DOCUMENT RESUME ED 129 704 Richardson, Charles Howard ... · tional world includes the countries of Asia, Afrira, and Latin America. We also recognize a transitional world: selected

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Richardson, Charles HowardCultures of the World: Administrative Manual (And]Study Guide.Central Michigan Univ., Mount Pleasant. Inst. forPersonal and Career Development.75256p.Institute for Personal and Career Development,Central Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant, Michigan48859 (study guide $4.72, write for orderinginformation on other items)

MF-M83 Plus Postage. HC Not Available from EDRS.Adult Education; Course Objectives; *DevelopedNations; *Developing Nations; Diagnostic Tests;*External Degree Programs; Geography Instruction;Higher Education; *Human Geography; *IndependentStudy; Industrialization; Instructional Materials;*Learning Modules; Post Secondary Education;Technological Advancement; Units of Study (SubjectFields); World Geography; World Problems

ABSTRACTThis learning package is a three-semester-hour,

independent-study course in geography and cultures of the worlddesigned for postsecondary, external degree students. Keyed to thecommercially published textbook "Between Two Worlds: A NewIntroduction to Geography" (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,1973) , the package consists of an administrator manual, "Goode'sWorld Atlas," and a student study guide. The manual describes thecourse and outlines the roles and tasks of the tutor/grader. Thestudy guide, which serves as the student's instructor telling himwhat material should be read, when to read it, and how to evaluatehis progress, contains specific course objectives, diagnostic testsand keys, and practical exercises and keys for the five units whichcomprise the course. Students compare and contrast life within andamong developed and developing nations. They contrast life in anisolated village of India with life in Washington, D.C., explore theextent to which the natural environment determines the level ofmodernity of a place, and examine elements in the underdevelopednations which must be improved if progress toward modernization is tobe made. Students read the objectives of each unit and take adiagnostic pretest. The guide refers them to textbook readings and topractical exercises for items missed. Students check their mastery ofobjectives with posttests. Final exams are required. Hard copies ofthe learning package, with or without the textbook, are availablefrom the Institute for Personal and Career Development. Only theadministrator manual and the study guide are on microfiche.(Author/RM)

Documents acquired by ERIC include many informal unpublished materiaLs not available from other sources, ERIC makes everyeffort to obtain the best copy available. Nevertheless, items of marginal reproducibility are often encountered and this affects thequality of the microfiche and hardcopy reproductions ERIC makes available via the ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDRS).EDRS is not responsible for the quality of the original document. Reproductions suppl'ed by EDRS are the best that can be made fromthe original.

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CulturesOf TheWorld

Administrative Manual

Institute for Personal and Career DevebpmentCentral Michigan Universily Press

Mount Pleasant, Michigan 48859

2

D 1975 by Central Michigan University

All rights reserved

With the exception of the reprinted material copyrighted else-where, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored ina retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,without the prior written permission of duly authoriLed agentsof Central Michigan University. Persons wishing to adapt oradopt these materials for their awn use or programs may do soby special agreement and payment of royalties. Inquiries arewelcomed and should be sent to the DIRECTOR, INSTITUTE FORPERSONAL AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT, CENTRAL MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY,MT. PLEASANT, MICHIGAN 48859.

Printed in the United States of America

4

Contents

Preface v

An Explanation of Self-Instructional Materials 1

Possible Problem Areas 3

The Tutor's Role 6

Preface

Geography 121 (Cultures of the World) is equivalent in contextand number of credit hours to the course of the same title offeredat Central Michigan University in the Department of Geography.The course introduces the student to a geographic investigationof the cultural worlds of mankind.

In our view, the world can be divided into two basic culturalsystems: one is the world of modernity--the Western nations--andthe other is the world of tradition--the non-Wester-, countries.Among the former are Japan, Australia, New Zealand, the SovietUnion, and the countries of Europe and North America; the tradi-tional world includes the countries of Asia, Afrira, and LatinAmerica. We also recognize a transitional world: selected coun-

tries that have progressed to middle ranges along several pathwaysof modernization. Traditional countries, scattered over variouscontinents, include Uruguay, Argentina, South Africa, Hong Kong,Taiwan, South Korea.

Comparisons and contrasts within and among these cultural worldsare employed as a basic methodology of instruction for this course.The cultural worlds are compared in terms of geographic elementsand their associations. The fundamental geographical element::include the physical environment, the population, and the cultureof mankind. It is the last of these elements upon which thiscourse concentrates.

Unit 1, "Modeling the Modern and Traditional Worlds," contraststhe way of life in an isolated village of India with the diverselife styles in a highly interconnected modern metropolis of theWestern World. The student comes to recognize some of the funda-mental differences between the modern and traditional worlds.

Unit 2, "Natural Influences on the Modern and Traditional Worlds,"compares the interrelations of the physical environment with eachof the two cultural worlds. Specifically, it explores the extentto which the natural environment "determines" the level of moder-nity of a place.

Unit 3, "Cultural Indicators of the Modern and Traditional Worlds,"analyzes the nature of culture. The unit introduces the studentto one means of cultural classification. Also the student learnstwo contrasting sets of cultural characteristics, one for eachspecific cultural world.

5

1,nr Aut.

Unit 4, "The Modern World," deals exclusively with the modernworld. It delves into some of the complex interrelationshipsamong the variables of modern countries such as a society's degreeof modernization in relation to (1) food production (2) transpor-tation and communication (3) employment patterns (4) energy con-sumption, and (5) urban structure.

Finally, unit 5, "The Traditional World," explores the traditionalworld's cultural components and briefly examines elements thatmust be improved if progress toward modernization is to be made.

6

vi

1

An Explanation OfSelf-Instructional Materials

This course has been designed to allow the student to work inde-pendently while achieving mastery of the performance objectivesspecified in each unit of instruction. If the student uses thematerials properly, mastery should be attained.

To help the student succeed, the following components are in-cluded each unit of instruction:

A list of Performance Objectives appears at the beginningof each unit and tells the student exactly what contentis to be mastered.

A Study Directory follows the objectives. It specifieswhich textbook readings, practical exercises, supplementaryexercise, and self-diagnostic test items must be completedfor each objective.

The Practical Exercises provide practice assignments thathelp the student meet each objective. There is at least oneexercise per objective. An answer key appears at the end ofthe section so that the student may check his answers.

The Self-Diagnostic Test enables the student to determineif she has acquired the competencies specified by the per-formance objectives. At least one item has been developedfor each objective. If the student can correctly answer allthe test items, she has acquired the unit competencies. A

test key is provided.

The student is also provided with a Study Map which graphi-cally indicates the seauence to be followed in each unit.The study map is reproduced on the next page.

At the conclusion of a specified number of units, the studentis required to take a credit examination. This exam containsat least one item for each objective.

SELF-INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

STUDY MAP

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Read theIntroduction

IExamine thePerformanceObjectives

Examine theStudy directory

Step 4 Complete thePractical

[Exercises

Step 5 Colaplete theself-diagnostictest

All questionsanswered

correctly?(See answer key)

Go to thenext unit

Yes No

Fcr each incorrectanswer, review

Still having objective, textproblems? book reading andCall your practical exer-tutor. cizes and attempt

test question again.

8

Possible Problem Areas

The following comments are intended to forewarn the tutor aboutspecific portions of the course which may be possible problemareas for students. Tutors are expected to report additionalproblems to the Institute for Personal and Career Development.

Students may fail to read the "Instructions to the Student" priorto starting the Study Guide units. This will deprive them ofsome insight into the format and how materials are most efficientlyused.

Occasionally a student will be confused by the flowchart calledthe "study map." Tutors who get phone calls about this problemshould ask the students to look at their own maps while she orhe directs them through the sequence, as indicated by arrows,explaining each step.

Students who have never experienced a self-instructional coursemay not realize the importance of using the materials as intended.They may try skipping material or skimming, even though it ismore appropriate to study diligently by following the correctsequence.

Students may disregard the importance of the performance objec-tives for study purposes. After they complete the self-diagnostictest and the first credit examination, they should realize theimportance of objectives in specifying areas of emphasis for study.

Many learners will misuse the self-diagnostic test. They- willtry to complete the test before really being prepared. Thisundermines the diagnostic benefit of the test for pinpointingthose objectives and related exercises learners must reviewbefore proceeding to the next unit or taking the creditexamination. In this case students are using the self-diagnostictest as a practical exercise and should be encouraged to completethe test only at the conclusion of the practical exercises.

Although practical exercises are useful in the learning process,they do not serve the same purpose as the self-diagnostic test.The practical exerci' J is a teaching device, while the self-diagnostic test is a. evaluation device. If students are to besuccessful they should complete every practical exercise.

When a student calls with a problem, be certain that his or herdifficulty does not stem from the inappropriate use of thematerials. Be certain that all materials (textbook(s), student'sstudy guitie, and the tutor's guide) are available to you when astudent calls for help.

9

4POSSIBLE PROBLEM AREAS

SPECIFIC POHNTIAL PROBLEMS

A unit by unit assessment of potential problems that studentsmay encounter is given below. The list is by no means exhaustive;it simply represents some problems that students have alreadyreported.

Unit I: Modeling the Modern and Traditional Worlds

Question five of the self-diagnostic test may occasionally elicitan incorrect response. Some students select "B" 1 so,de select

as the correct answer. However "B" would tkl a moretraditional society such as that of Ramkheri. "EJ," on the otherhand, would represent a more modern (actually, transitional)society, and would not be character-Hed by reliance on localcraftsmen.

Unit II: Narural Influences on the Modern and Traditional Worlds

Some of the content of unit two is subjective and may result ina variety of answers to some questions.

Practical Exercise 1: This is a discovery exercise whoseanswer in the key should alleviate problems that may havesurfaced in the student's attempt to determine ananswer.

Practical Exercise 2: Note the addition of percentages, whichhelp to qualify the adjective "predominantly." To somestudents, 51% implies predominance, which is an incorrectassumption.

Unit III: Cultural Indicators of the Modern and Traditional Worlds

The general purpose of unit three is to provide the student withan understanding of culture and of its parameters in modern,transitional, and traditional societies. There are two possiblesources of difficulty and these relate to the instructions forcompleting practical exercises four and five. It would bebeneficial for the tutor to work out these exercises so that heor she may be prepared to offer help when it is requested.

Unit IV: The Modern World

Practical exercise five contains instructions for completing anumber of profiles. Some students may not be able to follow thedirections. The tutor should go through the exercise carefullyto be prepared to answer questions.

10

SPECIFIC POTENTIAL PROBLEMS

Practical exercise twelve also contains some complex directions.The tutor is also urged to complete that exercise.

Unit V: The Traditional World

No problems are anticipated.

5

The Tutor's RoleIt is important for the tutor to become very familiar with thecourse textbook(s), the instruction provided by the student'sstudy guide, the nature of self-instruction (as outlined onthe preceding pages), and this manual. Familiarization withstudy materials will facilitate the understanding of learnerproblems. The tutor is urged to carefully read the study guideand to complete--or at least analyze--all the exercises and tests.Only at that time will the tutor be in a position to providethe kind of help a student may need.

Tutors may not change the course in any manner. The coursecontent, instructional sequence, instructional strategies, andevaluation instruments will be changed only through the systematicprocesses of instructional technology under the supervision ofprofessional developers. Because of the objective nature oflearning criteria for this course, the tutor has almost nointerpretative role to perform.

Tutors must be available to students to help them when theyencounter problems. Normally, contacts will be initiated by thestudent by telephone; however, students may occasionally wish tovisit with fne tutor personally. Tutor/student contactsshould be recorded and the student's problem explained forevaluatiai purposes. Tutors should submit explanations tothe Institlte for Personal and Career Development. Eventually,when the course has been revised to satisfy learner needs, thenumber of tutor/student contacts should be minimal.

The tutor will be expected to make the first telephone contactwith each student. She or he should introduce herself or himselfand indicate availability for assistance to the student when aproblem arises.

When the tutor does receive a call for help, the student must betold not to proceed to a subsequent unit until the difficultyhas been alleviated. Fuither, the. student should be reminded toreview those textbook readings, practical exercises, and self-diagnostic test items related to the difficulty.

CulturesOf TheWorld

Study Guide

Charles Howard Richardson, Ph.D.

Institute for Personal and Career DevelopmentCentral Michigan University Press

Mount Pleasant, Michigan 48859

cD 1975 by Central Michigan University

All f47hts reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in aretrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,without the prior written permission of duly authorized agentsof Central Michigan University. Parsons wishing to adapt oradopt these materials for their own use or programs may do soby special agreement and payment of royalties. Inquiries arewelcomed and should be sent to the DIRECTOR, INSTITUTE FORPERSONAL AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT, CENTRAL MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY,MT. PLEASANT, MICHIGAN 48859.

Printed in the United States of America

1 4

Contents

Acknowledgments

Introduction 1

Instructions to the Student 5

Unit I. Modeling the Modern and Traditional Worlds 15

Unit II. Natural Influences on the Modern and Tradi4.ional Worlds 43

Unit III. Cultural Indicators of the Modern and Traditional Worlds 71

Unit IV. The Modern World 139

Unit V. The Traditional World 191

iii1 5

Acknowledgments

This course has been produced through the combined creativeefforts of these individuals.

Charles Howard Richardson, author

Philip Feil, instructional designer

Donna Born, editor

Dennis A. Pompilius, production manager

Douglas Thering, graphic artist

Mary Vilenski, typist

The economic and demographic data in this Study Guide are takenfrom the Oxford Economic Atlas of the World, 4th edition,copyright 1972, Oxford University Press. Special appreciationis extended to Oxford Press for permission to use these data.

Cultures of the World was developed by the Division ofInstructional Resources and the Institute for Personal andCareer Development of Central Michigan University.

1 6

IntroductionTo The Course

INTRODUCTION

Cultures of the World introduces the student to a geographic in-vestigation of the cultural worlds of mankind. In our view, theworld can be divided into two basic cultural systems: one is theworld of modernity--the Western nations--and the other is theworld of tradition--the non-Western countries. Among the formerare Japan, Australia, New Zealand, the Soviet Union, and thecountries of Europe and North America; the traditional world in-cludes most countries on the continents of Asia, Africa, and LatinAmerica. We also recognize a transitional wcrld: selected coun-tries that have progressed to middle ranges along several pathwaysof modernization. Traditional countries, scattered among variouscontinents, include Uruguay, Argentina, South Africa, Hong Kong,Taiwan, South Korea.

Comparisons and contrasts within and among the countries of thesecultural worlds are employed as a basic methodology of instruction.Most exercises are based on recent statistics taken during thedecade of the 1960's (ENford Economic Atlas, 4th ed., 1972). Thecultural worlds are compared in terms of geographic elements andtheir associations. The fundamental geographical elements includethe physical environment, the population, and the culture ofmankind. It is the last of these elements upon which this courseconcentrates.

Unit one contrasts the way of life in an isolated village of Indiawith the diverse life styles in a highly interconnected modernmetropolis of the Western World. The student comes to recognizesome of the fundamental differences between the modern and tra-ditional worlds.

Unit two compares the interrelations of the physical environmentwith each of the two cultural worlds. Specifically, it exploresthe extent to which the natural environment "determines" the levelof modernity of a place.

Unit three analyzes the nature of culture. The unit introducesthe student to one means of cultural classification. Also thestudent learns two contrasting sets of cultural characteristics,one for each specific cultural world.

Unit four deals exclusively with the modern world. It delves intosome of the complex interrelationships among the variables ofmodern countries such as a society's degree of modernization inrelation to (1) food production (2) transportation an3 communication(3) employment patterns (4) energy consumption, and (5) urbanstructure.

Finall Y, unit five explores the tradit!=a1 world's cultural com-ponents and briefly examines elements that must be improved ifprogress toward modernization is to be made.

1 8

grabY GUI bE

InstructionsTo TheStudent

SELF-INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 1

AN EXPLANATION OFSELF-INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

This self-instructional course has been ,arefully designed toassure the participant success. For most efficient use ofthese materials you must become familiar with the organizationof the course.

A short Introduction outlining the contents appears at thebeginning of each unit. Such an overview is important for itgives you a perspective of the unit.

Once you have read the introduction, you should carefully examinethe Objectives. Objectives tcll you exactly what content youmust learn and how you will be tested.

A Study Directory follows the objectives. This directoryspecifies the textbook readings, supplementary readings, tapedlectures (if these are provided), and practical exercises youmust complete in ordEr to acquire the competency specified byeach objective. The directory also identifies the self-diagnostic test item which you should complete for each objective.

The Practical Exercises provides practice assignments to help yousatisfy each objective. A key appears at the end of the practicalexercises so that you may check your answers.

The Self-diagnostic Test will enable you to determine if youhave acquired the competencies specified by the performanceobjectives. At least one test item has been developed for eachobjective. If you can correctly answer all the test questions,you have acquired the competencies specified by the objectives.You may check your answers by referring to the Self-diagnosticTest Key.

The self-diagnostic test key also tells you to which objectiveeach test question is related. In the event you do not answera question correctly, you should re-examine the objective, com-plete the related practical exercise, and then attempt thequestion again. You should not begin a subsequent unit, norshould you take a credit examination until you can correctlyanswer all the questions of the appropriate self-diagnostic tests.

2 0

. 8 INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT

THE STUDY MAP

The procedures outlined in the study map on the facing page will

be used throughout this course. To help you to understand these

procedures each step is explained below.

STEP 1: Read the introduction to the unit.

STEP 2: Next, turn to the performance objectives. Examine them

carefully to see what you will be expected to do.

STEP 3: Turn to the study directory which will tell you exactly

what to do in order to acquire the competencies for

each objective.

STEP 4: Complete the practical exercises. These exercisesprovide the instruction designed to help you to master

the unit's objectives. An answer key follows the

exercises.

STEP 5: You should attempt the self-diagnostic test only when

you can correctly answer each of the practical exer-

cise questions. This test will permit you to evaluate

your progress. If you can correctly answer all questionsyou may go to the next unit; if you make one or more

errors, you should re-examine the objective (or objec-tives) and complete the tasks outlined in the studydirectory for that objective (or objectives).Finally, you should again try to answer the testquestions which you originally answered incorrectly.At this point, you can go to the next unit.

21

STUDY MAP

Sep

Step 2

SELF-INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

Read theIntroduction

Examine thePerformanceObjectives

1---

Step 3 Examine theStudy directory

Step 4

Step 5

Complete thePracticalExercises

Complete theself-diagnostictest

Go to thenext unit

Still havingproblems?Call yourtntor.

2 2

All questionsansweredcorrectly?(See answer key)

Yes

For each incorrectanswer, reviewobjective, textbookreading and practicalexercises and attempttest question again.

1 INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT

MATERIAr IN THE PACKAGE

Textbooks: Robert A. Harper and Theodore H. Schmudde.Between Two Worlds: A New Introduction toGeography. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company,

1973

Atlas: Edward B. Espenshade, Jr. and Joel L. Morrison(Eds.) Goode's World Atlas. Chicago: Rand McNallyand Company, 1974

Study guide: Charles H. Richardson, Cultures of the World:Study Guide. Mount Pleasant, Michigan: CentralMichigan University Press, 1975

2 3

GRADES AND GRADING 11

EXAMINATION PROCEDURES

Your final grade will be determined by your performance on anumber of credit exami:lations. When you have completed aspecified number of units you will be required to take an exambased on those units.

EXAM UNITS COVERED

1 1-2-32 4-5

When you are ready for an examination, follow the proceduresspecified by the Institute to arrange for its administration.

GRADES AND GRADING

Your final grade will be based on your total score on the exams.If you obtain a total score of 90% - 100% you will receive an"A" for the course. Additional details are given below:

Percent of FinalTotal Score Grade

90 100 A80 8970 - 7969 and below no credit

(re-examination required)

This course has been so designed that you should not get lessthan a "c". In fact credit will not be given for a lower grade.If you follow all procedures, read and complete all the assign-ments, and contact the tutor when you encounter difficulties,you should be able to get an "A"!

If you have any questions concerning grading procedures contactthe Institute (517) 774-3865.

2 4

12 INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENTS

TIME LIMITS

It is recommended that this course be completed in twelve weeksor less. This will require perseverance and considerable work,but the learning will be more effective if the course is completedin a concentrated time period.

If you wish to complete all the course requirements in less time,you are encouraged to do so. There is no minimum time period.

In the event the course requirements are not completed in twenty-four weeks, you will receive a grade of "I" (incomplete). This

can be changed to a credit grade by completing all the courserequirements. If, however, you do not complete tl,e course with-in a period of twelve months and wish to continue, you will berequired to register for the course again. You should consultthe Institate's information handbooks for further details.

HELP!

What do you do if you need help?

If you have a problem related to course work, contact yourtutor. If your question relates to missing materials, lostexam, inability to take an examination at a scheduled time, orany question involving the administrative procedures of thecourse, contact the Institute.

If after repeated efforts you cannot reach your tutor, contactthe Institute either by mail or phone.

When you call the Institute, your questions will be dealt withquickly if you:

1. give your name and identify yourself as an IPCDstudent, and

2. state that you have a problem or question relatingto the Cultures of the World course.

It may occasionally take some time to locate the person who cananswer your question, but every effort will be made to answer allquestions on the same day.

If, even after we've tried to solve your problem, you feel youstill don't have the answer, tell us so, Let us try again.

2 5

COURSE EVALUATION QUESTIONAIRE 1 3

COURSE EVALUATION QUESTIONAIRE

A Course Evaluation Questionnaire is to be completed by studentsusing this instructional package. The information that youprovide to the author and course designers helps to developinstructional packages which are better designed, are moreeffective forms of instruction, and will ultimately betterserve the educational needs of students.

The Course Evaluation Questionnaire consists of two parts--aset of specific questions related to various aspects of thisinstructional package and a separate sheet for your personalreactions, opinions, constructive criticisms, and any comments1,ou think will be helpful in future revisions of these materials.

Make no mistake! This, as other instructional packages, will berevised and improved by the comments provided by you and otherstudents. Help us out.

Modeling The ModernAnd

Traditional Worlds

INTRODUCTION 1 7

INTRODUCTION

One of the concerns of geography is to promote an "understandingof the how and why of human life at particular places on theearth. Each place has its unique combination of locational,environmental, and human conditions, and it is the geographer'sconcern to understand how they interact."* Such an under-standing can be achieved by analyzing the factors that have madea place what it is. Factors such as climate, soil conditions,and resources cannot be overlooked; however, examination of onlythose factors would result in a superficial analysis. Conse-quently, additional factors such as cultural characteristics andrelations with distant places also need to be examined.

In this unit you will analyze Washington, D.C. and Ramkheri,India. These places represent extremes in that one is charac-teristic of the modern world and the other of the traditionalworld. Your analysis will reveal some of the factors which arecharacteristic of these two extremes.

*Robert A. Harper and Theodore H. Schmudde, Between Two Worlds:A New Introduction to Geography (Boston: Houghton MifflinCompany, 1973) p. 3.

2 8

I18 MODELING THE MODERN AND TRAP JNAL WORLDS

PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES

1. Given four possible conflicts between a metropolitan area andits ecological environment, select the one most applicable toWashington.

2. Given four reasons for inefficient agricultural production,choose the cl,e that applies to Ramkheri and the traditionalmodel.

3. Given a number of statements, select those that explain whychange comes about so slowly in a traditional society such asRamkheri.

4. Given a list of statements, identify those which depict thetraditional world, and, finally, those which depict bothmodels.

5. Given a description of a population center (i.e. village,town, or city) locate that center on the traditional-modernmodel and select from a number of statements those taat sup-port the choice for its location.

2 9

STUDY DIRECTORY / 19

STUDY DIRECTORY

This Study Directory specifies exactly what you must do in orderto meet the requirement of each objective. For example, inorder to acquire the competency related to objective one, you willneed to read pages 22-24 in your textbook, complete practicalexercise one, and correctly answer question one of the self-diagnostic test.

ObjectivesPages to Readin Textbook

PracticalExerciseQuestions

Self-diagnosticTest Items

1 22-24 1 1

2 31-34; 2,d.

44-45

3 43-45 3 3

4 2-47 4 4

5 - 5 5

20MODELING THE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLDS

PRACTICAL EXERCISES

1. At least one negative consequence of the modern inter-connected system is its conflict with the local environ-ment. List three or four of the conflicts that relatespecifically to Washington D.C.

a)

b)

c)

d)

2. An analysis of the traditional agricultural system revealsmany inefficiences. Analyze the agricultural system ofRamkheri and list these inefficiencies.

3. Describe how and what kinds of changes have taken place inRamkheri. Why is there such great resistance to change?

3 1

PRACTICAL EXERCISES

4. Complete the charts that appear on this and the followingpages. The column at the left of the charts contains a numberof categories or topics related to modern and traditionalsocieties. Space is provided to the right of each categoryso that you can fill in the information that is related toeach category. Washington, D.C., and Ramkheri, India willact as representatives of the modern and traditional societiesrespectively.

TOPICS SUMMARIZING STATEMENT

Influence ofdistant placeson the localpattern ofdaily life

Washington:

Ramkheri:

Daily flow ofcommuter traffic

Washington:

Ramkheri:

Changes inindividual lifepatterns due toseasonalclimaticfluctuations

Washington:

Ramkheri:

Diversity ofcommericalactivities

Washington:

Ramkheri:

3 2

21

L22MODELING THE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLDS


The degree ofthe indi-vidual's tiesto the neighbor-hcod and to thelarger community

Washington:

Ramkheri:

Degree ofinteractionbetween localcomllercial

activitiesand distantplaces

Washington:

Ramkheri:

Geographicsegregation ofdifferenteconomicand socialclasses

Washington:

Ramkheri:

The individual'sfamiliarity withdistant places

Washington:

,

Ramkheri:

Degree ofdependence onthe localenvironmentfor agriculturalproduction

Washington:

Ramkheri:

3 3

PRACTICAL EXERCISESL

TOPICS SUMNARIZING STATEMENT

Effect oftradition onchange

Washington:

Ramkheri:

Occurrenceof the mostpersonalloisure time

Washington:

Ramkheri:

A

Dependence onotherindividualsand craftsmen

Washington:

Ramkheri:

Social andeconomicdivisionsamong thepopulace

Washington:

Ramkheri:

Amount of humanenergy thatmust be ex-pended toproduce agiven amountof agriculturalgoods

Washington:

Ramkheri:

.1 24MODELING THE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLDS


Types ofenergy sourcesthat areutilized

.

Washington:

Ramkheri:

Acceptance ofinnovation

_...-,

Washington:

Ramkheri:

Proportion ofwork forceemployed inservice ormanagementactivities

Washington:

Ramkheri:

Level oftechnologicaldevelopment

Washington:

Ramkheri:

3 5

5.

PRACTICAL EXERCISES25

increasing influence of modern factors

Fig. 1.1. Traditional-Modern Model

The diagram in figure 1.1 constitutes a model which allows tht2ranking of places according to the degree to which each istraditional or modern. A place which appears in the "X"position is a totally traditional society--much like the stone-age tribes that may still be found in such places as the AmazonRiver area and Borneo. A place which has no vestiges of thetraditional system would be in the "Y" position. These twopositions--"X" and "Y"--are extremes, and few places in theworld would fit those positions. Most places still are in-fluenced by both the modern and traditional systems and, there-fore fall somewhere between "X" and "Y." Thus, to determinethe location of any place on the diagram, one must examine theplace in terms of the influence exerted upon it by modern andtraditional factors such as those listed in the charts ofquestion four.

(This question is continued on the following page.)

/ 26 MODELING THE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLDS

P04..)U(tl

(1.1

rJ

0

'11

(1:4-)

4-40

.me

increasing influence of modern factors


a) Place an "X" on the diagonal which would approximatelyindicate the location of Ramkheri on this traditional-modern model.

b) Place a "(" on the diagonal which would approximatelyindicate the location of Washington D.C. in this traditional-modern model.

c) Which four of the following support your choice for theposition you chose for Ramkheri?

1) Ramkheri is highly dependent upon distant places

2) Tradition greatly interferes with change

3) A large variety of energy sources are utilized

4) Ramkheri does not totally isolate itself from itsneighbors

5) A high amount of human energy is expended in agricultureto produce a limited amount of agricultural goods

6) In a relatively complex social system, an individualdepends on the skills of others for various products andimplements

7) Even though it is slow, change does take place

PRACTICAL EXERCISES 27

d) Which five of the following support your choice for theposition you chose for Washington D.C.?

