Do People Vote With Their Feet

7/30/2019 Do People Vote With Their Feet

1/21

843

America Ecoomic Review 2008, 98:3, 843863htt://www.aeaweb.org/article.h?oi=10.1257/aer.98.3.843

C Tibout (1956) uggtio tt o vot wit ti t to t ommu-

ity tt ovi ti otim bu o tx ubi goo y t o i

t toy o o ubi ov t t 50 y, motivtig u iv ittu

ititio oi, im, t omtio o ogou ubi goo.

Mo ty, w gowig mii ittu vg t quiibium oti

o t Tibout mo to itiy g quiibium mo o ouo otig (.g., Ptik J.

By Cito Timmi 2007; Mi Mt Fy 2007; Hog Sig t . 2004).Giv t t imot o Tibout iigt, t v b uiigy w it

tt o i mi. Exitig tt o t Tibout mo b gou ito two bo tgo-

i.Iit o imiit tt, t mot ommo, v ou o utiv imitio o t

mo. Fo xm, W E. Ot (1969) mi ti o t ik btw o tx

vi kg oty vu itou oi mo imiit tt o Tibout

quiibium. J K. Buk (1982) tt imitio o t mo t to t it o-

viio o ubi goo. I t tig o t imt o Tibout mo toy, Ot

(2005) igigt t t tt my tt v ou o iu o ttitio i m o

ubi goo t ik btw ivity o ommuiti i iom ubi goo o-

viio (.g., Ew M. Gmi Di L. Rubi 1982; Di E Sig 1999,

Pu W. Ro Kom S. Stum 2003).Dit tt o tu migtoy o to ubi goo oviioTibout mim o

o votig wit ti tv b ommo. I ti , w t ovi toti

Do People Vote with Their Feet?

An Empirical Test of Tiebouts MechanismBy H. Spencer Banzhaf and Randall P. Walsh*

Charle Tiebout uggetio that eole vote with their eet or commui-tie with otimal bule o taxe a ublic goo ha laye a cetral rolei local ublic face or over 50 year. Uig a locatioal equilibrium moel,we erive ormal tet o hi remie. The moel reict icreae oula-tio eity i eighborhoo exeriecig exogeou imrovemet i ublicgoo a, or large imrovemet, icreae relative mea icome. We tetthee hyothee i the cotext o chagig air quality. Our reult rovie

trog emirical uort or the otio that houehol vote with their eetor evirometal quality. (JEL H41, H73, Q53, R23)

* B: Dtmt o Eoomi, Gogi Stt Uivity, PO Box 3992, Att, GA 30302 (-mi:[email protected]); W: Dtmt o Eoomi Ititut o Bvio Si, Uivity o Cooot Bou, 256 UCB, Bou, CO 80309 (-mi: [email protected]). Suot o ti w oviby t Ntio Si Foutio (SES-03-21566). W tk Li Cook Jou Sio o xt it. W o it t u ommt o Ptik By, Loi B, Tuy A Cmo, NioFo, Mi Gto, Mi Mgoi, Kt MCo, W Ot, Dvi Simo, Ky Smit,Cito Timmi, Ki Viui, Robto Wiim, A Wovto, two oymou . W o tktiit o t 2004 AERE Woko, t 2004 CU Eviomt Rou Eoomi Woko, t 2005ASSA mtig, t 2005 NBER Summ Ititut, t 2005 Oio Cioi Woko o Eviomt Ntu Rou Eoomi, mi tiit t Duk Uivity, Gogi Stt Uivity, Ri Uivity,Tut Uivity, t Uivity o Ct Foi, t Uivity o My, t Uivity o Miot, tUivity o Wioi.


2/21

JUnE 2008844 THE AMERICAn ECOnOMIC REVIEW

mo tt it tiv i i outio ity o igbooo tt xi

xogou mgi imovmt i ubi goo. Fo it imovmt, t mo

it i tiv outio ity i mot tiv i i m

igbooo iom o g imovmt (w iy mot g bow). To tt

t t, w u i-i-i mo, itiyig t imt o ty xit oiiti tt qui to ot ti o mi o t Toxi R Ivtoy

(TRI), w g i toxiity-wigt miio v, o outio mogi

omoitio. W o tt o gg o to iig bi xou v, wi w

ot ubiy ou uti 1989. A ou uit o yi, w u t o ommuiti

omy i by quy -mi i. W oto o mogi ot

otio-i t uig i gio , bu migtoy o my b igy

oi utio o mogi, w ovi itio yi uig bi-ot o-

mti mtig timto.

Coitt wit t Tibout mo, w vi o migtio ot wit TRI

iity miio ti iv to, o xit om, ommuity. Futmo, w vi

tt TRI iiti u t omoitio o ommuity to bom oo ov tim. Tu,w uot o t umt mim uyig t Tibout mo: ouo o

to vot wit ti t i o to g i ubi goo.

Ou i ot t t to ook t u it tt o Tibout mim. Pii E. Gv

Do M. Wm (1991) ou tt t y ti i outi w ubi goo

iti mo ito wg t ito i. Mttw E. K (2000) ou migtio ito

Cioi outi wit imovig i quity. T tt v iti outy i o

tio o gio . Yt giv otit o mobiity t to miy, , ot t-

wok, iti o to g to ubi goo mot iky to ou witi, t t

o, mtooit . Tt t mo o v b mo mot. Viki B (1997)

itt vi o g i mogi omoitio i u tt oowig t itigo ou wt ttmt tog io iiti. I uy out tuy o ou

uu it, Tuy A Cmo I MCo (2006) imiy itt vi o

tt i mogi o i by u tt oowig t u o Suu

it. Nit tuy xmi t o outio ity. Fouig gy o oty vu

o, Mi Gto Juti Gg (2006) ikwi tt, mog u tt

otig Suu it, to tt igib o u xi o oitt tt

i outio ity o vg iom, om to ot tt iigib o u u.

Nvt, two mi o i oubt bout t i tt b w om

t y. Fit, wit t xtio o Gto Gg (2006), t tui u

oy vy t o oomti oto. So, o t tui u u tt o

outi t t ommuity. It i, owv, ot tt t u tt i t o-it ommuity itio. Cu tt vy igity i i ot quit

g, mkig it oib o ti u ommuity itio to mk mogi it

tt ou witi tt. Aitioy, bu iiti ot ot og u tt

boui, ttig iity t to ti ot tt itou igit oi to t mii-

mo. Fiy, w iu bow, tt-v mogi omoitio my b ogou

to ubi goo i t US Cu w tt boui to mk tm mo omogou. Ou

otut ommuiti o to t o.

