are not clearand recording them

2. Examine the causes of the problem by:a. Brainstorming and recording all perceptions on

the group memory under the heading "WhyDoes the Problem Exist? or "Causes of theProblem."

h. Conducting an advocacy and prioritization ofthe most important causes to address

c. Restating the problem in terms of the mostimportant cause

:3. Elaborate in some detail on the behavioralmanifestations of the problem to help the groupunderstand how and where the problem isevidenced. This task can be achieved throughbrainstorming and recording all perceptions qnthe group memory under the heading "How thisProblem Is Expressed." "there is no need toprioritize this list because it is intended forinformation only.

4. Conduct a forcefield analysis, examining thecurrent problem in its context to understand whatfactors are working to improve the situation andwhat factors are working to make the situationworse.

To assist the group in analyzing its problem, you asthe facilitator need to decide which of theseapproaches would be most useful to the group. Thegroup does not need to do all of these things; in fact,one or at most two will suffice. However, items 1 and2 are the most frequently used approaches. To assessusehilness, you should ask yourself:

1. What is the current level of information andawareness about this. problem in the group?

2. What information would be most helpful for thegroup to have when it begins to work onsolutions?

If the group's problem is general, such as differentialtreatment of students, a behavioral or causal analysis(Or bothl.is most useful. If the group's problem appearscomplex and has several causes, such as the use ofdrugs by students, a causal analysis can help thegroup to determine which causes are most importantto address first. If the group's problem appears to bespecific, such as the occurrence of fighting amongstudent groups on school grounds, then a force-fieldanalysis is most effective. If the group's problem is oneabout which a number of members appear to havelittle awareness or information about how it isexpressed, a behavioral analysis is appropriate.

4,

Step Three: Generate Muldpict No ludo's*

At Step Three the IVIES group brainstorms solutionsto the identified problem. EiNt, you must restate theproblem in a solution framework. That is, you mustchange it into a question, such as, -What can we do toreduce the incidence of vandalism at our sch Ir Or%oil might develop a -how to" statement, su as "howto improve relations among students of di erent racialand ethnic groups at our school.-

In general, your role as facilitator is to:I Encourage all ideas for solutions to lw expressed

without evaluation by others.Encourage group members to think creatively byexpressing new and different as well as obvioussolutions. In other words, encourage the group toopen the field of possible alternatives.

3. Encourage greater specificity in solutions byletting group members provide as muchinfbrmation as they can about what they have inmind.

%%hat the group did in Step Two to analyze theproblem shapes what it will do in Step Three:

1 If the group did a causal analysis...Then solutions would be tityi to how toalleviate, eliminate, or change the nature Of eachof the prioritized causes so that the originalproblem might be affected.

2 11 the group did it behavioral analysis...Then solutions would be tied to the originalproblem and the statement would be restated interms of a solution.

3 If the group did a force field analysis...Then solutions would be tied to finding specificways to strengthen forces affecting the problempositively and to weaken forces affecting theproblem negatively.

After solutions have been generated and evaluated,once again a prioritization method is used to achieve 11consensus on either thesolutions the group wants towork on first or the best solution.

Step Four: Develop a Plan for Action

The group's objectives in Step Four are to elaborateon the solutions selected in Step Three d to developspecific action plans. Questions such a the followingare answered:

1. What is to be accomplished?2. What is to be included in the pi.ocess or action?3. Who is to be involved?4. What resources will be needed?5. What is the time frame?6. What will be the indicators of the plan's

effectiveness?

In the discussion of these questions, a.matrixanalysis, as described later in this chapter, aids the_group in considering various options and in seeing theoptions portrayed graphically on th6 group memory. Ifmore than one solution is to be worked through, theentire group can work on all of them; or the groupcan be divided into smaller groups, each groupworking on one solution.. Results can be shared withthe entire group after a work period.

The last question (What will be the indicators of theplan's effectiveness?) is the beginning of thedevelopment of an evaluation plan; therefore, it shouldbe saved for last or after the solution has been workedthrough. At this point you can assist the group insetting realistic goals and understanding that there areprocess goals as well as outcome goals to consider .

when indicators are being defined. Process goals areachieved in the course of moving toward outcomegoals. For example, the establishment of a schoolwidecommittee to review the school's current disciplinepolicy and procedures is a process goal that willeventually affect the outcome goal of reducing fightingbetween student groupsthe original problem.

Step live: Determine the Consequences of the Action PlanThis is the evaluation, modification, and

reformulation phase of planning. Your responsibility isto assist the group in evaluating its own plan and

S4,

4855

obtaining feedback from others who will be affected bythe plan. Ask the group, "What are the barriers toimplementing our plan?" After the barriers have beenidentified,.paper is posted next to the list of barriers,and the group brainstorms on how to overcome them.This modified force-field analysis enables the group todevelop miniplans within the overall plan.

Next, the group identifies target groups or individualswho will be affected by the plan or who will beekpected to carry out some parts of it. It decides whowill seek feedback from these groups and individuals.At the next IHES group meeting, these comments areshared, and the original plans are modifiedaccordingly.

Step Six: Implement the Plan

Now that the IHES group licit; an action plan, it takessteps to ensure that the plan will be carried out. TheIHES group may assume responsibility for coordinatingthe implementation b others, or it may do some ofthe implementation itself. In most cases the IHESgroup coordinates the activities, with individualmembers assuming responsibility for doing specificthings or for getting others to do things

,Your role in Step Six is to assist the group indetermining the answers to certain questions:

1. What needs to be done'2. By whom should it be done?3. By what date should it be completed?

Step Seven: Evaluate the Acdonls) Taken

As stated earlier in Step Four, the group needs toevaluate the effectiveness of its plan as well as itsprogress in solving the problem during and afterimplementation. Ongoing in-process evaluation isessential to achieving the desired results and having animpact on the problem. If interventions are notachieving the desired results, they should be changed.Encourage your group to make revisions in its actionplan if data suggest that to do so would be beneficial.Once implementation has been completed and it is

58 49

time to assess the impact on, the problenli, encouragethe group to decide whether it should continue whatit is doing, modi6fthvhat it is doing, or stop what it isdoing. To make this determination, the group returnsto the original problem and assesses whether theproblem has been solved or affected.

Some guidelines you may wish to keep in mind andto share with the group in Step Seven are as follows:

1. Change does not always occur in places wherechange is expected. Encourage your group tothink broadly about how and where evidence ofchange can be expressed.

2. Change is a slow process. Because change takestime, encourage your group not to evaluate, judge,,or scrap its plans before the plans have had timeto affect the school environment.

3. Changes in problem areas are rarely measuredaccurately by standard instruments. Encourageyour up to choose and develop appropriatemeth ds for assessing the impact of their plans.

Selection of Strattigies

The problem-solving sequence provides you with ageneral structure for addressing human environmentissues, concerns, and problems. Many opportunitiesalso exist for you to exercise judgment in how thegroup will conduct its work within each step. Inessence you need to conceptualize the group'sproblem area so that you can make good choices inselecting methods and techniques appropriate to thegroup's task. Here is where having a cofacilitatorserving as recorder is particularly useful. Discuss youroptions with your cofacilitator and obtain commentson your process agenda. Two heads are especiallybetter than one at these choice points. Until you haveextensive experience in working with a variety ofgroups on a variety of problems, plan to consult withyour cofacilitator before initiating the next step. Thispractice will increase your confidence as a facilitator

5057

and will help to ensure the probability of success inyour chosen strategy.

Occasionally, you may find that something you haveasked the group to do is not working or is not helpfulin the way you intended. If so, look to why thissituation has occurred and what might work better."Ily to bring that, activity quickly but naturally toclosure rather than to an abrupt stop and move on towhat you have decided would be a more productivedirection for the group.

Techniques

Providing members with a brief, straightforwardexplanation of a technique and its usefulness as a toolat a given point in the IHES group process achievesseveral purposes:

It enables the group to focus attention on thecontent or task.It establishes the expectation for how groupmembers are to contribute.It gives the group direction and establishes theparameters of its discussion.

Explanations of techniques become less frequent andless necessary as the group moves through theproblem-solving sequence because members come toknov*.the methods, too. Your life as a facilitatorbecomes easier as the group becomes increasinglyfamiliar with the IHES facilitation model and morecompetent at functioning productively within it.