1) A large variety of energy sources are utilized

2) In a complex social system an individual depends on theskills of others for various products and implements

3) Life patterns are dependent upon seasonal climatechanges

4) The population is divided along economic and social lines

5) A relatively small proportion of the population isengaged in material or agricultural production

6) Local commerce is heavily dependent upon distantsupplies

28 MODELING THE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLDS

PRACTICAL EXERCISES KEY

1. The following are four contributors to the ecologicalconflicts characteristic of Washington D.C. These arenot exhaustive and you may have correctly included others.

a) The difficulty in expanding water storage andtreatment facilities fast enough to keep up withthe growing population

b) Disposal of untreated sewage into the local rivers

c) Air pollution from incinerators and auto emissions

d) The demand for energy to run air-conditioning andheating systems is often greater than the supply

2. Some of the inefficiencies of the agricultural system ofRamkheri include:

a) The use of primitive implements and farming pro-cedures

b) The incredibly huge amount of human labor that isrequired to farm an acre of land

c) The use of primitive and inefficient forms offertilizer

d) The total reliance on animate sources of power

e) Poor storage facilities which allow stored produceto rot before it can be consumed

3. While some change that is taking place in Ramkheri ismotivated by the villagers, most originates with theIndian government; however, traditional ways are difficultto change. To the poor farmer, change holds great risks.His lack of knowledge regarding modern agricultural methodsmay result, for example, in improperly used fertilizerwhich may destroy his crop. Because they live on thebrink of starvation, but within a system which has con-sistently provided them with food, they may not be willingto take the risks inherent in a new method of production.

Some change has taken place; examples include: a) thetransfer of local power from the village headmen to onevillage committee; b) the outlawing of the caste system,animal sacrifices, and arranged marriages; and c) agri-cultural innovation.

3 9

PRACTICAL EXERCISES KEY 29

4. See the following charts:


Influence ofdistant placeson the localpattern oflife

Washington: The magnitude of outside move-ment into Washington makes it distinctiveamong cities. Washington's very existenceis dependent for food on outside sources,and a great deal of government responsi-bilities lie outside of the D.C. area.

Ramkheri: Although the villagers havecontact with the outside world, it is thetiny space within a few miles of the villagecenter that supports the basic needs of thepeople.

Daily flow ofcommutertraffic

Washington: The mass of traffic comes fromthe outlying areas, heads into downtownWashington each workday morning, and returnsto the suburbs in late afternoon.

Ramkheri: Each morning the farmers leavetheir village residences to work in theoutlying fields. During the evening theyreturn to their village homes.

Changes inindividuallife patternsdue to seasonalclimaticfluctuations

Washington: Life patterns do not changemuch seasonally in Washington D.C. The lifepatterns change more on weekends andholidays.

Ramkheri: Agriculture starts in mid-April.From then until mid-July, plowing, planting,and weeding are done. Harvesting andthreshing are done from October throughDecember. Work lessens in January, and inApril festivals begin.

4 0

'130 MODELING THE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLDS


Diversity ofcommericalactivities

Washington: A great variety of goods areavailable for private citizens. Muchgoverent commerce is related to nationaldefense, public services, and internationalaffa'.rs.

Ramkheri: Most of the villagers live in asubsistence economy (i.e., they consumewhatever they produce), but a limited amount

.

of trade exists in locally produced basicproducts.

The degree of theindividual's tiesto the neighbor-hood and to thelarger community

Washington: People of Washington commutefrom their own neighborhoods back and forthto work in the central city. Most of theirneeds, however, are served by the shopping andentertainment centers of the local community.

Ramkheri: People of Ramkheri are tied totheir own neighborhoods by virtue of caste.They circulate largely from their ownneighborhoods to surrounding fields if theyare farmers.

Degree ofinteractionbetween localcommercialactivitiesand distantplaces

Washington: Most gocds that enterWashington's commercial system originateoutside the city. Local businessmen aredependent on outside supplies, and theexistence of the large bureaucracy of thefederal government is dependent upon nationaland international affairs.

Ramkheri: Most of the commercial activitiesof Ramkheri are local; that is, betweenvillage artisans and the local farmers.

4 1



Geographicsegregationof differenteconomic andsocial classes

Washington: Washington, like most moderncities, is chalacterized by its centralbusiness district and outlying shoppingcenters. It is most distinctive for thequarters which house the federal government.Socially, the ghettos of the central citycontrast with suburbs in Maryland andVirginia.

Ramkheri: At the center of the village isthe school, the headquarters of the villagecommittee, and a temple. Persons of a highcaste live in neighborhoods near the centerof town. Farmers live farther out, andlowest caste members dwell on the fringes.

The indi-vidual'sfamiliaritywith distantplaces

Washington: Washingtonians are kept awareof distant places and events through traveland the news media (including radio, TV,movies, newspapers, magazines).

Ramkheri: The people of Ramkheri have nottraveled far from their village. Usually,the farthest trip is a pilgrimage to theholy place. News reaches them mainly throughthe public loud speaker that broadcasts radioprograms in the village square.

Degree ofdependenceon the localenvironmentfor agri-culturalproduction

Washington: Washington imports virtuallyall of its agricultural produce from outsidethe metropolitan area.

Ramkheri: The villagers depend on theirown locally-grown supplies of food. Thefarmers export very little to neighboringvillages.

4 2

31

.:32 MODELING l'HE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLDS


Effect oftraditionon change

Washington: Rapid change is characteristicof Washington and the modern world.Economic and social &lenges affect the livesof all Washingtonians.

Ramkheri: The majority of villagers ofRamkheri live a static way of life in thetraditional mode. Here, change presents agreat risk to their well-being. They havelittle capital reserves to cope withfailure.

Occurrenceof the mostpersonalleisure time

Washington: Washingtc .ians have moreleisure time because they work a five dayweek and because greater specializationmakes their lives free of much physicallabor.

Ramkheri: The villagers of Ramkheri haveless leisure time because their farm workkeeps them busy much of the year, and theself-sufficient nature of their lives keepsthem occupied in physical labor. Freedomfrom agricultural work is determined solelyby the seasons.

Dependenceon otherindividualsand craftsmen

Washington: Washingtonians live in a muchmore economically specialized and inter-dependent society. They depend on others,especially outsiders, for their needs.

Ramkheri: The villagers of Ramkheri areprimarily self-sufficient, producing most otheir own food. Their limited dependencerelates primarily to basic needs met bylocal craftsmen.



Social andeconomicdivisionsamong thepopulace

Washington: There are definite social andeconomic divisions among the people ofWashington. Generally, those individualssharing a higher socioeconomic status livein the suburbs while low-income individualsreside in the poor sections of the innercity.

Ramkheri: The population of Ramkheri isdivided along social and economic lines.Individuals of different socioeconomic statuslive in different parts of the village.

Amount of humanenergy thatmust be ex-pended toproduce agiven amount ofagriculturalgoods

Washington: Modern technology has made itpossible for one man to produce enormousamounts of food. Thus, a high amount ofhuman energy results in the production ofgreat quantities of food. ....

Ramkheri: In the absence of modern tech-nology, one man can farm only one orpossibly two acres. Thus, a high amount ofhuman energy results in the production ofvery small quantities of food.

Types ofenergy sourcesthat areutilized

Washington: Both animate and inanimateenergy sources are used in modern societieslike Washington. Because of a greaterrelianL.:. on inanimate energy sources likeoil products, electricity and steam, a highlevel of production can be maintained.

Ramkheri: Ramkheri relies solely on animate(human and animal) energy sources.Consequently, production is low.

' 34MODELING THE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLDS


Acceptanceof innovation

Washington: Generally, Washingtonians arequick to adopt innovations if these appearto be useful. Mass advertising pushes manynovelties and gadgets on the market.

Ramkheri: The villagers are tradition boundand are generally unwilling to adopt newproducts or new ways of doing things.

Proportionof workforce employedin service ormanagementactivities

Washington: The majority of Washingtoniansare employed in tertiary nonproductiveactivities, (government, private services,management or financial services).

Ramkheri: In Ramkheri most residents areemployed in agriculture and artisanmanufacturing. These are primary andsecondary activities. A small proportion isemployed in services (tertiary activities).

1

.

Level oftechnologicaldevelopment

Washington: Washington, like the cities ofthe Western industrial nations, is charac-terized by advanced technology in mecha-nization, automation, and mass production.

Ramkheri: Ramkheri, like traditionalagricultural villages of the nonindustrialnations, depends on simple tools, animalpower, and manual labor for production.

45

5.

O 00CO dO 4-1

11-1

C

0C

r0M (t

04-1

0


-1111111°'increasing influence of modern factors

Fig. 1.3. Traditional-Modern Model (X andY denote approximate locationsof Ramkheri and Washington D.C.)

a) Note the location of the X in the diagram in figure 1.3 thatrepresents the approximate location of Ramkheri in theTraditional-Modern Model. Societies still living a stone-age existence would appear at the extreme upper left of thediagonal. Societies more modern than Ramkheri would appearfurther down on the diagonal. Your answer is correct ifyou placed your "X" between the two small lines on thediagonal.

b) The "Y" represents the approximate location of Washingtonon the diagonal.

c)

d)

2, 4, 5, 7

1, 2, 4, 5, 6

36 MODELING THE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLDS

SELF-DIAGNOSTIC TiEST

1. In the metropolitan area of Washington, a conflict betweennature's ecosystem and man's way of life is evidenced by:

a) A water supply which requires extra treatment

b) A population density which is uncomfortably high

c) An atmosphere that cannot absorb all the wastes that areproduced

d) a and c

2. Ramkheri's agricultural production methods are inefficientbecause:

a) Too much animate power and not enough inanimate power isapplied per farm worker

b) Too much inanimate power and not enough animate power isapplied per farm worker

c) Use is not made of petroleum-derived fertilizer

d) a and c

3. In the traditional society, as in Ramkheri, change does notcome about quickly because:

a) Traditional agricultural techniques that have beenfollowed for many generations are resistant to change

b) Individuals perceive personal economic risk in changesthat are related to their livelihoods

c) Traditional interpersonal relationships may be altereca

d) The government does not support change

e) a and b

f) b and d

g) a, D, and c

4 7

SELF-DIAGNOSTIC TEST 37

4. Place a "T" beside those statements that relate only to thetraditional model, an "M" beside those that relate only tothe modern model, and an "X" beside those that relate to bothmodels.

a) The individual's life is extensively affected bydistant places (both national and international)

b) In general, individuals travel out of the populationcenter to work

c) Life patterns are dependent upon seasonal climaticchanges

d) Commerce is highly diversified and varied

e) The population is divided along economic and social lines

f) The amount of human energy expended per worker resultsin a disproportionate amount of production. That is,one worker can produce a great deal.

g) A large variety of energy sources are utilized, and thetotal energy applied per farm worker is high

h) There is a great degree of dependence on the local landarea for agricultural production

i) Tt-adition greatly interferes wlth change

j) Leisure time is relatively equally spread throughoutthe year

k) Individuals depend on the skills of others for variousproducts and implements

1) Except for travelling to their places of work, indi-viduals are closely tied to their own neighborhoods

m) Commerce is heavily dependent upon interactions withdistant places

n) Individuals of different social and/or economic back-grounds live in different residential areas

o) Most residents are unfamiliar with foreign patternsof life

Innovation is feared and mistrusted

q) A large percentage of the work force is engaged inservice and management activities

4 8


5. The town of Tajis is located on a broad fertile valley whosesoil and climate permits the planting and harvesting of anabundance of crops. Fortunately for the farmers of the area,Tajis has access to a steady supply of petroleum-basedproducts and has been able, with the help of the government,to purchase and use efficient petroleum-based fertilizer andsimple powered farm equipment. This factor has enabledTajis to grow more than it can locally consume, and, thus,many farmers are able to sell their produce to commercialwholesalers in the nearby city. In return, many of thepeople of Tajis have been able to buy simple contemporaryluxuries such as radios, bicycles, and, even in some cases,motorcycles and small cars. The latter, however, are rare.

Tajis is largely a farming community whose daily and seasonalactivities are determined by the climate. Springtime heraldsthe necessity to prepare the soil for the planting of crops.The summer is spent caring for the newly planted crops.During the fall, everyone, including women and children,must participate in the harvest. Most people have little todo during the winter months, and it is during this time thatthe 500 citizens of Tajis celebrate their various ritualholidays.

The people of Tajis are fairly self-reliant. Local crafts-men are available and, indeed, earn their livelihoodsserving the various needs of the farms and local shopkeepersas mechanics, tailors, carpenters, blacksmiths, and so on.While many craftsmen are paid with money, others still selltheir services in return for farm produce.

Most local laws and customs have not changed for centuries;however, change has occured most notably in the area ofagricultural reform. Men and women are still expected tomarry early and to have large families. The young areexpected to care for their parents when they are no longerable to work.

As with many communities, the wealthier individuals havebuilt their larger homes at a distance from the masses ofpopulation. Since these individuals have freed themselvesfrom work in the fields by hiring farm laborers, they havegenerally been the people who have time to be responsiblefor local law enforcement. Fortunately, custom andtradition have rigidly dictated interpersonal relationships,so few instances of friction occur among the peonle ofTajis.

4 9


increasing influence of the moderninterconnected system


a) Based on the information you just read at which of theletters on the diagonal would you place Tajis?

b) Which of the following statements support your choicefor your placement of Tajis on the diagonal?

1) The almost total reliance on animate energy andreluctance to change

2) Relatively heavy reliance on local custom

3) Sophisticated technology, interdependence andfamiliarity with other places

4) A rapidly advancing technology combined with grow-ing commercial markets

5) Dependence on the local environment for productscombined with the slowly growing influence oftechnology, change, and trade

6) A growing interdependence with distant places

5 0


SELF-DIAGNOSTIC TEST KEY

4. M a) The individual's life is extensively affected by distantplaces (both national and international)

T b) In general, individuals travel out of the populationcenter to work

T c) Life patterns are dependent upon seasonal climaticchanges

M d) Commerce is highly diversified and varied

X e) The population is divided along economic and sociallines

M f) The amount of human energy expended per workey resultsin a disproportionate amount of production. That is,one worker can produce a great deal.

M g) A large variety of energy sources are utilized, and thetotal energy applied per farm worker is high

T h) There is a great degree of dependence on the local landarea for agricultural production

T i) Tradition greatly interferes with change

M j) Leisure time is relatively equally spread throughoutthe year

X k) Individuals depend on the skills of others for variousproducts and implements

X 1) Except for travelling to their places of work, individualsare closely tied to their own neighborhoods

M m) Commerce is heavily dependent upon interactions withdistant places

SELF-DIAGNOSTIC TEST KEY; 4

X n) Individuals of different social and/or economicbackgrounds live in different residential areas

T o) Most residents are unfamiliar with foreign patternsof life

T p) Innovation is feared and mistrusted

M q) A large percentage of the work force is engaged inservice and management activities

5. a) Tajis would be placed at the "C." "A" would representthe stone-age village and "B" a more traditional placelike Ramkheri which has none of the modern conveniencesof Tajis. "D" represents a transitional society whichis actively shedding its traditional practices. "E,""F," and "G" are representative of more modern places.

7, 4, 5, 6

5 2

Natural InfluencesOn The Modern

And

Traditional Worlds

PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES45


1. Given a number of statements select the one that correctlydefines culture.

2. Given a list of examples, identify those that are culturaland those that are noncultural.

3. Given a number of statements select the one that correctlydescribes the advantages of a seasonal environmental workarea.

4. Given an atlas, identify the characteristic environmentalwork (very limited, continuously high, or seasonal) for anyspecified area.

5. From a list of statements select the ones that most accu-rately identify the role of the natural environment indetermining the extent to which a place is traditional ormodern.

5 4

46NATURAL INFLUENCES ON THE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLDS

STUDY DIRECTORY

This directory specifies the assignments and self-diagnostic testitems that must be completed for each objective.

ObjectivesTextbook Reading

AssignmentPracticalExercises

Self-DiagnosticTest Items

1 Chapter 4 1 1

2 Chapter 4 2 2

3 P. 109-118 7 3

4 P. 109-118 8 4

5 Chapters 3&5 3, 4, 5, 5

& 6

5 5

PRACTICAL EXERCISES ; 47

PRACTICAL EXERCISES

1. The definition of culture is elusive. Probably such a defi-nition can be most easily derived by analyzing that which iscultural from that which is noncultural. Two lists are givenbelow. One list contains examples of phenomena that arepredominantly noncultural; the other list contains examplesof phenomena that are predominantly cultural. Neither listis exhaustive.

Noncultural

a) virgin forestsb) mineral resourcesc) water resourcesd) natural vegete=one) native animal f,2mcf) topographyg) soilh) temperaturei) precipitatic7.j) climate

Cultural

a) languageb) religionc) art formsd) institutions (political,

social, educational,etc.)

e) tc,:hnology (what isenan_:factured and thecool:: used as means formanufacturing)

f) knowledge(7 econordesh) ;Jlitical entities

Analyze the two lists. 1-ry to identify those things thatare a part of the cultural inventory (i.e., those thingswhose characteristics are cu1turlly ,letermined) and thosethings that are noncultural (I.c., those things whosecharacteristics are not culturally determined). What youare looking for is a generalization that underlies thisdifference. Write your answer in the space below.

! 48 NATURAL INFLUENCES ON THE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLDS

2. The following are the titles of maps and other forms ofinformation that appear in Goode's World Atlas. In the spaceprovided next to each title, write CUL if the informationreflects a predominantly (85% +) cultural phenomenon; NE ifit reflects a predominantly (85% +) natural phenomenon, and,NECUL if the information reflects a roughly equal combinationof environmental and cultural phenomena.

a) Portrait (pp. 2-3)b) Political (pp. 4-5)

(1) Comparative land areas(2) Comparative populations

c) Physical (pp. 6-7)d) Landforms (pp. 8-9)e) Climatic regf.ons (pp. 10-11)f) Temperature (pp. 12-13)g) Precipitation (pp. 14-15)h) Natural vegetation (pp. 18-19)i) Great soil groups (pp. 20-21)j) Population distribution (pp. 22-23)k) Population densicy (pp. 24-25)

(1) Rural/urban population ratios(p. 25)

1) Birth rate/death rate (p.26)m) Population increase/urbanization

(p. 27)

n) Gross national product (p. 28)

o) Literacy (p. 28)

p) Languages (p. 29)

q) Religions (ID. 29)

r) Predominant economics (pp. 30-31)

(1) Occupational structure ofselected areas (pp. 30-31)

s) Major agricultural regions(pp. 32-33)

t) Wheat production (p. 34)

(1) Wheat trade (p. 34)

u) Utilization of grapes (p. 37)v) Cattle-world total (p. 41)w) Wool production (p. 42)x) Forest regions (p. 42)

(1) Wood production (ID. 42)

PRACTICAL EXERCISES

y) Copper reserves (p. 43)

(1) Refined copper consumption(p. 43)

z) Major overseas movement of ironore (p. 44)

aa) Mineral fertilizers (p. 47)bb) Developed water power (p. 47)cc) Potential water power (p. 47)dd) Fuel and power consumption (p. 49)ee) Energy consumption (p. 50)ff) Ocean transportation (p. 51)gg) Surface transportation

(1) Inland waterways (p. 52)(2) Cars and trucks (p. 52)

3. In this exercise you are required to examine the maps andrespond to the question contained in each section below. Theexercise will provide you with the opportunity to compare amodern society--the United States--with one that resemblesthe traditional model--the People's Republic of China. Thebasis of the comparison is the natural environment. Incompleting this exercise, you should try to determine which ofthe following two statements is correct:

a) The natural environment is a major factor that determinesthe extent to which a country is traditional or modern

b) The _ural environment is only a minor factor in theextent to which a country is traditional or modern.

For each of the following sections:

-Read the given information, in each section of the chartbelow

--Find the maps to which reference is made

-Compare the United States and China with reference to thegiven information. Use only information in the atlas whichis "predominantly noncultural"

-Determine whether the factor under consideration is 6harac-teristic of China only (CO), characteristic of the U.S. only(USO) , characteristic of both equally (CUS); characteristicof China to a much greater (75% greater) extent than to theU.S. (CM); or is characteristic of the U.S. to a muchgreater (75% greater) extent than of China (USM).

58

49

50 NATURAL INFLUENCES ON THE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLDS

Place a check in the correct space to indicate youranswer.

a) Mineral resources: Largecountries, because of theirgreat land area, can be ex-pected to have similarmineral resources. Use theinformation on pages 4-5and 43-49 of your atlas todetermine the applicabilityof this statement to the U.S.and China.

b) The humid mesothermal climate(Caf) is associated with thegrowth of forests. Severaldifferent kinds of foreststhat act as sources of timber,pulp, and paper are found inthis climate. From a map ofclimate (pp. 10-11) andnatural vegetation (pp. 18-19), determine the applica-bility of this statement tothe U.S. and China.

c) Which country has the greaterwinter precipitation in itseastern half? (p. 15)

d) Which country shows a greaterincrease of summer rainfallover winter precipitation inits eastern half? (p. 15)

e) To an extent, at the nationalscale, the density of popu-lation distribution variesdirectly with the distribu-tion of rainfall. That is,up to a point, there isgreater population wherethere is greater rainfalland less where there isscanty rainfall. To whichcountry does this relation-ship apply? (pp. 15, 23)

CO USO CUS CM USM

f) Which country has the greaterproportion of arid areas?(pp. 10-11, 14-15)

g) Which country has the leastcommercial wood production?(pp. 30-31)

h) On the average, total naturalresources may be comparablebetween large areas of equalsize, but, for any singletype of resource, there areusually great variations inquantity. To which countrydoes this apply in terms ofcopper reserves: (p. 43)

i) Based on the bar graph cfiron ore reserves, whichcountry has the greatestsupply? (p. 45)

1 ) Water power potential isdependent upon heavy preci-pitation, large watersheds,and rugged terral.n. Anation with this combi-nation of factors combinedwith a large land areawill rate high in potentialwater power. levftich country

has the greater watel powerpotential? (p. 47)

k) Coal reserves were formed inareas of former inland seaswhere forests died. and wrrec:overed with layers of sedi-ment. The northern hemispl-.erehas benefited most from thisresource. Which of the twonations has the ,.ter coalrcerves? Consider the coalreserves bar graph cor youranswer. (p. 48)


CO USO CUS CM USM


1) Which of the two countrieshas the greater provenpetroleum reserves? (p. 48)

m) In some places natural gasreserves are associated withproven petroleum reserves.Which country has the greatergas reserves? (p. 49)

n) Very few climates have aver-age annual water surpluses,but the Caf climate (humidmesothermal climate) of south-eastern U.S. and China haveannual water surpluses.Which nation has greaterwater surpluses for thisclimate? (Atlas, pp. 10-11,text, pp. 112-113)

CO USO CUS

PRACTICAL EXERCISES

4. In this exercise you will undertake, in a slightly differentway from exercise three, a comparative analysis of the UnitedStates and China. Instructions for this comparison follow:

Use the chart below for your analysis.

Compare the two countries by following the east to westdirection along the parallels indicated in the chart.

Comparisons are to be made for types of climate, vege-tation, and soil (find the appropriate maps in the atlas).

List, for each country, the types of climate, vegetation,and soil that you find along the parallel.

EnvironmentalFactor Parallel United States China

Climate 400

35°

Vegetation 400

30°

Soil 40°

30°

53

54NATURAL INFLUENCES 'ON THE MODERN AND TRAUTIONAL WORLDS

5. It was stated at the beginning of exercise four that theUnited States is a predominantly modern society and thatChina is predominantly traditional. Your comparison of thenatural endowments of these two countries should have enabledyou to come to a conclusion regarding the cause and effectrelationship between natural environment (or endowment) andthe extent to which a society is modern or traditional.

To complete the chart below, you will need to review theinformation you collected in the two map exercises. Thischart will serve to summarize that information. The leftcolumn lists a number of natural endowments. The threecolumns to the right are the comparisons that may be madebetween the U.S. and Ch:'.na. For each endowment place a checkin the column at the right that constitutes a correctcomparison. If the endowment is "different," place the nameof the country that is favored in the "different" column.

Natural Endowments

Comparison

Identical Similar Different

Climate

Mineral Resources--

Virgin Forests

Potential Water Power

Landforms

63


6. On the basis of the previous map exercise, select the state-ment that you think is valid. Try to determine the validity(truthfulness) of each statement only on the basis of thedata you collected during the map exercise.

a) The natural endowment (environment) is a major factorthat determines the extent to which a country is tra-ditional or modern.

b) The natural endowment (environment) is the only factorthat determines the extent to which a country is tra-ditional or modern.

c) The natural endowment (environment) is a minor factorthat only partly accounts for the extent to which acountry is traditional or modern.

7. There are a large number of countries or areas withincountries that have always been and still are traditional.In some instances these countries or areas may have pocketswhere a more modern, interconnected society exists. Most ofthe world north of 60 degrees latitude is traditional. Thefollowing areas nlso are characterized by societies whichare largely traditional: the Amazon basin in South America,the central portion of Australia and North Africa, and manyareas of Central Africa.

These areas are typified as either "very limited environ-mental work," or "continuous high environmental work."ExaMine the climate, vegetation, population distrilqution,soils, and agricultural production maps, and fill in thefollowing chart. Finally, use the information from'thechart to answer question eight.

Complete the chart on the next page by supplying the requiredinformation about climate, vegetation, soil, populationdistribution, and agricultural production for the areasdescribed in columns A and B of the chart.


7. (continued)

EnvironmentalFactors

A

Very Limited

B

Continuous HighWork Environmeut,e.g., Congobasin, Amazonbasin, theIslands andpeninsulas ofSoutheast Asia

Work Environment,e.g., areas northof 60 degrees N.latitude, centralNorth Africa,central portionof Australia

Climate

a) Summer temperaturerange

b) Winter temperaturerange

c) Summer precipitationrange

d) Winter precipitationrange

e) Typical climatetypes

Vegetation

f) Types of vegetation

Soil

g) Types of soil

Population Distribution

h) Typical distriution

i) Are there any centersof higher populationdensity?

Agricultural Production

j) Types of cropsproduced


8. List the characteristics of each of the following environ-mental work areas. To what extent does c h determinewhether an area is likely to be modern or aditional?

a) Continuous high environmental work area:

b) Very limited environmental work area:

c) Seasonal environmental work area:


9. Identify the environmental work of each of the followingplaces and support your answer by indicating whether yourdecision is based on temperature, precipitation, or both.

a) Baja California

b) Cuba

c) West coast of Israel

d) Southern two-thirds of Italy

e) Southern Canada, east of Alberta

6 7



1. Culture: "the integrated pattern of human behavior thatincludes thought, speech, action, and artifacts depends uponman's capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge tosucceeding generations: the customary beliefs, social forms,and material traits of a racial, religious, or socialgroup."*

Basically, anything that is inventc2d or is influenced by manbelongs in the realm of culture. You should have noticedthat of the two lists, the culture list contained examplesof man-invented or man-influenced phenomena. The nonculturallist represents examples largely untouched by man.

Careful analysis of some of the examples in the nonculturallist would reveal the f-ollowing:

a) Water resources: man influences these resources byintroducing pollutants to the water system

b) Natural vegetation: in very few places does the vege-tation of today represent the virgin natural vegetationbefore man tampered with the environment

c) Native animal forms: many animals no longer exist andmany more are on the brink of extinction due to man'suse of insecticides, pesticides, and mass hunting

d) Climate: local climates, such as those around largecities, are influenced by pollutants such as smoke andheat exhaust and by the unnatural concentration ofconcrete and asphalt

The above analysis is not exhaustive, but it does make clearthe idea that the natural environment (i.e., supposedly non-cultural phenomena) has, to some extent, become influencedby culture.

*Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, 1973.

68

60NATURAL INFLUENCES ON THE MODFRN AND _iiAD1TIONAL WORLDS

2.

a) Portrait NEb) Political CUL

(1) Comparative land areas(2) Comparative populations

OMCUL

c) Physical NEd) Landforms NEe) Climatic regions NEf) Temperature NEg) Precipitation NEh) Natural vegetation NEi) Great soil groups NEj) Topulation distribution NECULk) Population density NECUL

(1) Rural/urban popula_ion ratios CUL

1) Birth rate/death rate CULm) Population increase/urbanization CULn) Gross national product CULo) Literacy CULp) Languages CULq) Religions CULr) Predominant economics CUL

(1) Occupational structure ofselected areas CUL

s) Major agricultural regions NECULt) Wheat production CUL

(1) Wheat trade CUL

u) Utilization of grapes CULv) Cattle-world total CULw) Wool production CULx) Forest regions NE

(1) Wood production CUL

Copper reserves NF

(1) Refined copper consumption CUL

z) Major over movement of ironore CUL

PRACTICAL EXERCISES KEY61

aa) Mineral fertilizers CULbb) Developed water power CULcc) Potential water power NEdd) Fuel and power consumption CULec.') Energy consumption CULff) Ocean transportationgg) Surface transportation

(1) Inland waterways(2) Cars and trucks

a) Mineral resources: largecountries, because of theirgreat land area, can beexpected to have similarmineral resources.

The humid mesothermalclimate (Caf) is associatedwith the growth of forests.Several different kinds offorests are found in thisclimate.

c) Which countr7 has thegreater winter precipitationin its eastern half?

d) Which country shows agreater increase of summerrainfall over its ownwinter precipitation inits eastern half?

e) At the national scale,population distributionvaries in density with t,distribution of rainfall.That is, up to a point,there is greater populationwhere there is greater rain-fall, and less where thereis scanty rainfall. Towhich country does thisrelationship apply?