I. Model

To motivt t mii wok tt oow, w bgi i t iit o Tibout (1956)

xo t imt o gig viomt quity o ommuity omoitio witi


3/21

VOL. 98 nO. 3 845BAnzHA And WALsH: An EMpIRICAL TEsT O TIEBOUT

im g quiibium mo o otio oi. I tiu, w u mo o vtiy

itit ommuiti itou by Di E, Ru Fiimo, Tom Rom

(1984), mo g vio o wi w ty i to viomt imovmt

by Sig t . (2004).

Aum otiuum o ouo tt ti by ti iomy. T itibutioo iom i giv by1y 2wit otiuou uot ov t itv 3yl, yh 4 . Houo ooto iv i o oJommuiti, ix byj[ 51, ,J6, , oitio o otio oi,oo ti otim v o ouig. Houo t by t iit uti-

ity utio V1y, p, G2 , w p i t i o uit o ouig G t viomtquity. T itio oV1 . 2 o imiity um t iuio o umi woi i omi to 1; V1 . 2 i um to b otiuou wit bou t ivtiv tttiy Vy. 0, VG. 0, Vp, 0. T oit ouig m utio i um it

o t v oG i giv byd 1p, y 2 , wi i o otiuou wit bou t ivtivdy. 0 dp,0. Dm i um to b tity oitiv bou om bov. E

ommuity i ti by otiuou ouig uy utio sj

1p

2 xogouy

tmi v o viomt quity Gj. It i um tt o ommuity t ouiguy utio ioot bouig i p lju tt 5p # p

lj, sj 1p2 5 0 5p . p lj, 0, sj 1p2 , ` (i.., uy i o t o bow t bouig i it otwi).

To iitt titio o t quiibium otig o ouo o ommuiti,

w ut um tt ouo tiy t ig oig oty. Ti oi-

tio qui tt t o o iit ii uv i t 1G, p2 b iig iy.1 Giv t umtio o ig oig, quiibium b ti by oig o

ommuiti tt i iig i bot p G. Tt i, t i oig o ommui-

ti om ow-i, ow-quity ommuiti to ig-i, ig-quity ommuiti. Fut,

o i o igboig ommuiti ( ot by ti kig), t wi xit t

o bouy ouo (uiquy iti by iom v) wi iit btwt two ommuiti. Houo wo iom i bow t bouy iom wi t

ow-o ommuity, to wo iom i bov t bouy iom wi

t ig-o ommuity. Ti to t iom ttitio o ouo o

ommuiti.2 Uiqu quiibium i pj bouy iom Y~j, j11 imiity

by t quiibium oitio o qutio (1):

(1) V1Y~j, j11, pj, Gj 2 5 V1Y~j, j11, pj11, Gj112 5j[ 51, ,J2 16,M

y[Cjd

1pj,y

2

1y

2y 5 sj

1pj

2 5j[

51, ,J

6,

wMi t tot m o ouo Cj i t t o iom otig i ommuity j.T qutio omi tJ2 1 bouy ii oitio t quimt tt

t ouig mkt i o tJommuiti, yiig 2J2 1 qutio to itiy t

2J2 1 ogou vib.

To vo itio om t mo, w oi t o two ommuiti. W x t

v o viomt quity i t o ommuity, G2, oi ow t quiibium

outom (ommuity outio, iom, i) g t v o viomt

quity i Commuity 1, G1, g. Fut, to imiy xoitio, w um itio

1 Fo iuio o t ig-oig oty i ti otxt, E Sig (1999).2 It i tigtow to x ti umtio by itouig togity i tt o tt t xit iom t-

ogity witi ommuity, but t ttitio by tt o iom ( E Sig 1999; Sig t. 2004). Aoigy, ti umtio i ot iti o t oowig imitio o t mo.


4/21


quiibium wit t outio i bot ommuiti tity oitiv (P1.pl1, p2.p

l2). W

bgi by otig tt iG1, G2 (G1 . G2) t t iom otig iig om t ig-o-

ig umtio imi tt, i tm o m iom, y1 ,y

2 (y

2 ,y

1). Bow, w outi t

oo o t oowig ou ooitio tt ti quiibium ymi. A gi

ttmt o t imitio o t ou ooitio i t i Figu 1.

PROPOSITION 1:I G1ZG2, the

dPOP1

dG1

. 0,dPOP2

dG1

, 0,dP1

dG1

. 0,dP2

dG1

, 0,dY

1

dG1

. 0,dY

2

dG1

. 0.

Pooitio 1 oow ity om vutio o t omtiv tti o t two-om-

muity vio o qutio (1). Uig t imiit utio tom, t oi t imt o

iig G1 o t bouy iom, Y~

1, 2/G1:

2V1G1(2)

dY~ 1, 2

dG1

5 ,

d 1p1, Y~1, 22V1p1 d 1p2, Y~1, 22V221 1Vy1 2 Vy2221Y~1, 22 1 Y~1, 2 yh 3 dp11p1,y21y2y2s1p11p12 3dp2 1p2,y21y2y2s2p21p22

yl Y~

1, 2

w Vj 5 V1Y~1, 2,pj, Gj 2 ubit ot ti ivtiv.T ky to igig t ivtiv i qutio (2) i to ogi tt t ig oig o-

ty imi tt

1Vy

1 2 Vy2

2, 0 tu Y

~1, 2/G1 . 0.

3 Bu o iom ttitio, ti

imi tt t outio i Commuity 1 (Commuity 2) i (). Ao ot ttbu t w ouo tig Commuity 1 vig Commuity 2 t bouy

it out o ig iom v t t oigi ouo, Y

1 i. Covy,

t ouo v iom v ow t to miig i Commuity 2, o t i

o i i Y

2. Tu, t i o itio gig t relative mgitu o iom

g oit wit mgi g i G1.

Fo i imt,

2V1g1(3)

dP1

dG1

5 .