Your introduction of a technique should include anexplanation of:

What the technique isHow the technique can be usefulWhat the process isWhat group members are to doIn this section five techniques and methods that are

indispensable to your work as a facilitator aredescribed: brainstorming advocacy, consensus methods,force-field analysis, and matrix analysis.

5851

Brainstorming

Brainstorming is a method of obtaining many ideasfrom a group in a short period of time. In the courseof the problem-solving sequence, it is particularlyuseful when the group is in Step Oneproblemidentification; in Step 'IWoanalysis (behavioral orcausal); and in Step Threegeneration of alternativesolutions. Brainstorming permits the free flow of ideasin the group, places no value judgment on the ideas,and communicates to group members that their ideasare important.

The proCess of brainstorming takes place as follows:1. Inform the group that if will be brainstorming: Say:

"In brainstorming, we want to get as many idea4)\as we can about the problems, issues, andconcerns related to the human environment inour school."

2. Tell the group the rules: Say: "At this point wewill only be listing ideas, not evaluating them. Oneperson will have the floor at a time, and I willrecognize people who wish to speak in turn. Doyou have any questions before we begin?"

3. Establish a general time fragne for the activity: Tellthe group: "OK. For the next 20 minutes, let's seehow many ideas we can come up with."

4. Conduct the brainstorming. In monitoring thebrainstorming process, notice the flow of ideas.When the flow slows down or when items arebeing repeated, the group is approaching taskcompletion. When ideas are repeated, the recorderplaces an asterisk (*I next to the item. I ideas arestill flowing when the suggested time frame haspassed, say: "Let's take another 15 minutes here

se it appears that we have more ideas toshare."

5. Bring the activity to closure.. To reach closure, tellthe group: "It looks as if we are ready to reviewour list and see if there's anything else we wishto add before moving on to determining whichideas we want 40 work on first. Take a minute

52 59

now to review the list, and then I'll check witheach of you, in turn, to see if there's anything youwish to add." After the minute has passed, askeach member in the semicircle, moving from leftto right, whether there is anything he or shewishes to add. The brainstorming activity hasbeen completed now, and no new items areadded to the group memory for this round ofproblem solving. The product of brainstorming isa list of ideas.

Advocacy

Advocacy is a method for selv_ling a few ideas froma long list of ideas,, for evaluating the relative merits ofideas in terms of some criteria, and for moving thegroup into a decision-making frame of mind. Advocacyenables group members with a strong oheard and to convince,others of their p int of view. It

i inion to bei

enables group members 'th o anions not as welldefined:to hear arguments an toobtain moreinformation abotiLliertai eas. ,e1VOcacy focuse ionhighlighting,the merits of curtain I s Op ed to \

ifocusing on the lack ,cif merit ofqfther ideas. In this ..

..

way the evalua on of ideas becomes a coAstieuctiveprocess b cauk up members areiencouraged tofocus,thei thinkilvg on the,positive aspects. Theprocedure for :onducting an advOcacy period is as

i follows:_.

1 Inform the group members that they will beadvocating; Say: "In advocacy we :seek to.

termine which ideas are most imp Cant (Orich ideas" want to work on firgt). trh ,

advocates or 'speaks to' an .idea. will -'

nute to present his or belt reasons for' .

w that 1 is most important. -Because we Willmaking some decisions aftettme ecim he

ifadtpcary period, you should do .to bes ,te.'present convincing argument's pietint o

2'. Tell the group die rules: Say: "In adv ,,,eachview." I., .

person who wishes to speak has on n lute to/

person whave

\

4

A

'60 53

b4( do so. A person may advocate only one idea;however, the same idea can Ire advocated by morethan one person. A group member also maychoose not to advocate. We will be working onlywith ideas that have been advocated in the nextstep and putting aside unadvocated items,although the other ideas will be retained on thegroup nu-nary for future rounds of problemsolving. Take a minute now to look over the listand decide what you think is the most importantidea. Are there any questions before we begin?"

3. Conduct .the advocacy. In conducting the advocacy,make sure that you (or the recorder) haveidentified the idea being advocated on the groupmemory before the group member beginsadvocating. The recorder puts a large asterisk (.)next to the item or circles it, indicating that theidea has been advocated. Time each advocacy orhave the recorder do so. When 60 seconds pass,say: 'Thank you Your: time is up. Does anyoneelse wish to ,a4vocate?"

4. Bring the advocacy period to closure. Closure isreached when each group member has advocatedan item or -Mien no .remaining group memberswish to advocate. The product of advocacy is ashorter list of ideas that have been identified asmeritorious by at least one group member.

Consensus Methods

There are a number of ways to assist a group inreaching a decision by consensus. First, all involvesome method of making a long list shorter and moremanageable. Second, all involve some method ofprioritizing, by ranking, the items on the shorter list.Remember Viat the underlying principle oil-consensusis to achievb an outcome that is reasonably agreeableto all group members and to avoid at all cost a senseof losing out on the part of any group member.

Advocacy is the consensus method found mosteffective for the first step, but there are other methodsinvolving combining and grouping. Although these

54 61

methods are more time-consuming and more difficultto execute than advocacy, they have the advantage ofconsolidating similar ideas so that people have feweritems to work with. For your information two methods,one for combining and one for grouping, are describedWelly as preadvocmy steps or as alternatives toadvocacy.

In combining, the group is asked to review the ideasunder discussion to determine whethe, any cancombined. As suggestions are offered, ask the entiregroup: Are there any objections? If so, you don't needto state your reasons. If any member objects to thecombination, the ideas will remain separate. Thisstatement is repeated until all suggested combinationsare addressed. The group then moves to the nextprocedure if the list is still quite long.

In grouping, the objective is to create new lists of,similar or related items that are retitled to reflect thecategory describing the newly grouped items. A pair ofscissors can be used to cut up the items and to saverecopying and scratching out as items are moved fromone place to another. Another method is to use aletter of ,the alphabet to code the category and theitems that fall into it. After all items have been coded,cut up the items and repost ,them under the newheadings. These headings become the short list andare then ranked.

Experience has shown that grouping can be time-consuming and unsettling to the group becausedisagreement often occurs as to the best groupingsand placement of items. An advocacy procedure,preceded by combining if you wish, usually achievesthe same outcome more efficiently.

The second step in reaching a consensus is toprioritize or rank the items or some of the itemsaccording to a prescribed method. TFe simplestmethod for prioritizing is first to pass out small slipsof paper to,each group member and to letter (A, B, C,and so on) each item on the short list. On a piece ofbutcher paper, have the recorder write "3 points =most important problem (or most important place to

62 55

begin r; ''2 points = serokl most important problem";"I point = third most important problem"; and theinstruction: "Mite the letter of the problem next toeach point value on your sheet of paper." Then loll thegroup members to review the items and to choosewhat they feel is the most important problem. Tellthem to write the number 3 next to the letteridentifying that problem on their piece of paper. Havethem do the same for 2 and 1. Collect the papers andtally on a posted piece of butcher paper. The itemwith the highest number of points becomes the toppriority, and the others follow in relative importanceaccording to their respective tallies. Inform the groupthat this will now become the agenda; the prioritizedproblems will be addressed in order.

There are more elaborate methods of prioritizing thatare perhaps more accurate; however, they are moretime-consuming and often difficult to explain clearly tothe group. For your infiwmation several sources onalternative prioritization methods are ,included in thesupplementary reading list at the end of this manual.Force-Field Ana lyed*

Force-field analysis is a technique for analyzing aprom in the situation or context in which theproblem now exists. Its purpose is to inventory positivefactors in the environment (facilitative forces) andnegative factors in the environment (restraining forces)that currently affect the problem. This analysisincrews the group's, le of information about theprobleaThelps group, members Aidentit, their resourcesas well as their challenges, and Provides a structure forfuture planning. Thus, it is particularly useful in StepTwo and Step Three of the problem-solving sequence.Before you initiate a force-field analysis, however, youshould prepare the group memory as shoWn in Figure 6.