7 0

CUL

NECUL

CO USO CUS. CM

X


f) Which country has the greaterproportion of arid areas?

g) Which country has the leastcommercial wood production?

h) Total natural resources maybe comparable on the averagebetween large areas of equalsize; but, for any singletype of resource, there isusually great variabilityin its quantity. To whichcountry does this apply interms of copper reserves?

i) Based on the bar graph ofiron ore reserves, whichcountry has the greatestsupply?

j) Water power potential isdependent upon heavyprecipitation, large water-sheds, and rugged terrain.A nation with this combi-nation of factors combinedwith a large land area willrate high in potential waterpower. Which country hasthe greater water powerpotential?

k) Coal reserves were formedin areas of former inlandseas where forests died andwere covered with layers ofsediment. The northernhemisphere has benefittedmost from this resource.Which of the two nationshas thE greater coalreserves.? Consider thecoal reserves bar graphfor your answer.

7 1

CUS CM USM

1) Which of the two countrieshas the greater provenpetroleum reserves?

m) Natural gas reserves areassoc_tted in some placeswith proven petroleumreserves. Which countryhas the greater gas reserves?

n) Very few climates have averageannual water surpluses; butthe Caf climate (humidmesothermal climate) ofsoutheastern U.S. and Chinahave annual water surpluses.Which nation has greaterwater surpluses for thisclimate?

4.


CO USO CUS CM USM

X

X

EnvironmentalFactor Parallel United States China

Climate 40° Caf; Daf; BSk;ighlands; BWh:BSk; Highlands;CS; Cb

Daw; BSK; BWK

35° Caf; BSk; BWh;Cs

Caf; Highlands

Vegetation 400 M; D; G; E; Bzi;E; G; M

M; D; Gp; b

300 E; G; D; GDsp D; M; SE; Gp; b

Soil 4'_' 5; 18; 8; 9; 11;

2118; 5; 19; 11; 20

30' 6; 1; 1I- 21; 1; 18; 17; 19

7 2

63

64 NATURAL INFLUENCES ON THE MODERNANDTRADITIONALWORLDS

5.

Natural EndowmentsComparison

Identical Similar DifferentClimate

X

Mineral ResourcesX

Virgin ForestsX

Potential Water PowerX

LandformsX

6. The following statement seems to be valid:

c) The natural endowment (environment) is a minor factorthat only partly accounts for the extent to which acountry is traditional or modern.

It does not appear that the differences due to thenatural environment are major. While there are differ-ences between the two countries, in many cases thereare a2 o compensatoryconditions. That is, while theUnited States may have greater coal reserves, China'hasgreater water power potential. Question four uncovereda great similarity

between the two countries. It appears,then, that the natural environment plays only a minorrole in determiningthe extent to which a country istraditional or modern.

7 3



Climate=,Summer temperaturerange

Winter temperaturera,,ge

Summer precipitationrange

Winter precipitationrange

Typical climatetypes

Vegetation

Types of vegetation

Very LimdtedWork Environment.e.g., aa:eas northof 60 degrees N.lattude, centralNorth Africa,central portionof Australia

300 - 500; orover 90°

r:ontinuous HiqWork Environment,e.g., Congobasin, Amazonbasin, theislands andpeninsulas ofSoutheast Asia

70° 90°

30° - 50'; orover 90°

70° - 90°

under 5 10

inchesover 40 indhes

under 5 - 10inches

over 40 inches

Subarctic, Tundraand Desert

Tropical rainforest

Steppe, DesertTaiga; Tundra;Bsp; Gp; b

B (Broad leafevergreen trees

Soil

9) Types of soil Tundra, Podzol,Red DesertGray Desert

Latosolic soilof continuouslyhumid tropics,and alluvial

Population Distribution

) Typical distribution

) Are there any centersof higher populationdensity?

- 2

Yes

0 2, 0 - 250

Yes

7 4



A B

Very Limited Continuous HighWork Environment, Work Environment,e.g., areas northof 60 degrees N.latitude, centralNorth Africa,central portionof Australia

e.g., Congo .

basin, Amazonbasin, theislands andpeninsulas ofSoutheast Asia

Agricultural Production

j) Types of cropsproduced Nonagricultural,

nomadic herding,barley, dates

Shifting culti-vation; rice,plantationcoffee, cacao,millet andsorghum, rubber,bananas, cotton

8. a) Continuous high environmental work area:

These areas are characterized by continuous high temper-ature and precipitation. Biotic and chemical work ishigh--too high for most types of agriculture.

b) Very limited environmental work area:

These areas experience either cc::1-..ous high temper-atures and little or no precipitccn cr continuous lowtemperatures and little precipitat. Thri former ischaracteristic of desert areas and the latter is charac-teristic of Arctic and sUbarctic areas. In neither areais agriculture feasible.

c) Seasonal environmental work area:

Seasonal fluctuations of temperature and precipitationare characteristic of these areas. It is in these areasthat agriculture is most efficient and usually where thegreatest population densities are found.

7 5

PRAgTICAL EXERCISES KEY 67

9. a) Baja California: Very limited environmental work area.Baja California has extremely limited precipitation, andcontinuous high temperatures. Agriculture is difficultand usually impossible in such an area.

b) Cuba: Continuous high environmental work area. CUba ischaracterized by continuous high temperature andprecipitation. Agriculture is possible; however, thevariety of crops is limited.

c) West coast of Israel: Seasonal environmental work area:like all Mediterranean climates, temperatures and pre-cipitation fluctuate from summer to winter, Withoutirrigation the types of crops that can be grown would belimited. Irrigation provides the possibility for a widervariety of crops and a more abundant harvest.

d) Southern two-thirds of Italy: Seasonal environmentalwork area. This climate is identical to that of the westcoast of Israel.

e) SzAithern Canada (east of Alberta): Seasonal environmentalwork area. This area of Canada experiences cold wintersand warm summers; winter and summer precipitation varies !

(i.e., there is less in the prairie provinces and more inthe eastern provinces). This Z.ltpe of climate is amenableto a wide variety of crops

NOTE: Obviotnly, Cle natural environment influences the distri-bution of human settlement. Settlement is mostly excludedfrom areas that are too cold, hot, dry, or mountainous, orwhose soils will not support agriculture. Areas that havea sizeable permanent population have the followingcharacteristics: a) a climate which supports agriculture;b) plains rather than mountains; c) soils that permit atleast moderately productive agriculture.

Within the well settled areas, man has a range of choiceof what to grow and raise. These choices are culturalrather than environmental.

7 6

PA ITOU INFLUENCES ON THE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLDS

SELF-DIAGNOSTIC TEST I

1. Identify the examples that represent predominantly culturalphenomena by placing a CUL in the space provided. Place an"X" beside those that are predominantly noncultural.

a) A weddingb) River systemsc) The availability of well waterd) Lumberinge) Fuel reservesf) Miningg) Population distributionh) Potential water poweri) Water power that is converted into electricityj) Honey used for human consumptionk) Wildlife

2. Which statement is the best general definition of "culture"?

a) Any natural resource that is used by man constitutes man'sculture.

b) Those nonmaterial things, such as language and religion,that are invented by man constitute man's culture.

c) Anything that is altered, produced, or invented by manfalls in the realm of culture.

d) Culture refers to things such as art and music.e) The technological sophistication of a society constitutes,

its culture.

3. Which statements correctly describe the role of the naturalenvironment in determining the extent to which a p3ace ismodern or traditional?.

a) The natural environment is the sole o Lerminant ofmodernity or traditionalism.

b) The natural environment plays no part of thisdetermination.

c) Where the environment is extremely harsh, it is likely toexclude all dense settlement, both modern and traditional.

d) Where the environment is generous, it plays a smallerrole in determining the extent to which a place is tra-ditional or modern.

e) The natural environment plays an important role only inseasonal environmental work areas.

f) c and dg) c and eh) d and e

7 7

SELF-DIAGNOSTIC TEST69

4. Select the statement that correctly describes the advantagesof the seasonal environmental work area.

a) This area has an unchanging pleasant climate highly suit-able for agriculture.

b) The dormant stage facilitates the storage of perishables.c) There is less competition for nutrients between plants

and other organisms.d) Work can be sequenced.e) a, c, and df) b, c, and d

5. Use your atlas (specifically pages 10-15) to determine theenvironmental work type of each of the followinrr areas.

a) South Africa (Southeast coast only;

b) Japan

c) Borneo

d) Brazil (excluding the Amazon basin)

e) Congo basin

f) Kalahari Desert

g) Saudi Arabia

NATURAL INFLUENCES ON THE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLD


1. CUL a) A weddingX b) River systemsX c) The availability of well water

CUL d) LumberingX e) Fuel reserves

CUL f) MiningCUL g) Population distributionX h) Potential water power

CUL i) Water power that is converted into electricityCUL j) Honey used for human consumptionX k) Wildlife

2. c

3. f

4. f

5. a) South Africa (Southeast coast only): seasonal

environmental work

b) Japan seasonal environmental work

c) Borneo continuous high environmental work

d) Brazil (excluding the Amazon basin): seasonal

environmental work

e) Congo basin continuous high environmental work

f) Kalahari Desert very limited environmental work

g) Saudi Arabia very limited environmental work

Cultural IndicatorsOf The Modern

And

Traditional Worlds

PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES 13


1. State the four major categories of culture, and from a listselect the correct description and/or examples of eachcategory.

2. Given a number of statements, select those that describe theadvantages of culture.

3. Given a list of cultural traits, select those that arecharacteristic of a modern society and those that are charac-teristic of a traditional society.

4. Given a number of unknown countries and indicators of theircultural traits, determine which of those countries aremodern, which are traditional, and which are transitional.

5. Given a number of generalizations concerning culturalindicators, select those that are most apt to be charac-teristic of modern, trclIsitional, and traditional societies.

6. Given appropriate data, select from a number of statementsthe one which correctly describes the application of theMalthusian principle to a specified area of the world.

8 1

14 CULTURAL INDICATORS OF THE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLDS

INTRODUCTION

The natural environment is a factor which can impede or facili-tate a place's progress. In unit two you saw that the naturalenvironment is not in all cases the major determinant of theextent to which a country is modern or traditional, although itis reasonable to expect that the natural environment will be amajor determinant in areas of particularly harsh conditions(e.g., a severe climate, absence of natural resources, isolation,etc.). In most areas, however, natural environment is only acontributing factor.

What is left? A place can be described in terms of its naturalenvironment and in terms of its inhabitants. The ways in whichsociety uses its natural environment is a partial description ofits culture. To what extent does culture determine how ef-fectively an individual uses the environment to enhance his orher own well-being? It is to this question and to otherquestions related to culture that we turn in this unit.

No attempt will be made to predict that modernity exists onlyin the presence of one set of cultural traits or that tra-ditionalism exists only in the presence of another set of traits.The best we can do is to describe some of the cultural factorscharacteristic of modern, transitional, and traditionalsocieties. You should not expect to learn of a cause and effectrelationship between culture and modernity or traditionalism;you may find that certain traits occur more often in one type ofsociety rather than in another, but such an occurrence is notnecessarily an indicator of cause and effect.

8 2

STUDY DIRECTORY 75

STUDY DIRECTORY

ObjectivesTextbookReadings

PracticalExercises


1 Chapter 4 1 1

Pages 64-73

2 Chapter 4 2 2

Pages 66-72

3 3 3

4 4 4

5 --- 5 5

6 Chapter 4 6 6Pages 86-87

.18 CULTURAL INDICATORS OF THE MODERN AND TRADTT1ONAL WORLDS

PRACTICAL EXERCISES

1. All cultufes are identical in the sense that they contain t'sal.: general categories of elements. All cultures aredifferent in the sense that the characteristics of eachelemeYlc diFfr from cl.:lture to cultu.c%- In figure 3.1 area nmber of elements that make up many cultures. Theseelements can be place(i in four grups which constitute thefour catecjories into whlch elements be classified.

In figure 3.2 are four columns labe - A, B, C, and D.

Complete these columns by:

a) Examining the elements in figure 3.1 and decidingwhich ones E,ee_m to go ':_ogether

b) Grouping the el,Imi:nts that seem to go together(i.e., thoso that can be classified under onecategc:y) in each of the four columns

painting...Turkish...automation. .education...Judaism...mores...

st,_-el production...the familyEnglishProtestantism...

music...:ergy sourcesUkrainian...organized medic:,..' care...

grouos...ethics...production capacity...

Bhojpuri...wood blo(.. carving...mechanization...social welfare..

Roman Ca-hclicism...Telugu, _political organization...wheat

production.,.Islam...production methods...Bengali...agriculural

.r)ro0.u.:tio- methods...customs...energy consumption

J. 3.1. Cultural elemLnts

PRACTICAL EXEHCISES

A

Fig. 3.2. Classification of ,-:ements which make up a culture

Exercise one should ha- 3 clarified thc concept of culture;however, the importance of culture to a society may not havebeen appare..t. Nor was the importance of culture to youngchildren made apparent. Because individuals are alwayssurrounded by its influences and characteristics, they tend- take their culture fo granted. It is for similar reason-)

individuals take other cultures for granted. Examine. _.oducts in any store, the art in any art gallery, the

/pes of music available in any music shop, the varioushouses of worsnip in yo,- town, and you will find thatAmerican society is influenced by many other cultures.

7he profound influence and importance of 7ulture goes beyondlenese superficial artifacts. Read the following articlewhich describes two children who lived in the forest arnlIgthe animals. The story is true and i not an iso]atedincident. rt is critical to note that these children'sformative years were spent in an envi: nment that had noculture as we-know it. Basically, the children in the storynever underwent the process called acculturation.

8 1

78CULTURAL INDICATORS OF THE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLDS

When you finish reading, answer the questions which fullow thestory. It might helpful if you review the questions hefor,1reading the story.*

In his book Wolf Child and Human Child, ArnoldGesell gives a striking account, based on the origi-nal source material, of the misfortunes of Amalaand Kamala, the two best known cases of zoanthropy.

On 9 October 1920 the Reverend Singh, who waspreaching in the area, was told by the villagers ofGodamuri that there were 'fantastic people' livingin the forest. He was taken to the place under cov:rof dusk and saw some wolves emerging from their lair.There were three adults, two cubs and two 'monsters',one much smaller than the other, whose faces werehidden by their tangled hair and who were walking onall fours. Both of them behaved exactly like thewolves. As they came out of their cave, they putth,ir hrads out first and looked around before leapingout. 1gh inly just managed to prevent one of hisguides fr,'m sh,oting and because they were all soterrified ,ne 'monsters', he went to anothervillage sevel miles away to recruit volunteers whohad not yet hcard of these strange creatures. Whenhis party rrz_urned to the place a week later, two ofthe elder wolves fled, but the third, a she-wolf,stayed guarding the entrance to th cave, and wasriddled with arrows. At the back of the cave theyfound two cubs and two children huddled together, thelatter c,.:07ering in defence, the former ready toattack. The two Mowglis were entrusted to the villag-ers for a week but as soon as Singh left, they ranaway fror. the children and on his return he foundthem abandoned in their enclosure almost dead fromstarvation. They were forced to drink milk andgenerily attended to, and after a few dRys Singhtook -Iem in an ox-cart to the orphanage which heran in Midnapore, arriving there on 4 Novenber 1920.

The younger one was given the r:ame of Amala andthe olde_r one Kamala. Kamala ha-1. 1ge shoulders,long arms and her spine was quite straight. Withboth of them, the skin on thair hand7;, knees andelbows was he ,vily calloused. Their tongues hi'nq

*Wolf Children, (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1972), PP-68-71.Copyright 1972 by New Left BooksRE7-,rinted by permission of Monthly Review Press.


out through thick red lips, they panted and fre-ouently bared their teeth. They suffered fromphotophobia and day-blindness, and spent their dayscrouched in the shade or .anding motionless withtheir faces to the wall. They livened up at night,howling and groaning and hoping to escape. Amala--aged one and a halfand Kamala aged eight and ahalfslept only about four hours in twenty-four.They had two means of getting about: on their kneesand elbows for short distances and on their handsand feet for longer distances or for running. Theylapped up liquids and took their food in a crouchingposition. Their cxclusive taste for meat led themto indulge in the only activity of which they werecapable: chasing chickens or rooting around forcarcasses and entrails. Though they took'a slightinterest in dogs and cats, they were completely un-sociable and used to snarl at humans, showing par-tic:Ilar hostility to Singh's wife. When anyoneaT.proache,i, they used to arch their backs menacinglya7;d shake their heads rapidly back and forwards toshow their wariness.

Ama1,7 died on 21 September 1921 from nepritisEnd generalizad oedema after an illness which hadlasted three weeks, and curiously enough Kamala diedof the same disease eight years later on 14 November1929. The heverend Sincih and Dr Sarbadhicari kepta car,:!ful record of Kamala's psychological develop-

througi.out her stay at the orphanage. Singh's'nurnal sho, -:hot her movements became slowly morehuman and L.,:y Cter ter. -tonths she was able to reachout her hand kefocd . By February 1922 she wasable to kne(:1 a bi Maren ,he could walk on herknees. In Ma,,, she got to her fee-_ leaning against abe:,ch and the ne:t summ.,.r stood up by herself for thefirst time. She had Liarnt to walk by January 1926and 'ifor the remaining two :,:ars of her life, thoughher walk Lemained somewhat %-.)1f-like, she snowed quiteclearly that her tnrevious way of 1,-.1kinq had been duemerely to the absence of ordinary human training.iamala's behavior became year by year more relaxeC and

varied. Endlessly repeated motor gestures, likeon the rop? of a punkah '7or hours at a time,

gaw. -ay to actions of a social nature such asusing a to drink from, chasing the crows whichwere eating giain in the farmyard, washing and bathingin front of the Singhs, looking after the smallerchildren at the orphanage and telling the nurses whenthey were crying, collecting eggs from the henhouseand many other simple tasks.

80 CULTURAL INDICATORS OF Ti MOFERN AND TRADITION! T. WORLDS

. the same time, her character was changing,though her sister Amala's death caused a temporaryregression. She cried for the first time, refused allfood or drink for two days, sat crouched in the cornerfor a week, and continued sniffing around for hercompanion's scent for a further four days. After C -eeterms at the orphanage she became more confident a.would take biscuits from Mrs Singh and even approachher at milk-time. Exactly as Itard had done, MrsSingh began to massage the child's muscles in order toloosen them and unstiffen her joints. One day inNovember 1921 she took Mrs Singh's hand and s-wed L7gestures that she wanted to 1,e stroked. During thesame month she sat down beside two kid goats, huggedthem, and spoke to them in some incomprehensible lan-guage of her own. It was three years before she beganto show fear of the dark and to want to sleen near theother children. She worried whenever Mrs -gh wasnot with her and would wander ,,round the garden, greet-ing her return by leaping for joy and rushing to meet'her. Over a period of five years, her sense of tastebe gradually more discri,ainating and her emotionalresponses in general less crude. She developed a likingfor salt and by 1926 had given up eating carrion. Sheavoided dogs, cried when the other children went tomarket without her and was impatient for her turn onthe swing. She enjoyed compliments of any sort andshowed her modesty by refusing to leave the dormitorywithout her dress on.

Kamala's inelligence also slowly improved. Tobegin with she knew only flic) words: 'ma' for 'mama',meaning Mrs Singh, and 'bhoc' which she used as anexpression of hunger or thirst. By 1923 she couldsignal 'yes' or 'no' by odding her head and say 'yes'('hoo') in words. In 1924 she asked for rice with theword 'bha' and showed her will for the first ,_ime byusing Lne words "am jab' (I want). By 1926 Kamaiacould recognize hur own lip and plate and capableof carrying on a rudimentary conversan with a vo-cabulary of ahout three dozen words. She could under-stand verbal instructions and whenever she did notknow a word she used sign language instead. Towardsthe end of her life in 1929 she had acouired tne useof about fifty words and was able zo talk ite easilywith the doctors whe looked after her, and call themby n-.me. Paul Zivadon is correct in -)ointing out thatthere is no evidence at all that Kamala's backwardnesswas Lne consequence of some innate defe, . A comparisonof her mental faculties as they were when she waseight years old with her faculties at the end of her

8 8

PRACTICAL EXERCISES

life shows that her pitiable condition was due only tothe lack of a proper family so early in life. Inciting the story of Kamala, Sivadon reminds one that'organic defects and psychological problems cannot heseparated' and he concludes:

Man differs from animals in that he is born prema-turely. His personality develops within a systemof cultural matrices which are as important as thematernal matrix. They consist of emotional tieswhich are built up during the first tao years oflife with the mother and which affect the child'swhole emotional life. Learning to speak at thecorrect time similarly makes all the differenceto the child's intellectual life. This means thata child which is perfectly normal at birth candevelop i 'to an idiot if his education is unfavour-able enough. It is extremely important to graspthis. The personality develops in exact proportionas the educative value of the environm^nt offersthe correct ,,ultura, support at the riyht moment.

a) This fir tiori wili regaire that you do someresearch in yo:.- local lik)rary. You should look under

card catalog headings ",ccllturation,"ture-symholic thought," languace (as it relate:, to

. Any introductory anthropology textbook will=tain ctions dealing with these topics.

It might be said that since Amala and Kamala had de-veloped a way of co-,ing with their environment, they hada culture. If one accepts that argument one must also

the assertion that animals have a culture. Oneot .rle major components of culture is the existence ofrrftpolic thought. What is symbolic thought? What:-'-.Antages does it give man that i . its absence becomes

sadvantage for animals?


b) Based on your research for qv ;tion two, part a, youshould be able to derive the .swer for this question.Whac. i acculturation? Why is this process so importantin order for any culture to maintain its integrity?What is the relationship between symbolic thought andacculturation?

Ju


3. Below you will find a number of cultural indicators thatreflect the extent to which a country or society is modern,traditional, or transitional. (These indicators, plus anumber of others, will be used in the next exercise.)Answer the question for each indicator in the spaceprovided.

a) Population Growth

Would you say th: a rapid or very slow (or zero)population growth is an indicator of a modern society?Why? V;Iat aLc, E,9111% of the causes of a higher populationgrowth in _.(..:Ly as opposed to another?

b) I^f, ..t Mnrtality

Low infant mortality is an indicator of the modernsociety. What are the characteristics of the moder..world that conLlribute to low infant mo ility rate?

84CULTURAL INDICATORS OF THE MODERN AND TRADITIOt.AL WORLDS

c) Youthfulness of Population

Because of efficient medical care, modern societiestended in the past to have youthful populations (i.e.,

. greater proportion of the population is in the agerange below fourteen years). Infant mortality ratetended to be low and the expected life span was con-siderably greater than in traditional societies. It

should be noted that this trend--i.e., a youthfulpopulation--has reversed itself in most modernsocieties. Birth rates have decreased while peoplecontinue to live longer. What is the implication forthe working person's monetary contributions to socialsecurity _ least in the U.S.) of this reverf,1-11 in theyouthfulness of the populacion?

j) Urban Population

Phe pcpulation of modern cultures tends to be concen-trated in lc,rge cities. Why is this a characteristicof model- !:Dcieties but no f tniditional societies?


e) Cultivated Land (hectares per capita per agriculturalpopulation)

(One hectare is approximately 2.47 acres.) This par-ticular indicator reveals the number of hectares undercultivation per person employed in the agriculturalarea. Why is it that there are more cultivated hectaresper capita per aQricultural population in the modernworld than in thL tditional world?

f) Energy Generation and ConsumpLion

The modern world consistently produce:;, gener-ates, andconsumes more energy than the traditional -orld. Whyis this the case?

'

86k, CULTURAL INDICATORS OF THE MODERN AND TRADITIOI WORLDS

Transportation

Railway density, intensity rail use, ro7td denstyand motor vehicle density are Fome of the indicatorsof transportation. Modeyr societies ch.-,:acteris,icallyhave more and better meof transportation than tra-ditional societies. Why J.b efficient transportation sonecessav in the modern world?

h) In--rconnectedness

T. Mracteristic of the modern wor is measured bysuch indicltnational tr,world find it

!.3 international mail flow, inter-and trade. Why does the modern

,sary to maintain interconnectionswith 1,:-.1%7 other areas of the world?

9 4

EXERCISES1\ 811

Education and Literacy

Indicators of education level and literacy consistentlyicorrelate positively with modern societies (i.e., if asociety is modern, its population tends to be well edu-,cated and literate). Why must a modern society maintaiha population that is educated and liter-',e?

j) Gross National Product

What is the meaning of "gross national product" (adictionary might help)? Why is a higher GNP charac-teristic of the mocern world?

CULTURAL INDICATORS OF THE MODERN AND- TRADITIO-NAL WbRLDS

4. The purpose of this e;<k rcis to provide you with a methodto quantify the various Lural factors that reflect theextent to which a country is modern, traditional, or trans-itional. This is a fairly lengthy exercise; therefore, youshould follow the directions very carefully and return tothem as often as necessary.

Directions:

a) On the next few pagos you will find ra --t- _Or sevencountrie-,. Each group of data consti' c..; culturalindicator. Each country is idehtifi, ,th a 'etteronly.

b) Your first task is to calculate the(rank) of each country for each (,example, for the indicator "Food --ranks first. Place this result .h

ve standing.dicators. For,7,..untry "A"

ank" column.

c) Each indicator for a country tha cs 1" or "2"constitutes a modernizing trend roA .1,aL country. Arank of "3," "4," or "5" is tra; ,jonal, and a rank of"6" or "7" is traditional. De1-Lmine, for each country,the number of indicators that fall into the modern,transitional, and traditional slots.

U) Complete the graph in figure 3.26 on page 102 (in-structions accompany the graph).

*Except where otherwise indieate.., data is based c'n 1954-1960Census.

9 6

PRACTICAL EXERCISES f

Country IndicatorPopulation Growth

(Annual Rate, 1953-57)

Rank(Rank lowest first)

A 2.8%

B .8

C 2.4

D 2.7

E .8

F 1.9

G 1.4

Fig. 3.3. Population growth

1Country Indicator

Infant Mortality(Deaths per 1,000 live births)


A 31.3

B 38.6

C 170.0

D 112.8

E 56.3

F 82.5

G 100.9

Fig. 3.4. Infant mortality

9 7

89

[i 9 0 CO-LT-URAL INDICATORS OF THE MODETiN-AM5TitAbitiONAL WORLD§-

Country IndicatorYouthfulness of Population

Proportion in Age Group 5-14


A 19.5%

B 15.3

25.7

D 28.8

E 17.0

F 25.2

G (no data available)

Fig. 3.5. Youthfulness of population

Country IndicatorUrban Population

(Percent of population incities of 20,000 or more)

Rank(Rank highest first)

A 35.1%

B 29.8

C 20.2

D 17.8

E 39.8

F 10.5

G 8.0_

Fig. 3.6. Urban Population

9 8

PRACTICAL EXERCISES I 91

Country IndicatorFood Supply

(Calories per capita per day)


A 3070 calories

B 2920

C 2585

D 2020

E 2760

F 2250

G 2125

Fig. 3.7. Food supply

Country IndicatorCultivated Land

(hectares* per capita peragricultural population)


A 56.1

B 4.2

C 1.9

D 1.5

E 3.9

F 4.0

G 1.5

Fig. 3.8. Cultivated land (hectares per capitaper agricultural por 0Aon)

*Hectare = 2.47 acres

.9 9

9:_CULTURAL_INDICATORS OF THE MODERN AND TRADITION-AL-NOFIDS


(hectares per capita)

Rank(Rank highest first

A 2.43

B 0.49

C 0.33

D 0.43

E 0.68

F 0.66

G 0.24

Fig. 3.9. Cultivated land (hectares per capita)

Country

_

IndicatorConsumption of CommercialFertilizer (Kilograms per

hectare of cultivated land)


A 6.7

B 75.0

C 4.6

D 2.8

4

E 26.0

F 0.1

G 0.4

Fig. 3.10. Consumption of commercial fertilizer

100

PRACTICAL EXERCEE-§-. if 93

Country IndicatorElectricity Generation

(Kilowatt hours per capita)


A 5,305

B 1,144

C 228

D 66

E 409

F 8

G 7

Fig. 3.11. Electr:;.city generation

Country IndicatorCommercial Energy Consumption

(Amount of rate of changeper capita, 1937-54)


A 2.59

B 0.64

C 3.47

D 14.71

E 5.59

F 2.92

G 0.50

Fig. 3.12. Commercial energy consumption (rateof change per capita)

10 1

[1 94CULtbRAL INDICATORS OF THE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLDS

Country IndicatorCommercial Energy Consumption(Megawatt hours per capita)

RankRank highest first)

A 60.6

B 19.5

C 2.9

D 1.1

E 6.4

F 0.3

G 0.6

Fig. 3.13. Commercial ..nergy consumption (megawatthours per capita)

Country IndicatorConsumption of Steel

(Metric Tons per1,000 population)


A 322

B 235

C 25

D 3.3

E 50

F 1.1

G 3.9

Fig. 3.14. Consumption of steel

102

, PRACTICAL EkERCISES 1195

Country IndicatorRailway Density(Kilometers per

100,000 population)


A 606.0

B 92.0

C 64.0

D 30.0

E 62.0

F 10.0

G 14.9

Fig. 3.15. Railway density

Country IndicatorIntensity of Rail Use(Million Freight tons

per kilometerper 100,000 population

Rankl(Rank highest first)

I

A 616.0

B 108.0

C 15.4

D 3.5

E 26.3

F 6.3

G 7.1I

Fig. 3.16. Intensity of rail use

103

CULTURAL INDICATORS OF THE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLDS_

Country IndicatorRoad Density(Kilometers per

100,000 population)


A 5,870

B 1,663

C 128

D 74

E 416

F 196

G 68

Fig. 3.17. Rail density

Country IndicatorMotor Vehicle Density(Motor vehicles per1,000 population)


A 181.0

B 111.3

C 12.0

D 5.7

E 7.4

F 1.0

G 0.7

Fig. 3.18. Motor vehicle density

104

PRACTICAL EXERCISES

Country IndicatorInternational Mail Flow(Pieces dispatched per1,000 population)


A 5.3

B 7.7

C 0.5

D 0.4

E 1.9

F 0.3 .