1Vy

1 2 Vy2

2 Y~1, 2

2V

1

p11 s3 dp1p1,y21y2y2s1

p11p12 td 1Y~1, 2,p121Y~1, 22 yl Y~1, 2 s3 dp1p1,y21y2y2s1p11p12 td 1Y~1, 2, p22

yl 2V2p2

yh

s3dp1p2,y21y2y2s2p21p22 td 1Y~1, 2, p12Y~

1, 2

3 By t itio oY~

1, 2, V1Y~1, 2, p1, G125V1Y~1, 2, p2, G22 . Si to wit iom ig t Y~1, 2 Com-muity 2, V1Y~1, 2,1e, p1, G12,V1Y~1, 2,1e, p2, G22 , 5e. 0.


5/21

VOL. 98 nO. 3 847 BAnzHA And WALsH: An EMpIRICAL TEsT O TIEBOUT

Agi, it i tigtow to ig qutio (3) mott tt p1/G1. 0. Simi

yi mott tt p2/G1 , 0.

PROPOSITION 2: Whe G15G2 there i a uique equilibrium rice, p

G1 5 G2, a a cotiuum

o equilibrium houehol ortig.

Pooitio 2 oow om t t tt w G15G2 t ommuiti iti

itio outio qui tt p15 p2. Fut, ig oig o og imi y tiu

otig o iiviu. Howv, wtv t otig o iiviu, t um o t m

o bot ommuiti mut qu t um o uy o bot ommuiti. Tu, w v

t gggt mkt ig oitio o qutio (4):

(4) M 3y[

3yl, yh

4d

1y,p

G15G2

, Gj

2

1y

2y 5 s1

1p

G15G2

21

s2

1p

G15G2

2.

Ou umtio o m, uy, t iom itibutio imy tt t i uiqu

i tt ov qutio (4). Howv, bu i ti i all ouo iit

Figure 1. Impact of Changes in the Level of Public Goods on Community Populations

note: T v o t ubi goo i Commuity 1, G1, i iig og t oiot xi. T v o t ubigoo i Commuity 2 i x t G2.

$#"

.

(

1PQVMBUJPO

$PNNVOJUZ

$PNNVOJUZ

G1

1

G0

1

G2


6/21


btw ommuiti, i quiibium w bitiy wit t o ouo btw t

two ommuiti og t gggt ouig m i t i iti.

PROPOSITION 3: imG1SG2p1 5 imG1SG2p2 5 p

G15G2, imG1SG22 pOp1 . imG1SG21 pOp1,

imG1SG22 pOp2, imG1SG21 pOp2.

I ot wo, t quity oG1 u G2, t i i Commuity 1 i mooty,

wi t outio o iotiuouy.

To ti, w bgi by oiig two t quiibi u t oG1 5 G2

p1 5 p2 5 p

G15G2. Fit, oi t wit omt oitiv iom otig. I ti ,

ouo wit iom t om iom v, ot Y~2, ot i Commuity 1

ot ot i Commuity 2. T o quiibium i iti, xt tt t iom

otig i v ouo wit iom gt t om v Y~1 ot i Com-

muity 1 ot ot i Commuity 2. Not tt, giv t umtio tt ouo

ouig m it oG, Y~2 Y

~1 uiquy tmi by t mkt -

ig oitio wi tyiy i. Giv ou umtio gig w-bv utiity m utio, Y

~1, 2 5 Y

~2, p1 5 p2 5 p

G15G2i t imitig quiibium G1 o

G2 om bow, Y~

1, 2 5 Y~1, p1 5 p2 5 p

G15G2

i t imitig quiibium G1 o

G2 om bov. Tu, p1 p2 otiuou utio oG1 imG1SG2p1 5 imG1SG2p2 5

p

G15G2.

W ow v oy to ow tt t otiuity o i t G1 5 G2 imi tt imG1SG22 pOp1

. imG1SG21 pOp1. To ti, ot tt w o G1 5 G2 om it i, i

bitiy o top

G15G2. At t imit, outio tmi by t mkt ig oi-

tio vut tp

G15G2. But, bu iom otig i omty v G1 x G2,

w t imit i o om t t, t iom o ouo ooig Commuity 1

ow t w t imit i o om t igt. Moov, it ouig m i ig o i ouo. Tu, w vut t p

G15G2

, t mkt ig

oitio imi tt Commuity 1 outio i ig w oig t imit om t

t t w oig om t igt. Tu, ov om g oG1, i i G1 tt tk

it bov G2 to i Commuity 1 outio.

A tivi ooy to Pooitio 3 i tt y g i G1 tt v t oig o t

two ommuiti i tm o ti ubi goo v (tkig G1 om v bow G2 to

v bov G2) wi to umbiguou i i t tiv m iom o t two

ommuiti.

PROPOSITION 4:Ip1/G1 ap2/G1are boue away rom ero, the eve i caewhere imrovemet i G1 caue it to excee the level o G2, or ufcietly large icreae i

G1, thi icreae will till reult i a icreae i pOp1.

Pooitio 4 oow ity om t t tt i i G1 iv t i i

Commuity 2 bitiy o to p2l, tu uig it outio tow o t outio

o Commuity 1 bitiy o toM.

To iy t imitio o t ooitio, Figu 1 g t outio o Commu-

ity 1 Commuity 2 utio oG1, oig G2 ott. A G1 i, t ou-

tio o Commuity 1 i vyw but t G15G2, ow by t oi i i t gu,

wi t outio i Commuity 2 vyw but t G15G2, ow by t

i. Poutio wy um to M. Now, oi t w G1 i imov om ii-ti vu oG1

0. Sm imovmt tt k G1 bow G2 (Rgio A) ut i i

i t outio o Commuity 1 tiv to tt o Commuity 2 , iu bov,


7/21


itmit g i relative iom. O G1 i bov G2 (Rgio B C),

t iom otig i v t i umbiguou i i Commuity 1 iom

tiv to Commuity 2. Howv, o m i bov G2 (Rgio B), t i tuy

o i Commuity 1 outio tiv to Commuity 2. Fo g i i G1 (ito

Rgio C), t i gi i i t tiv outio o Commuity 1. It ou o bot tt ti xm w iy otut to gut t xit o Rgio B. I,

it, G1 iitiy b t v G11, t ay i i G1 wou to tiv i

i Commuity 1 outio.

To ummi, t mo it tt mgi i i G1 wi to tiv i

i t outio o Commuity 1 mot vyw (i.., t but o oit). Lg i

i G1 iky to v t m t, wit t o xtio big t w G1 jut u-

G2, o tt t iom t o ouig m omit t outio t. T

mo o it tt g i i G1 wi b oit wit i i Commuity 1

vg iom tiv to tt o Commuity 2.