The process for conducting a force-field analysis isas follows:

1. Inform group members tfi they will be doing aforce field analysis: Say: "Nekt, we will analyze the

6356

Worststate

Figure 6

FORCE-FIELD ANALYSIS

Facilitating RestrainingForces Forces

4

4

4

4

Presentstate ofaffairs

64

CD'

Idealstate

(target)

57

problem we've decided to work on in terms of thefacilitating and restraining forces that maintain theproblem as it is right now. For any problem thereare people and conditions that basically, areworking to change the problem for better ofworse. The forces for positive change arehwilitating (point to group. memory). If lestunchecked by restraining forces, our problemswould improve (move hand to the right of thepresent state of AWN), and we would approachthe ideal problem solution. On the other hand,the forces lir negative change (point to restrainingforces), if leg unchecked, would make the problem(move hand to the left) become worse than itcurrently is. Our task is to identify.what theseforces are so that we can later, when we considersolutions, find ways to strengthen the positivelOrces for change and weaken the negative ones."

the group the rules: Say: "You may contributeeither facilitating or restraining force, but be sure to

I' say first in which category your idea falls. We will notIre evaluating' ideas now but rather simply listingthem. Are there any questions?"

3. Conduct, the force field analysis, Notice the flowand distribution of ideas. If most are restraining,encourage the group to add to the facilitative list.Otherwise, follow the same procedures as forbrainstorming.

4. Bring the activity to closure. Closure is reachedwhen all ideas have been posted. If the analysis isto be used for future planning, the groupcompletes the process by (a) identifying the forcesthat are amenable to change or intervention andeliminating the others; (b) deciding the mostimportant forces to strengthen and to weaken;and (c) then deciding how to strengthen andweaken the forces. The analysis can be an aid infuture planning without completing, the aboveprocedure. The group simply can be,encouragedto use the information gained as they work ongenerating solutions to the problem.

68 65

Matrh Analysis.

A matrix analysis provides a graphic presentation ofideas for comparative evaluation or planning.Conducting a immix analysis enables you to assist thef1,1'0111 in (11 evaluating the relative merits and feasibilityof selected solutions of plans; (2) working through anumber Of options or variations of one solution; or(31 planning implementation of selected solutions. It ismost tiseful for number 2 or number 3. A samplematrix analysis is shown in Figure 7. On the verticallines to the left, the alternatives to be considered arelisted. On the top horizontal line are listed the criteriato be addremed. The group establishes the criteriawith your assistance. New criteria can be added asthey are identified, even if the analysis has begun.

The process for conducting the matrix analysis issimilar to brainstorning in that ideas are not evaluateduntil all are presented, but the process is somewhatless fOrmal and structured. The group is encouraged tobuild on the ideas already presented. If an expansionor modification of a posted idea is offered, check withthe original presenter. If the modification is satisfactoryto that person, it should be recorded as the new idea.if it is not satisfactory, record the option next to theoriginal idea for evaluation later. The group can beencouraged first to work through its ideal solutionand then to scale that down in terms of the realities ofstaffing, financing, time, and so on. This is a suggesteduse for matrix analysis that enables the group to retainthe integrity of its original solution through a variety ofoptions. For example, if the preferred way of increasingstudent activities, the chosen solution, is to hire anactivities director and there are no district funds to doso, the group's plan might be (a) to examine alternativeways to raise the funds for an activity director; 'or(b) to move to the second level plan of establishing aparent-student activity program. A matrix analysis helpsthe group to determine the what and how of solutionsand to see that there are more ways than one toachieve its objectives.

IK9

Figure 7

MATRIX ANALYSIS

Resources Needed

Alternatives PeopleEquipment

Time Spacef_____

Financial

,a

bI

c

d

e

67

Maniple 11111:18 Igrucinew

These Call 111 timed singly or incombination on Out basis of your iLicigment dhoti! the!WA %%'il)' II) ilt4Mit41 the gr(siii in its movement throughthe problem solving sequence. A sample of how till'11'11111q111'S can 1M timed at various points is providedin Figure 8 lor Ihe first slis of 1111' M1%1111'1111'

ti 68

°

Figure 8

Sample IHES Process and TechniquesF

Step What? How?i''

Example

1. Identifyproblems.

1. Obtain list ofproblems.

2. Reach consensuson the firstproblem to beaddressed. i

P,

1. Brainstorming

2. AdvocacyEliminationPrioritization

"What are the problems,issues, and concerns relatedto our school humanenvironment?"The most important problem

is student vandalism."

2. Analyzeproblems.

e

1. Examine causes.

2. Reach consensuson causes to beaddressed.

3. Restate and clarifyproblem.

1. Brainstorming

2. AdvocacyEliminationPrioritization

7

"What are the causes ofvandalism at our school?"

"Students' lack of pride in theschool contributes to theproblem of vandalism."

3. Generatesolutions.

1. Restate problem togenerate solutions.

2. List solutions.

3. Reach consensus.

1. Write out and postb in front of group.

2. Brainstorming

3. AdvocacyEliminationPrioritization

"How to increase school pridein students in order to impactthe problem of vandalism"

Top three solutions:1. Establish a School Pride

Day.2. Develop an incentive

program in which fundsnot used to repair damageare given to studentactivities.

3. Improve security in theevening and on weekends.

4. Developplans.

Develop the specificsof the solution andalternatives forcarrying it out.

Matrix analysis For the first solution thegroup decided to recommend

.that a faculty-student t.government committee beestablished to plan the day,scheduled to take place onemonth from now. H wouldi lye all students in various

cts designed to clean upthen "decorate" the

school.

Ainra:4;wiffrd //Of Ofriori-er---

Now that you have learned the skills of the facilitatorand perhaps have facilitated your first IHES meeting,you are ready to learn more abotti.small-groupprocesses and methods to facilitate the development ofthe IHES group. Groups are like individuals, each withunique personalities and each presenting differentchallenges to those who Work with them. Just asindividuals move through stages of development, so dogroupsin ways that are predictable and observable.

In this chapter the concepts that underlie the IHESgroup process are discussed so that you can keepthem in mind whenever you facilitate. Next, the cyclesin a group's life are presented so that you can beaware at all times which cycle your group is in.

Finally, some ideas are offered on how you canmaintain a rewarding and productive group experiencetor all involved, including ou, the facilitator.

IIIES Group Procesh

As discussed in Chapter 4 and-i elsewhere., the IHESgroup is a task-oriented, problem-solving group basedon collaborative decision making and consensus. It isnot a counseling or therapy group in which the focusis placed on individual change or on interactions

within the group. The focus in the IHES group is onthe problem-solving task. As the facilitator you becomeexpert in communication skills so that ineffective orcounterproductive communications can be eliminatedand a high level of problem resolution can befacilitated.

In any group, optimal functioning occurs when thereis access to participation as well as efficiency in thegroup's process of problem solving (Napier andGershenfeld, 1981). Although this makes intuitive sense,it is much easier to understand than to implement. Weknow from research on groups that the more open theavenues of participation, the higher the perceivedmorale of the group's members. Thus, as facilitatorsweshould encourage all individuals to participate bycreating an atmosphere characterized by respect anddignity. On the other hand, groups that emphasizeopenness tend not to be very efficient. They tend togenerate extraneous material or waste a considerableamount of time listening to the more outspoken groupmembers develop their opinions. In addition, moretime is often needed to identify the best ideas, in part,because more content is generated and more ideas ofvarying quality are produced.

Highly efficient groups have a central person whoexpedites, clarifies, and keeps the group on task. Asfacilitators you will develop process agendas designedto move a group through a planned, structuredproblem-solving process. On the other hand, anoveremphasis on task completion may generateresistance in some participants, make people feelundervalued, and discourage careful thinking becauseparticipants feel rushed or are unable to match theirpersonal style of making contributions to the process.As a result, divergent or creative thinking may belimited and lower-quality or safer ideas selected 'notbecause the best solutions have been attained butbecause a desire to complete the task quickly hasbecome the primary objective.

Achieving balance between access to participationand efficiency is your goal as an IHES facilitator.

64 !1

.4

Balance is achieved when group members appear to befully participating and when their participation isstructured to maximize the group's forward movementin the problem-solving process.

As used here, balance does not, mean that at alltimes one must give equal emphasis to both factors.Rather, it means that the facilitator is always sensitiveto both process and task and uses good judgment andflexibility in giving appropriate attention to bothaspects over the course of the group's life. Forexample, periods of brainstorming and advocacy aretimes to emphasize open and free communication in atime frame long enough for all to make contributions.On the other hand, when some group members offerextraneous material for discussion to postpone decisionmaking, it is appropriate to post the new topics on anew sheet of butcher paper to the side of the groupmemory.for future consideration. In this way thegroup's attention can be focused on the next importantstep in the problem-solving process.