G 0.4

Fig. 3.19. International mail flow

Country IndicatorInternational Trade Turnover(Imports and Exports in U.S.

dollars per capita)


A 58.9

21.9

4.7

4.9

3.7

2.4

0.9

Fig. 3.20. International turnover

10 5

97 ]

r,498 r, COITURAL INDICATORS-6F 7THE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLDS

Country IndicatorTrade Dependencyon Raw Materials

(Raw materials as exports)


A 54.9%

B 30.7

C 96.5

D 97.8

E 80.8

F 98.2

G 90.5

Fig. 3.21. Trade dependency on raw materials

Country IndicatorDaily Newspaper Circulation

(Per 1,000 population)


A 242.0

B 246.0

C 51.0

D 50.0

E 85.0

F 4.5

G 9.0

Fig. 3.22. Daily newspaper circulation

106

PRACTICAL EXE-R-ClgS

Country IndicatorPrimary School Enrollment(Percent of children ages5-14 in primary school)

II

F

86

78

34

42

47

13

(no data available)


Fig. 3.23. Primary school enrollment

Country IndicatorLiteracy

(Percent of adults literate)


A 97-98%

El 96-97

r 45-50

D 55-60

E 80-85

F 10-15

GI

15-20

Fig. 3.24. Literacy

107

99 ]

1 00 'CULTURAL INDICATORS OF THE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLDS

Country IndicatorGross National Product

(U.S. dollars per capita)


1,667

1,046

262

202

254

70

56

Fig. 3.25. Gross national product

108

4. d) (Continued)

PRACTICAL EXERCISES 1 01

Instructions for completing figure 3.26: "Graph of themodern, transitional, and traditional placement oftwenty-three indicators for seven countries."

'(1) A country which has a rank of "1" or "2" on anindicator will be considered as being modern forthat indicator; one with a rank of "3," "4,7 or"5" is transltional; and one with a rank of "6" or"7" is traditional.

(2) For each country determine the number of indicatorson which the country is ranked "modern,""transitional," or "traditional."

(3) For each country, construct a h-)rizontal bar graph .that will show the number of indicators for whichthe country ranked modern, transitional, ortraditional.

(4) Enter your calculations resulting from step "3"onto the graph on the next page. To do this youmust blacken in one square in the "modern" columnon the graph for each indicator that gives acountry a rank of modern. Start at the right sideof the "modern" column and work toward the left.Thus, a country which ranks as modern for sixindicators would have six squares blackened in the"modern" column. These blackened squares would befound on the right side of the "modern" column.Follow this same procedure for the transitionaland traditional columns.

(5) Do not list the countries in alphabetical order.List them so that the country with the greatestnumber of rankings in the "modern" column comesfirst. The country with the greatest number ofrankings in the "traditional" column would appearlast.

(6) Enter all countries on thr -aph.

(7) The transitional and traditional bars have beencompleted for country "A." Since country "A"ranked as transitional for three indicators, threesquares in the "transitional" column have beenblackene& Notice that they start at the rightside of the column.

109

411

Increasing number of factors within each category

COUNTRY:

Modern

Transitional

Traditional

...... .....

.....

. -.

....

. ...

- ..

1.

... .

.,

,, .....

..

.:.-

--.

... .....

t...

......

....

..

.

-t-

.,..

_,

',-

- -

-I"-

. -..

- ,r

. _ .

.

.....

....

....

......

.. .

_

. ... .

.

.

.

.

----

-r-t

----

-1\

4-1

--,

.-!-

--i

-I-.

- ..

.,-

^ -

...

.

... .

-.

. - "

-..-

--'

-/--

----

--,

'.---

,

- --

t-

,

14.

-..--4

-..

_,_

1

'4-

-4-

1i

21

,--

4---

-r

- --

---

,

--

1-

,

. ..

-,

.

---,

-,-

.

T-h-h

r--i

----

1--.

I

1.

--'--

T-'

4- -

f..

'.--

-1-

-- t-

-1 .

I ,.

"4-- .

.

Fig. 3.26.

Graph of the modern, transitional and traditional

placement of twenty-three inlicators of seven countries.

(to

be completed by the student)

PHACTICAL EXERCISES 103

5. The last exercise only partially quantified data relating tocultural indicators. What is needed is a chart which con-tains a profile of cultural indicators for modern, tran-sitional, and traditional societies. Such a profile wouldreveal the value of each indicator for each of the threetypes of societies. A comparison of the profiles of eachsociety will provide a method by which the relationshipsamong indicators within and between societies can be

uncovered.

You are to complete the chart in figure 3.28 on page 105.When you have completed the chart, answer the questions.

The data utilized for the chart is based on a mid-1950'scensus and therefore does not accurateiy reflect the present

status of each country. The greatest relative change since

the mid-'50's is in population growth: Canada's populationgrowth has declined relative to that of the other two

countries. Canada's gross national product has dramaticallyincreased; however, the gap between it and those of theother two countries is about the same today as it was in

the mid-'50's.

The following instructions tell you how to complete the

chart in figure 3.28.

(1) A representation of each society type is to appear on

the chart. Canada will represent the modern world;Brazil will represent the transitional; and Pakistanwill represent the traditional world.

(2) Use the statistics provided in the previous exercise

to complete the chart in figure 3.28.

(3) Each line on the chart represents one culturalindicator. The name of that indicator appears at theend of the line. Each line is divided into equal uniLsso that you can record the value of a country's

indicator on its line.

(4) To record the value of an indicator for a countrysimply find the appropriate line, look back to questionfour to find the value of the indicator for each of thethree countries, and finally, make a mark on the linewhich would designate the value of the indicator (onemark for each country). You might want to mark thevalues in the following way:

1 Canada2 - Brazil3 Pakistan


(5) When the values of all indicators for all threecountries he.ve been marked, draw a line (a line ofdashes for one country, dots and dashes for anothercountry, and a solid line for the third country)joining all the values for a particular country. Youwill end up with three lines, one for each type ofsociety, which are profiles of cultural indicators.

(6) One new indicator has been added to the chart. Thatindicator is "Life Expectancy at Birth" which reflectsthe average life span, in years, for an individualliving in particular areas of the world. The data forthe three countries with which you are concerned isgiven in figure 3.27.

CountryLife Expectancy

at Birth

Canada 70.80 years

Brazil 60.70

Pakistan 41.25

Fig. 3.27. Average life span for an individualin particular areas of the world

112

44i

41

3%

2%

1%

0%

Population Growth (annual rate)

Life Expectancy at Birth (average fur males and females)

Infant Mortality (deaths per 1,000 live births)

Urban Population (percent of population that lives in

cities of 20,0004-)

Food Supply (,:alories per capita per day)

Cultivated Land (hectares per capita per agricultural

population)

Consumption of Commercial Fertilizer (kgm. per hectare

of cultivated land)

Commercial Energy Consumption (megawatt hours per capita)

Cmsumption of Steel (metric tors per 1,000 population)

Intensity of Rail Use (million freight tons per km. per

100,000 population)

Road Density (kms. per 100,000 population)

International Trade Turnover (imports and exports in

U.S. dollars per capita)

Daily Newspaper Circulation (per 1,000 population)

Primary School Enrollment (percent of children ages

5-14 in primary school)

Literacy (percent of adults literate)

Gross National Product (U.S. dollars per capita)

35

45

55

65

75

200

150

100

50

0

0%

15%

30%

45%

60%

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

015

30

45

60

025

51,

75

100

020

40

60

80

0100

200

300

400

0200

400

600

800

01500

3000

4500

6000

1

15

30

41

45

60

075 b

150

225

300

I 0%

I

25%

I

50%

1

75%

100%

1 0%

11

25%

1

50%1

1

I

75% I

1

100%

1 0

1I

450

900

1350

4

1800

41

I

Fig. 3.28.

Profile of cultural indicators for modern, transitional, and traditional

societies.

(To be completed by the student)

106CULTURAL INDICATORS OF THE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLDS

5. (Continued)

USE THE GRAPH YOU JUST COMPLETED TO ANSWER QUESTIONS"a" THROUGH "e."

a) "Gross National Product" is probably the best indicatorof the degree to which a society is modern. Prom thegraph you constructed, state which factors are likelyto contribute to a high GNP.

b) Canada's agricultural population is very low consideringthe amount of land that is under cultivation. What mustbe characteristic of 71 society in order for a smallnumber of individuals to cultivate an inordinately largeamount of land?

114


c) Very few of a modern country's population live in ruralareas. A great proportion (a proportion which hasincreased considerably since the mid-50's) live in thecities. What two categories of employment are availablein the cities?

d) Which two of the sixteen factors in the graph areindicators of a society's interconnectedness? That is,which two factors indicate the extent to which a societyis aware of, and has relations with, other societies?Which one of these two factors is an indicator ofindustrialization?


e) A society's standard of living is based on more thanjust its industrial might. What other factors listedin the graph contribute to a society's high standardof living?

6. The Malthusian principle was based on the premise that"population increased in geometric progression but thatagricultural production, the primary support of the popu-lation, could increase only in a strict arithmeticprogression."

a) Which of the following are exampleE of an arithmeticprogression and which are examples of a geometricprogression?

(1)

(2)

1, 3, 5, 7

7, 21, 63, 189

(3) 100, 150, 200, 250

(4) 2, 4, 6, 8

(5) 2, 4, 8, 16

(6) 50, 125, 200, 275

*Harper and Schmudde, Between Two Worlds: A New Introduction toGeography, p. 86.

116

PRACTICAL EXERCISES

'10) Which of the following statements is true?

(1) With time held constant, something that in-creases in an erithmetic progression willresult in a larger amount than that whichincreases in a geometric progression

(2) With time held constant, something that in-creases in a geometric progression will resultin a larger amount than that which increasesin an arithmetic prflgression

(3) With time held constant, there would be nodifference between increases in geometricprogression or increases in arithmeticprogression

c) If fcod production were to increase in an arithmeticprogression and if population were to increase in ageometric progression which would increase faster?

d) To which of the following countries is the Malthusianprinciple likely to be applicable? Why? (You should

refer to the maps on pages 26-27 and the agriculturaldata in Goode's World Atlas.)

India

United States

Bangladesh

Japan

Mexico

The countries of Central America

117

109

1 1 0 CULTURAL INDICATORS OF THE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLDS


1. The elements in your lists may be slightly different fromthe ones included below. If you have trouble decidingwhether your lists are valid you should call yourtutor.

a

SymbolicForms

b

Belief System

c

SocialOrganization

d

Technology

Turkish Islam Education Steel productionEnglish Judaism Political Wheat productionUkrainian Moslem organization MechanizationFrench Protestantism The Family Automation

Bhojpuri Roman Catholicism Peer Groups Production

Telugu Social Welfare methods.

Organized Medical Energy sources

Bengali care Energy

Poetry Ethics consumption

Music MoresCustoms

Productioncapacity

Agriculturalproductionmethods

Fig. 3.29. Classification of elements of aculture

Culture is usually divided into four categories:

a) Symbolic Forms: This refers to thc various ways indi-viduals express themselves. This category includeslanguage (and other symbolic forms of written and oralcommunication) and the arts.

You might be interested to know the number of people whospeak the languages list.od: 275 million people speakEnglish, 125 million sPeak Bengali, 46 million speakUkrainian, 55 million speak French, 39 million speakBhojpuri, 55 million speak Telugu, and 34 million speakTurkish. While Mandarin Chinese was not listed,approximately 585 million speak that language.

118

PRACTICAL EXERCISES KEY 1 1 1

b) Belief System: ". . . every society . . . develops

certain patterns of behaving designed to guard, by onemeans or another, against the unexpected, anei better to

control man's relationships to the universe in which he

lives. It is this area of culture that we shall callreligion.

"Because no people have achieved complete certaintyeither in interpersonal relations or in technology,religion is inevitably a part of every culture. To be

sure, the forms of religious behavior vary enormously

from one society to the next; there are almost countlessdifferences in belief, ritual, and other aspects ofreligious practice."*

c) Social Organization: All cultures tend to set upacceptable ways of organizing their members. All

cultures have organized their members in ways thatfacilitate self-governance, the education of the young,and the care of the elderly, sick, and indigent, and inways that stipulate certain interpersonal relations(such as title of address: Ms., Mr., Mrs., Professor,Dr., Senator, etc.). Many of these rules are written(laws) and many are unwritten (taboos, ethics, and mores).

There exists in All cultures specified punishment for

breaking the law. Few cultures, however, specify how

to punish persons who violate a taboo. For example, in

many cultures it is not acceptable to belch in public,

but in many other cultures, belching after a meal is

not only acceptable but is expected as a sign that the

meal was enjoyable. Taboos and mores vary from culture

to culture, but all cultures have taboos and mores.While physical punishment usually does not result when

a taboo is broken, other forms of unofficial punishment,

such as ostracism, may be applied.

d) Technology: The degree of sophistication of the methods

of production and manufacture is a measure of aculture's technological know-how. Technology is common

to all cultures, and what may appear to be "primitive,"

on closer inspection, may be ingenious. For example, if

you lived in the Kalahari desert, how would you store

water (assuming the unavailability of methods that are

familiar to you)? The Bushmen have solved this problem

with great efficiency. They fill an ostrich egg(impermeable) with water and bury it under the sand (to

protect it from the heat) thereby retarding evaporation.

*Ralph L. Beals and Harry Hoijer, An Introduction to Anthro-

pology (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1965), p. 567.

119

1 112 CULTURAL INDICATORS OF THE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLDS

2. a) Symbolic thought enables man to do at least two thingsthat animals are unable to do. Man can form ideas whichare representations of external events, phenomena, orprocesses. Man can communicate these ideas veryefficiently through the use of language.

Language, or the communication of symbolic thought,makesit possible for learning to occur efficiently. Whileit is possible to train a human through the use ofverbal instructions for even the mosL complex

Alligrations, a very elaborate and time-consuming trainingpr ram would be required to train animals to accomplisheven the simplest of tasks.

b) Acculturation has several meanings. Webster's NewCollegiate Dictionary offers this definition: "1:

a process of intercultural borrowing between diversepeoples resulting in new and blended patterns, esp:modifications in a primitive culture resulting fromcontact with an advanced society. 2: the processbeginning at infancy by which a human being acquiresthe culture of his society."* Acculturation, therefore,is simply the process of acquiring a culture. Theprocess by which the acquisition comes about islearning.

Individuals of all ages need to identify with something.This need to identify varies from person to person. The

entity with which people identify is generally de-termined by a person's self-perception, interests,and ambitions. In short a person's affiliation tends toserve his or her needs.

Many social needs (i.e., group affiliations) are formedearly in a person's life and are shaped by that person'senvironment. A person encounters many environments,but the one which is all encompassing is culture.Because the young are so influenced by the environment,they tend to learn about and perceive a need for theirsurrounding culture.

It is through this process that culture maintains itsintegrity. Integrity in this sense refers to itsrelatively unchanging nature. That is, while minorchanges do occur, they come about slowly and are not,therefore, traumatic.

*Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, (Massachusetts: G. & C.

Merriam Company, 1973) , p. 3.

120

PRACTICAL EXERCISES KEY I 113

An infant, as you read in the article, will adopt thebehavior pattern it encounters in its environment. Thecultural environment provides the infant with a patternof behaviors, values, ethics, and so on, which thechild will adopt. It is doubtful that the infant couldexist in the absence of an environment which teaches theinfant methods by which he could sustain himself.

Finally, the presence of a cultural environment permitsthe child to acquire a set of behaviors that will permither to live successfully among the members of herculture. "All cultures include educational mechanisms,which are both unconsciously applied and purposivelydirected. The function of these mechanisms is totrain the young in the common behavior patterns andunderstanding that make up much of the culture. Notonly must the child be taught the necessary skills andassociated knowledge by which he must make a living,_hemust also be socialized by learning the accepted waysof dealing with his fellows, and he must acquire aworking relationship with the universe through under-.standing the supernatural forces about him . .

a) Population Growth

The population growth of many modern societies hasslowed down. Except for certain religious beliefs, alarge family is no longer important. In many tra-ditional societies, on the other hand, children meansecurity in old age. That is, when the adult is old andno longer able to support himself, he turns to hischildren for food and shelter. Since infant mortalityrates are high in these societies, famiT,ies, in orderto be assured of this security, will tend to have manychildren.

b) Infant Mortality

Sophisticated medical care and a better knowledge ofhygienics and child rearing result in a lower rate ofinfant mortality in modern societies.

*Beals & Hoijer, An Introduction to Anthropology, p. 701.

'114 CULTURAL INDICATORS OF THE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLDS

c) Youthfulness of Population

As the age of the population increases, there will befewer taxpayers and therefore fewer contributors tosocial security; that is, a progressively greater non-working proportion of the population will exceed sixty-five years of age. As this trend continues, there willbe fewer people available for employment and thus fewerpeople contributing to social security. This may meanthat the total amount of each individual's contributionto the social security system will steadily and perhapsdramatically increase.

d) Urban Population

Industrial complexes and the government bureaucracy tendto be located in large cities and provide many jobs.Most cities, at their inception, were built in stra-tegically located areas--convenient to transportation,close to raw materials, and so on. With the advent ofmechanized agriculture many individuals became un-employed and subsequently moved to the cities in searchof employment. This motivated old industries to expandand new ones to move into the cities in order to tapthis supply of potential employees.

e) Cultivated Land

Modern societies have mechanized their agriculturalmethods of production. Whereas a large number ofpeople were required to plant and harvest in the past,today, machines can take the place of a majority ofthese individuals. Consequently, one man utilizingmodern machinery can work many acres of land, whereasone man in a traditional society utilizing animateenergy sources can only work a very few acres.

f) Energy Generation and Consumption

Industrial and consumer-oriented societies require vastamounts of energy to power industrial complexes and tooperate smaller machines and appliances in the home.

122


Transportation

In the modern world transportation is required to movegoods and supplies and to provide efficient con7eyancefor commuters and long distance travelers. Commerceis not a local activity in the modern world, and meansfor transporting raw materials and finished productsare necessary.

h) Interconnectedness

The continued prosperity of the modern world is dependenton the exchange of raw materials, products, and innovations.

Education and Literacy

The knowledge required to maintain the complicated tech-nology of the modern world makes it necessary to have apool of well-educated individuals. Modern societiesdepend for their prosperity on innovations and advancesin many disciplines (medicine, chemistry, physics,humanities and so on).

j) Gross National Product

"The total value of the goods and services produced ina nation during a specified period (as a year)."* GNP

is a reflection of a society's level of technology.Modern societies have a sophisticated technologicalcapacity, have a high rate of employment, and producevast quantities of products. A high GNP also is anindirect measure of other aspects of culture and is areflection of a society's educational and liter r levels

as well as of its efficient social organization. A highGNP requires a social organization that permits freeenterprise and competition. (While tl-is latter point maybe argued, history has thus far uphelJ its validity.)

*Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, (Springfield,Massachusetts: G. & C. Merriam Company, 1973), p. 507.

1 `I 3

COUNTRY:

B. France

A. Canada

E. Spain

C. Brazil

D. Ecuador

F. Nigeria

G. Pakistan

4Increasing number of factors within each category

Modern

Transitional

.....

.7

....

Traditional

......

...

;.

......

. :...

....

......

.....

... .. ..s

......

. ....

.....

,,1...

..

...

...........

-

Fig- 3.30.

Completed graph of the modern, transitional and

traditional placement of seven countries.

PRACTICAL EXERCISES KEY 1 I 1

5. a) The following are indicators of a high Gross NationalProduct:

(1) Fooa supply(2) Commercial energy(3) Consumption of steel(4) Intensity of rail use(5) Cultivatled land(6) Road density(7) International trade turnover(8) Literacy, and possibly(9) Primary school enrollment

(10) Consumption of commercial fertilizer

Note that you were to list those factors which areindicators of high GNP. While a cause and effectrelationship may exist between the above factors andGNP, the examination of such a relatonship would bebeyond the scope of this course.

b) A sophisticated technology is indicated by a societythat requires a small percentage of its working force tobe employed in agriculture. Modern technology has pro-vided the agricultural community with sophisticatedmachinery such as combines, tractors, cultivators, etc.,dhat take the place of hundreds of laborers.

6. a) 2, 5

b) 2

c) population

d) IndiaBangladeshMexicoCentral America

Traditional

Modern

4%

3%

2%

1%

0%

4---.-----4--."----...-4--1

.-----.

354

4z

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5''..*:_44

6--"""lir

75 4

200

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100

50

_ '--

0%

__15%...,:

30%

45%

60%

),----

4

..>

14

1

2000

/2500,/

3000

3500

4000

4/

,..):

4

!------15

30

0.A

trd

oi I ;

oil

20

50

75

40

60

60

100

100

200

301

400

0,

200

400

60

800

(3!4

1500

011

0.

4 0%

.25%."

3000

4500

6000

15

30

45

60

75

150

225

300

50%

75%

100%

25%

30%

75%

00%

0% 04

4d4.

.L

Population Growth (annual rate)

Legend

Modern

Transitional

Traditional

Life Expectancy at Birth (average for males and females)

Infant Mortality (deaths per 1,000 live births)

Urban Population (percent of population that live in

cities of 20,000+)

Food Supply (calories per capita per day)

Cultivated Land (hectares per capita per agricultural

population)

Consumption of Commercial Fertilizer (kgm. per hectare of

cultivated land)

Commercial Energy Consumption

Itegawatt hours per capita)

Consumption of Steel (metric tons per 1,000 population)

Intensity of Rail Use (million freight tons per km. per

100,000 population)

Road Density (kms. per 100,000 population)

International Trade Turnover (imports and exports in

U.S. dollars per capita)

Daily Newspaper Circulation (per 1,000 population)

Primary School Enrollment (percent of children ages

5-14 in primary school)

Literacy (percent of adults literate)

Gross National Product (U.S. dollars per capita)

Fig. 3.31.

Completed profile of cultural indicators for modern, transitional, and traditional societies

SELF-DIAGNOSTIC TEST 1 19

SELF-DIAGNOSTIC TEST

1. Write the four major categories of culture in the ap-propriate spaces in figure 3.32. Then select from the listexamples for each category and write them under theircategory heading.

List of Examples

-municipal government -legal system- Greek -hardware for a communication

batik network

-Lutheran -development of new animal breed-the automobile -tapestry

sculpturing -Latin-electricity c, neration -Greek Orthodox-kinship -writing (e.g., a letter)

a

Fig. 3.32. Four major categories of culture (Tobe completed by the student)

127


2. Select the statements which describe the advantages ofculture.

a) Culture provides an environment in which a child canlearn acceptable forms of behavior

b) Culture provides an environment in which a sophisticatedmodern technology will develop

c) One of the products of culture is it's symbolic formwhich enables man to communicate new ideas

d) Cultures have preconceived ways of living which expandthe uses they find for the environment

3. The chart below contains a list of cultural traits. Decidewhether each trait is characteristic of the modern or ofthe traditional worlds; then place a check mark in theappropriate column.

Traits Modern Traditional

1. Rapid population growth2. Low infant mortality3. High urban population4. Adequate consumption of calories5. Only a few cultivated acres per

agricultural population6. Limited electricity generation7. Limited commercial energy

consumption8. High steel consumption9. Low railway density

10. High gross national product

Fig. 3.33. Cultural traits characteristic of modernand traditional worlds (To be completedby the student)

128


4. Use the information in figures 3.34-3.50 to determine whichof the lettered countries are modern, transitional, ortraditional. While you are not required to derive youranswer by resorting to the graphing technique, the accuracyof your answer would be assured if you do use thatteOlnique. A sheet of graph paper is included following thedata.

If you do use the graphing technique use the followingrules:

a) A rank of "1" will be considered modernb) A rank of "2" or "3" will be considered transitionalc) A rank of "4" or "5" will be considered traditional

Country IndicatorPopulation Growth

(annual rate)

Rank

A 3.0%

B 1.5

C 3.4

D 1.1

E 2.0

Fig. 3.34. Population growth (annual rate)


Country IndicatorInfant Mortality

(Deaths per 1000 live births)

Rank

A 13.6

B 58.0

C 48.7

D 14.2

E 5.0

Fig. 3.35. Infant mortality (Deaths per 1000live births)

Country IndicatorUrban Population

(Percent of population that livesin cities of 20,000 or more)

Rank

A 50

B 70

C 70

D 71

E 39_

Fig. 3.36. Urban population (percent of populationin cities of 20,000 or more)

130


ke:".S.A;,r4

1, 4 -

Country ,. IndicatorFood Supply

(calories per capita per day)

Rank

A 2,360

B 3,160

C L., 2,430

,D 2,470

:Ir. ,-

2,496

Fi . 3.37. Food supply


(hectares per capita per agriculturalpopulation)

Rank

A 14.9

B 30.0

C 25.0

D 717.0

E 170.9

Fig. 3.38. Cultivated land

131

123

, 124CULTURAL INDICATORS OF THE MODERN ANDTRADITIONAI WORLDS

Country IndicatorConsumption of Commercial Fertilizer(Thousand metric tons of phosphate

potash and nitrogen)

Rank

A 55.4

B 87.0

C 72.0

D 2,049.5

E 647.7i

Fig. 3.39. Consumption of commercial fertilizer

Country IndicatorCommercial Energy Consumption(Kilograms in coal equivalent)

Rank

A 889

1,728

2,473

3,251

827

Fig. 3.40. Commercial energy consumption

132

SELF-DIAGNOSTIC TEST '1 -125

Country IndicatorConsumption of Steel

(Metric tons per 1000 population)

Rank

A .43

3.69

2.02

68.88

1.85

Fig. 3.41. Consumption of steel

Country IndicatorIntensity of Rail Use

(Millions of net-ton kilometers)

Rank

A 33

A 12,284

C 13

D 59,872

E 7,241

Fig. 3.42. Intensity of rail use

133

126 (MI.TIIRAI, INDICATORS OF THE MODERN AND TRADITIONAL WORLDS

Country IndicatorRoad Density

(Kilometers ner 100,000 population)

Rank 1

A .06

It 9.39

C .43

D 10.24

E .63

Fig. 3.43. Road density

Country IndicatorMotor Vehicle Density(Total vehicles x 1000)

Rank

A 146

B 2,113

C 585

D 16,529

E 150

Fig. 3.44. Motor vehicle density

131

SELF- DIAGNOSTIC TEST 121

Country IndicatorInternational Trade Turnover

(Imports & exportsin millions of U.S. dollars)

Rank

A 933

B 3,846

C 6,074

D 52,062

E 4,146

Fig. 3.45. International trade turnover

Country IndicatorDaily Newspaper Circulation(Copies per 1000 population)

Rank

A 97

B 128

C 68

D 503

E 138

... _

Fig. 3.46. Daily newspaper circulation

128(:urruHAL INDIcivr( (A.-111},. N,1(-)1)EHN ANI' TIIADITIONAL WC)111,DS

Country IndicatorGross National Product(U.S. dollars per capita)

Rank

A 496

B 136

C 981

D 2,361

E 366

Fig. 3.47. Gross national product

Country IndicatorLiteracy

(Percent of population literate)

Rank

A 86.0%

B 91.0

C 76.0

D 98.5

E 85.0

Fig. 3.48. Literacy

136


Country IndicatorAgricultural Labor Force

(Percent of total labor force)

Rank

A 50.0%

B 16.0

C 26.0

D 16.3

E 51.0

Fig. 3.49. Agricultural labor force

Country IndicatorProtein Consumption

(Grams per day per capita)

Rank

A 69.9

B 104.7

C 59.7

D 76.9

E 72.9

Fig. 3.50. Protein consumption

Increasing nurriber of factors in each category

COUNTRY:

liModern

-1

Transitional

Traditional

.....

......

..

.. .....

. ....

.....

..

.

.. ...

..-

..

.

4-

..

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-

. ....

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--, 1

.

14-

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. -

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-4 .

I ...--

-...-

. - ...

, ,

i

-4

Fig. 3.51.

Bar graph of modern, transitional, and

traditional indicators of countries.

(To be com-

pleted by the student)


5. The following questions deal with the relationships amongcultural indicators. In order to assure the accuracy ofyour answers you may want to construct a graph of thecultural indicators for representative colmtries of themodern, transitional, and traditional wolids. The graph

form appears in figure 3.52.

If you do construct the graph, use the data for each of thefollowing countries: Japan D (modern), Argentina B(transitional), and Lebanon A (traditional).

a) Which one of the followiag seems to be the most im-portant indicator of modernity?

(1) Expressive arts(2; Religion(3) Social organization(4) Technology

b) List the indicators that are closely related totechnology.

c) As the agricultural labor force decreases what popu-lation indicator is likely to increase?