A.Emirical strategy

O ou, wt t g i t outio miio t o outig ii-

ti tui otitut g o m g i mii qutio.4 W tu tk

t yot to t t tt o t (i i tiv outio oow-

ig imovmt i ubi goo) iom t.

Ou yi i t mu v o gggtio t viouy b oi i

t ittu, ouig o ommuiti by -mi-imt i. To tt o

iom t, w t 19902000 g i ommuity outio (i v tm

tg tm) g i iom to g i xou to i outio. Eviomt

quity i mu t toxiity-wigt xou to i outio om it iti t Toxi R Ivtoy.

W moy i-i-i ig o t t o 19902000 g i outio

o 19902000 g i t mogi mu. O otti wk wit ti y-

i i tt i m it ti iiti b o o mogi o ot oouig to,

t tioi btw g i outio g i mogi wou b og-

ou. To ti obm, w o itiy gg mogi o to TRI it tt

t t mogi g, to b tt xogou. W iu t

ot ititio iu i mo ti oowig itio o t t.

II. Data

Cotutig t tt y to tt o viomty iu migtio qui

t t tk. Fit, w itiy t o tiy it ommuiti. So, w o-

tut mogi omoitio mu o ommuity o 1990 2000. Fiy, o

ommuity w otut mu o t toxiity-wigt v o xou to i ou-

tio i 1990 2000 b o t om t Toxi R Ivtoy o t US Eviomt

Pottio Agy (EPA).

4 I viou mii wok wit itio o-uto (Sig t.. 2004), w timt tutu mo, imii otutio to t toti mo t , uig o-tio t o t Lo Ag MtooitA. Tt mo uggt tt 19901995 i quity g wou v iu 90 t o t ommuiti(oo itit i tt mo) to g ti tiv k, oig i quity i ot ommuiti t biv. Ti uggt tt ou mo mii itio o iom t om omgi g iky tob miiy vt o t TRI oig tui .


8/21


A.defitio o Commuitie

Ou yi qui t o ommuiti wo boui mi x btw 1990

2000. O o wou b to u u tt, bok gou, o bok ou ommuity -

iitio. Ti o i obmti bu t itio g. B (1997) ou tt,

tioy, o-t o tt g boui btw i u. Moov, t

u o u tt ommuiti my it b obmti o t o. Fit, u

tt oy to t tivy omogou titi. Atoug om ti

vitu bu it giv mo itgity to t ot o ommuity, u gymig my

o bi mii timt. Fo xm, i outig it v imt o t mog-

i o oy t mot o igbooo, t igbooo ojoi wit ot

igbooo wit imi titi to om u tt, it wou iu otio

btw t outig it t wi gogi tity (t tt). So, toug ougy

qu i outio, u tt g gty i i. Fo xm, i Cioi, tt g

om t tt o qu mi to mo t tou qu mi. Ti g g

o ti togity t obm w timtig migtio mo, y imt o outig iity my b iut w vgig ov g , but ot i t m to

wi t g my b om. Fiy, viou o t otio btw

mogi viomt quity ow tt ut b quit itiv to om-

muity itio (Doug L. Ato t . 1994; Robt H 1995). Cu tt my b

too gggt uit , i y , u itivity yi og t i.

Fo t o, w tk it o to igbooo itio. W ig-

booo t o -mi-imt i (ttivy o-mi-imt i) vy

itibut o ou tuy . Uig t GIS otw kg ARCVIEW, w otut

wigt tt u to tt viomt quity t om t TRI mogi t

om u bok to ou ommuiti.

T i o t t otutio oow. Fit, to k t t tk mgb,

w tit ou yi to Cioi. Cioi i tttiv bu o it i togity

bu o it tiv i. To ut tit t i o t t tk to u t t-

ogity btw it ommuiti, w imit ou yi to otio tt w ot

ub i t 1990 Cu. W otut ou ommuiti by t ig quiitt gi

o ou tuy . Gi oit o- mi t o t -mi i o mi

t o t o-mi i.5

O gi tt ov t ti tt v b otut (o o t -mi

o-mi i) qut-mi (-mi) bu i ou oit i t gi, yi-

ig t o i -mi (o mi) i imt tt vy itibut o t tt.

T t o i tt witi t Cu 1990 ub boui i t t, i tt i o wt o. Ti o yi 6,218 ommuiti witi o-

mi i 25,166 ommuiti b o -mi i. Figu 2 ow t itibu-

tio o ommuiti o t tuy .

B. Ceu data

A ot bov, w gggt mogi t om t 1990 2000 Cu ito ou

i-ommuiti. W ot bok-v t o t tot outio, i tm o bot

5 Bu o t i o Cioi, t it btw i o ogitu vi by oximty 13 t o mov om it out bo to t ot bo. To voi uv mig ity btw ot out otio o t tt, it i y to out o ti vitio. I tiu, t gi otut uigt oowig to: 1 g o titu 5 69.172 mi 1 g o ogitu 5 o (titu) * 69.172.


9/21


iiviu ouo, oomi vib iuig omowi t, t

t, - om vu. W o ot bok-gou-v t, iuig v-

g iom, utio ttimt, woko ito.

Dmogi out t t ig to ou ommuiti. Siy, o bok,

o mogi out i ig to ommuiti b o t tg o t

bok gogi yig witi ommuity.6 Ev o ou -mi ommuiti,

mot bok ig tiy to ig ommuity, 99 t ig to v ow. Tb 1 ummi t ooit mig, t umb o bok ig to ommu-

ity. Bu o t ittig o bok btw 1990 2000, t mo bok ig

i i 2000 t i 1990. T tit ti g om ow o 10 bok i

o -mi i (1990) to 38 o o-mi i (2000).

Tb 2 ovi itiv ttiti o t mogi titi o t -mi om-

muiti. Not tt ty iy omb, i ty i o qu i (oxi-

mty 0.785 qu mi). Mot ommuiti v m outio, wit vg 1990

outio o bout 772 o, but wit wi itquti g o 98 to 1,162.