"rood judgment in knowing when peripheral issuesmust be dealt with because of their impact on futureprocess and task completion, as well as when they canbe saved for later or not addressed formally at all, isdeveloped by analyzing your past facilitationexperiences and observing others facilitate. As a generalrule, when you as facilitator feel that the negativeconditions of the most open group are beginning tosurface in the IHES group, it is your responsibility to(I) impose restrictions of time or content ondiscussions; (2) resort to rules; or (3) move the group tothe next step of the problem-solving process.

Life Cycles of a Group

The cycles in a group's life can be conceptualizedwithin either a process framework or a task framework.Both are useful to know about because they provideyou with some indicators for analyzing what you seeoccurring within your IHES group. Within bothframeworks the stages of development are rarely as

72

well differentiated as they are described here. Further,they may not always appear in a clear, step-by-stepprogression; groups have a way of moving forward andbackward and then forward again. This is the elementof excitement and unpredictability in groups thatprovides the facilitator with new challenges.

Process FrameworkRegardless of their type, groups usaa progress

through (1) an initial stage; (2) a transitional stage; (3) aworking stage; and (4) a final stage (Corey and Corey,1982). An IHES group is no exception.

Initial stage. In the initial stage the most importanttasks for the facilitator are to establish trust, goals,and norms and procedures for the group. Whenpeople enter a group for the first time, as discussedin Chapter 3, they may feel insecurity, anxiety,apprehension, and uncertainty about their ownbehavior and about what others might expect ofthem. By creating a climate of respect and bymodeling comfortable yet purposeful behavior, you, asfacilitator begin the process of trust building in thegroup. Your invitations for active participation helphere also and contribute to the emergent sense ofcohesiveness that will be solidifi9d in the workingstage. As the facilitator you initiAy establish thestandards that govern individual behavior in thegroup and propose the procedures to be followed. Agentle approach that still reflects your authority asfacilitator is always best. Be sure to obtain theconsent of the group for your procedures. questionsshould be carefully and sensitively addressed.Remember that you can always say: "Well, let's giveit a try for now.... We can always decide to do it ina different way later."Transitional stage. The transitional state is less welldefined in time than the first but is usuallyidentified by the expression of conflict or by theobservation of problem behaviors in individual groupmembers. The conflict may surface between group

. tr

members or may be reflected it chalintikes directedto the facilitator. The transitional stage ischaracterizbd_by some anxiety and usually precedesan individual group members commitment to thepurposes of the group: Ii- 'Ilem behaviors inindividual members surface, you should rely onassertive communications and other strategiesdescribed in Chapter 2 and Chapter 6. If youobserve group 'resistance to moving forward, youneed to analyze it and address it; otherwise, thegroup will become fragmented and will be unable tomove into the working stage. If the group'sresistance is passive, the situation is usuallyperceived as unsafe by the members. Assurancesand words of encouragement are helpful. Of course,you need to make sure that anxiety is not coloringyour observations before you confront an individualor the group.Most of the time the behaviors and conflicts thatevidence themselves in the transitional stage of anIHES group are subtle and low-level. They maynaturally pass without any intervention by you, orthey may be managed so easily that you need notbe too concerned with them. The key is to addressproblems or conflicts as they surface, before theyescalate, with the lowest levels of intervention first.Being too sensitive to potential problems usuallytranslates into overreaction on the part of thefacilitator, possibly alienating you from the groupand creating a "them- against me" stanceincompatible with the facilitative function you arethere to perform.

Working stage. The working stage is characterized bycohesiveness and productivity. Morale and mutualtrust among members:,' are high. In general,interpersonal conflict has been managed, andconstructive conflict around differences of opinion iseffectively dealt with as it surfaces. This is where, asfacilitator, you see both open communication andtask orientation operating at a high level.

67

4

Groups are not static, however, and it is in theworking stage that the ebb and flow of group energyare clearly visible. It is an extended periodcharacterized by high productivity interspersed withperiods of stagnation or little movement. There areminiclosures on issues and new beginnings as newcycles of problem-solving are begun. As facilitatoryou know the members of your group quite well bynow, and they have come to adopt for themselves aset of norms and procedures that work for themunder your able leadership. Do not panic if youhave a poor meeting. Remember that people whowork hard need to rest and that groups do, too.Rather, analyze what happened at themeeting what you could have done differently (ifanything) as well as what they could have donedifferently (if anything). Consider also the possibilitthat group energy was at an ebb because of.circumstances beyond everyone's control.Final stage. The final stage occurs when the IHESgroup dissolves or ends. If it appears that imminentclosure is desirable, inevitable, or necessary, do notlet members drift off without a formal endi or _closure experience..The IHES group has worketogether for some time now and has established'itself as an entity. Plan to assist the group inprocessing its ending. Included might be a review ofits work and accomplishments as well as someformal and informal rewards to the group and toindividuals for their time and effort.

Task FrameworkThe Hetzel and Barnard (1973) model of group

process, adapted and expanded for our use, providesanother way of conceptualizing the IHES groupprocess. As shown in Figure 9, it provides a gauge forwhere the group should be developmentally as itmoves through the problem-solving sequence describedin Chapter 4.

Awareness. In the first stage, group membersdevelop an awareness of the problems, issues, and

68

Figure 9

IHES GROUP PROCESS

REWARDS ANDRECOGNITIONFOR EFFORTS

CLOSURE

DEVELOPMENT OF AN.01 AWARENESS OF THE

PROBLEM AND THE NEEDTO CHANGE

INCREASED OWNERSHIPOF THE PROBLEM

CONSIDERATION OFALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONSAND GOALS

COMMITMENT TO

AND GOAL(S)SELECTED SOLUTION(S)

Adapted from Hetzel and Barnard, The Human Agenda:Critical Variable in Innovation.

concerns affecting human environment of theschool. This awareness parallels Step Oneproblemidentification in the problem-solving sequence.During this early period, awareness is primarilyaffective in nature, with participants sharing theirperceptions and feelings about what the problemsare. Later, in the analysis phase, awareness isdeepened through the presentation of data,advocacies, and other more cognitively basedactivities.

Developing awareness is an individual and variableprocess. Some group members, because of position,experience, or interests, will have greater awareness.of a stated problem than will other group members.In the awareness stage all group members come torecognize that at least one individual perceives thata problem exists in a given area. Your task here isto facilitate the expression of all members'perceptions and to treat each as worthy of beingrecorded on the group memory. You may need toremind group members who seek to dismiss theideas of others or to deny another person'sperception of a problem that now is not the timefor evaluating. or judging the relative merits of theideas being generated. Tell the members thatevaluation and judgments will come later.Ownership. During the ownership stage groupmembers come to identify with a need for change.They move from the perception of problems asexternal to themselves or institutional in nature tothe realization that they as individuals have apersonal commitment to contribute to the solutionof problems. Ownership is facilitated by the group'sfirst efforts at decision making. Usually, ownership ofthe problem is achieved through a consensus-reaching procedure, such as a prioritization of themost important issues. From this point forwardthe group is working on its own self-generatedagenda,,and the most important issues belong to thegroup, not just to the individuals who originally

70 7 7

contrilfted the issues to the group memory,As the group analyzes and refines the definition ofthe problem area it has chosen to work on first,awareness and ownership are deepened. Inesssence, the more you know about the probablecauses of the problem, the manner in which theproblem is being manifested behaviorally andspecifically, and the context in which the problem isexpressed, the more able you are to see the needfor addressing it and for committing yourself to thatOleo.During the analysis phase, two behavioral patternsmay surface in terms of the group's process. First,you may notice some group members expressing thefeeling that they feel overwhelmed, discouraged, orpessimistic because the problem seems "too big,""too complex," or "beyond solution." The positiveaspect of these expressions is that you know thattheir awareness has indeed increased. It is naturalfor these feelings to surface after an intensive periodof analysis, and you need to tell the group this. Youshould also assure them that they will, indeed, beable to do something about the problem. If theproblem seems too big or too complex to you also,perhaps the group needs to identify smaller, specificsubproblems under the 'larger problem and to anackeach subproblem separately.