139

Traditional

5%

4 i

3 1

Modern

21

iI

ta

Population Growth

Infant Mortality

Urban Population

Food Supply (calories)

1

60%

45

30

15

0

t

25

40

1

55

ii

a

70

85

2000

2375

2750

I

3125

3500

i4

44

i

10

200

400

600

800

tI

4Cultivated Land

1a

1.....

509

1250

2000

2750

3500

14;k

Commercial Energy Consumption

4---

--4-

-4-4

---1

-4--

4-1-

--i-

G0

17.5

35

52.5

70

ta

IConsumption of Steel

a1

i1

1

015

30

45

60

I1

Intensity of Rail Use (x 1000)

I1

1;

03

69

12

I1

Road Density

ii

Ia

I.4

05

10

15

20

1a

11

11

Motor Vehicle Density (x 1000)

1 015

30

45

60

11

4I

i1

International Trade Turnover (x 1 billion)

I1

0150

300

450

600

Daily Newspaper Circulation

11

1a

0.75

1.5

2.25

3I

I-4

I1

IGross National Product (x 1000)

II

50%

62.5

75%

87.5

100%

1a

Literacy

11

ia

It

1

60%

47.5

35

22.5

10

11

11

Agricultural Labor Force

11

11

1

Fig. 3.52.

Graph of cultural indicators for representative countries

(To be completed by the student)


6. Assuming the existence of adequate food supplies at thistime, to which of the following situations would theMalthusian principle apply first in the future?

a) A country whose agricultural output increases by 10,000tons per year and whose population increases by threepercent per year

b) A country whose agricultural output increases by 10,000tons per year and whose population increases by 20,000people per year

c) A country whose agricultural output increases by fivepercent and whose population increases by five percent

d) A country whose agricultural output increases by fivepercent per year and whose population increases by20,000 persons per year

e) A country whose agricultural output increases by 10,000tons per year and whose population increases by 10,000persons per year



1.

SocialOrganization Belief System

municipalgovernment

kinshiplegal system

LutheranGreek Orthodox

c d

Technology Symbolic Forms

the automobileelectricitygeneration

hardware fora communicationsnetwork

developmentof new animalbreeds

batiksculpturingtapestrywritingGreekLatin

2. a, c

Fig. 3.53. Four categories of culture

142


3.

Traits Modern Traditional

1. Rapid population growth

2. Low infant mortality

3. High urban population

4. Adequate consumption of calories

5. Only a few cultivated acres peragricultural population

6. Limited electricity generation

7. Limited commercial energyconsumption

8. High steel consumption

9. Low railway density

N./

V/

N./

V/

No/

N..///

10. High gross national product

Fig. 3.54. Cultural traits characteristic of modernand traditional worlds


4. Based on the analysis of the :_ndicators for each of thecountries we can conclude that a) Japan (D) is modern, b)Argentina (B) and S. Korea (E) are transitional, and c)Venezuela (C) and Lebanon (A) are traditional. (Graph appearsin figure 3.55).

5. The completed graph for this exercise appears in figure3.56.

a) Technology

b) (1) Infant mortality (a low rate of infant mortalityimplies the existence of a sophisticated medicaltechnology)

(2) Urban population(3) Food supply(4) Cultivated land(5) Commercial energy consumption(6) Consumption of steel(7) Intensity of rail use(8) Road density(9) Motor vehicle density

(10) International trade turnover(11) Gross national product(12) Agricultural labor force

c) Urban population is likely to increase as the agri-cultural labor force decreases.

6. The Malthusian principle would apply only to "a." Youshould note that inadequate food supplies will result forsituation "b," but the principle will apply to "a" first.

144

Increasing number of factors in each category

COUNTRY:

1114odern

D. Japan

B. Argentina

E. S. Korea

C. Venzuela

A. Lebanon

,41.

.45

Transitional

Traditional

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Fig. 3.55.

Bar graph of modern, transitional, and traditional

indicators of countries.

Traditional

5%

43

2

Modern

1

Legend

DJapan:

--

--

--

Population Growth

60

BArgentina:

25

40

rs

Urban Population

2000

2375,--

.3750.'

312',

3500

Food Supply (calories)

Infant Mortality

ALebanon:

10

.Cultivated Land

1....

.

4P

500 \\

1250

2000

2750

.1.3500

).

ii

i1

1i

Cn

i

\Commercial Energ; Consumption

0 ,/

17.5

35

52.5

.70

Ik il

Consumption of Steel

0 1

15

30

45

60

44

s-----1--4-4

Intensity of Rail Use (x 1000)

,/ 12

Road Density

01

15

30

45

60

Motor Vehicle Density (x 1000)

I1.

$1

itioNst

International Trade Turnover (x 1 billion)

0150

300

450

i600

4I

II

4I

/I

IDaily Newspaper Circulation

.75

1.5

2.25:f

3

...)

Ii

II 4;.

Gross National Product (x 1000)

-..

50%

62.5

87.5

."-._100%

1>i

Literacy

60%

47.5__---

/10

Agricultural Labor Force

Fig. 3.56.

Graph of cultural indicators for representative countries

The Modern World

PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES 1 41


1. Given a number of statements, select those that help to

explain pcsitive and/or negative influences on a country's

level of modernity in trade.

2. Given a number of statements select those that correctly

describe the relationship between food production and a

society's degree of modernization.

3. Select from a list of cultural factors associated with a

modern nation, those whose existence require a modern trans-

portation and communication network.

4. Given a number of statements, select those that correctly

describe the varying employment patterns within the modern

world.

Given a number of statements select those that correctly

.cribe the relationship between energy and level of

modernity.

6. Given a number of statements, select the ones that correctly

describe how accessibility of a country's rural areas to

urban centers both reflects and affects levels of

modernization.

7. From a list, select the factors that account for pockets of

underdevelopment, which normally exist in even the most

modern countries.

142 THE MODERN WORLD

STUDY DIRECTORY

ObjectivePages to Readin Textbook

PracticalExercises


1 291-307 1 and 2 1

2 278-81, 355-6, 3 and 4 2

340-5, 183-86

3 201-2, 206, 5 and 6 3

232, 302, 314,316, 330

4 221-2, 379-80 7, 8, and 9 4

5 10 and 11 5

6 12 6

7 13 and 14 7

149


PRACTICAL EXERCISES

1. Respond to the following statements by placing a check in theappropriate column. Each statement either helps or does nothelp to explain the level of modernity for the countrymentioned; that is, each country mentioned is modern, and itis your task to determine whether the statement provides atrue or false explanation for the country's level ofmodernity. Examine the data in tables 4.1, 4.2, and 4.3, andread the sections in your textbook as specified in the studydirectory for objective one. Answers and explanations arefound in the practical exercises key.

Explanation of Level of Modernity True False

a) The huge land area of the U.S.S.R. is a posi-tive influence on that country's high amountof exports.

I

b) The small size of Japan is a positive influ-ence on its amount of imports.

c) The huge size of the U.S.S.R. is a positiveinfluence on its low amount of imports.

d) A high import component in trade turnoverimplies a large resource base as in the U.S.

e) A high import component in trade turnoverimplies a small resource base as in Japan.

f) A balance of trade implies both a widerange of industries and a broad resourcebase as in the U.S.

g) For any modern country, the range of di-versity of traded products may be moreimportant than the volume of trade.

h) Higher trade turnover in any country is ameasure of interconnectivity and thus ofincreasing modernity.

150


2. Explain y : each of the statements in question one waseither t1_4e or false. Use the spaces below for each ofyour answers.

a) The huge land area of the U.S.S.R. is a positive influ-ence on that country's high amoLt of exports.

b) The small size of Japan is a positive influence on itsamount of imports.

c) The huge size (-)1= the U.S.S.R. is a positive influence onits low amour.c, cf imports.

d) A high import componrnt in trade turnover implies a largeresource base as in the U.S.

e) A high import component in trade turnover implies a smallresource base a in Japan.

151


f) A balance of trade implies both a wide range of indus-tries and a broad resource base as in the U.S.

g) For any modern country, the range of diversity of tradedproducts may be more important than the volume of trade.

h) Higher trade turnove ,o-natry is a measure ofinterconnectivity and thus of inc..-easing modernity.

TABLE 4.1

EXPORTS AND IMPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES,

JAPAN, AND THE UNITED KINGDOM:

Total Exports (Millions of U.S. dollars)

Total Imports (Millions of U.S. dollars)

Foreign Trade (percentage of G.N.P.)

CR

CAZI

Distribution of Trade (percentage of

1938, 1955, 1965

United States

1965

1955

1938

27532

15556

3102

21431

11568

2191

7%

United Kingdom

1965

1955

1938

13723

8613

2741

16103

10029

4582

31%

total value)

Exports

Manufactured goods

55

58

na

75

74

73

(machinery)

(25)

(20)

(11)

(27)

(22)

(9)

(transport equipment)

(12)

(15)

(14)

(15)

(15)

(8)

(textiles and clothing)

--

(7)

(12)

(18)

(iron and steel)

--

__

Chemicals

97

39

85

Food

15

11

13

33

3

Crude materials and fuels

14

17

na

-_

_

Imports

Manufactured goods

49

32

na

34

20

na

(machinery and transport equipment)

(14)

(4)

(-)

(11)

(4)

(1)

(nonferrous metals)

(textiles and clothing)

-

(6)

(4)

-

(6)

(6)

-(6)

_(4)

_

Crude materials and fuels

25

34

11(';)

29

38

na

(petroleum and products)

(10)

(9)

(11)

(9)

(5)

Food

16

26

26

27

34

41

(coffee)

(5)

(12)

(7)

-_

_

(fruit and vegetables)

(5)

(6)

(5)

Japan

1965

1955

1938

8452

2011

1109

8170

2471

1070

19%

-

86

82

na

(31)

(12)

(16)

(17)

(29)

(41)

(15)

(13)

(6)

--

-

-

17

9na

(9)

(5)

(10)

59

61

na

17

25

na

(9)

(19)

(1)

53

2


TABLE 4.2

MAJOR TRADING PARTNERS OF THE UNITED STATES,JAPAN, AND THE UNITED KINGDOM(PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL VALUE)

United States

Exports

CanadaJapan

21%8

Imports

CanadaJapan

23%11

Germany F.R. 6 U.K. 7

U.K. 6 Germany F.R. 6

Mexico 4 Venezuela 5

Netherlands 4 Mexico 3

France 4 Italy 3

Japan

Exports Imports

U.S.A. 30% U.S.A. 29%

Liberia 4 Australia 7

Australi 4 Kuwait 4

Hong Konc, 3 Philippines 4

China P.R. 3 Iran 3

Philinpines 3 U.S.S.R. 3

Thailand 3

United Kingdom

Exports Imports

U.S.A. 11% U.S.A. 12%

Australia 6 Canada 8

Southfield 6 Netherlands 5

Germany P.R. 5 Germany F.R. 5

Sweden 5 Australia 4

Canada 4 Sweden 4

Netherlands 4 South Africa 4

151


The number of times in which the countries in table 4.2 had afirst place rank in one of the forty-eight trading categories(such as trade in cereals, fruits and so on) is given in table4.3. The "Trade Turnover" column is a summation of the "Imports"and "Exports" columns.

TABLE 4.3

FIRST PLACE RANK IN FORTY-EIGHTTRADING CATEGORIES

Countries_

Imports Exports Trade Turnover

Japan 21 12 33

U.K. 40 12 52

U.S.A. 36 25 61

U.S.S.R. 14 22 36

155

PRACTICAL. EXERCISES 149

3. Examine the data in table 4.4 and fill in the chart below.Check the country (or countries) that fits each statement.

Food Self-Sufficiency U.S.A. U.K. JAPAN U.S.S.R

a) Which country appears to berelatively self-sufficient interms of limited imports?

b) Which country is relativelyself-sufficient but has thegreatest amount of imports andexports?

c) Which country is self-sufficient in most foodgroups and has imports thatconsist almost entirely ofthose faods it cahnot growitself?

d) Which countries import foodsthat they themselves producebut not to ±e extent of thecountry in "c"?

e) Which country has the 11+ostintensive farming methods(you may want tc refer toGoode's Atlas)?

f) If the degree of modernizationis partiy depenent on foodself-sufficiency and theamount and variety of foodthat is imported and exported,how would you rank these fourcountries? (A rank of 1 =most modern, and 4 = leastmodern)

g) Which country has the great-est amount of

W Imports(2) Exports(3) Variety of imports(4; Variety of exports

156

TABLE 4.4

PRODUCTION, EXPORTS, AND IMPORTS OF FOODSTUFFS

IN THOUSAND METRIC TONS:

1963-1965 AVERAGE

FOOD STUFFS

U.S.

U.K.

JAPAN

U.S.S.R.

PROD

EXP

IMP

PROD

EXP

IMP

PROD

EXP

IMP

PROD

EXP

IMP

Cereals

Corn

98114

12832

24

--

3400

88

-3103

10931

638

-

Oats

13280

180

54

1346

827

135

-9

5195

21

-

Potatoes

12115

97

90

7108

87

323

3793

18

-84484

--

Rice

3322

1359

11

--

112

16366

-535

473

7265

Wheat

33981

8587

76

3638

52

4087

1082

-3472

61229

2600

Fruit

22620

700

1637

883

18*

1369

3818

37

356

na

na

1568

Beverages

Coffee

337.7

1362

-3*

71

--

19

--

30

Tea

-59

-18*

251

81

43

45

930

Vegetable Oilseeds

and oils

Olive Oil

na

-22

--

3-

-0.4

--

5

Soya Beans

20373

5554

--

-300

263

0.2

1666

380

-31

Livestock, Animal

Products

Chickens

370735

--

110629

--

108794

--

485100

--

Cattle

155529

46

842

16000

265

619

5305

21

124901

--

Pigs

56770

11

57406

32

13578

166

54555

--

Butter

645

35

-39

2448

22

--

1007

44

4

Cheese

1055

836

111

3148

13

-8

467

-24

Eggs

3800

9-

822

315

924

1-

1574

-94

Milk

57012

5208

13

12620

271

882

3003

23

743

64503

--

Fish

2716

119

916

994

58

731

6652

547

183

4518

207t

94

*re-exports


4. Select the statements that reflect a high degree ofmodernization.

a) Self-sufficiency in foodb) Few food exportsc) Few food importsd) A great deal of food exportse) A great deal of food importsf) A moderate amount of food importsg) A large variety of importsh) A large variety and amount of exports

EXAMINE THE DATA IN TABLE 4.5 AND ANSWER QUESTIONS FIVE AND SIXWHICH FOLLOW. THIS DATA RELATES TO TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNI-CATION CHARACTERISTICS OF FOUR COUNTRIES THAT ARE A PART OF THEMODERN WORLD.

TABLE 4.5

TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION DATAFOR THE U.S., U.K., JAPAN,

AND U.S.S.R.

1963 1965 Averages U.S.A. U.K. JAPAN 'U.S.S.R.

Motor Vehicle UsePrivato (per capita)Commercial (per capita)

.36 .15 .02 fewest

.07 .03 .04 fewest;exceedsprivate

Pailway Track Density (amount oftrack in km. per sq. km.)

.038 .104 .075 .006

:-Iail per capita:

DomesticForeign

345 197 92 22

13 18 2 fewest

Telephones (per 1000 urbanpopulation)

50 21 18 4

Radios (per 1000 population) 1140 297 204 315

Televisions (per 1000 population) 346 243 171 57

Daily Newspapers (per 1000population)

315 507 429 229

158


5. The data in table 4.5 represents nine transportation andcommunication factors. You should now construct a profile ofthose factors for each country. To do that follow thesedirections:

a) Rank each country by each factor. The number "1" willrepresent the most favorable (most modern) rank. Thus,

it can be seen that for the factor "Motor Vehicle Use--Private," the U.S. ranks "1," the U.K. ranks "2," and soon.

b) Now, tabulate the number of first, second, third, andfourth order ranks for each country and enter the resultsin table 4.6.

TABLE 4.6

TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATIONRANKINGS OF FOUR COUNTRIES

Countries

Number of Each Rank

1 2 3 4

U.S.A.

U.K.

Japan

U.S.S.R.

c) Draw a profile of this tabulation on the chart on thenext page. To do this you should find the number oftimes each rank occurs, move up the vertical line to the

- appropriate rank and place a dot at that point. Afteryou have put the four dots on the profile, join the dotswith a line. The dot (in our case an "x") has beenplaced at the appropriate spot (for the U.S.) for therank of "1."

1 9


5. (Continued) Profile of transportation and communicationrankings of four countries.

1

2

3

4

0

U.S.A.

10

1

2

3

4

0

U.K.

101 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Number of TimesEach Rank Occurs

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9


1

2

3

4

0

Japan

10

1

2

3

4

0

U.S.S.R.

101 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9


154THE MODERN W(RLD

6. In unit three you examined a number of cultural indicatorsof the modern, transitional, and traditional worlds. Thoseindicators are listed below. Compare the profiles you justconstructed and determine which of the following culturalindicators, when they are related to a modern country, re-quire a modern transportation and communication network.

a) Low population growth

b) Low infant mortality

c) Youthfulness of the population

d) High urban population (percent of population in cities of20,000 or more)

e) Abundant food supply (calories per capita per day)

f) A great deal of cultivated land (hectares per capita peragricultural population)

g) High consumption of commercial fertilizer

h) High electri:7ity generation

161


i) High commercial energy consumption (megawatt hours per

capita)

j) High consumption of steel (metric tons per 1000

population)

k) High international trade turnover (imports and exports

in U.S. dollars per capita)

1) Large primary school enrollment

m) High literacy

n) High gross national product


TABLE 4.7 CONTAINS DATA REGARDING THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE WORK-ING POPULATION (I.E., EMPLOYMENT PATTERNS) FOR THE UNITEDKINGDOM, JAPAN, RUSSIA AND THE UNITED STATES. EXAMINE THE DATAAND ANSWER QUESTIONS SEVEN, EIGHT AND NINE WHICH FOLLOW. NOTETHAT THE FOUR COUNTRIES HAVE BEEN ARRANGED FROM MOST MODERN(U.S.A.) TO LEAST MODERN (U.S.S.R.).

TABLE 4.7

EMPLOYMENT PATTERNS OF THE U.S.,U.K., JAPAN, AND U.S.S.R.

1963-1965 Average U.S. U.K. JAPAN U.S.S.R.

Total work force in millions 78.0 24.9 49.0 109.0

Agricultural Sector (%)(agriculture, fishing, hunting,forestry)

6.2 3.1 26.9 35.2

Industrial Sector Total (%) 43.2 53.2 50.2 33.6

a) manufacturing 25.6 34.8 23.6 (NA)

b) quarrying, mining, con-struction

c) electricity, gas, water,sanitation

d) transportation, storage,communication

e) other

7.1

1.4

4.8

4.3

10.1

1.7

6.6

-

7.0

19.6

(NA)

(NA)

(NA)

(NA)

Service Sector - T,a) service

50.627.6

43..7

27.722.916.7

31.2

26.5b) commerce and others 23.0 16.0 6.2 4.7

163

PliACTICAL EXERCISEE-.; 151

7. Read the following statements and decide to which countryeach applies. For each statement place an "x" in theappropriate column.

Increasingly modern

Statements,

U.S. U.K.'JAPAN U.S.S.R.

a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

f)

,j)

hl

r

1

The greatest proportion of: theworkers of this country are em-ployed in the agricultural sector.

The greatest proportion of theworkers of this country are em-ployed in the industrial sector.

The greatest proportion of theworkers of this country are em-ployed in the servce sector.

This country's employment patternis relatively the same in allsectors.

Two countries in which the small-

,

est proportion of the labor forceare employed in the agriculturalsector.

Compared to the other countries,this country has the smallestproportion of its labor force em-ployed in the industrial sector.

The smallest proportion of thiscountry's labor force are em-bloyed in the service sector.

lh., country in which the pro-p,rtion of workers in the in-dustrial sector ranks second andthe proportion in the servicesector ranks first.

161


S. Indicate the degree of modernity represented by each graphby writing in th space provided, the number "1" for themost modern, "," for the next to most modern, and a "3" for

the least modern. These graphs represent the proportion ofthe labor force in various sectors of employment.

a)

b)

c)

165

Legend

1 = Industrialsector

2 = Agriculturalsector

3 = Servicesector

-20°


9. Select the statements that correctly describe the employment

pattern within modern societies.

a) The most modern societies have the smallest _-2rcentage

of their labor forces employed in the service sector

b) The least modern societies have dbout an equal proportion

of their labor forces employed in all sectors

c) Societies becoming increasingly modern have an in-

creasingly greater percentage of their labor forces em-

ployed in industry

d) The most modern societies have the sit A_est percentage of

their labor forces employed in agriculture

e) As societies become more modern the percentage of their

labor forces employed in the ervice sector increases

CONTINUE ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

166

TABLE 4.8

ENERGY PRODUCTION, EXPORTS AND IMPORTS

1963-1965 AVERAGE

Production

Exports

Imports

U.S

.U

.K.

Japan

U.S.S.R.

U.S

.U.K.

Japan

U.S.S.R.

U.S

.U.K.

Japan

U.S.S.R.

Coal Aa

453.5

195.4

50.8

207.7

11.9

5.9

0.8

22.1

.25

.01

13.8

5.7

Coal B

.9

0.2

213.9

-

Coke

na

na

na

na

.5

1.6

0.2

3.8

.10

0.2

.70

Electricityb

Total

4000.

184.2

177.3

459.4

Hydro

Nuclear

182.0

3.4

4.'

10.2

71.4

0.03

78.2f

Thermal

896.7

169.8

105.9

381.1

Natural Gasc

436.8

0.2

2.0

106.7

.60

12.3

0.3

-

Crude Oild

397.

0.1

0.7

224.2

.20

0.7

0.03

36.8

60.2

59.2

61.7

.2

Petroleum Refinedd

426.4

52.7

54.6

16.7

5.1

9.4

0.6

20.3

53.0

18.6

12.4

1.8

Uraniume

9.3

na

.005

5.1

na

aThousand metric tons

bMillion kilowatt hours

Million cubic meters

dMillion barrels

eMetric tons

Total of hydro and nuclear electric power

-Negligible or nil

Coal A - bituminous

Coal B - lignite

PRACTICAL EXERCISES

10. Use the data in table 4.8 and the information on pages 47-50 in Goode's World Atlas to help you fill in the followingchart. When you have completed the chart, use theinformation to answer question eleven.

For the chart below, place a check under the country thatis related to each statement.

Questions U.S. U.K. JAPAN U.S.S.R.

a) Which country is most self-sufficient in meeting its energyneeds?

b) Which country is least self-sufficient in meeting its energyneeds?

c) Which country has developed mostof its water power?

d) Which country has developed the:st of its water power?

) Which two countries have thegreatest coal reserves?

f) Which country has the greatestnatural gas reserves? -

9-) Which two countries ave thegreates. proven u,Aroleum reserves?

h)

L

Which country has the greatestenergy consumption?

, In the immediate future assumingthat alternative sources of energyli..e not adopted, which is the only.:ountry that will be self-sufficientin meeting its energy requirements?

168

161


11. 0:1seC on the information in the exercise you just completed,

list the factors which are positively related to a high

level of modernity in the area of energy.

)2. A recent study hypothesized that there may be a strong posi-

tive relationship between a country's level of modernization

and the spatial distribution of cities in that country.

That is, "the spatial distribution of cities in a country

both affects and reflects the level of modernization of that

country. . . . It is hypothesized that a country's levels of

modernization is positively related to the degree of ac-

cessibility evidenced in its urban spatial distribution."

Youl task is to determine the validity of the above

hypothesis. To help you in your research, the following

directions and questions are offered for guidance.

a) Rank the countries in terms of number of urban centers

(100,000 or more population). You will have to look at

the maps of the individual countries. The legend for

city sizes is on pages 211 of Goode's Atlas. A rank of

"1" would indicate the greatest number of centers. Make

this calculation for a common base, e.g., per one

million population.

Country Square Miles Population

(1) Chile 290,969 8,834,820

(2) Kenya 223,969 10,942,765

(3) Angola 479,231 5,673,040

(4) Denmark 16,555 4,937,784

(5) Turkey 300,053 35,666,549

169

PRAC17CAL EXERCISES 1 Sa

b) Rai,k the countries in terms of ac:eibility oZ therural Populace to the closest -:,rban centers havinf.7 apopulation of at. least 100,000.

Use Goode's World Atlas to determine accessibility interms of average number of miles from a sample of ruralareas to their closest urban centers having a populationof at least 100,000. For eaco country, diyide thenurber of square miles of.the entire country by thenumber of cities of 100,000 or more population. Thearea of each country is given on the preceding page.

c) Rank each of the countries separately in terms of eachof the following (the pages refer to Goode's WorldAtlas). A rank of "1" would be most favorable, while arank of "5" would be least favorable (there will be tiesin some cases).

(1) Population increase (p. 27)

(2) Infant mortality rate (p. 26)(3) Literacy (p. 28)(4) Agricultural production wheat (p. 34)

(5) Agricultural production - oats (p. 35)

(6) Agricultural production - cattle (p.(7) Density of surface transportation (pp. 52-53)(8) Amount of exports (p. 54)

(9) Amount of imports (p. 54)

The chart below contains nine columns--one for eachfactor outlined above. Rank each country in each columnby using the letter "C" for Chile, "K" for Kenya, "A"for Angola, "D" for Denmark and "T" for Turkey. If youcan't be exact about a rank make a rough estimate.

[

Ra n k

Factors

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1-

3

4


d) To what extent do each of your ranks for "C" correspondto your ranks for "B"? This will constitute a roughestimate of the correlation between accessibility andeach of the factors in "C." If a country has the sameor similar rank for "B" and "C" the correlation is posi-tive (i.e., there is a strong positive relationship).

e) According to your findings, is there any support a)r thehypothesis stated earlier?

(1) Does there seem to be a relationship between ac-cessibility and level of modernization? '(Denmarkis the most modern country and Angola is the :leastmodern.)

(2) Explain how accessibility affects modernization?List a number of advantages when there is high ac-cessibility.

13. The map of North America on the next page shows "center,""periphery," and "frontier" areas. These regional dis-tinctions were derived from the data contained in the map oftransportation, Goode's World Atlas. You should be awarethat the transportation measures described below reflect theaccessibility of rural areas to urban centers.

The "center" is a region of dense transportation facilitiesincluding automobile roads and railroads. All areas in thisregion are within twenty-five miles of automobile roads. t.

The "periphery" is a region of less dense transportationfacilities that include some major, but mostly minor,railroads. The less dense ea--)ctar )f the transportationrietwork results from numerous ded-eno railroad feeder linesthat connect into the trunk li7e,, All areas are withintwenty-five miles of automobile roads. The "frontier" is aregion with penetration lines (railroa6 and automobileroad); that lines which extend only e few miles into thearea. The majority of areas are beyond twenty-five miles ofautomobile roads. The shaded areas of the map constitutethose frontier regions in the U.S. that are classified as"economically deoressed."

Fill in the chart which begins on page 166. Maps to beanalyzed for each statement are referenced in parenthesis.You should determine whether each statement is or is nottypical of the pockets of underdevelopment that exist withinthe United States. You should analyze those sections ofmaps in Goode's Atlas that relate only to the shaded fron-tier areas that appear in the map of North America.

171


GROUND TRANSPORTATION

LEGEND

tItIIMMINMENMOMIMMO

FRONTIERFRONTIER

PERIPHERY

rr'ENTER

DEPPESSF7'FRONTIER REGIONS

r, 40.0 30011111NIPLE.-',

17 2

. -iE MODERN WORLD

Statements

Typical offrontierareas

Nottypical of

frontier areas

a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

f)

u)

h)

i)

j)

k)

Mountainous areas of highrelief greater than 500 feet(p. 75)

Low plains areas with reliefless than 1000 feet (p. 75)

Areas of cropland (pp. 76-77)Areas of grassland and grazingland (pp. 76-77)Areas of forest and woodland(pp. 76-77)Areas of shrub, sparse grass,and wasteland (pp. 76-77)Areas of constantly sparse orgreat rainfall (p. 80)Areas of high grain production(p. 86)

Areas of major animal husbandry(p. 86)

Areas of heavy industry ( p.

86)

Areas with mining activities(p. 87)

r

14. Explain why pockets of traditionalism are likely to cl7cisteven in the most modern countries.

173



Explanation of Level of Modernity True False

a)

b)

d)

e)

f)

g)

h)

The huge land area of the U.S.S.R. is a posi-tive influence on that country's high amountoff exports.

The small size of Japan is a positive influ-ence on its amount of imports.

The huge size of the U.S.S.R. is a positiveinfluence on its low amount of imports.

A high impor: component in trade turnoverimplies a large resource base as in the U.S.

A high import component in trade turnoverimplies a small resource base as in Japan.

A balance of trade implies both a wide rangeof industries and a broad resource base asin the U.S.

(.00/*

Aee

4V

For any modern country, the range of di-versity of traded products may be more I

important than the volume of trade.I/

Higher trade turnover in any country is a/

measure of interconnectivity and thus ofincreasing modernity.