6 Fo bok gouv t, t vu w itibut to t bok b o outio , t itibutto t ommuiti o t bok-v t.

Figure 2. Location of Communities

###################################################################

##########################################################################

##

#

############################################################################################

########################################################################################################

#####################################################################

###############################################################

######## ########## ######### ####################

########################################################################

############################################################# ############# ###

#################################

###################

####################

############################################

########################### ###################

#######################################################

######################### ####

######################## ## ##

############################

################## ##

#######

## ###################### ###

#########

##### ######################### #######

######

########################################## ####

#########

############################################

#######

########################################### #######

########################################## ##########

#####################################

### ############################################## #

#### ############################################# ####

############################################## ####

#######

####################################### #######

##############################################

##### ############################################### ###########################################################

################################################################################################################## ####

################################################# ##############################################################

############################################################## ############################################################## ############## ############################################################## ###

## ############################################################### ###

############### ##########################################

##########################################

#########################################################################################################################################################################################################################################

############################################################################################################### ####################################################

################################# ################################################################################### ####### #######################

############################################################

### ######################################################################################

#######################################################

###################### #################

##### ############################################################ ##

######## ###############################################

###### ############################################################

###################### #############################

################## ################################## ####### ############################# # ##############################

############ ##################################### ######################## ## ##

#########################

########

## ###############

#### ## #######

#####################

#################

#########################

################### #####

#####################

##################################################### #

########################## ###

############ ### ######### #########

###### ##############

##########

##########

#############

##########

###########

######

###############

########################

############

### ########################

############################################################

#########

###########################

##

##########################

######### ### #################### ## #######

######## ############################### ###############

################# ############### ################ ##############

############################

############# ############################# ###############

########## ######## ######## ###### ##

######### ###### ###### ######## # ###### #####

# ########################################## ################

####################################################### ###################### ########################

####################### #######################################################################################################################

########################## ########################## ######################### ######################### ############ ### ################## ################

############################ ######################### ####################### #################### #

#################### ################# ######## ############## ###### ############# #### # ########### ########

################################## ############################### ###### ################################### ######### ########################################### #####

################################### ################################# # ################################################## ####################### ######################## #################### ##################### #######

#################################################################################################################### ################################# ##############################

############################### ###################### ######### ###################### ########### ### ####################### ########### # ########

################### ########## ###### ########################### ################### ######################### ##################### ######################################### ############# ########################### ########## ##################### ######

###### ############# ### # ####### ################# #################### ############# #

#### ########## ###### ######## ###### ##### ######## ### ## #### # ##

#### ####### ####### ############ ############# ##

####### #### ####### # ####### ###### ######## #

# ### ### # # ########### ############## ######### #######

######## ########## ############ ############ ############## ########### #

### ##### ################### ##### ##########################################

#######################################################################################################################################

############################################################

################

####################

##########

############################# #

####################################################

##########


10/21


C. TRI data

A mu o outio xou, w u t EPA Toxi R Ivtoy to

o i outio t iiti tougout Cioi. T it my b iv imitytoug v . Fit, ty my imy b viuy utttiv it. So, ti i

outio my v ut oo o my u itoy iittio. Fiy, i 1987,

iiti ig mo t 10,000 ou y o ti ou mi v

b qui to ot t miio. T t t bm ubiy vib i 1989

outiy ubii by viomt tivit. Bu t t t bm vib

immity io to ou 19902000 tuy io, w migt o xt to gg migtoy

o to i miio.

Fo ou mu o xou, w u toxiity-wigt ix o miio i t TRI7

b o wigt vo by t EPA vib i it Rik S Eviomt Iito

7 T it o otig mi x i 1994. To miti oitt omio o TRI miio ovtim, w v imit t t to t ommo t o mi u i 1988. Ti jugmt ou ot mk mu

Table 1Assignment of Census Blocks and TRI Emissions to Circle Communities

H-mi i O-mi i

Cout 25,166 6,218

Bok i (1990)

25t ti 4 1150t ti 10 2975t ti 19 55Mx 132 383

Bok i (2000)25t ti 6 1750t ti 13 3875t ti 22 64Mx 136 408

Ci wit TRI xou-mi bu 3,109 1,295-mi bu 5,179 1,795

TRI it o xo i-mi bu

25t ti 1 150t ti 2 275t ti 3 4Mx 19 25

-mi bu

25t ti 1 150t ti 2 275t ti 4 5Mx 27 34

Ci oo itit25t ti 45 1450t ti 93.5 27

75t ti 169 47Mx 2,352 620

Ci i o25t ti 11 350t ti 21 675t ti 35 9Mx 190 49


11/21


mo (RSEI).8 Bu o t TRI otig to ti -ot tu, t t

ivov om mumt o, wi i iky to v ovtiv t o ou ut,

biig tm to o ( Sott Mi Jm T. Hmito (2006) o vutio o t

t). I itivity y, w o oi owigt miio t im

o outig it.

T titu ogitu o iity w tk om t u quity oto

yi by t EPA.9 Ti gogi iomtio ow mt o iiti to ou ommu-

iti. W otut bu (qut-mi -mi) ou TRI it t ig

miio om giv TRI it to t ommuiti tt i witi t giv bu. T m

o TRI it i t 2,311 Cioi TRI it ot u tt -mi bu itt tt o ommuity. Figu 3 iutt t o u to ig miio o t o

-mi TRI bu o-mi i. I t gu, t i -mi bu

ou ou TRI it. T u i ommuiti. Emiio om giv TRI it

ig to ommuiti b o t tg o ti bu tt i witi giv om-

muity. Fo it, i Figu 3, 3.1 t o t miio om TRI it A ig to

ommuity N1, 17.9 t to ommuity N2, 52.4 t to ommuity N3. I ti wy,

i, t w outt ou t otio btw 2000 miio wit witout tw mi i 0.94.

8 Iomtio bout ti mo i vib t tt://www..gov/otit/i/.9 Ti quity oto yi ovi it uy o it otio t. Fit it o

bu o oo-quity go-oig t.

Table 2Descriptive Statistics of the Data for Half-Mile Circle Communities

Baelie emograhic ata (1990) Mea staar eviatio

Poutio (ity) 772 930S bk 0.05 0.11

S Hii 0.19 0.20S Ai 0.08 0.10S ot mioity 0.01 0.02Ptg ouo wit ig-t mii 0.08 0.07M t t ($) 689 263M ouig vu ($) 229,872 138,199S owig ti om 0.66 0.27Ptg moy 0.94 0.05Ptg o moy i mutuig, i moy 0.15 0.08Ptg ot gutig om ig oo 0.10 0.07Ptg wit bo g 0.49 0.14Avg ouo iom ($) 46,461 21,551

Chage i emograhic (19902000)Poutio 92 256

Iom 23,035 24,086TRI ataS wit bi TRI xou (19881990) 0.10 NAS wit w TRI xou (19982000) 0.01 NAS oig TRI xou (19982000) 0.04 NABi miio 300,714 4,718,020Bi miio, mog to xo 3,006,542 1.467

Locatioal ata1990 FBI im ix 0.08 0.28Cg i im ix 0.03 0.14Dit to ot 47.2 45.3Dg titu 35.41 2.03Soo o i o x t NA NA


12/21


w oitty gggt miio v om muti TRI it ito tot xou i

ommuity.