The second pattern that may surface is that groupmembers may he offering solutions whert they aresupposed to he analyzing. If this situation occursearly in analysis, you need to inform the groupmembers that solutions will be worked on later.Early education of the group on the relationship ofproblem identification and analysis to the quality ofsolutions helps to prevent this natural tendency fin'people to want to reach a solution to a problembefbre.they fully understand the problem. Sometimesa participant's solution comment can he translatedinto a causal statement. The statement We need

78 71

more security guards" can be restated and recordedas "There are not enough security guards." Finally,the movement to solution statements may be anindicator that the group has completed the analysisand is indeed ready to move on to the next stage.Alternative solutions and goals. The third stage,consideration of alternative solutions and goals,parallels Step Threegeneration of solutions in theproblem-solving sequence. As the facilitator youshould create an open atmosphere in whichparticipants are encouraged to offer a variety ofsolutions: the obvious, the easy, the difficult, and thecreative. It is helpful to ask members to be asspecific as possible about what they have in mindwhen they suggest solutions. To do so makes thenext step easier, more meaningful, and more clearlydefined.Commitment. Developing commitment to theselected solutions and goals is similar to theownership stage in that the techniques of advocacyand prioritization are often used to reach copsensus.As stated in Chapter 4, consensus means agreement,and agreement facilitates commitment. Again, sincethis is a decision-making phase, there may be someanxiety or resistance surfacing in the group.However, because the selection of solutions meansmovement to the development of action plans, thepositive aspects usually outweigh any negative ones.When this stage has been completed, most groupmembers tend to feel considerable responsibility forachieving the desired solution(s).Closure. The next step, achieving closure on thegroup's task, is difficult if not impossible toaccomplish if closureris defined as the eliminationor immediate resolution of a problem. Humanenvironment problems are rarely amenable to theseforms of closure. In an IHES group, closure maymean 111 having taken as many steps as possible toimplement plans; (2) forwarding recommendations tovarious groups for reactions or actions; or (3)

72 79

developing time lines and a monitoring system forassessing the impact of a solution. In all cases thegroup feels that it has finished its work, at leasttemporarily, or has gone as far as it can with a

rgiven solution or a particular probleM. If the closurephase has gone well, the group will have a feelingthat it can make a difference and that its effort hasbeen worthwhile. After a rest it will be willing tobegin the problem-solving process again.newards and recognition. The final stage of theprocess is rewards and recognition for efforts.Probably the most powerfill reinforcement for agroup is task completion. Although this intrinsicreinforcement occurs naturally, other ways exist torecognize a group for its work, such as thepresentation of awards by the principal or publicityin the news media. In your role as facilitator, youshould feel free to suggest to those in authorityopportunities or ways in which to reward the group.

I

Motivation of an Group

There o,re many ways for you, the facilitator, to assistyour group in maintaining its motivation andproductivity. In general, people are motivated arch feelrewarded through { I) respect; 12) recognition; KU a senseof self-importance; 14) a sense of belonging; 15) respon-sibility; 1W status; 17) pride in accomplishment; 18) taskcompletion; (0) knowledge of results; and 110) praise.

:\s an exercise designed to sensitize you to the manyxvays in which motivation and reward can betranslated into specific things that you or others cando at various points in the life of your, IIIES group, seexfiether x'ou can brainstorm at least five differentthings to do each of the ten items. Considerbuilding in various motivators and rewards in youopening and closing remarks at each group meeting.Assist your group in defining its own rewards.Remember that appropriately timed breaks,opportunities for infiwmal socializing, the sharing of

80 73

food, respect for ending times for meetings, and thepreparation of process agendas that permit a group tohave closure on a phase of the mblem-solving processare all contributing factors to a positive groupexperience. Giving a pep talk that praises the grou at brthe quality of its work or reminds the group me-m sof their important function can also go a long way.

In the long term two important principles guide'our %vork as a facilitator. Roth are central to the IIIES

concept, and both have been demonstrated to hepositive reinforcer:~ of behavior. The first is thatparticipatory decision making is superior to otherapproaches for addressing human environment issuesthat affect the school community. The second is thatpositive and constructive group management leads topositive and constructive problem solving. Your HIESgroup will come to know and appreciate theseprinciples as a result of our work as a facilitator. Thisis vow' reward.

74 81

Once you have facilitated several IIIES groupmeeting's and have finind that to do so was not :easy as you thought it would be, you may he ready tostudy this chapter. Discussed here are basic correResfor problems that facilitators may encounter as well assome advanced facilitation skills. The specific topicscovered include the physical environment, the shapingand pacing of the group's work, difficult groupmembers, and the qualities of a good facilitator.

Physical Environment

When, despite your best efforts, a group does notprogress very well, look firsi fin problems in thephysical environment. For example, the room in whichyou are meeting may have the wrong shape or size toaccommodate a single semicircle. If the group meets ina room that is too small or narrow, some groupmembers may be too far from the action.therefore, to schedule Your meetings in a largemultilitirpose room or even a clasVoom because theserooms tend to have appropriate dimensions and largewall spaces. Mpvtiog rooms tend to be poor locationsfor IlII' meetings because they are generally too small

82

76

for this kind of' work and are usually furnished withlarge tables that will have to be removed.

If you are assigned to a small room with largetables, do not be pressured into holding the meetingarwund the table. Because the IHES facilitationprocess reqUilTS the openness of tlw semicircle andthe focus on you and the group memory, a tablewill be a distinct hindrance. Either change rooms ornum!, the table. out. In fact, it is a good idea toarrive at the assigned meeting place a half-hourbeforehand' so that, if necessary, you can, move thefuhiiture around.

lii arranging the room, make sure that there areonly enough chairs for the number of groupmembers. If"few.er than that ,number attend, removethe empty chairs and tighten the circle. Gaps can,become symbolically and functionally a hindrance to

.

the grnup s process. It is also a good .idea to removeother chairs'frbm the perimeter of the semicirclebecause reluctant, or tardy members'witi want to sitbehindthe rest of the' group and will have to becoaxed to come forward,.'.

In .summary, you inay'avoid problems later if youwill review the following set of questions beforebeginning your meeting:

1. Are the chairs arranged in a' true semicircle?2. Has unnecessary furniture been removed from the

work area?3. Is. there plenty of empty- wall space within: the

view of the group to post the group memory? ,)4. Is the lighting adequate?

, 4

5. Has the group memory from the previousmeetings-been posted..to bring -everyone up to.

6. Is thee: enough _part' paperyou are ,using rotted butchersheets been cut?

7. Is.there a sufficient quantitymasking :tape?

8. Are there enough name tags

for this meeting? Ifpaper, have enough

of fresh -markers and

for 'everyone?

""911016,

4

Shaping' aivii k"acing

lieingOensitive to the mood, en&t..or level, andproblem-, fving capacities .4 a group and being able toaddrjssithese with confideqce is advanced facilitationiluleed../'Mougb the conietif.pf a group's work will hetlu product of the issues it el-Oases to work through,the process is up to you. Sometimes, certain phases. ofthe process can be very,positive..by their very nature,such as at early stages of the. group's. lite or during abrainstorming session;itt other times group memberswill ne4fielp from yodto.keilp.,:them going throughdifficulAr .slow-moving ta4ts...4 israt ^these times thatyour skill and enthtisiittSrtt,as.,aI4:ilitator is especiallycalled upon to eiOlucate,kanolchallehge the group

4 nembe4 and to proVilde -thttri Wilth a vision about.

their task.Thi.s is what is uneaht.by shaping the work of the

grotfp,,AS a fai;ifitafor you are 'responsible for focusingon the prey objectiOS kind ultimate goal of thegroiip;, thaf.is, producing. high-quality solutions toditiVult .or sensitive problems. When the group getsbogged clown in :dpecifics.or begins to lose itsenthusiasm, it is your job.te'remind the group,

.

members of...ttie stages of the group's process, as,.deScribectAn Chapter 5,,and to put into perspective the

purpose of the activity. In doing so, you may challengethem to increase their influence, improve the qualitykod depth of their analysis, and, finally, achieve theirgoals.

By pacing is meant thatyou try to maintain thehighest possible energy level in the group by carefullyselecting tasks and anticipating what, is to come in thecourse of the work of the group. It also means learning,.to encourage the group when difficulties arise or whenthe group becomes immobilized. It means confrontingthe need for readjustment in the group and,zseinforcingthe norm of positive and constructive problem solving.Finally, it means sharing your expectations whileremaining flexible in your planning.

84 77

78

Suggestions for handling two comnion problemsassociated with shaping and pacingnonparticipationor boredom and time limitations-, are described here.Nonparthipadoo or Boredom

When one or two members haVe ceased to payattention and are perhaps beginhing to engage inpersonal conversation, the person or persons may bebored: or perhaps irritated. When a member is quietlystaring out in space, you might choose to ignore himor her for the time being, allowing the person to takea mental break. lf, however, this behavior continues fora long period of time, you should speak to that" personprivately during a break to' ascertain whether there is aproblem.