2. a) A country of great physical size is likely to have a largeresource base, i.e., a large amount of raw materials.Nrien that is the case, as it is in the case of the U.S.S.R.,size positively influences the country's level of modernity.

b) It is true that Japan's small size is the cause of itsnecessity to import a large quantity of products; however,that does not explain its level of modernity. Ordinarilywhen a country's imports exceed its exports in dollarvalue, there may develop a balance of payments problem.That is, the country may spend more for its imports thanit earns from its exports. A high level of modernizationcannot be maintained under those circumstances. Japan isno exception. It imports large volumes of relatively lowvalue raw materials but exports smaller quantities of highvalue manufactured goods.

174


This does help to explain USSR's level of modernity.USSR has d very large supply of raw materials and,according to production data,:she does not import norexport in large volume. This improves her balance oftrade which is usually favorable.

.ci) This is a contradictory statement and does not explainthe level of modernity of the U.S. The U.S. has a largeresource base, but that is not the reason for its largevolume of imports. It is the consumer economy of theU.S. which demands a large variety of products and whichin turn creates a demand for imported products.

e) A country of small size is likely to require a great dealof imports. Because of this disparity between needs andavailability, Japan is likely never to match the level ofmodernity of the U.S. Thus, the statement does help toexplain the small size of Japan as a limiting factor.

f) This statement does help to explain the level of modern-y in the U.S. A large resource base has motivated the

growth of a large industrial complex. This, in turn, hasresulted in the large amounts of exports. The resultinghigh GNP has produced a consumer-oriented economy re-quiring a large amount and variety of imports.

g) This statement ado helps to explain moCernization.Varied imports and exports implies a large and variedindustrial base and a population that can afford to de-mand not only imported necessities but a variety ofimported products that normally are not necessities.

h) High trade turnover implies that lines of communicationexist to many countries. The degree of communicationwith distant places and the resulting exchange of ideasand goods is a measure of interconnectivity. Onlycountries with a modern and productive industrial basethat produce a wide variety of products and that have arelatively high level of personal income will export andimport a large variety of products.

175


3.

Food Self-Sufficiency U.S.A. U.K. JAPAN U..S.S.R.

) Which country appears to berelatively self-sufficient interms of limited imports?

b) Which country is relativelyself-sufficient but has thegreatest amount of imports andexports?

Which country is self-sufficient in most foodgroups and has imports thatconsist almost entirely ofthose foods it cannot growitself?

d) Which countries import foodsthat they themselves producebut not to the eLtcnt of thecountry in "c"?

e Which country has the mostinten.dve farming methods(you may want to refer toGoode's Atlas)?

f) If the degree of modernizationis partly dependent on foodself-sufficiency and theamount and variety of foodthat is imported and exported,how would you rank these fourcountries? (A rank of 1 =most modern, and 4 = least710(i n)

g) Which country has the great-est amount of

(I) Imports(2) Exports(3) Variety of imports(4) Vdriety of Exports

1 2 3

176


4. Explanation:

Self-sufficiency is an important factor because a countrythat must depend on others for its food supply may de-velop economic hardship during times of high prices.

f and g) Modern societies communicate freely with all partsof the world. One form of communication is trade. Inthe United States, for example, a large variety of im-ported foods are available. Their availability does notresult from a lack of national supplies but rather fromknowledge, c iosity, taste, and interest in the rest ofthe world.

h) The ability of a country to maintain its economic growthlies partly in its export capabilities. Generally, themost modern countries are able to export a large varietyof products including food and are self-sufficient inmeeting most of its needs. Countries, like Japan, thatmust rely on others for much of their food supplies havea limited growth potential, f:r much of their cash re-serves must be used to pay for this food. This generallyincreases food costs and lowers the buying power of thelocal cu_rency. All of this in general restricts thecountry's Thvel of modernity.

5.

Countries

Number of Each Rank

1 2 3 4

U.S.A. 6 1 1 0

U.K. 3 4 2 0

Japan!

0 3 5 1

U.S.S.R. 0 1 0 8

177


5.

0

U.S.A.

0

U.K.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9


10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9


10

0

Japan

,

0

U.S.S.R.

I

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9


10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9


10

1, 7 8

112THE MODERN WORLD

6. It does not appear that a, b, c, e, f, and g require amodern transportation and communication network.

d) Urban population. Increases in urban population arenormally associated with increasincT industrialization.This in turn affects GNP and therefore the ability of theix)pulation to consume and support an extensive communi-cations network.

h) Electricity generation. Increased electricity generationis a sign of increasd industrial and private demand forelectricity. In the industrial sector electricity is asource of power, and high electricity generation implies

a substantial indu:A:cial output. This, in turn, requiresextensive trackage nd commercial vehicle transportation.Further, private consumption of radios, televisions,telcphones, and other appliances spurs increases inelectricity generation.

ComLercial energy consumption. See "h" above.

k) International trade turnover. International trade ishighly related to all facets of transportation and amountof international mail.

1) Primary school enrollment. Individuals residing in rural

aas must be transported to schools.

m) Literacy. Both primary school enrcliment and literacy,)robably are relad to the consumption of communicationsespecially in the form of nev.spapers and mail.

n) Gross national product. A high gro:F.s national productreflects a high industrial output and a high degree ofconsumerism. 3()+: of these, in turn, will affect the

various communications factors.

179

PRACTICAL EXEHCISES I(J'Y

Statements

a! The greatest proportion of.' theworkers this countr em-ployed in the agricultural sector.

b) The greatest proportion of theworkers of this country are em-ployed in the industri6:1

c) The greatest proporti.on of theworkers of this country are em-ployed in the service sector.

Id) This country's emrloyment pal:ternis relatively the -,,ame in all

sectors.

e; Two countries in which tha 3ma, l-est proportion of the labor force

employed in the agt7iculitl:ral

sector.

f) Compared co the oth.?.r couhtris,s,th_s country has th,2 smallestproporcion of its 3 rr force em-loyed in the induszral sector.

g) The smal:lest proportion o this

country's labor lorce are em-pleyed in the service sector.

h) The ocunLry in which t pro-portion cf workers in the in-dustrial sector ranks second andthe proportion H tte servicesector ranks filst.

U.K. JAPAN U.S.S.R

174 THE 1.!.CIDERti WC:FiLD

G r-ph "c" is typical of the modern employment pattern in

.::hich (1) the majority of the population (about in this

se ls employed in the service sector, (2) slightly fss

e7.loyed in the industrial sector (439,, in this cose), and

the least proportion employed in agriculture.

d :iph "h" reprs,:n.-s a counLry that is somewhat less mc:dern

han that represented bv "c." Notice the higher proportionof the population employed in industry and agricul.ture atthe expense of the service sector.

jraph "d" represents the least modern society inwhich relatively equal pror)ortions of the population are em-

ploy, each sector.

b,

181

PHACTICAL EXERCISES KEY 115

10.

Questions U.S. U.K.

Which country is most self-sufficient in meeting its energy

needs?

b) Which country is least self-sufficient i meeting its energy

needs?

Which country has developed mostof its water power?

d) Whic.:1 country has developed theleast of its water power?

Which two countries have thegreatest coal rc,serves?

4,

f) Which country has the greatestnatural gas reserves?

g) Which two countries have thegreatest proven petrol-umreserves?

.) Which country has the greatestenergy consumption?

[) In the immediate future assuming

that alternative sources of energyare not adopted, which is the only

count2- that will be self-sufficientin meeting its energy reguiremerits?

JAPAN U.S.S.R.

,/

' 116 THE MODERN WORLD

11. The following factors are positively related tn a country'slevel of modernization in energy:

Self-sufficiency in the country's ability to meet itsneeds in a _ety of energy sources

b) The lack of development of the country's water powerimplies that this inexpensive source of energy can beused in the future as other sources become scarce andconsiderably more expensive

c) Reserves of th various energy sources to meet futureneeds

A country which is representative of these factors can meetits resent needs and its needs for an expandinr industrialand consumer oriented economy.

a) Number of cities of 100,000 or more population

Turkey 22

Chile 14

Denmark 5

Xenya 2

Angola - 1

Number of cities (100,000 or more population) per onemillion total population (in rank order)

Mile .60 (rank of 3)

vk 1.0 (rank of 2)

.y 0.i32 (rank of 3)

Y-...ya 0.16 (rank of 4)

,ngola 0.18 (1.-an]... of 4)

b) Accessibility square miles per city of 100,000 or more)

Denmark 3,311 (rank of 1)

Turkf2y 13,639Chile 20,783 (rank of 3)

Kenya 111,984 (rank of 4)

Angola 479,23l (rank of 5)

183

c)


Factors

Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1 D/A D/C D D D D D D

,-)_ T,/C T r T T T T C T/C

3 K T C C C/K C T K/A

4 A K/A K/A K/A A : A K/

5

d) In part "b" you saw that Denmark, Turkey, and Chileranked 1, 2, and 3, while Kenya and Angol were tied forthe lowest rank. Virtually, the identici rank appearsfor the nine factors in part "c." It does, therefore,apnear to be a strong positive relationship between

,ssibility and the nine factors.

e) The results definitely support the hypothesis of astrohcj positive relationship (correlation) between ac-cessibility and modernity. The precise nature of thisrelationship is outlined in the paL)er reprinted below.

"Accessibili, y to Cities .7nd Le,rels of Modcrnization"

Abstra,,t

The s,)atial distribution of cities in a country bat:: affects andrefTh :ts the level ol modernization of that country

of :_'il-y-three countrj-!s terIWO

rar.)res of accessibility to cities developed by Ln author wc

,7icjvely related to indices of modernization independent of the-::enale of Hhe poi)ulatj.on urb, . This relationship was par-

st-L-ourr for d,?veloping culintries and lends some supportarban deconcentration and the establishment of

wth .!LE.ofli ih dev,.joying nations.

h-ird "Acessibiliy to Cities ond ::vels ofto.ization," .blihed paper presented at the Association

Geoorabhoirs, Anhual Milwaukee, April, 1975.F.c..rinted by permission of auLhor.

1 8 4


"Accessibility to Cities and Levels of Modernization"

This paper investigatc.:s the relationship between the soatialdistribution of cities and modernization. It is hyoothesizedthat a country's levels of modernization is posiLively relatedto the degree of accessibility evidenced in its urban spatialdistribution. Level of modernization is operationally defined byeveraL indices reflecting the general welfare and standard ofliving of individuals in countries.

Level of modernization reflects the accumulation of modernizingianovations, such as improved health practices, higher levels ofe,itication, enhanced communication, and the adoption of techniqueslucreasing labor productivity. Generally, innovations of thisl_ype are first adopted in the largest cities of a country and arelater diffased along communication channels down the urban hier-archy and ,:ventually outward to rural areas (01sson,.1965; Brown,1968; Petcn, 1970; Berry, 1972). Mass media are important inthe spreau of awareness of innovations, but interpersonal com-munication is more important in the decision to adopt theseHnovations iPbgt.:c and Shoemaker, 19- . Distance presents1tie c mass media, but inhibits interpersonal ,om-m,,:h:cation . act: a barrier to the diffusion of intovations.Fiecuse .n chnels are more highly developed betweencities, e; --,tween cities present far less of a barrier toinnovati .

,;a t.:aan do distances between cities and ruralareas. _zing inc'ati.ons -iffuse relatively quickly downthe urban hiera.chy and relativ _y slowly outward from cities to-utai areas. Accumulation r :11(dernizing innovations, 2refore,

-_.lated to acessibility to

'cher ways in which accessibility to cities affects thep::less at modernization. In addition to serving as distributioncenters for urban goods anil services, cities are large consumersof rural pro,lucts a d act as gateways to world markets for theseproducts. The transportation costs of moving both rural products

.irban markets and urban goods and services to rural ccm-nod tied increase with distance from cities. Because rural

pulations generally incur these costs, their incomes and.,...ndards of living tend to decre.-e with distance from cities.

.hermore, ess to cities noi9litens rural aspiration levelswhich can increase incentives for rhral production.

8 5

PRACTV-:AL EXERCISES KEY 179

The disc-usion so far has concentrated the effects the spatialdistribution of ci-ies has on the proces., of modernization. The

proces of modern ation also affects the spatial distribution ofcities. As the standard of living in an area increases, thedemand for urban goods and services also increases. This in-creased demand 1,timulates the growth of cities in the area bypushing the area beyond thresholds for goods and services. In

short, the spatial distribution of cities in a country bothaffects and reflects the level of modernization in that country.

Hence, countries, like Bulgaria, with city distributions readilyaccessible to run,. populations, shoulu exhibit higher levels ofmodernization than countries with less accessible c:ities, such asPeru or Th,liland (Fig. 1).

Measuring Accessibility to Cities

The average straight line distance between elements of a popula-tion and the nearest city provi:les a simple inverse measure ofthe accessibility of a country's population to ts cities. Forpurposes of this study, cities were operationally defined asurban se ..-,ents with populations of 100,00C. more. This

Hmple ac Wili.tv measun. implicitly assume,a that all sucheities had equal effects on their hinterlands; however, it wasexpeced t places ,ear ve-y large cities received innovationssooner a-(1 "laU hi.3her stmdards of living than lace:, near

-ities. To Lccount for this, a secc,ud inverse measure oft.he average accessibility of a country's poi,ulation to its jtieswas FoiT-lat I using a ,';ravity model based on Reilly's Law:etait ,vitation (Rel*,,. 1931). These inverse measures of

.t7 actua1ii r-asures of inaccessibility.

:ch of the:;e measures ,L1c foI7,..1-Ited by fi foparating the,tal population of a eolir,-!:y into small 1 Hal subareas (ad-

nistrativk or census distra:ts). populati.ms were.1sumed to be concentrated at the IaIgv.L Lowr in each subarea.For the first measure, suba::eas were ssi,ined co the ncaest city

f.r the second meure, t.h .. city having the greaiest:1 the subarea to Reilly's Law wich rc

rates iJoth di.stance and cit s,ize. Finally, the two measures

were using the foilowin,- uitions

1 >--71i=1

(1)

180THE MODERN WORLD

ACCESSIBILITY TO CITIESIN

BULGARIA, PERU AND THAILAND

THAILAND

TrujiHo

BULGARIAHu,

-Plnvfliv

z

r PERU

,./

Lima-Cailao

Cuzco

Arequipd\..

1

`:arneBurgas

100cu--rr

N,IPJondlci CH,/ of Over IL.: OCI

RuIquriaJnce to 34.0 18

Ji;!JivIty M, J:--,;;1-,-! of 17.-: 25.8 jJ-

c:,),JJ:J-JJklity:

1 21.5 26.5 8.2p(Jr Sc,J.JdrJ, 00J0, i98.8 27.3 170.0

1JHJ'. 00 ,1,(-rnization -H1.45 ±0.15

187

and

1DG = >--, p

i=1


dgi

100,000 (2)

where: D = average distance separation between a country'spopulation and its cities,

P = total population of the country,

N = numbe of spatial subareas in the country,

p. = pop lation of subarea i,

d. = distance from subarea i to the nearest city,

DG = gravity measure of inaccessibility to cities,

dgi = distance from subarea i to the city which has thegreatest influence on it according to Reilly's Law,

= population of the city which has the greatestinfluence on subarea i according to Reilly's Law.

Since cpi in the second equation (2) was divided by an arbitrarystandard (Hty population of 100,000, the units of DG are miles as

ere the units of D. Therefore, D and DG can be directly compared

and aro readily interpretable.

Empirical Analysis

test th associaLion IDetween the tw .,cmsures of inaccess-

thility to citl.2s and indices of level of modernization, 1970Aata were cull, .ted for fifty-three countries. The following

ight indexes of the level of moderLization n countries

(l) life expectancy at birth, (2) literacy rate of the

:)cmulation over age fifteen, (3) crude death rate, (4) crude

rth rate, (5) radio receivers - 1,000 population, (G) circu-

ation of genera] interest nev -s per 1,000 population, and

(7) grams of prin consIneC .pita per day, as well as (8)

syntheti,: index incorpucatin u other seven. These appear to

be the most appronriate indexes available to measure general wel-

fare -lad star,iard of living, particularly in developing

countries. Factor scos c7 the c mon Df a principle

,.omponents a ,lysis of the seven selectec.. n(4 comprise the

syntetic index of modernization.

183

182THE woRL,

Thu distributions uf the two measures, D and DG, ior the fifty-three countries wer ry skewed and plots revealed a curvilinearrelationship be'ween these measures and the modernizationindices. . . .

The . . . corrclic. n . . . between the modernization indices andboth D and DG were significant. . . . As hypothesized, accessi-bility to cities was associated with levels of modernization.

As measured in 'This study, average accessibility to cities wasdependent upon oatial distribution of cities with respect torural population and the proportion of th e. populations which hadimmediate access to cities (the percentage urban). The directreldtionship betwe,e. levels of modernization and the spatialdistributions of cities was ass sed. . . . Perc2ntage urban wasperationally defined as the p( entage of the total populationiiving in ur settlements of 100,000 or more. . . . Cor-

relat.s] . . . indicated that the two measures were associatedlife expectancy, literacy, crude birth and death rates, and

the synthetic index. . . . In general, countries with . . .

spatially dispersed urban systems are more modernized thancoun'Jrie,: with . . . spatially clustered urban systems.

Accessibility to cities, as operationalized in this study, isrelated to icopulation density (Fig. 1) . . . . [However,] differ-ences in population densities do not account for the observedrelationship between accessibility to cities and modernization.

Thb oh rved ielati...mship appears relatively weak in developed:ountries (Fig. 2). There are several reasons for this finding.irst, the selected modernixation indeles did not effective;

C:iscriminate between developed countrjes. Second, because Lrans-portation and cc=unication systems ,,,-ore generally well developedi. these countries, distance did no.. present as signifiaant abarrier to the diffusion of modernizing _anovations. Finally,higher incomes in these countries provie:ied thresho1r3s for :Jany

rr zing insitutions in cities of .ess than 100,1 n.

second analysis Yds conducted using data from Lhe for'y-threedeveloping countrle,2 in the sample. Countries with scores on thesynthetic index .77 o.:er 1.0 were excluded in this analysis (Fly.:!). The sP1it between developed and developing countries ac-corj::.g t() this somewhat arbitrary criterion fell between Greece(1.27) and Chile (.90) . . . . [This second analysis showed] thatthe r.A_aLionshio between spatial distributions of cities and

of modernization was parLisularly strong for developingcouio. ri es .

1 80

a

7an

Pie

pC

1\1,

.%'

Zea

land

0Fi

nlan

.J

0 l.l

orw

ay

Irel

and

AC

CE

SSIB

ILIT

Y T

O C

ITIE

SG

reec

eA

ND

LE

VE

LS

OF

MO

DE

RN

IZA

TM

NPo

rtug

a i

Jam

aica

:la R

ica

(i)

Chi

le

Alb

ania

vri L

anka

.Pan

ama

Peru

F. ',

iado

r, P

arag

uay

9rk

eyPh

ilipp

ines

9E

l .lia

lvad

or

Nic

arag

ua"

Tun

isia

Alg

eria

Gua

tem

ala

p C

ambo

dia

ais

o B li

viA

)Rod

esia

Finr

ici

Lib

ya14

1

0410

Uga

nda

Sene

gal

9 L

ios

Ivor

y C

oast

**M

adag

asca

r()

Cha

dan

zani

aM

alaw

i

Moz

ambi

gur.

Cen

trae

Mal

il'9 T

haila

nd

Nig

er9

Suda

n

Afg

hani

stan

))D

ahom

ey*

Upp

er V

olta

. 9 Toc

vA

t:.

,-in

Ang

ola

Rep

ublic

2030

40 E

010

015

0 20

030

o 40

0 50

0D

, AV

ER

AG

E D

IST

AN

CE

TO

CIT

1E3

(in

mile

s)

184 THE MODEHN WORLD

Conclusions

The empirical findings indicate that the accessibility of acountry's population to its cities was positively related to thelevel of modernization of that country independent of the per-centage of its popul.-Ition urban. This relationship was particu-larly strong in developing countries. Since general welfaremeasures were used as measures of modernization, these empiricalfindings do not directly suggest strategies for economicdevelopment. However, the findings d, 'Ald some support top-)licies of urban decentralizaLion an, e establishment ofgrowth centers to achieve goals of incleased welfare andstandards of living.

Using countries as units of observation, this study demonstratesthat at one point in time two very general concepts, access-ibility to cities a:-d 1,1yel of modernization, were related.Future research in this area should be more process-oriented

i fc:us on mu-e specific phenomena using smaller units ofservation. For example, changes in the accessibility of indi-

viduals or rural communitIes co health clinics could be relatedto chlncles in indicators of health such as life expectancy atbirch or (1eath and diseas rates. Such studies could increaseour comprehension of mode7nization as well as prolride usefullnformation co planners in developing countries.

REFERENCES CITED

Eerry, Brian J. L., "Social Change a:- a Spatial rroceLs,"In:-.ernational Social Development Review, Vol. 4 (197_1),

pp. 11 19.

Brown, Lawrence A., Diffusion Processes and Location(Philadelphia: Regional Science Research Institute, 1968).

-Shakhn, Salah, "Development, Picy and Systems ot:JrnI. f Developing Areas; '1. (1972) , pp. 11. 36.

Lssun, Gunnar, Distance and Human Interaction (PhiladeRegional Scien Research Institute, 1965).

.rson, Paui O., "Innovation Diffusion Within and betweenNat'onal Urban Systems," Geogranhical Analysis, Vol. 2

(L:70), iv. 203 254.

illy, W. J., The Law of Retail Cravicati, (New York:

Knickerbocker Press, 1931).

Rogers, Everett M. and F. Floyd Shoi Aer, Communication ofInnovations: A Cross Cultural .22roach, 2nu c1. (New York:

Fre Press, 1971).

191

PRACTICAL EXERCISES KFY 185

1

Statements

Typical offrontierareas

Nottypical of

frontier areas

a)

ci

e)

Mountainous areas of highrelief greater than 5000 feetI,ow plains areas with reliefless than 1000 feetAreas of croplandAreas of orassiand and grazinglandAreas of forest and woodland

q)

h)

Areas of shrub, sparse grass,and wastelandAreas of constantly sparse orgreat rainfallAreas of high grain production

1)

j)

Areas of major animal husbandryAreas of heavy industry

1) Areas with mining activities

14. Pockets of traditionalism exist mainly in unproductiveareas. These areas usually have poor lands that are unableto support intensiOe agriculture. Occasionany, these areasare mining regions. The people of these regions are gener-ally poorly paid and live in company towns. Industry islimited. In Appalachia, some isolated patches of slopingland are farmed by poor, near-subsistence farmers.

Climate does not account for the existence of these areasexcept where rainfall is so sparse that deserts result.Poor soils, difficult terrain, and lack of agriculturalpotential ,ccount for their existence. As a result, theseareas ,are largely undeveloped and require financial as-t:tistaner lam federal agencies.

The major role of these al is is to supi.,_iers of rawmaterials to the urban and industrial areas of the country.



1. Select the statements that accurately describe the relation-ship between a country's level of modernity and trade.

a) A country's large size may increase its export capa-bilities thereby improving its level of modernity

b) A large resource base may increase a country's exportcapabilities thereby improving its level of modernity

c) A higher level of modernity may be reached when a countryhas a high trade turnover

d) The diversity of imports, rather than the amount of im-ports, reflects a country's level of modernity

e) A wide range of industries resulting in a diversity ofimports and exports is one measure of a country's levelof modernity

f) A country's small size precludes the necessity of manyimports and thereby increases its level of modernity

g) A high level of modernity can be achieved only when acountry requires little or no imports

2. Select the statements that accurately describe the relation-ship between food production and a country's degree ofmodernity.

a) Self-sufficiency in foodb) A small quantity of food importsc) A small quantity of food exportsd) A large quanitity of food importse) A large quantity of food exportsf) A small variety of food importsg) A large variety of food importsh) There does not seem to be any relationship between food

production and a country's degree of modernity.

193


3. Select from the following list of cultural indicators thosethat require a modern transportation and communicationnetwork.

a) Low population growthb) Low infant mortalityc) Youthfulness of populationd) High urban populatione) rundant food supplyf) Cultivated land in large commercial enterprisesg) High oonsumption of commercial fertilizerb) High electricity generationi) High commercial energy consumption1) High consumption of steelk) High international trade turnover1) Large primary school enrollmentm) High literacyn) High gross national product

4. Select the statements that correctly describe the employmentpattern of modern societies.

a) The most modern societies have the smallest proportionsof their labor forces employed in agriculture, and thelargest proportions employed in services

b) The least modern societies have the smallest proportionsof their labor forces employed in agriculture and thelargest proportions employed in industry

c) The most modern societies have the greatest proportionsof their labor forces employed in industry and the small-est numbers employed in agriculture

d) Societies which become increasingly more modern haveprogressively smaller proportions of their work forcesemployed in industry and larger proportions in agri-culture

e) Least modern societies have roughly equal proportions oftheir work forces in each of the three employmentsections

194


5. Select the statements that correctly describe the relationbetween energy utilization and resources and a country'slevel of modernity.

a) High energy utilization implies a large industrial base.This may necessitate the importation of a large amount ofenergy sources. This large industrial base, with theimportation of a variety of energy sources, reflects ahigh level of modernity.

b) In order to maintain its level of modernity and perhapsto increase it, a country should have full reserveswhich it does not presently require.

c) Water power, being the cheapest source of energy gener-ation, would increase the modernity of a country pos-sessing that potential.

d) A high level of modernity in energy implies that acountry can both meet its present needs and have reservesto meet its future needs.

6. Select the statements that describe how accessibility (trans-portation and communication) of a country's rural areas tourban centers both reflects and affects levels of modernity.

a) Accessibility affects the levels of modernity in that itfacilitates the dissemination of innovations.

b) Accessibility affects the levels of modernity wheninnovations can be disseminated both among urban centersand between urban and rural areas.

c) Accessibility enlarges the market for rural products.

d) Accessibility reflects levels of modernity in thatindices such as (1) life expectancy at birth, (2) liter-acy rate, (3) death rate, (4) birth rate, (5) number ofradio receivers, and (6) newspaper circulation are allpositively related to rural areas which are accessibleto urban centers.

e) All of the above

SELF DIAGNOSTIC TEST 189

7. Place a check beside those factors that are characteristic ofthe pockets of underdevelopment that normally exist in eventhe most modern countries.

a) Highly mountainous areas

b) Areas of productive crop land

c) Areas of harsh climate

d) Mining areas

e) Areas which are inaccessible to urban centers

f) Areas oi heavy industry


SELF- DIAGNOSTIC TEST KEY

1. a, b, c, d, and e

2. g and h

Note: Some modern countries like the U.K. and Japan are notself-sufficient in food production. Others, like theU.S., are self-sufficient.

3. d, e, f, h, i, j, k, 1

4. a, e

5. a, b, c, d

6. e

7. a, c, d, e

The

Traditional World


PFRFORMANCE OBJECTIVES

1. Given a number of statements, selett those that are charac-

teristic of traditional societies in terms of

a) Trade

b) Food production

c) Transportation and communication

d) Employment pattern

e) Energy resources

f) Physical environment and climate

g) Social factors

2. Given a number of statements select those that describe

a) A modern country's relationship with traditional

countries

b) A traditional country's relationship with other tra-

ditional countries

c) Traditional "centers" with other traditional "centers"

d) Traditional "centers" with traditional "peripheries"

e) Traditional "peripheries" with other traditional

"peripheries"

f) The reason for these rolationships

3. Given a number of statements, select those that correctly

describe accessibility as a measure of traditionalism and

select those tfat correctly explain the relationship between

low accessibility and traditionalism.

4. From a number of statements, select the one that most accur-

ately explains the role of a locally based economy in main-

taining a state of traditionalism.

199

193

194 THE TRADITIONAL WORLD

5. Given a traditional country and appropriate social, eco-nomic, environmental, and demographic data, determine (a)what factors need to be improved in order for that countryto modernize, and (b) the limits to modernization.

STUDY DIRECTORY

ObjectivesPages to Readin Textbook

PracticalExerciseQuestio,is

,

Self-diagnosticTest Items

1 a) 443-449; 494- 1 - 9 1

b)

497; 520

c) 476-477d) 452-455; 464-

e)

466

f) 426-430; 467-471; 536

2 390-393; 402- 10 2

407; 417; 440-441; 459; 494

3 408-409; 454; 11 3

456; 489; 545

4 510 12 4

5 408-410; 449- 13 - 14 5

452; 498-499;500-502; 506-507; 526-528

200

PRACTICAL EXERCISES

PRACTICAL EXERCISES

Tables 5.1 through 5.6 either contain or ask you to completedata characteristics of traditional countries in terms of trade,food production, transportation and communication, employmentpattern, energy resources, and physical environment and climate.Three countries from different continents are represented.These are Peru, from South America; Syria, from the Middle East;and Tanzania, from Africa.

1. Complete table 5.1 by referring to those maps in Goode'sWorld Atlas that are referenced in parentheses. Place acheck in the appropriate column beside each statement.Then, answer questions two through four.