Tb 1 ummi t igmt o TRI it, tiv t om tim uig t 19882000

tim io, to ommuiti o ommuity-i, bu-i i. Fo to ommuiti

tt xo to t t o TRI it, t tb ummi t itibutio o t umb o

it to wi ommuity i xo. I , t tit ti i two it, wit

t mximum xou goig ig 34 it i t o o-mi i o-mi

TRI bu. O ommuity bi, Tb 2 iit tt 10 t o -mi ommuiti

w xo i t bi io (19881990), wit 4 t oig xou by 19982000

1 t giig xou. T tb o ot m toxiity-wigt xou mog

ommuiti mog to xo.

D.Aitioal satial Variable

Sv to, iuig ot tiy itibut miti, iky to iv otig

o ommuiti ou b oto o w. A oto, w iu im t

, i om mo, o otio mu, iuig it to t ot g

titu. Howv, ou mi o to otoig o uobv ti miti i o

x t. W u two t o x t: oo itit i o. Bot vy o

mu tt oitt wit t otio tt ouo iky to oo g

b o ot to t ot witi tt b o t mot o miti. Sooitit v t vtg o mig ity ito imott o ubi goo wo qu-

ity i otwi otoiouy iut to mu, owig u to o itit v quity

Figure 3. Half-Mile Buffers (Shaded) and Circle Communities (Unshaded) around Four TRI Sites

note: # igt TRI it.

/

/

/

"


13/21


g i quity ott i ou omio. W t o ommuity tt

witi o t 226 oo itit i ou ub ig otiuou vib o

[0,1] to tt ommuity o oo itit. Svty-ix t o -mi ommuiti

i tiy witi o oo itit, 21 t witi two, t miig 3 t witi

t o ou. Tb 1 ow t itibutio o t umb o ommuiti ig witi oo itit. Zi o v mo o mu. H, w ig ommuity to o

o t 883 i o i ou tuy b o t i o o t ommuity toi. Tb 1

ot t itibutio o ommuiti o i o. T mi i o i ig 21

-mi i 6 o-mi i.

III. Estimation and Results

Uig t t, w tt o iti g i ommuity outio iom tt

iu by g bi i i TRI miio. Ou imy ut t

o mo uig -mi-imt ommuiti -mi-imt bu ou TRI

iiti. W oi tiv o-mi imt i itivity y.

A.Etimatio strategy

T togt itio o t Tibout mo i tt t itoutio o TRI iity ou

u iiviu to v t ommuity ( tt t xit o iity ou u tm to t).

To tt ti yoti, w g bot v g tg g i outio om

1990 to 2000 o bi TRI xou, g i TRI xou, itio oto.10 To tt

o iom t, w u g i m iom t t vib. A iu bow,

w o oi omti mtig timto ttiv to i gio.

TRI xou i mu t t-y gg vg, o tivy o 1990 2000, o t toxiity-wigt miio o t 1988- mi, ot to

ommuity ib viouy. A xou vib, w iu mu o bot ok

bi xou. A ok, w iu it iito o w ommuity g

ttu om xo to ot xo (o vi v), u otiuou mu o t g i

miio v (wi ik u t mgitu o to tig o xitig iiti w

g t to otiuouy mittig). Bu i ity outio o ot jut itt-

ouy, w o iu iito otiuou mu o 1990 xou to ik u gg

tio to viou xou. T gg o my b tiuy imott w w

oi tt miio v w ot ot io to 1989.

T mo o t t gio yi i t i qutio (5):

(5) pOpi5 d01dBLIiBL1dnEWIi

nEW1dEXITIiEXIT1dyyi

19901dy1(yi|yi . 0)

1dy2(yi|yi,0)1ddDi1dLLi1 ui ,

w pOp i t g (o tg g) i outio om 1990 to 2000;IBL, InEW, IEXIT iito vib o wt t ommuity y 1990 bi xou,

wt om o xou to om xou, o wt om om xou to o xou; yi1990i

t v o bi toxiity-wigt xou; yi|yi . 0i t g i toxiity-wigt

10 To vo ob itio o tg g, w u t vg o t 1990 2000 v i tomito. Witi ou t, ti mu i oximty omy itibut i bou bov bow by12 2, tivy.


14/21


xou, i oitiv; yi|yi,0i t g i toxiity-wigt xou, i gtiv.Di

t mogi vib Li t otio vib. Fo gio mo

o iom t, pOpi i imy by InCi.

To tt ou mo itio, w ou o t ttmt t. T vg t o

bi TRI xou timt t vg iti t o igbooo 19902000outio g om big xo to TRI miio i 1990. T vg t o w

TRI xou timt t vg iti t o viouy uxo igbooo

o bomig xo to TRI miio. A t vg t o xitig TRI xou ti-

mt t vg iti t o viouy xo igbooo o oig it TRI

xou. T ttmt t ut ombitio o t timt oit o

bot iito otiuou vib. Siy,

(6) Avg bi ttmt 5 dBL 1 dy

a1

NBL

i[BL

yi1990

b,

Avg w ttmt 5 dnEW1 dDy1a 1NNE i[nEWDyib ,Avg xit ttmt 5 dEXIT1 dDy2a 1

NEXIT

i[EXIT

Dyib ,w, o xm,nBL i t umb o ommuiti wit bi xou. Tu, t ti-

mt t o vg bi TRI xou, tiv to o xou, i t timt o-

it o t iito vib o xou, u t timt oit o t otiuou

mu o xou tim t vg bi xou mog to ommuiti wit b-i xou. Simi ogi o o t t o w xitig xou. Not tt t t

two ttmt tiv to ommuiti tt v xi xou, wi t xit tt-

mt i tiv to t t o ommuiti tt bi xou.