If someone's behavior is disruptive re the group as awhole, such as engaging in peripheral conversations,that person may be having difficulty with the groupprocess itself. It is best tp deal with the situation byasking, the person directily whether he or she wouldlicke.to make a-comment and following that up with aprivate. discussion, if necessary, during a break. What isimportant in this case is tcYreestablish ordeso thatthe group can. proceed.

If the le group or a substantial portion of itappe ored or is unwilling to participate, youshou nsider certain possibilities:

It May be time for a break----simply that. Often,beginning facilitators, in their fervor to move toclosure, fail to notice the flagging energy level ofthe group. You should always plan breaks asneeded, For example, if yon are going to have totally rankings before Moving on, give. the group astretch break, while you are doing so. You shouldalso call for breaks whenever something significantdisrupts the process of the group (includingcertain interpersonal interruptions, which will bediscuSsed later) in order to relieve tension andalloW for getting the group back on track. As afacilitator you will want to take breaks for yourselfbecause, as you have probably discovered, this is. .

6

hard work. Use your own mei& and stress levelsas barometers fer changing 'pace or resting fiw awhile.

2. Group members may feel that progress toward thegoal is not occurring and`-that what is happeningis irrelevant.,This situation can happen especiallydming.problem analysis. Some group memberscan become impatient at this stage because whatthey are interested in is generating solutions. Inthis case your role is to remind the group aboutthe purpose of this stage of the problem-solvingprocess and tO view it as an opportunity for allgroup members to air their thoughts on theproblem so that the best solutions can beformulated in the next phase. It may also be,however, that the pace is just too-olOw. You mightwish to quicken the pace and indicate to thegroup, that you are about to conclude this phaseand that they should prepare to make their final'comments.

3. The discUssiim may have gone of the track, and,vou may be losing the group in irrelevantabstractions. Make sure that the group is stilldealing with the concrete realities0the.problem.

4. One 01 mire persons may be dominating thegroup, and, as a result, the others may becomebored of- irritated. Remember that maximumparticipation, the goal of an IHES group, oughtiilot to be jeopardized by an individual's need forrecognition or group power. (See the sectiondealing with difficult group members further on inthis chapter.)

5. Finally, it may be that people in the group arefeeling inhibited by another group,member orperhaps by you as facilitator. IHES groups

`typically include participants who. may not beusedto working in such a highly structured,task-oriented way. Nonparticipation may simply bethe result of feeling overwhelmed by the ,process.itself or by others who are verbose' or opinionated.In this case you will need to repeaNften the 0 ,

I

*importatkce of everyone's ideas, even liioas that .'!.,::I,

may seem unclear 61. unfbimulated. You can al 'it,'

remind the grout) that you and the recorder are ..,:o

there to hell) the members express their thoughts,4thus vfncouraging open communication.

Time Limitations.

The most common problem you are likely toencounter is running Out of time belbre you havereached closure On a particular phase of problemsolving. This can occur even when you have'carehillyanticipated the direction of the group Ibr thatparticular session because it is impossible to predict,accurately the number or kind of ideas that a groupwill generate. Because one of the major principles ofan 1HES group is to make clear the expectations of itsmembers, such as when meetings will begin and whenthey will end, a group should not be kept overtime tofinish a task. Rather, it is suggested that you do The

1. Set reasonable tim, imits for each task plannedand inform the grot p members of those limtts. sothat they, too, can assume responsibility forreaching the goals of the meeting. Having trecorder keep track of the time can also help tokeep the group within its time fraille.

2, Remind the group when time limits are beingexceeded. If it appears, as the meeting, progresses,that you will run short of time, discussalternatives with the group, such as extending themeeting or scheduling a later one.

3. Recognize when it is time to quit. If at allssible, try to end a particular session on a

poSitiiianote. For example, if the group membershave worked hard on a task and are basking in asense of accomplishment, the meeting should be

clOsed'with much praise' for all, regardless of thetime or the projected agenda. It is not a gooaidea to overtax a group becauie of the negatiKeffect uqfit,,the group's efforts. To do so may iniprthe long-term enthusiasm and commitment of the

grunt) to the IllES process. Resides, there isnothing wrong with letting eveiyune leave early.

In mummify, a few general principles should helpyou to Dace and shape the work of your group:

1. Hemember.that 'adequate preparation for themeeting is your best hive:411uit in promoting aproductive and rewarding session.

2. lie able to anticipate problems before they becomeobstructive. This ability comes with experience.

a. lie flexible enough to alter your planned agenda ifnecessary.

4. 1,0 111e. group know what to expect and what isexpected of it at all times.

5. Stay relaxed and keep your seriAle of humor. A,good laugh every now and then can lighten theatmosphere and relieve tensions before they guild.

Problem Members

In almost every group there will likely be fiend oneor two members who cause problems for the group,thus distracting-you from moving toward completion ofthe-task. In 'confronting these problems, you muststrike a delicate balance between resolving theindividual difficulty while trying to, preserve themomentum of the group as a wale. You are alsoresponsible for protecting members of the group fromattack or domination by any individual.

mitc Stiatepties 44"sri

Your overriding goa when ft !idling these vroblksshould be to*get the group back on task with thee leadamount of disruption or. time lost toward this end.General methods recommendqd for doing so.i4re.asfollows:

1. Maintain your neutrality and composure. notto get upset.

2. Acknowledge the difficulty. Describe the person'sbehavior through observation without beingjudgmental.

Qo

82

3. Try tahroopt each person',.~ form of expression ashis or her attempt to communicate an importantidea or feeling:

4. Appeal to the.rules. Remember that there is adefinite structure, such as one persim talking at it

time, to which everyone must adhere if the groupis to function well.

5: 1,4ipca I e the group about the RIES process.Remind everyone that this is a task-oriented,problem-solving group with the goal of reachingcinisensus'on issues, not of resolving personal orinterpersonal problems.

Finally, in dealing with individual problems ordisruptions, realize that the best strategy is to startwith the least disruptive, lowest-level response 'and toescalate in a gradual or measured fashion from there,moving to more direct confrontation 0 y if needed.For example, if someone is interrupti aggressively,~tart by re ninding him or her about he rule of being

IIN!'ognized in turn. If this does m work, then movephysically closer to the person, giving nonverbal signals

'./tOratop, such as eye contact or the gestures of a trafficOfficer. ReMember not to point. Next, look the persondirecil in/the (.;yy and speitk to the person, telling 141tinor her to stop..7 that attempt fails, call for a break andconfront the person outside the meeting to find outwhat is wrong and attempt to solicit or negotiatecooperation. The last resort, one that will rarely berequired if tLle previous steps have been taken, is toconfront the person in front 6f the group .by remindinghim or her again about the purpose and rules of themeeting and asking the person to decide to comply orto discontinue participation. ?Specific inters/endows

411.

The members you are likely to have difficulty with inan IHES group tend teiJfall iffto several categories. Whatfollows is a description of the characteristics of someof these individuals and specific interventions fordealing with such persons:

89

Angry Or Hostile Menthe,'The angry or hostile member is probably the most

difficult member you will have to deal with. It isimportant to Ttgnember that a person who Fs'consistently angry or hostile has stning Jeelings andprobably believes that arguing and browbeating anddominating others is the, only way to be heard. Ofcourse, this person may have psychological plblems

.beyond your iiibigy or responsibility to resolve.Nevertheless, it is within your ability and responsibilityto attempt to gain his or her cooperaticin andconformity with the group's procedures.It is alsoimportant to the rest of the group that you meet anychallenges to your authority and the ruleS of tlitiIHESpmcess effectively and fairly. If you allow theatigq orhostile member to dominate the meeting, you, wilt losethe respect required to lead the group toward its goals., Specific interventions. The .first and most\ important thing to remember in dealing with the

wig' et: hostile membvr is your skill in reflectingfee as described' Chapter 2. You should

4 . .

quip acknowledge to the person that you arethere hell: translate these feelings intoa ctio 'Hewed plans. Do not ignore; feel ig levelof the person's expression because to do so lendsonly to escalate the anger. Defusing the afeelings first will en4b1eyou to prhceed with thegeneral methods At sti;ategies described earlit

1Specifically, moving-Miller to such individuals wioften make them amise aWai'e of their behavior, anddealing with them outside the meeting is necessaryif the behavior persists./111;4:king Member

This person is different from the generally angry orhostile member in that he 'or she relieves frustration oranxiety through persfonal attacks on another groupmember or on you a facilitator. Remember that yypuoverall .duty is to protect the other vembers fronicriticism and abuse while refocusing on the task athand.