2. Between which parallels of latitude are most traditionalcountries located? Are there any exceptions?

195


TABLE 5.1

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT AND CLIMATEOF THREE REPRESENTATIVETRADITIONAL COUNTRIES

Physical Environment and Climate Peru Syria Tanzania

a) Which country is predominantlymountainous? (pp. 6-7)

b) Which countries have a desert -like climate? (pp. 10-11)

c) Which country has a tropicalclimate? (pp. 10-11)

d) Which country has the greatestrange in temperature fromJanuary to July? (pp. 12-13)

e) Which country gets the leastprecipitation on a year-round basis? (pp. 14-15)

f) Wh'th country has a wet seasonana a dry season? (pp. 14-15)

g) Which country has a greatdeal of precipitation through-out the year? (pp. 14-15)

h) Which countries have a harshclimate?

202

.PRACTICAL EXERCISES \ 191

3. Check the appropriate maps in Goode's and determine whetherthe harsh climates of Peru, Syria and Tanzania are repre-sentative of most traditional countries. Can you find anyexceptions?

4. Would you consider environmental conditions such as climateand landforms to be limiting factors in a country's abilityto modernize? Explain.

203

; 198 THE TRADITIONAL WORLD

5. Examine table 5.2 and answer the questions which follow.

TABLE 5.2

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AND SOCIAL FACTORSOF THREE TRADITIONAL COUNTRIES

General Characteristicsand Social Factors (1964-1967)

Land area (million square miles)

Land area useful for agricultureand animal husbandry (%)

Forest and woodland (%)

Waste (%)

Population (millions)

Life expectancy at -..irth (years)

Infant mortality ,per '000)

Crude birth rate (per '000)

Peru

0.5

23.7

67.7

8.6

12.4

53

95

44.5

Syria

0.07

68.9

2.4

28.7

5.6

na

22.3

33.4

Tanzania

0.94

49.6

37.6

12.8

11.8

37.5 (1957)

19.9

26.0

Population per physician 1560 5110 18,240

Population per hospital bed 410 900 560

School enrollment: ageyears (%) 68 50 21

a) While all three countries may be considered traditional,do you notice that any are more traditional than others?

b) Just how great is the difference between traditionalcountries and modern countries in terms of the varioussocial factors?

204


6. Use table 5.3 to answer both parts of question six.

a) Could you judge from only an analysis of table 5.3 thatPeru, Syria and Tanzania are traditional countries? Why?

b) What is the population growth rate of the three countries(use Goode's World Atlas)? To which country does theMalthusian Principle apply most (see table 5.3)?

205

TABLE 5.3

FOOD PRODUCTION, IMPORTS AND EXPORTS

OF THREE TRADITIONAL COUNTRIES

Food Production (1963-5 average)

Peru

Syria

Tanzania

Production

Exports

Imports

Production

Exports

Imports

Production

Exports

Imports

Cereals ('000 metric tons)

Barley

183

-16.0

704

285

Corn

504

19.3

72

3623

11

6Potatoes

1600

--

43

116

260

--

Rice

302

-47

1-

28

106

-2

Wheat

148

-398

1111

134

824

-3

Cassava

1478

-16

1033

Fruit

Citrus

250

1360

670

5na

-Non-citrus

--

20

70

122

270

-

Beverages. etc.

Cocoa

3-

1-

--

,

Coffee

52

39

1-

13

38

30

-Sugar

8500

428

-163

74

860

19

Tobacco

1975

na

2772

--

1520

--

Animals and Products

Chickens

21,825

4093

168

Cattle

3.785

-83

785

33

14

12,000

2-

Goats, sheep, pigs

21,000

-7

6000

420

377

79200

5-

Fish

7,886

1,456

1na

14

Milk

491

-96

57

319


7. Analyze table 5.4 to answer this question. TransportP...ic..

and communication are fairly direct measures of accessibility.To what extent does it appear that the rural areas of thesethree countries have access to urban centers? How would thataffect the ability of the entire country to modernize?

TABLE 5.4

TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION DATAFOR THREE TRADITIONAL COUNTRIES

Transportation andCommunication (1963-5 average) Peru Syria Tanzania

Land area ('000 square miles) 496 186 937

City area and waste (%) 9 29 13

Population ('000) 12,385 5,600 11,877

Motor vehicles in use ('000)

private 130 25 31

commercial 93 14 9

Railway track (miles per '000square miles) .003 .003 .003

Telephones (per '000 urbanpopulation) 1.2 1.6 0.2

Radios (per '000 population) 184 297 10

Television sets (per '000copulation) 16 9 -

Daily newspapers (per '000population) 47 15 3

Roaa density (see Goode's pp.low low low52-53)

207

2 0 2 THE TRADITIONAL WORLD.1

8. The data in table 5.5 represents the employment pattern forPeru, Syria and Tanzania. While there is some variation inthe employment patterns of traditional countries somegeneralizations can be made. What are these generalizations?

TABLE 5.5

EMPLOYMENT PATTERNS FOR THREETRADITIONAL ODUNTRIES

Employment Pattern Peru Syria Tanzania

Distribution of working population (1961) (1965)

Total working population ('000) 3,125 1,424

Percentage in -

Agriculture, forestry, fishing,and hunting 49.7 55.5 vast

majorit'.

Mining and quarrying 2.1 0.8 some

Manufacturing 13.2 11.6 some

Construction 3.4 5.5

Electricity, gas water, andsanitary services 0.3 0.7

Commerce 9.0 9.9

Transportation and communications 3.0 2.9

Services 15.3 11.9

Others 4.0 1.2

208


9. Use Goode's World Atlas, pages 47 and 50 and the data intable 5.6, to answer all parts of question nine.

a) Are the three countries self-sufficient in terms otenergy resources?

h) What delree of industrialization is reflected in table5., and in the data on pages 47 and 50 of Goode'sWorld Atlas?

c) Based on the extent of untapped energy sources and on thedata in table 5.6, describe the prospects for the growthof industry in the three countries.

16

209

TABLE 5.6

ENERGY RESOURCES, IMPORTS AND EXPORTS

OF THREE TRADITIONAL COUNTRIES

_

1963-5 average

'000 metric tons

Peru

Syria

Tanzania

Production

Exports

Imports

Production

Exports

Imports

Production

Exports

Imports

Coal

Electricity

Natural gas

Oil, Crude

Petroleum, refined

137

3649

600

3153

2893

11 -

370

107

1 -

93

630

-

572 -

920

_

- -

30

-

970

293

-

197 -

- -

- 387

PRAChCAL EXERCISES 1 205

10. Read the appropriate pages in the textbook (refer to thestudy directory, page 194), examine the data in tables 5.7through 5.10, and read the article, "The Geography of Under-development in Kenya and Tanzania,"that follows the tables,and then answer questions 10a through 10d on pages 213 and214.

TABLE 5.7

ANNUAL AVERAGE GROWTH RATEOF VALUE OF EXPORTS

AND IMPORTS

Annual Average Growth Rates of Value 1950-67 1960-67 1967-6P

Exports

World 6.9% 8.0% 11.1%Modern countries 7_6 8.7 12.4Traditional countries 4.1 5.0 8.0

Imports

World 7.0 8.0 10.7Modern countries 7.5 9.2 12.3Traditional countries 4.3 5.0 6.4

Source: Handbook of International Trade and DevelopmentStatistics, United Nations Conference on Trade andDevelopment (UNCTAD), 1969.

TABLE 5.8

SHARE OF MAJOR GROUPS OF COUNTRIESIN TOTAL WORLD TRADE

Share of major groups of countriesin total world exports 1950 1960 1968

Modern countries 60.8% 67.0% 70.5%Traditional countries 31.2 21.3 18.2Other (Communist) countries 8.0 11.7 11.3

Source: UNCTAD, 1969.

211


TABLE 5.9

INDICES OF UNIT VALUES OF IMPORTS AND EXPORTSAND TERMS OF TRADE

Indices of Unit Values of Importsand Exports and the "Terms of

Trade"*(1968) Import. ExportsTerms ofTrade

Modern countriesTraditional countries

101101

10894

11093

Source: UNCTAD, 1969. *Terms of trade refers to therelationship of the value of exports with the valueof imports. 1955 is used as a base when the basehad a value of 100. Thus the terms of trade haveimproved (by 10% for the modern countries).

TABLE 5.10

DEMAND FOR IMPORTSFROM DEVELOPING

COUNTRIES

Economic growth in modern countries requires more imports fromdeveloping countries. This demand for imports from dr,velopingcountries by modern countries varies from ccmmodity to commodityas indicated below. For every one percent increase in the incomeof modern countries, the following demand is made on the impor-tation of various commodities from developing countries (expressedas percent increase in imports from developing countries):

0.6 of foodstuffs0.5 of agricultural raw matarials2.4 of fuels1.9 of manufactured goods

Source: Malmgren, H. B., Trade for Development, OverseasDevelopment Council Monograph, No. 4, 1971, p. 11.

212


THE GEOGRAPHY OF UNDERDEVELOPMENT IN KENYA AND TANZANIA:

AN OUTLINE FOR A GENERAL HISTORICAL MODEL*

The following is an attempt to outline in general terms thespatial evolution of underdevelopment in East Africa based notupon theoretical expectations but upon actual patterns and events.Althugh what is described refers directly to the Kenyan andTanzanian contexts, with relatively minor modifications thesame patterns and processes can be found elsewhere in Africa andin much of the rest of the Third World.

Early Colonial Phase: A period of colonial penetration duringwhich effective administrative control is established (usuallyafter significant indigenous resistance) and the basic spatialinfrastructure of underdevelopment is implanted. Character-istic features include:

1. Locational selection based upon the strategic andexploitative objectives of the colonial power

a) major basing points (e.g., coastal centers)

b) lines of interior penetration

c) interior centers for resource development andpolitical control.

2. Development of a new distribution of locationaladvantage and productive potential based upon access tothe selected paths of penetration and the politicaland economic needs of the resource and administrativeenclaves.

Establishment of European/capitalist modes of Productionunder the direct control (as in plantations) or indirectcontrol (e.g., via monopolistic trading companiesdealing with peasant cash crop producers) of a colonialelite.

Reproduced by permission from the Association of AmericanGeographers Minicourse, "Geography, Development andUnderdevelopment in East Africa," E. W. Soja, April 1975.

213

! 208 THE TRADITIONAL WORLD

Locational and other decisions during this phase have tended tobe remarkably persistent in their effects on the political andspace economy of the territory. The spatial organization whichbegan to emerge tended to reflect more directly the externallygenerated objectives of the colonial power than any attempt torespond to indigenously expressed developmental demands andpotential.

Colonial Consolidation: A period of mobilization into de-pendency, when the exploitative social and spatial structure iseffectively extended beyond the export enclaves to incorporatemost of the population into the colonial economic system--andthereby into the capitalist world system. Key features hereinclude:

1. The clear emergence of a local center-peripherystructure to the space economy as evidenced by:

a) the growth of primate cities through theagglomeration of fureign investment and theconcentration of human and capital resourcesdrained from the rest of the territory

b) the organization of much of the remainder cf theterritory as a dependent periphery--as a market forthe primate city's products (either locally producedor imported), and as a primary resource and laborpool for the major export enclaves

c) the extension and elaboration of a dendritictransport network structured to serve externalrather than internal markets

d) the political fragmentation of space into regionalsubsystems (often based on ethnicity) whose inter-connections are based mainly on the demands of theexport economy

e) the creation of a dependent stratum of adminis-trative and commercial service centers to act ascontrol and transmission points (with virtually nolocal economic base)

214


2. The solidification of a pattern of unequal exchange andmonopoly control in the system of social relationsbetween colonial elite and the masses. This generallyinvolves a combination of such things as:

a) expropriation of land

b) forced subsidization of elite infrastructuralservices through mass taxation

c) elimination of economic competition from indigenousagricultural producers through special customs andtariff regulations or through legal restrictions

d) destruction of indigenous industry by cheap imports

e) the maintenance of low wages regardless of laborsupply

f) the creation of food shortage due to use of land forexport crops, rapidly increasing population, lossof ablebodied farmers to the wage economy, and thedifficulty of inter-regional surplus exchange

g) creation of dependent industries (limited linkageeffects, capital intensive, biased against capitalgoods such as farm equipment and transportfacilities, favoring certain luxury goods for smalllocal markets, oligopolistic organizationalstructure, etc.)

The primary product of this phase is a space economy character-ized by increasing regional inequalities and the concentrationof wealth in only a few areas. Many regions experience absoluteas well as relative decline in income and the colonial economyeffectively coopts the independent peasantry into a dependenceon externally determined commodity prices and the rural develop-ment policies of the colonial government.

Mature Colonialism and Neocolonialism: a period of regional,ethnic, and class conflict over rising social and ceographicinequality. Also associated with new means of maintainingexisting patterns of dependency and underdevelopment. Initially,conflicts focussed upon achievement of independence (whichgenerally entails a transfer of authority without significanttransformation of society). Later conflicts arise either fromcompetition over centralized control or from disagreement overthe degree of national disengagement from the internationalcapitalist system. To the extent that disengagement is notachieved, this ongoing period is characterized by:

215


1. A fuller elaboration of a global hierarchy of centersand peripheries.

a) the emergence of large, internationalized citieswhich act increasingly as primate centers formulti-national regions

b) limited decentralization to permit the growth ofa few regional centers, generally in majnr popul-ation and resource concentrations close to inter-national boundaries

c) the expansion of transport networks and services(e.g. port facilities) to improve internationalconnectivity, especially with regard to inter-nationalized cities

d) infrastructural concentration on major corridorswithin the dendritic transport system (maintainingfocus on primate city and export outlets). Littleattention to inter-regional connections withinnational peripheries

e) accelerated concentration of human and capitalresources in primate cities (despite state policiesof deconcentration and more equitable regionalgrowth)

f) some improvements in the regional distribution ofpublic service investments, but concentrated at thelowest functional levels (primary schools vs.secondary schools, dispensaries vs. hospitals,etc.).

2. The strengthening of dependency under the guise ofinternational development

a) the growth of national planning organizationsstrongly influenced by development strategiesoriginating in advanced capitalist countries, theWorld Bank, etc.

b) adoption within the state of a capitalist conceptu-alization of development and inequality (e.g.,"rich" and "poor" regions and ethnic groups, under-development as a condition, development as dif-fusion, etc.)


c) Rapidly increasing technological dependency andgrowing importance of multinational corporations inthe economy

d) a pattern of economic "involution" characterized by---excessively high rates of urbanization comparedto the expansion of the secondary sector and ofemployment--increasing growth of the tertiary sector such

that employment structure resembles the historicalpattern shown if [sic] Figure A rather that [sic]Figure B (the conventional view of capitalisteconomic transformation.)

A

% of % oftotal totallabor laborforce force

S>P

-IP time

Primary Sector

-*time

Secondary Sector Tertiary Sector

--rapid expansion of the "informal" sector,particularly in the primate cities, providing aconvenient and cheap labor reserve whenever neededand a sponge for the absorption of "excessive"unemployment.--stagnation of many rural areas and increasinglyfrequent food shortages.

e) political systems aimed at controlling instabilityand avoiding major social transformation, usuallythrough a coMbination of increasingly authoritariancontrol and strong "populist" propaganda.


There are, of course, many national variations upon thesethemes, but the general pattern remainc the same. Full parti-cipation in the international capitalist system means subjectionto a global hierarchical structure in which the peripherypersists in a dependent position of unequal exchange withregard to the center--at the international, macroregional,national, and subnational scales.

PLANNED SPATIAL CHANGE - PROGRAM OUTLINE

KENYA:

First Five Year Plan (1964): Million Acre Settlement SchemeSecond Five Year Plan (1970): Growth Centers and Physical

PlanningThird Five Year Plan (1974): The "Informal" Sector

TANZANIA:

First Five Year Plan (1964): VillagizationSecond Five Year Plan (1969): Ujamaa vijijini

Regionalization of planningGrowth centers

Third Five Year Plan (1974): Capital shift +?

2l8

PRACTICAL EXERCISES

10. (Continued)

a) Describe the trade relations that exist between modernand traditional countries. What accounts for theserelations?

b) Describe the trade relations that exist among tra-ditional countries. What are the reasons for theserelations?

c) Descri5e and explain the position of peripheral areaswithin traditional nations in terms r2i the traderelations that exist between modern and traditionalnations.

219

213

:214 THE TRADITIONAL WORLD

d) Briefly describe and explain in terms of trade:

(1) The relationship between the periphery of a tra-ditional nation and the center within the samenation

(2) The relationship between the periphery of one tra-ditional nation with those of other traditionalnations

2'40

PRACTICAL EXERCISES '215

11. You should review the exercise on accessibility in unit fourbefore beginning this exercise.

You have already analyzed the accessibility characteristicsof Peru, Syria, and Tanzania in exercise seven of this unit.Examine the data in table 5.4 and read the appropriate pagesin your textbook (refer to the study directory). Then,answer the following:

Low accessibility of rural areas to urban centers limitsthe ability of a country to modernize. List the conse-quences to the rural population of low accessibility.

12. a) Read the appropriate pages in the textbook regardinglocally based economies and list the characteristics ofthat type of system.

: 216 THE TRADITIONAL WORLD

b) What mak.,s it so difficult for individuals in a locallybased economy to improve their lot?

13. In an attempt to explore the dynamics of modernization--that is, the movement away from traditionalism and towardmodernity--three countries with certain common or compen-sating characteristics have been chosen for analysis. Thesethree include Israel (a modern nation), Lebanon, and SaudiArabia (both traditional nations). The research question tobe posed is: Why is it that three countries that possesseither common or compensating characteristics are not at thesame level of modernity?

Your analysis of these countries will concentrate on fiveareas: environment, population, resource development,industry and trade, and social technology. Social tech-nology refers to those factors that improve the individual'sstatus exclusive of economic factors. These social factorswould include education, health care, availability ofelectric energy and so on. A philosophic analysis ofcultural dispositions will also be included.

0 2 '2


a) First, complete the chart below with the aid of the mapsin Goode's W. rld Atlas designated in parentheses. Thiswill constitute your analysis of the environment. Tofill out this chart, you should rank each country ac-cording to the environmental factor provided. Thus, interms of land area, Saudi Arabia ranks first (most landarea), while Israel and Lebanon rank second (they eachhave similar small areas). A rank of "1" would indicatean advantage to the country in question. Thus, a largerland area implies a greater probability of the existenceof natural resources. However, the other side of thecoin must also be kept in mind. Thus, when land areabecomes too great, it is very difficult to ensureaccessibility of the rural areas to the urban areas. If

you cannot determine whether a factor is an advantage ora disadvantage you should refer back to units three andfour. If you t7.--'nk two countries are similar give thema tie rank.

TABLE 5.11

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Environmental FactorsSaudiArabia Israel Lebanon

Topography (pp. 8-9)

Climatic regions (pp. 10-11)

Temperature (pp. 12-13)

Precipitation (pp. 14-15)

223

TABLE 5.12

RESOURCES PRODUCTION, EXPORTS AND IMPORTS

OF SAUDI ARABIA, ISRAEL AND LEBANON

Resources

Saudi Arabia

Israel

Lebanon

Production

Exports

Imports

Production

Exports

Imports

Production

Exports

Imports

Cereals

Total (000 metric tons)

206

-302

920

10

663

161

34

319

Fruit

Total (000 metric tons)

358

438

1126

519

1580

183

10

Beverages

Coffee, sugar, tea

-62

-91

65

-58

Softwood & hardwood

--

na

45

-720

36

10

210

Livestock

Poultry

7217

11923

Cattle

67

7350

-2

102

-123

Goats and sheep

5056

8308

350

--

548

2731

Butter, cheese, eggs

10

393

10

20

16

48

Milk

438

336

-82

9-

49

Fuel and Power

Electricity (million kwti)

149

3643

694

Oil, crude

89293

75020

-183

-2960

..

-1270

Petroleum, refined

13900

10367

67

3120

460

360

1226

143

67

Metals

na

na

na

Virtually

none ex-

cept

copper

Virtually

none

-51

Chemicals and Fertilizer

na

na

na

751

222

91

--

16

_

PRACTICAL EXERCISES

TABLE 5.13

INDUSTRIAL AND TRADE DATAFOR SAUDI ARABIA, ISRAEL

AND LEBANON

Industry and TradeSaudiArabia Israel Lebanon

Energy consumption per capita(million metric tons of coalequivalent - 19731 900 2.712 889

G.N.P. per capita ($U.S.)1966 240 1,160 408

1969 380 1,570 580

Exports (in million $U.S.)1955 561 89 34

1965 1,389 406 85

1972 (1971)3,845 1,102 (1971)256

Imports (in million $U.S.)1955 186 334 218

1965 (1966) 517 814 482

1972 (1971) 806 1,952 (1971)677

Tistribution of Trade (percentageof total value 1955/1965)

ExportsManufactured goods na 54/60 36/29

Food na 41/25 44/33

Chemicals -/- 2/6 na

Fuels na/100 na 19/11

ImportsManufactured goods na/54 42/62 49/27

Crude materials and fuels no/3 31/19 20/12

Food no/28 22/11 27/23

Chemicals -/- 4/5 4/4

219


TABLE 5.14

DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIAL TECHNOLOGY DATAFOR SAUDI ARABIA, ISRAEL,

AND LEBANON

Demographic and Social Technology .

Total population (1973, million)

Population growth rate (annual)

Expectation of life at birth (female,1973)

Hospital (population per bed, 1973)

Energy consumption per capita (millionmetric tons of coal equivalent, 1973)

Telephones per 100 population (1973)

Infant mortality (per '000, 1965)

Population.per physician (1965)

School enrollment: age 5-19 years (%1963-4)

Mail per capita (1963-5 average)

domesticforeign receivedforeign sent

Radios (per '000 population, 1963-5average)

Daily newspapers (per '000 population,1962-3)

Employment (% of work force, 1967)

Agriculture, forestry, fishing,hunting

Mining, quarrying, manufacturingConstructionEnergy, water, sanitationCommerceTransportation, communicationsServicesOthers

SaudiArabia Israel

1.24

2.8

42.3

1140

455

1.9

na

13,000(1964)

12

nanana

2.4

primarilyagricultural

3.12

2.9

70.1

170

2,712

19.4

27.4

410

83

6714

12

271

146

12.5

24.510.1

1.712.16.6

28.72.8

Lebanon

2.13

3.0

na

260

889

7:7

na

1390

78

7

15

10

97

primarilyagricultural

226

PRACTICALEXERCISES 1' 221

TABLE 5.15

ACCESSIBILITY DATA FOR SAUDI ARABIA,ISRAEL AND LEBANON

AccessibilitySaudiArabia Israel Lebanon

Motor vehicles in use ('000s71963-5 ay.)

Private 44.8 62.7 86.4

Commercial 36 35.2 12.7

Railway track (miles of trackper sq. mile of land) na .054 .067

Mail per capita, domestic na 67 7

Telephones (per '000 urbanpopulation) 0.4 11('67) 4.8

Radios (per '000 population) na 271(63-5) 113

Daily newspapers (per '000population) 2.5 145.5(62-3) 97

Road density low high medium

Land area (sq. miles) 810,000 7,992 3,400


Tables 5.12 through 5.14 provide data for five factors. Use thatdata and the data from table 5.11 to answer the questions 13b to13c.

13. b) Answer the questions in the following chart by placinga check mark in the appropriate column. Use tables

5.12, 5.13, 5.14, and 5.15 and the appropriate maps fromGoode's World Atlas.

SaudiArabia Israel Lebanon

I. Agriculture

A. On a per capita basis,which country has thegreatest agriculturalproduction?

B. Which country seems to beself-sufficitAt in food?

C. Do any of the countriesappear to be major foodexporters?

D. Are any of the countriesever likely to be self-sufficient in food?

II. Minerals and Energy Resources

E. Which country has a surplusof oil production?

F. Which countries must importlarge quantities of crudeoil?

G. Do any of the countriesappear to have largequantities of minerals(including chemicals andfertilizer)?

228



III. Trade and Industry

H. Which country has the mostadvantageous balance ofpayments?

I. Which country has thegreatest amount of trade?

J. Which country, on the basisof trade data, seems tobe most active inindustry?

IV. Accessibility

K. Which country's rural areasare least accessible tourban centers?

L. In which countries areinnovations most ac-cessible to the ruralpopulace?

M. On the basis of ac-cessibility, rank thecountries with respect totheir potential for in-creasing modernization

,

("1" = most potential).

V. Social Technology

N. Which country's populationseems to have the besthealth care?

0. Rank the countries in termsof their interactionswith other countries("1" = most interaction).

P. Which country has an em-ployment pattern mostrepresentative of modernpatterns?

Q. Which country is mostmechanized?

229

. , .


13. c) Based on your analysis of the three countries answereach of the following:

(1) Which two are most similar and should be at thesame level of modernization? Are they at the samelevel?

(2) Considering the trade revenue derived from oil, doyou think that this could become a factor whichmight compensate for the poor environmental andagricultural condition of Saudi Arabia?

(3) Lebanon and Israel have much in common. WhileSaudi Arabia is characterized by many negativefactors, its oil revenues might be considered as acompensating factor, but only Israel is a modernnation. Nhat factor(s) have we not considered thatmight contribute to the differences in degree ofmodernization between Israel and Lebanon and SaudiArabia? Explain how this factor(s) account for thedisparity.

230


(4) What proposals would you make for initiating atrend of modernization in Lebanon and SaudiArabia? For the present purposes assume thatyour proposals would not be frustrated bypolitical bickering,

14. Most of your efforts in this unit have centered around thediscovery of a number of generalizations based, in manycases, on outdated data. Reprinted here are excerpts fromrecently published textbooks and journal articles concerningthe underdevelopment and modernization of the Third World.

a)*

"(3) The structure of the world economy favors a continuedincrease in the gap in incomes and economic growthbetween underdeveloped and developed countries. Adistorting economic system operates both within andamong countries, underdeveloped and developed alike.Terms of trade will continue to worsen for theunderdeveloped world.

"(4) The Third World is now peripheral, and the role itplays in the world economy as the supplier of primaryproducts, strongly suggests that it will remain so,despite the phenomenal growth of cities in under-developed countries.

Reproduced by permission from the Association of AmericanGeographers' Commission on College Geography Resource PaperSeries, #28, "Underdevelopment and Modernization of the ThirdWorld," A. R. de Souza and P. W. Porter. 1974.

231

226THE TRADITIONAL WORLD

"(5) Things diffuse most widely and are adopted most fullywhen they are single unite, not encumbered by beingpart of a system. Things which diffuse as part ofthe modernization process are often complex integratedentities. One must usually adopt all or nothing.The Green Revolution, with its requirements forirrigation, mineral fertilizers, and other technicalinputs, is an example.

"(6) The city does not benefit its hinterland. The city,particularly the mercantile city, demands more ofthe hinterland than it gives in return. Further,the hierarchy of urban centers cannot be counted onto be the mediator of change, diffusing to villagesand rural farmsteads the elements of organizationand infrastructure which make rural developmentpossible.

"(7) Third World cities are growing but not developing.The growth of tertiary service employment at highrates as industrial employment increases slowlyindicates an urban involution, with underemploymentand a reciprocal sharing by the poor of their poverty.

"(8) The managerial elites in independent underdevelopedcountries are, with rare exceptions, perpetuatingcolonial arrangements with the former mother countryand with foreign companies which have local investments.In so doing they further, increase class and economicdistinctions within their country. Fanon'sprediction of the rise of an African bourgeoisie isconfirmed.

"(9) Social and economic institutions of indigenous peopleshould not be dismissed out of hand as inefficient,to be replaced by modern ones. Indigenous systemscan be bases on which to build.

"(10) The knowledge local people have is a foundation fordevelopment. The local people know many things ofwhich planners need to be aware. They know themselves,what they want, and in what ways they will bewilling to cooperate. They know a great deal aboutthe environment wherein they live, and can often tellwhether a given developmental proposal would work ornot in an area.

"(11) The Tanzanian development process, with its emphasison decentralization, self-help, and ujamaa, is rural;

232

PRACTICAL EXERCISES

and social and economic change, embodied in the ideaof ujamaa, is intended finally to spread a human-oriented concept of development to the urban areas."

b)*

"First, and perhaps most important, underdevelopment(however defined) is seen not simply as a static conditionor symptom but as a .dynamic process. . . . Second, growthis far from synonymous with development and equallyneither are synonymous with modernization. . . .

"The Meaning of 'Development'.

227

What is meant by development? Development has hitherto toosimplistically been regarded an economic phenomenon. Asa minimum it is a higher GNP, but it is also greater'self-respect' (independence of action etc.) and moresatisfactory nutritional standards. Clearly Gross NationalProduct per capita is easiest of all indicators to measure.But growth as a booming GNP may merely result in anincreased concentration of income in the hands of an urbanminority, the growth of overt unemployment, great rural-urban disparities, and so on. Development suggests therelief of poverty (especially malnutrition) and a movementtowards the reduction of inequalities. Enough food is aprime demand. Recent research has shown the nutritionalshortages in children can cause lasting impairment, notonly of body, but also of mind; yet, conventionally,nutrition is seen not as a development problem but as awelfare problem. Another basic necessity is employment, orother productive use of labor (including alternativeacceptable roles such as studying or housekeeping. Bothpoverty and unemployment are associated with per capitaincome, the direct link between them being income distribution,and it is a truism that Poverty will be eliminated muchmore rapidly if, and only if, economic growth is associatedwith a declining concentration of income. However equalityshould be considered as an objective in its own right.