W timt ou bi gio mo wit it v o oto o oouig

to (t D L vib). Ou t mo iu o oto. Wi y kig y

t to itiyig uity, ti mo o giv ig to t otio btw

migtio g xou. Ou o mo oto o t bi mogi vi-

b it i Tb 2, u qu o t tm. A imott ti mity, it o

iu t FBI im t imut om ovig oiti juiitio ti t

mu by titu it to t ot i kiomt. Ou ti out mo o-

ti t m mogi oto but t ti vib wit oo itit xt i o x t, tivy. Fiy, mo timt wit witout

bi outio wigt o t ommuiti.

Bo tuig to t ut, w oi om o t otti imittio oit wit

t t wit ou ximt ig, w iu ti imitio o ittig

ou ut. I mot , t otti imittio wi t to bi ou ut tow o, o

tt ou tt b ib ovtiv. Fit, ot tt w tiy omig

ttmt ommuiti witi ou TRI bu to oto ommuiti outi tm, but w

ot kow t true o imt o t TRI iiti. I TRI iity tu imt i

ow t ou bu, t ttmt ommuiti wi b otmit by oto ,

iutig t iti. O t ot , i it tu imt i wi t ou bu, tTRI iiti wi v om imt o ou oto ommuiti, gi iutig t iti-

iti. Moov, ti tt t i tut by ou o x t, i t


15/21

VOL. 98 nO. 3 857 BAnzHA And WALsH: An EMpIRICAL TEsT O TIEBOUT

t oto ommuiti t mot iky to o b t by t TRI iity. Tu, w

tiy itiy oy t ieretial t o t outig iiti o t t ( mot

t) ommuiti tiv to t xt-t.

So, ot bov, TRI miio o b o to qutiti o ii-

viu mi by t iiti. Ti uggt tt om ow-v miio go u-tt. To t xtt tt ti i tu m tt om ommuiti igo oto i

t xo, t timt iti i gi iut. Fo t o, i w migtio

t wit t t, uig ti ig, w v o to b ot i t xit o

Tibout t t to outio.

Fiy, oi t otti iu t to ogity o t ttmt. Ou bi tt-

mt t togt im to xogity, i itoi xou ot b t oqu

o utu g i o mogi. Howv, two otti obm i wit ogity

o ou w ttmt xit ttmt. Fit, g i igbooo TRI miio

iky oit wit g i tt igbooo oomi oitio. Su g i o-

omi oitio oby b xt to b oit wit g i t igbooo

outio /o mogi mix, ig to obm o ogity bi timt.Simiy, m iio bout oig oig outig iiti my b m ty i

o to g i o bo mkt oitio. Ou o to t o i t iu-

io o t o ti x t o oo itit o i o. T vt ti o

oiig oomi oitio bo mkt ootuiti i otio oi i iky

mu wi t t o viomt miti. I bo ot oomi ootuiti

ougy qu witi giv oo itit o i o, but i t viomt imiti

(tu outio xou, m, o igt) o outig iity i by ou -mi ommu-

iti witi to , titig omio to big witi t oo itit o i o

toug x t wi tivy imit t ogity obm.11

A mo toubom obm wit ogity i o ou w xit ttmt i o-utig m mk ty xit iio b o t mogi o t ommuity t

by t imity . Not, owv, tt t vt iu i ot t bi mogi

o t t ommuity but, t, m o to orecatechage i mogi

om 1990 to 2000.

B. scale Eect

T ut om ou -t mo t i Tb 3A 3B. Bot t wigt

t uwigt mo t oby w giv t o-tio tu o t t, wit

R2 o 0.04 to 0.18 o mo wit oto but o x t 0.09 to 0.58 o t x

t mo. Ai om t imott imt o t TRI it, w tt ommu-iti gi mo o om 1990 to 2000, o ommuiti wit ow ouig i but

ig t t. W o ttitiy igit oi jutmt to bi i

omoitio.

Tb 3A t t timt t oit wit toxi miio om TRI it

om t uwigt gio. T tb iu timt o mo wit g i ou-

tio v tg g i outio t t vib, o o t t

11A uibiity k o ti ttgy, w om t it ttmt t om mo tt iu oto oy i o x t to mo tt iu o ou oto i itio to t i o x t. It i o x t i to oto o obv oouig to, o migt ito qutio t umtiott it oto o t t ouobervetiy vyig ovit. W tt t i o x t otoquit tivy o t obvb ovit, wit oit timt o t ttmt t o o it-v ovig o t two itio.


16/21


ttmt t. Bot t g i v tg g mo ovi ttitiy ig-

it, oiy-vt vi o migtoy t oitt wit t Tibout yot-

i. Fouig o t tg g mo, o vg, bi xou to TRI miioi oit wit tiv outio i tt g om 10 to 16 t, ig o t

mo. Likwi, t o w toxi miio i viouy utt igbooo

i oit wit outio i btw 5 9 t. Fiy, t mo it o-

itt o i t ooit itio o ommuiti tt o xou. O vg, t

ommuiti it to xi outio gi o 5 to 7 t.

T uwigt mo tk ommuiti ti uit o yi. Ty t toy bout

wt i ig t it . A u, w viw ti o oit o vu-

tig t t o Tibout o o tiy itit igbooo. Fom oiy

tiv, owv, w migt b quy itt i utig t vg t o t

g o t outio. To btt ut ow outio bvig, w u t

gio wigtig by t bi outio. T wigt gio ot iTb 3B. T tb iit imi quittiv tt o migtoy o, but wit v

t omwt ig tg t mu ow t t uwigt gio.

Ti ut i ot uxt, i t wigtig m uwigt -out ,

w g tg g i outio mo iky to ou. I g, t t

otiu to b ttitiy igitwit t xtio o t timt t o w TRI

xou, wi mi gtiv but o igi i om mo. W itt t

ut tog vi i uot o t t it by ou toti mo.

To viy t obut o t ut, w moy g umb o itivity y.