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Specific interventions. Remind the attacker that thepurpose of Ill' meeting is to generate ideas andsolutions and that personal attacks, because they do,.raot serve this end, will riot he tolerated. Js(! thegroup memory to relOcus On 11W ideas and awayfrom individuals, Ask the attacker' whether he or shehas something to contribute and have recorded andremind him or her that there is a time and methodfor evaluating ideas. fry to convert the attacker'sciiticism into a constructive contribution if he orshe is unable to formulate an idea in a positive,nonpersonal manner. If two group members lieginto quamel, remind them,of the rules and the task athand and physically step between them, forcingthem to talk to you rather than to each other. Ifvou are being attacked, try not to be defensive. Takea deep breath, thank the person for the critcism,and say thot you will consider it. Remind everyonethat there are various styles of facilitation but thatthe methods are standard. Then proceed. If you feela need to do so, speak to the attacker otitSideqhemeeting to describe the (HES process "and your rolein it more fully.Negative (-Yes, but . Member

The negative member is always looking for rearmswhy an idea will not work. This person can have "anextremely deflating effect on a group's enerw.4Youirgeneral objective here will be to turn the negativecomments into positive statements.

lo\Specific interventions. When the negative memberstarts to explain why something will not worksimply reply, We don't know that what you say istrue." Try to enumerate quickly those factors whichare unknowns and challenge the person to keep anopen mind until the process is completed. If youare in a brainstorming session, remind the personthat the time for evaluating ideas will come laterand that you are only trying to solicit as many ideasas possible. Then motion to the group memory andask whether there is a constructive idea that he or

9184

she %muld like to add. Always use your best skills toturn a negative remark into a positive one.FAirentel Talkative Member

This person is characterized by long-wiuklej andrepetitive discourse's. Often, the extremely talkativemember is passivoty las opposed to aggressively, likethe angry or hostile member) expressing a need todominate the meeting, possibly tOr status or power.Nevertheless, he or she generally means well and can .01.k

he a valuable member in tlw long run. Theretbre, your?'"approach should be appreciative and reassu ing while

# focusing on the substance of the idea prese led.

te. Specific interventions. Learn to internip politely butfirmly. Saying "Thank vote' is always an acceptablestopper. Or stop the pertiim in midstream, saying,"Let's hold on a minute to make awe we don't missanything. Let's see ift've got youP point." Thenparaphrase. If the person,: agrees that what you havestated is at least partially. correct, then have therecorder write the words` down., Often, justknowing that one's ideas are being recorded causesthe person to relax. Occasionally, howmxr, thetalkative, member continues to act as before. If theperson offers a different idea this time, try to havethe person hold on to it until it is his or her turnagain. If not, and if the persmi is obviously still verymuch involved with an idea or issue, remind theperson that there will he a time for advocacy later,if that iS.in fact the case. Alternatively, acknowledgethat the person seems to need to talk now and that,as it Special exception, you will provide one minuteto speak, allowing him or her to let go of the ideasand thus move along through the rest of themeeting. Remember that this last option involvesdifferential- (and .preferentiall treatment/of onemember and should only be used as (a last resortwhen you judge that by doing otherwise you wouldlose the person or cause disruption. 4

FAlremelv Quiet Member4rf The extremely quiet member, unlike the bored Or

distracted nonparticipant described earlier, is generallyit person %vho is shy Or is overwhelmed by some othergroup member or the process itself. hr IIIES groupsthis person may he a student Or parent who is undulyawed by to Or administrators and %Alio may needsper,:ial encouragement to contribute.

*Specific interventions. Although you wouldgenerally not call on someone who has not asked tobe recognized,'in this case it is acWisable toacknowledge the need for and value of the quietmember's contribution by asking him or her directly:Is there something you would like to add?" If the

person's remarks are very brief, you might ask: -"Could you say more about that?" You can add a

word or two of verbal reinforcement at the end of ascomment, such as "Thank you." With this

person you ,might also want to point to the groupmemory, as that can be very reinfbrcing of thecontribution.Although the persons described in this section are

not the only difficult members you may encounter illan INES group, they provide a few models from whichyou can improvise. The most important point toremember in dealing with difficult members is toremain neutral. Of course, you will have personalreactioos and feelings, especially when someone isacting inappropriatelvw.oWntive4y. However, tor thegroup to trust.the liTES prOtess and you as itsguardian, it must firmly believe, that your own ideasand feelings are not affecting the outcome of thegroup's work.

The best tactic for remaining neutral and relaxed isto resort to the, rules. Repeating the rules andreminding. the group of its overall purpose andfunction will better enable you to shape groupconsciousness and responsibility. It will also relieveyou of the 'personal need you may feel to respond toeach challenge on a personal level. If this approach

93

tails and .you find that you must reulpond strongly,..01ne negative or antagonistic beloyiur of a member* IMO

a sell assertion mode rather thaiOirdelimsiYe. oraggressive mode Tell the offendinA'person in (7011(111eterms what you see him or her doing, how that makesyou ICel, and what you would likr him or her to dodifferently

For additional descriptions of how to deal vvithditlicult Members of similar groups, see Doyle andStraus 11970), pp. 105 17; and Auvine and others 119781,I'll. 9 72.

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Corey and Corey 119821 have described the personalcharacteristics of the effective group leader as:

Courage to take risks, to he honest, and to admitone's mistakesWillingness to model particularly as lo openness,seriousness of purpose, acceptance, and risk taking

111- Presence in the sense of being emotionally andintellectually self-aware and preparedGood will and caring being sincerely interested inthe welfare of others and respecting, trusting, andvaluing individualsBelief in group lrr that it can produceconstructive and t outcomes, and conveyingthis. belief to the n s of the groupOpenness to oneself, the group, new experjences,and different value systems and life-styles,Abi/itv to rope with attacks its boins abteto lobk Ylt

criticism nondelensivelyPersonal power as having dynamic and vitalqualities and self confidenceStamina both physical and psychological and anawareness of ones own energy levelSri/ awareness or the ability to look carefully andcritically at oneselfSense of humor putting events in perspective andreleasing tensioninvenfiverwss beihg,sfAintarieoirkly creative and nottrapped in ,rIthoOs

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As a tUrther aid in improving your facilitation skills,analyze the specific situations in the meetingothat wereproblematic and ask yourself, "What could I dodifferently or more effectively in the fixture if similarcircumstances occur?" Also,, consult with your recorderto obtain his or her ideas. Remember that one optionalways available to you in a difficult situation in whichyou are uncertain how to proceed is Ulgtake a breakand consult privately with your recorder on what todo next. If you feel unable to continue in the role offacilitator, consider switching roles with the recorder. P 4

Facilitating a meeting can be a personallyexhilarating experience. It presents you with newopportunities to learn and to refine your, skills aidenables you to participate in an exciting, creativeprocess and to participate in an important socialchange effort. Despite the challenges that face you as a'facilitator, the positive benefits and feelings that youwill experience will make your efforts worth thechallenge.

F

90 97

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To use the facilitation skills you have just learned, youneed an IIIES group. Although it is not your responsibilityto establish the *soup, administrators may seek your advicein composing it. Further, since the strength of an IHESgroup is based on how diverse and representative it is, youMay need to be an advocate for these qualities at variouspoints in the group's life. In this appendix information onthe preconditions for a successful IHES group and on thephilosophy of its composition is presented for your own useor for you to share with the principal of a school whereyou will be facilitating.