*John Connell, "The Geography of Development or the Development ofGeography," Antipode: A Radical Journal of Geography 5, No. 2(May, 1973): 27-39. By permission of Antipode.

233

I228 THE TRADITIONAL WORLD

"The 'Green Revolution'

The 1960's have been described as the decade of the GreenRevolution. Emerging in Mexico, new seeds rapidly becameimportant in South and South East Asia; the implicationsof, the term are redolent of massive %.:nanges and some ofthose changes are indeed massive. In Asia new seeds covered200 acres in 1964-5 and 34 million acres in 1968-9; newwheat varieties gave an average 77% higher yield than oldones, and new rices mature in 120 days instead cf 150-180 days, giving additional opportunities for multiplecropping. One result is that the Philippines, for example,has ended half a century of dependence on rice importsto become an exporter; and so on. Yet, despite thesesuccesses, there are problems which are seen especially inthe more researched Indian context; the new strains aredisease-prone, there are problems of fertilizer supply (sincethe new strains demand much more), fertilizer pricingand of irrigation supply. Finally, there are problems ofavailability of the necessary credit to make the requiredparallel investments in tube wells and fertilizers. Thenature of these particular problems indicates the natureof the general problem; especially in India the benefitsof the Green Revolution are confined to the larger and(already) richer farmers. Small peasants and landlesslaborers are effectively excluded from the gains, becauseof the inadequacy of credit supply (and their consequentinability to invest in the necessary technology) and .

because of their small (or absent landholdings). Inabilityto maintain a price support policy results in a glut onmarkets and falling prices whilst mechanization results indiminished employment prospects. There is strong evidencethat regional disparities are increasing, with irrigatedareas advancing and dry areas languishing; in short,traditional economic inequality, at least in rural India,is increasing much faster than can be justified by thepopulation increase. Furthermore the Green Revolution isresulting in increased 7.apital-intensive farming andaccelerating the concentration of land ownership, thuscounteracting postwar land reforms.

"Land Reform

Land reform in the form of redistribution of land and agreater equalization of landholdings (coupled often witha reduction in fragmentation) is common to most LDCs[less developed countries] and many other countries. .

234

PRACTICALEXERCISES 1229

[In many areas] (Chile and Italy for example) repeatedattempts at land reform have not produced a situation whichis considered satisfactory; even at government level mostland reforms have brought economic advantages.. in termsof increased production and greater intensit-, of land use,yet considerable social disturbance. The major difficultyin many areas is not that of solving the problem oftenancy but of finding farms for the landless; landlesslaborers are inevitably the worst-off sector of mostrural economies. A result of land reform has often beenincreased unemployment as a result of meLhanization onlarger, more economic holdings and a resultant decline inthe demand for labor; increased migration to urban slumsor, in exceptional circumstances in some villages, areturn to transhumance, are other outcomes. . . .

Although the cases of both land reform and t1-1 GreenRevolution suggest that there have been revolutionarychanges in the way that peasants live, there have beenless than revolutionary changes in the way society isstructured as regards power, resources and mobility. Theold dominant groups (notably the landlords) have usedtheir power to employ, to lend, and to rent out landand to capture the new institutions, co-operatives,credit sources and local authorities. This imposes twoconstraints on the growth of farm output: firstly, thedecline of traditional security systems has preceded thedevelopment of modern ones, reducing the peasants'ability and willingness to take risks; secondly, thestructure of rural ownership introduces a variety ofresource-misallocating devices--credit monopolies,reluctance to consolidate holdings and a slow rate oftransfer of labor and land to the uses where they havethe greatest comparative advantage. Of local variationsin these changes and constraints, however, we know verylittle.

"Problems of Nutrition and Health in LDCs

Even more basic than income and employment are nutritionand health. . . . Both disease and malnutrition areserious problems in many LDCs. . . . The poor are sickerand the sick are less able to do anything about theirpoverty; the critical problem is that of breaking the cycleof ignorance, poverty and illness. There is littleevidence that this is happening. . . ."

2 3 5


c) *

. . . . In the long run, the most important issue iseffective population planning. Its goal must be tostabilize the planet's population several decades earlier--and at a figure several billions lower--than it wouldotherwise be stabilized.**

" Since reducing birth rates to replacement levels willnecessarily require decades, we must reshape developmentprograms now, in order to take account of what iscertain to be a continuing, rapid growth of population tolevels heretofore considered unlikely. Two of theconsequences of such growth--widespread malnutrition andchronic and growing unemployment--require particularattention.

" It is clear that malnutrition prevents realization ofthe full genetic potential of hundreds of millions ofpersons in the developing world and retards both economicand social development. But research has pointed outfeasible means to make immediate progress on thisneglected problem.

" The problems of unemployment and underemployment arealready severe and,will become worse as the rate ofgrowth of the labor force accelerates in the two or threedecades ahead.

*Robert S. McNamara, "Major Development Problems: Malnutritionand Urban and Rural Unemployment," in One Hundred Countries,Two Billion People (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1973) pp. 48-70By permission of the International Bank for Reconstruction andDevelopment, Washington, D. C.

**Recent demographic studies indicate that if a net reproductionrate of one (an average of t%o children per couple) is reached inthe developing countries by the year 2040, a possible but by nomeans certain achievement, their present population of 2.6 billionwill increase more than five fold to nearly 14 billion before itlevels off. If the net reproduction rate of one could be reachedtwo decades sooner, the ultimate size of the population of thedeveloping countries alone would be reduced by over 4 billion,a figure substantially in excess of the planet's total populationtoday.

(Footnote continued on the next page.)

236

PRACTICAL EXERCISES 1 231

" Poverty, inequality, and unemployment cannot be-ffectively dealt with by expanding the urban sectoralone but must be attacked directly in the rural areasthrough measures which will raise the incomes of thepoorer farmers and the landless.

"Today, in the developing world:

"Malnutrition is common.

The Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that atleast a third to a half of the world's people sufferfrom hunger or nutritional deprivation. The averageperson in a high-standard area consumes four pounds offood a day as compared with an average pound and aquarter in a low-standard area.

"Infant mortality is high.

Infants deaths per 1,000 live births are four times ashigh in the developing countries as in the developedcountries (110 compared with 27).

"Life expectancy is low.

A man in the West can expect to live 30 per cent longerthan the average man in the developing countries andtwice as long as the average man in some Africancountries.

Present Population (inbillions)

Ultlmate Population (inbillions)If replacement rate isreached by developingcountries in 2040 anddeveloped countries in2020

If replacement rate isreached two decadesearlier

DevelopedCountries

DevelopingCountries

TotalWorld

1.1 2.6 3.7

1.8 13.9 15.7

1.6 9.6 11.2

(Footnote continued on the next page.)

237


"Illiteracy is widespread.

There are 100 million more illiterates today than therewere twenty years ago, bringing the total to some 800million.

"Unemployment is endemic and growing.

The equivalent of approximately 20 per cent of theentire male labor force is underemployed or unemployed,and in many areas the urban population is growing twiceas fast as the number of urban jobs.

"The distribution of income and wealth is severely skewed.

In India, 12 per cent of the rural families controlmore than half of the cultivated land. In Brazil, lessthan 10 per cent of thr families control 75 per cent ofthe land. The gap between the per capita incomes ofthe rich nations and the poor nations is widening ratherthan narrowing, both relatively and absolutely. At theextremes that gap is already more than $4,000. Presentprojections indicate it may well widen to $9,000 by theend of the century. In the year 2000, per capitaincome in the United States is expected to be approximately$10,000; in Brazil, $500; and in India, $200.

"Malnutrition is in fact widespread. It is a majorcause of high mortality among young childern. It limitsthe physical, often the mental, growth of hundreds ofmillions of those who survive and reduces their productivityas adults. Malnutrition is therefore a major barrier tohuman development. Yet, despite the evidence that with arelatively small per capita expenditure of resources majorgains can be achieved, there is scarcely a country in thedeveloping world where a concerted attack on the problemis under way.

Two important conclusions can be drawn from the above projections:Each decade of delay in addressing the population problem indeveloping countries will lead to an ultimate population in thosenations approximately 20 per cent larger than would otherwise bethe case; even on very favorable assumptions, the populations ofthe developing countries will continue to grow rapidly for severaldecades, expanding perhaps fourfold from present levels andreaching a total of nearly 10 billion.

238

PRACTICALEXERCISES 1233

"The number of childhood deaths is enormous in the poorercountries. Malnourishment severely lowers immunity toinfection, and tens of millions of children succumbeach year to preventable fatalities simply because theyhave no reserves of resistance. The Food and AgricultureOrganization states that "malnutrition is the biggestsingle contributor to child mortality in the developingcountries." That contention is borne out by the PanAmerican Health Organization's reports of studies inLatin America that show malnutrition to be either theprimary cause of--or a major contributi factor in--50to 75 per cent of the deaths of one- tc Ir-year-olds.

"How great is child mortality in typical countries inthe developing world?

" In India, there are large areas where deaths in the firstyear of life number as many as 150 to 200 per 1,000 livebirths.

" In Egypt, the proportion of children between the agesof one and two who die is more than 100 times higher thanin Sweden.

" In Cameroon, children under five, although only one-sixth of the population, account for one-half of thedeaths.

" In Pakistan and Bangladesh, the percentage of childrenbetween the ages of one.and four who die is forty timeshigher than in Japan.

"Clearly, the principal result of widespread malnutritionis high child mortality.* But not all malnourished childrendie. Hundreds of millions of those who live (and the Foodand Agriculture Organization and the World Health Organiza-tion estimate that as many as two-thirds of all survivingchildren in the developing countries have been malnourished)suffer serious deprivation of the opportunity to realizetheir full human potential.

*It is becoming clear that the population problem and the nutritionproblem are closely intertwined. In the end, better nutrition willhave a beneficial effect on reducing fertility, despite the short-run reduction in infant mortality. Indeed, many authoritiesbelieve that reduced infant and child mortality are preconditionsfor successful population control.

239

23 4 THE TRADITIONAL WORLD

"The deprivation often begins before the child is born.While it is difficult to distinguish the effects ofprotein deficiency on child development from other aspectsof poverty in the child's environment, there can be noserious doubt that there is a relationship between severemalnutriton [sic] in infancy and mental retardation (whichmore and more scientists are concluding is irreversible).Autopsies have revealed that young children who die ofprotein-calorie malnutrition may have less than half thenumber of brain cells of adequately nourished children inthe same age group. Protein deficiency also limitsphysical growth to a serious extent. The director of theNational Institute of Nutrition in India reports that 80per cent of the nation's children suffer from "malnutritiondwarfism." Low-income populations almost universally havesmaller body size. The Food and Agriculture Organizationestimates that more than 300 million children from thesegroups suffer grossly retarded physical growth.

"Prolonged into adulthood, the poor mental and physicalgrowth characteristics of the early years can greatlyimpair the range of human capacities. Add to that thecurrent low standards of nutrition for grown adults inmuch of the developing world, and it is clear why thereare adverse effects on the ability to work. Workerswho are easily fatigued and have low resistance to chronicillness not only are inefficient, but help substantiallyto increase the accident rate, the incidence ofabsent,-ism, and uanecessary medical expenditures. Moreserious still, to the extent that their mental capacityhas been impaired by malnutrition in childhood, theirability to perform technical tasks is reduced. Dexterity,alertness, initiative--these are the qualities thatmalnutrition attacks and diminishes."

240

PRACTICAL EXERCISES KEY1; 235


1.

Physical Environment and Climate Peru Syria Tanzania

a) Which country is predominantlymountainous?

b) Which countries have a desert-likeclimate, at least along the coast

c) Which country has a tropicalclimate?

d) Which countries have the greatestrange in temperature fromJanuary to July?

e) Which country gets the leastprecipitation on a year-roundbasis?

f) Which country has a dry season?

g) Which country has a great dealof precipitation throughout theyear?

h) Which countries have a harshclimate?

2. You should notice that virtually all modern nations lie northof the Tropic of Cancer. Australia and New Zealand which arein the southern hemisphere (100 to 46°s.) are virtually theonly exceptions to the rule. Most underdeveloped nations liebetween 300 north latitude and 300 south latitude.

While it is of nu apparent relevance to the discussion, youmight have noticed that the vast majority of the land masseslie in the northern hemisphere!

40Jo THE TRADITIONAL WORLD

3. Two major types of climates are representative of most tra-ditional nations: desert and tropical. Western Peru has,for the most part, a desert-like climate which is typical ofsuch other traditional nations as the United Arab Republic,Pakistan, the countries of North Africa and south westAfrica. Tanzania has a tropical climate which is also sharedby such traditional nations as Brazil, the nations of centralAfrica, India, the nations of south east Asia, and thenations of the south Pacific.

Syria is composed of two climates: a dry desert-likeclimate, and a mediterranean climate. The latter type is notparticularly harsh and is typical of most countries borderingon the Mediterranean Sea. Thus while modernization seems tobe limited for its eastern areas, Syria's western land shouldbe productive.

4. Harsh climates and difficult landforms do constitute alimiting factor in a country':; efforts to modernize. It ispossible for modern technology to overcome many of the hard-ships resulting from harsh climates and landforms, howeverthere is a cost factor involved. Irrigation systems, forexample, are incredibly expensive, and, while they may helpto overcome dry climates, there does not seem to be anyviable method of overcoming the problems inherent in tropicalareas.

Furthermore, landforms such as mountains pose apparentlyinsurmountable difficul-A.es. Unless resources such as lumberor minerals can be extracted, these areas are generallywaste.

5. a) It is difficult to determine the relative degree of tra-ditionalism of each country. While one may be less tra-ditional in some areas, it may be more traditional inothers.

b) To say that the conditions between traditional and modernnations is great would be understating the situation. Forexample, examine the chart at the top of the next page.

"'t242


Social Factors (1965-66) Canada Tanzania

Life expectancy at birth 71(1960-62) 37.5(1957)

Infant mortality (per '000) 23.6 19.9

Population per physician 820 18,240

Population per hospital bed 90 560

School enrollment: age 5-19years (%) 82 21

Crude birth rate (per '000) 21 37

GNP per capita ($U.S.) 2240 80

6. a-b) On the basis of table 5.3, it might be concluded thatthe three countries are largely self-sufficient in termsof food needs. Thus, there are relatively few imports.On the other hand there are even fewer exports. So,while the countries may be self-sufficient, there are fewsurpluses.

The three countries have relatively high rates of popu-lation increases (Peru and Syria, greater than 3%; andTanzania, about 2%-3%). At least in the cases of Peruand Syria, there has arisen the necessity to continuallyincrease the amount of food that is imported (data isunavailable for Tanzania). At the same time productionhas increased but not enough to keep up with an in-creasing population. Thus, the Malthusian principledoes apply, and ultimate disaster can only be avoided,under the present status quo, as long as food importscan be obtained.

7. Transportation (auto, truck, and rail) to the rural areas ofthese countries is quite limited. Further, communications(telephones, radios, televisions, and newspapers) are not soprevalent that communication is effective. It is importantto note that most of the transportation and communicationdata is largely (and unproportionately) contributed by theurban populace. Thus, the road and rail densities, and formsof communication are severely limited in rural areas.

Inefficient transportation and communication inhibits thespread of modern technology as it applies to medical careand to agriculture. It restricts the spread of the modern"culture" and with it the motivation to modernize. It makesthe transportation of locally-produced foodstuffs to urban

243


areas expensive and time consuming. Consequently, local pro-duction is generally consumed locally. In the absence of therevenues that might otherwise result from sales to urban andforeign areas, local areas are destined to remain tradition-bound.

8. The generalizations that can be derived.from this data arevery similar to those in unit four. The most traditionalnations are primarily agricultural. In such cases there aremore than a simple majority of the population employed inagriculture: usually there are 60-70% so employed. As acountry becomes less traditional, industry's needs for em-ployees increase, which means that, with improved technology,less people are employed in agriculture as the proportion inindustry increases. With greater industrialization comesgreater urbanization. That in turn creates a need for servicessuch as an enlarged government bureaucracy and private services.

9. 7Y.,)111 the data in table 5.6 it would be concluded that atin terms of oil, natval gas, and coal, none of

Lnese countries is self-sufficient. It should be notedthat the data (table 5.6) is not clear for Peru which isa relatively high producer of energy resources.

The map on page 47 of Goode's World Atlas provides aninteresting reflection on the production, use, and un-developed potential of water power. From that map, itdoes not appear that Syria has any potential water power.Tanzania has a potential of 100 million kilowatts andPeru has a potential of 50 million kilowatts. While Peruhas developed sone of that potential (about 5%),Tanzania's potential has not been tapped at all.

It must be concluded that while the amount of water poweravailable to Peru and Tanzania is limited and may notsupport heavy industry, it might be employed to a greaterextent to supply the needs of light industry. Certainlythis source of cheap energy is not being employed, and itsuse would only help to improve the status of the people.Of course, it must be acknowledged that the initial develop-ment cost for hydroelectric power reservoirs and machinerybecomes a very significant investment.

b-c) One could only conclude that heavy industry is theexception in these three countries. Such industri-alization requires extensive energy resources that arenot available to any of the countries. The untappedenergy sources (water power) of Peru and Tanzania couldbe used to supply the needs of light industry. Syria isin a very unfortunate situation since it has few sources

244


of energy (pp. 48-49 in Coode's), and it has no apparentsources of water power. The conclusion is that it haslittle native resources to use in increasing its level ofindustrialization.

10. a) Trade relations between modern and traditional countries:

Traditional nations supply raw materials and cheap laborfor the modern nations. Agricultural products that growparticularly well in various traditional countries formthe bases for their exports. Recently, the suppliers ofmany raw materials have decreased in the modern nations,and now modern nations import these materials from tra-ditional nations. 'Finally, modern nations have learnedthat it is more profitable to manufacture products intraditional nations where labor is cheap and then importthem and sell them within the modern nations.

The article by Soja clearly describes the historicalcontext of these trade relations. Basically, tra-ditional nations constitute a source of relatively in-expensive materials. Since they have not cooperatedamong themselves to determine fair prices, the trendcontinues.

b, c, and d) Traditional countries do not ordinarily tradeamong themselves. A nation with a locally based eco-nomic system has few needs outside of food. It haslittle industry, primitive agriculture, and consequentlylittle cash reserves. Thus, the movement of goods isfrom the traditional periphery areas to the traditionalcenters and then on to the modern countries.

Thus, the relationship between periphery areas andcenter areas of traditional nations is one in which theflow is outward, similar to the flow of goods betweentraditional and modern nations. This in no way impliesthat accessibility between peripheries and centers isadequate. Accessibility implies more than the physicalexistence of roads and railways. Periphery areas areno more than exploited producers whose ability toimprove is constantly frustrated.

There are virtually no lines of communication betweenperipheral areas of different traditional nations.Eadh has a locally-based economy which only permitsexports. These exports do not fetch high prices andtherefore the ability to import products is generallylimited to foodstuffs.


You should have noticed the following from the tables:

(1) Traditional nations lag far behind modern nationsin the degree to which the value of products tradedhas increased. As we indicated exports of tra-ditional nations are inexpensive.

(2) The volume of exports of traditional countries hasdeclined between the years 1950 and 1968. Manyproducts which they had exported have been replacedby synthetic materials. The trend, however, maychange as modern nations run out of locally ex-tracted raw materials.

(3) Most,interesting is table 5.10. It would appearthat agricultural traditional nations will continueto fall further behind modern nations. The futureof the Third World seems to lie in those nationswhose industrial capacity is growing and in thosewho possess reserves of increasingly expensivefuels.

11. A cautionary note should be heeded in this discussion onaccessibility: the improvement of transportation and com-munications networks does not bring about an instantaneousmovement toward modernization. While these improvementsprovide the potential for modernization, the local popu-lation must be willing to utilize these facilities. Thistakes time and a concerted government program of re-education.

Years of inaccessibility results in the following problems:

a) Little dissemination of modern innovations inagriculture

b) Poor medical facilities and other social services

c) Limited trade potential

These problems create many symptoms of traditionalism:undernourishment, overpopulation, a locally-based economy,poverty, and so on.

246

13.


a-b) A locally based economy is one in which everythingthat is grown, e -tracted from the ground, or manu-factured is con,.umed locally. Ramkheri is an excellentexample of such a system.

a)

The major drawback to such a system lies in its in-ability to generate cash that can be used for trade.Generally the locally based system relies on animatesources of energy resulting in a very limited agri-cultural production. With little left to sell there islimited opportunity to buy those innovations that maybe used to improve production.

Thus results a vicious circle which is difficult tobreak: the farmer produces little and has little tosell; he, therefore, has little money to purchase agri-cultural innovations; without these innovations hislevel of production will continue to be low; finally,with a low level of production he and his family becorethe major consumers and he has little to sell.

Environmental factorsSaudiArabia Israel Lebanon

Topography 1 2 2

b) Climate 3 1 1

- Temperature

I

3 1 1

d) Precipitation 1 1

It is apparent that Israel and Lebanon are similar interms of environmental far'lrs. They both have aMediterranean climate with similar temperature andprecipitation. Their topography, characterized by lowrolling mountains and wide valleys, is also similar.Saudi Arabia has a much mme harsh climate, although itstopography (plains and lowl.'.nds) works to its advantage.

247

2 2 THE TRADITIONAL WORLD

.13. b.

I. Agriculture

A. On a per capita basis,

which country has thegreatest agriculturalproduction?

B. Which country seems tobe self-sufficient infood?

C. Do any of the countriesappear to be a majorfood exporter?

D. Are any of thecountries everto be se1f-suffici-.211..._

in food?

II. 4inerals and EnergyResources

E. Which country has asurplus of oilproduction?

F. Which countries mustimport large quanti-ties of crude oil?

G. Do any of the countriesappear to have largequantities ofminerals?

H. Which country has themost advantageousbalance of payments?

I. Which country has thegreatest amount oftrade?

J. Which country, on thebasis of trade data,seems to be mostactive in industry?

248

SaudiArabia

no

no

no


(III.

IV.

Accessibility

K. Which country's ruralareas are least ac-cessible to urbancenters?

L. In which countries areinnovations most ac-cessible to the ruralpopulace?

M. On the basis of ac-cessibility, rank thecountries with respectto their potentialfor increasingmodernization.

Social Technology

N. Which country's popu-lation seems to havethe best health care?

0. Rank the countries interms of their inter-actions with othercountries.

P. Which country has anemployment patternmost representativeof modern patterns?

Q. Which country is mostmechanized?


W/(

3 1 2(1,5)

3 1 1

so/.

:

249

243


13. c)

(1) Israel and Lebanon share many similar characteristics.They share factors which affect them positively andnegatively. One might then conclude that they shouldbe at the same level of modernization. As the dataindicated, Lebanon lags behind Israel in its efforts tobe a modern nation.

(2) There is little doubt that, given appropriate economicand social management, oil revenue could, at least,help to overcome some of the effects of Saudi Arabia'spoor environmental and agricultural conditions. How-ever, such compensation depends on the desire of the

, country's leadership to devote all of its effortsand resources toward such an end. The revenues fromoil are great, and if they are not used wisely nowthe oil will have been depleted before it can be ofany value to the average persons in Saudi Arabia.

(3) It would appear that only two major factors account forthis disparity. One is foreign aid in the form ofprivate contributions and foreign government aid, andthe other is culture.

Foreign aid should be quickly discounted. Hundreds ofmillions of dollars have been given to many traditionalcountries with no apparent resulting movement towardmodernization. Very often their funds are used up byndministrative costs, illegal (or at the very least,

ethical) practices, with a smaller amount beingtunnelled to the primary need.

Culuire seems to be the major difference. This is notmeart to be disparaging of the Arab nations; however,one must concede that the immigrants who have come toIsrael over the last fifty years were products ofmodern, or modernizing nations (England, France,Germany, Poland, Austria, and so on). They were liter-ate and highly skilled in a wide variety of pro-fessional and technical areas.

As a contrast, the cultural history of Lebanon andSaudi Arabia is one of illiterate peasants engaged in alocally based economy with a handful of rich bureau-crats, princes, and so on overseeing and maintainingthe system.

250

PRACTICAL PIERCISES KEY 245

Such a system has harbored illiteracy, outdated agri-cultural and industrial technology, a peasant class, avery small middle and even smaller upper class, in-adequate social institutions, and an apparent dis-interest in social reform.

(4) If political considerations are not to be taken intoaccount, the following list of items must become a partof the plan for modernization:

-an educational system which would virtually elimi-nate illiteracy and dramatically increase the pro-portion of highly skilled professional and technicalindividuals

-a program of adult education to up grade thetechnical skills of adults, such as farmers, who aresuch an important ingredient in the modernizingprocess

-a program of mass investment in agricultural tech-nology and research



1. From the list below, select those statements that are char-acteristic of traditional societies.

a) Most trade is internal.b) Most trade is with other nations.c) A balance of trade is characteristic of each traditional

nation.d) All traditional nations have climates and o'.ther environ-

mental and topographical conditions that are ouch harsherthan those of modern nations.

e) Harsh environmental conditions limit the extent to whicha nation can modernize.

f) Probably, the most negative factors are those rt.lated tosocial technology.

g) Population growth is high.h) Imported food makes up the diffefence 'between what is

needed and what is produced.i) The accessibility of rural areas to urban centers is

usually difficult.j) There are about an equal number of people employed in

agriculture and industry.k) The lack of energy reserves is a factor which may limit

a nation's growth.1) Most people are employed i 1 agriculture.m) The climate of most trad.;_tional nations is either too

dry or too wet,

2. Place a check beside the statements from the following lithat correctly deE.cribe the trade relationship between tra-ditional and modern nations and among traditional nations.

a) Modern and traditional nations have mutual tradeinterests.

b) Traditional nations do not trade extensively amongthemselves.

c) Traditional nations follow neocolonial trade patternsthat supply raw materials to the modern nations.

d) Peripheries of traditional contries maintain a two-way trele relationship witA the centers.

e) Peripheries mainly supply raw materials to yrban centers!:-.hat act as consumer or that act as a conduit exportto the modern nations.

252

1 -


3. Select the statements that correctly explain the relationshipbetween low accessibility and traditionalism.

a) Loy/ accessibility implies poor transportation facilitieswhich in turn helps to maintain the existence of alocally based economy.

b) Low accessibility restricts the flow of information con-cerning innovations.

c) Low accessibility is one factor that is directly relatedto poor health care.

d) Low accessibility restricts the volume and direction oftrade.

4. Select the statement that correctly describes the role of alocally-based economy in maintaining a state of traditionalism.

a) In a locally-based economy everything that is produced isconsumed locally having little left for trade.

b) A locally-based economy is primarily agricultural whoseproducts when used for trade do not generate enough cashto purchase modern technological procedures.

c) Locally-based economies generally employ animate energysources that restrict the potential for the growth ofagricultural production per farm worker.

d) A locally-based economy is largely inefficient in thatthe greatest potential is not derived from the land.

5. USE THE APPROPRIATE MAPS IN GOODE'S WORLD ATLAS AND THF DATAIN THE CHART ON THE FOLLOWING PAGE TO ANSWER PARTS a AND bOF QUESTION FIVE.

a) List the improvements that must be made if Bolivia is t')

begin a trend toward modernization.

253


BOLIVIA

Land Use: (percentage of total, 1950)Arable and orchardPermanent meadow and pastureForest and woodlandCity and waste

Population (1967)

2.810.3

42.844.1

3,801,000

Employment pattern (percentage of work force)Argriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting 63.4Mining and quarrying 4.1Manufacturing 10.3Construction 2.4Public utilities 3.9Commerce 5.4Transportation and communications 2.0Services 6.6

Population per physician (1966)Population per hospital bed (1966)

3160400

Motor vehicles in use (1963-5 ay.)Private ('000s) 13.5Commercial ('000s) 5.1

Railway track (mi/sq. mi; 1964) 0.008Telephones (per '000 urban population, 1967) 0.7Radio receivers 4,er '000 population, 1963-5 ay.) 127.0Daily newspapers (per '000 population, 1961) 26

Main trading partners:

U.K.; U.S.A.; Germany; Japan; Netherlands; Belgium;Luxemburg; Argentina

Distribution of trade (percentage of total value, 1962)Exports

Nonferrous ores 98ImportsFood 20Machinery 16Fuel

2

Total trade (in million $ U.S., 1965)ExportsImports

129

126

SELF-DIAGNOSTICTEST 249

5. b) List the factors that would act to limit Bolivia'sabjlir.Z.o modernize.



1. a, e, f, g, h, i, k, 1, m

2. a, b, c, and e

3. a, b, c, d

4. a, b, c, d

5. a) Improvements

(1) Educazion(2) Accessibility(3) Agricultural innovation (mechanization, clearing

additional land for planting)(4) Improved health care(5) Improved nutrition(6) Increase in food production(7) Lower birth growth(8) Enlarged industrial base(9) Expanded use of water power to replace used oil

b) Limitations

(1) Climate(2) Topography(3) Lack of natural resources