Preconditions for a Successful! IIII S Group

An essential factor in establishing an IHES group is thesupport of the chief administrator: the superintendent, theprincipal, or, (preferably), both. For an IHES group to beestablished, school district or site administratoi's must:

Perceive that human Mations or human environment. issues and concerns are affecting negatively the quality of

education offered in their school(s).Have a commitment to achieve more harmoniousinterpersonal and intergroup relations in their,schoolls).Select and encourage individualg to participate intheIHES group who represent a cross-section of the schoolcommunity.Endorse the concepts of group problem solving andconsensus decision making.Provide resources, time, and space for the IHES group toconduct its work.To find out whether a commitment to the preconditions

exists, a consultant from the Office of Intergroup Relations,State Department of Education, or, in some cases, a

3

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district/site staff member familiar with the HIES pmgramfirst meets with the central administrative leadership.of adistrict or school. Usually, a superintendent and the!consultant agree that an HIES program would be beneficialto the district -or to particular schools in the district. Thenthe consultant makes an overview presentation to theprincipals in the district to determine who wishes to havean HMS group and trained facilitators at their school sites.Once the composition of the facilitathr training group isestablished, an invitation to attend and participate in thetraining is extended to the district and site administratorsas well. Their participation is helpful in ensuring that theyhave a clear working understanding of the content andproces of an IHES group and that they have experiencedhow such a group can work in support of their goals.Although administrators are not 'expected or encouraged tofunction as facilitators in their own schools, many havechosen to facilitate meetings for their colleagues or for otherorganizations.

Composition of an IIII S Group

The next step is to establish a diverse and representativeIHES group at the school site. An IHES group includesteachers, students, parents, administrators, school staff, andcommunity'members. It is important that all groupsconcerned about the human environment of the schoOl berepresented because substantive change can rarely beeffected unless most, if not 4, of these groups are involved.In addition, membership should reflect the diversity of theschool community sin terms of such factors as ethnicity, sex,economic status, sand grade level. Because these factorsshape our perceptions of reality and because a broadenedperspective of schoOl human environment issues andconcerns is essential for each member, the IHES group mustreflect this 'diversity. Finally, the IHES group reflects adiversity of perspectives, philosophies, and attitudes towardthe school. If everyone thinks the same way (e.g., all totally'supportive or all totally critical of the school), the creativeand synergistic aspects of problem solving are Minimized.

Although You are not responsible as the facilitator forestablishing the group, you may be asked to assist thbprincipal in composing it. Or you may need to call to tleprincipal's attention the importance of ,representation andbalance in the group when these hiaracteristics appear tobe abse v

Finall successful IHES group meeting always has thechief administrator or his or her designee in attendance.

92 99

1This person, as the chairperson of the II1ES group, hasresponsibility for the group,' for calling meetings, and

for coordinating follow-up work. Groups can flounder whenthe persons with legal authority in the school are notparticipating actively in the group's work; therefore, asfacilitator you need to plan meeting times at the conve-nience of the central administrator or his or he' designeeand to spend time with, this person as needed 'encourageIris or her commitment and involvement.

An 111E5 group must he large enough to have an impacton the school but small enough to tro%;"de Opportunities forall members' participation and for 'facilitatecomfortably. As a general rule reflr 'enta on and diversityare more important criteria than size in establishing anHIES group. A maximum -size IHES group consists of 15participants. Although 'it is possible to us, t1 the IHESfacilitation method in larger groups, speKil skills areneeded; and such an attempt is not, 'therefore,recommended fir} beginning and intermediate facilitators. Aminimum size for a group is six, although this size is alsonot recoMmenthid because an IHES group usually cannotin4!et composition requirements with so few members.Although general guidelines for size can be provided, theymay have to be changed to reflect the needs of a particularschool community. For example, a typical IHES group in ahigh school might include the follOwing:

1. Administrators (one or two)2. Other School staff (counselors, 'custodians, secretaries,

aides) (one or two)r 3. Teachers (three or four)

4. Parents (two or three)5. Students Ithwe to five)6. Community representatives (one or two)

The group that you facilitate should include members 9-omeach' of these categories.

Selection of merribersof an IH S group can be done in a'number of ways. Usually, the prin ipal invites nominationsfrom the various school community'groups by some'electiveor volunteer process. Making sure/that individuals (vho wishto participate have knowledge of the opportunity to do so isthe responsibility of the principal. He or she also makesappointments to the IHES group as necessary to meet thecriteria of representativeness and diversity. When the list of

tial members is complete, the invitation to join thegr p is, of course, extended by the chief administrator.

ow that you have some background information on whattl e typical proces is for establishing an IHES group, you

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should be aware that variations exist as well, particularly inthe circumstances that may have led. to its creation. Ingeneral, III V.S groups air established for 0111! of two reasons:

because a specific problem has been identified thatrequires immediate totinvention; or 12) because a schoolcommunity wishes to engage in prevention of problems andhuman environment impmvement bee use it views these asdesirable or necesskey. When a group is established for thefirst reason, it is task-spocific and ma disband once it has

7

completed its work. When a group is established for theSecond reasonit is ongoing and 'continues to functionthrough periods of high. and low .activity, the purpose beingto initiate action.and Monitor au!' qualityti the hoinanenvironment in the school. 'Most !HES groups are ongoing.

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references listed here can provide additionalinfikmatimi on small-group processes, conflict managecommunication, and facilitation. ..,

Amine, B., and others. 'A Manual for Group Facilitators.Madison, Center for Conflict Resolution, 1978.A training manual for resource facilitators of problem-solving groups. Emphasis on conflict resolution. Includeshelpf sections on group processes and techniques andon that to do when things go, wrong.

Raker, and A. Scor-naienchi. Problem Solving and(;dope Planning Guide. Hayward, Calif.: Office of theAlameda County Superintendent of Schools, 19,82.A manual for leaders of problem-solving groups to assistthem in planning and conducting meetings. Includesdiscussion of methods for categoriiing, prioritizing,analyzing, and assessing ideas.

Corey, G., and M. S. 1:orey. Groups: Process and Practice.Monterey, Calif.: rrooks/Cole Publishing Co., 1982.Designed to aid counselors in leading individual. changegroups. Provides excellent suggestions for IHES facilitatorson personal style.

Doyle, M., and D. Straus. How to Make Meetings WorkChicago: Playboy Press, 1976.

A practical guide for the facilitator on how to conductmeetings by the interaction method.

is

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Piney, A. Interpersonal Conflict Resolution. Glenview, Ill.;Scott, Foresman & Co., 1975.Provides excellent background material on the types andsources 9f conflict. Strategies and methods for resolvingconflict also included.

Hetzel, R., and D. Barnard. "The Human Agenda: CriticalVariable in Innovatioh," Educational Leadership, Vol. 30(March, 1973), 526-29,.Presents a group model for effecting educational change.

Human Behavior and Leadership. Pensacola, Fla.: NavalEducation and Training Program Development Center;1977. ERIC'Document Reprbduction Service NumberED179-703.

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Describes 1(11(14,140, styles,i communication techniques,anil methods of influencing liontan behavior. Groupleadership mid problem solving also discussed. Written forindividual study by naval offierrs. Pro;lites goodintroduction to intorpermotial and. group behavior.

tImproving thr Human ofi.tichools: Problems arm

Strategies. Sacra( nto: California Stale Department ofEducation,, 1979. a

A manual desiglisti\t tissist principals in identifying,monittring,, and moth Amman barriers in the schml

Napier, R. W., and M..K, Genkftenfeld. (Iroups: Theory."and Experieni..e. Mutton: Houghton' Mifflin Co., 19.81.DvSigned to /Erovidii undenitnnaing of grmip Mtcessesan(1 improve skills Iftt group !waters, pariictirarly in human

rations training, ned change, leadepshidevelop-ment, and decision ing processes,. An, wa:ellentbackground !vatting )!source.

Zander, A. Making (;roup.q Siin:Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1982.A good nontechnical overview of .14 rtkstilts of groupdynamics irsearch iti arplication*'to groupfunctioning.

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Comments and Suggestions on IHES- Facilitation

Wi 11111 itoi!Pf ill the! 11111111.141i NM! y1011 lituiid part 1(3114111V

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What other materials for III ES facilitators would you like to see included in futureeditions of the manual?

Please return to: Joan P. Avis01/11ce of Intergroup RelationsCalifornia State Department of Education721 Capitol MallSacramento, CA 95814-4785

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104

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I andelitirs and Procedures Inv Meeting Ike 51)4*(14111,v Iltiallli I in- Nerds of Shidents 19140, 512

handbook 1/1/ Maiming all Effet live klaill0 IlliaUll Program 11,1X2 i11.'011'1111es lilt School Nord Alcohol and 11 is Abuse Programs I1'411 1 ee

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Orders, should be directed toCalifinia State Department of EducationP.O Box 271Sae Tamento, CA 95802-0271

11,inittance or Nrhase order must accompany order Purchase orders without thecks areaccepted only from government etgencies in California. Sales tax should be added to all orderstrom California purchasers.

complete list of publications available from the Department may be obtained by writing to theaddress listed above'

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