Fit, ttiv to g i outio, wi ou b ty t by miy i

g, w u g i t umb o ouo t t vib, otiu-ig to quittivy imi ttitiy igit t. So, w it t

ot mo wit o-mi-imt (vu -mi) ommuiti. Fo bi xou,

Table 3AEstimated Scale Effects: Unweighted

Avg t obi TRI xou

Avg t ow TRI xou

Avg t oxitig TRI xou R2

Eect o oulatio level

No oto 30 (,0.01) 13 (0.37) 43 (,0.01) 0.00Bi oto 54 (,0.01) 35 (,0.01) 39 (,0.01) 0.07Soo itit x t 59 (,0.01) 35 (,0.01) 42 (,0.01) 0.11

Zi o x t 71 (,0.01) 36 (,0.01) 45 (,0.01) 0.26

Mtig timto 32 (,0.01) 27 (0.16) 31 (,0.01)

Eect o ercetage chage i oulatio

No oto 15.6 (,0.01) 5.3 (0.29) 7.1 (0.04) 0.00Bi oto 10.7 (,0.01) 7.3 (0.11) 5.0 (0.09) 0.04Soo itit x t 10.3 (,0.01) 8.3 (0.07) 6.1 (0.04) 0.09

Zi o x t 12.0 (,0.01) 9.3 (0.05) 6.3 (0.04) 0.19

Mtig timto 10.7 (,0.01) 12.11 (0.05) 4.3 (0.04)

note: St o o mtig mo b o Abi Imb (2006). Bi oto iu titu, i-

t to ot, 1990 im t, g i im t, 1990 outio ity, m t ymt, m ou-ig vu, t t o ouo owig ti om, t t moy i mutuig, t t witout ig oo iom, t t wit bo g, ouo iom, t t o t outio tt ibk, Hii, Ai, o ot , t t o ouo wit ig-t mii, qu o tmogi vib. Fix t mo t m wit t xtio tt t vt x t ti-tu it to ot.

S qutio (6) o itio o t ttmt t. -vu o ttmt t i t.


17/21


t t o gt mgitu (v i tg tm) o uwigt mo , o

wigt mo, ikwi gt o t mo wit o oto bi oto, but

quit imi o t mo wit x t. T timt t o w xitig TRIxou o imi.

Ti, w tt my ttiv itio o t xou vib. I tiu, w u

o-mi bu ou TRI iiti it o -mi bu. W o u 1990 2000

miio oy (t t t-y vg), w miio v uwigt by toxiity,

mu o miio tt tt iity quy (o tt ommuiti i oy i t

umb o TRI it to wi ty w xo ti oximity to to ommuiti). No

o t itivity y g t quittiv tu o t ut, toug t tt mo

i ow t mgitu o t t, uggtig tt tu outio v imott.

Fout, w o timt t mo o ubt o t t: o oy to ommuiti

wit o bi xou, to timt t t o w xou; o oy to ommuiti

wit bi xou, to timt t t o oig xou; o oy to ommuititt o ot g ttu ov tim, to timt t t o bi xou. No o t

vitio g ou ut. Fit y, to x t titio tt ttmt t

t m tougout Cioi, w oi t y o t LA mto o

t S Fio By o, but gi ou imi ut. Tu, ou vi i igy

obut togy oitt wit t Tibout yoti.

C.Icome Eect

Atoug ou toy mo ovi tog itio gig t, it it

iom t oy o g g i ubi goo tt t t tiv kig o t om-muiti. Nomgi g i xou u by xitig tig TRI iiti my

w quiy u g. I y , t iom t mi o mii itt.

Table 3BEstimated Scale Effects: Population-Weighted

Avg t obi TRI xou

Avg t ow TRI xou


Eect o oulatio level

No oto 46 (0.07) 18 (0.43) 81 (,0.01) 0.00Bi oto 81 (,0.01) 39 (,0.01) 71 (,0.01) 0.18Soo itit x t 84 (,0.01) 31 (0.13) 78 (,0.01) 0.25

Zi o x t 108 (,0.01) 42 (0.07) 78 (,0.01) 0.58

Mtig timto 43 (,0.01) 42 (,0.01) 46 (,0.01)

Eect o ercetage chage i oulatio

No oto 2.6 (0.11) 0.8 (0.50) 3.0 (0.02) 0.00Bi oto 3.6 (0.01) 0.7 (0.58) 2.6 (0.03) 0.05Soo itit x t 4.0 (,0.01) 1.0 (0.38) 3.0 (0.01) 0.10Zi o x t 4.7 (,0.01) 1.6 (0.19) 2.9 (,0.01) 0.24

Mtig timto 1.1 (0.16) 3.9 (0.01) 1.7 (,0.01)

note: St o o mtig mo b o Abi Imb (2006). Bi oto iu titu, i-

t to ot, 1990 im t, g i im t, 1990 outio ity, m t ymt, m ou-ig vu, t t o ouo owig ti om, t t moy i mutuig, t t witout ig oo iom, t t wit bo g, ouo iom, t t o t outio tt ibk, Hii, Ai, o ot , t t o ouo wit ig-t mii, qu o tmogi vib. Fix t mo t m wit t xtio tt t vt x t ti-tu it to ot.

S qutio (6) o itio o t ttmt t. -vu o ttmt t i t.


18/21


To tt o iom t, w timt t t mo uig t vib

t g i vg ouo iom om 1990 to 2000. T t i oby goo wit

R2 o 0.31 0.42 o mo wit ttiti oto but o x t, 0.41 to 0.60

o mo wit x t. Tb 4A t t t o vg TRI xou uig t

uwigt mo. Bi TRI xou u ommuiti to v iti gowt ivg iom o bout $2,000 o $3,000 t tt xi by t oto. Coitt

wit t m umb o ommuiti giig xou, t w xou ttmt gy

o ot v ttitiy igit t, toug i t itio w it o, t

t i i t xt itio o ow iom gowt. A xt, oig TRI xou

gy t ooit t, t t ttitiy igit o mot mo.

Ou ut ot obut to wigtig by outio, ot i Tb 4B, wit om o

t mt timt bomig ttitiy iigit, toug gi w ty ig-

it ty oitt wit xttio. W o ubjt t mo to t m -

itivity tt ib bov o t t, gi ou quittivy imi ut.

Coitt wit ou itio o g g i ubi goo, t ut ovi i-

tio vi i uot o Tibout mim.

D.nearet-neighbor Matchig

A ot bov, w vi o oi migtoy o to bi i omoi-

tio, uggtig it my b iut to oto o t t mtiy. To btt out o

t utity bout utio om, w o omtiy mt ommuity iv-

ig TRI ttmt to t o oto ommuiti wit imi obvb titi,

t om ti migtio tt. Symmtiy, w mt oto ommuity

to t o ttmt ommuiti wit imi titi. U oto ximt,

ttmt i giv omy o tt, by ig, t xt vu o uobv vib t m i t ttmt oto gou. I qui ximt, ttmt ottmt

obvtio gou by ot obv vib om oitio o to vi-

b. I ou , t t ttmt t o bi TRI xou mog t t

o ommuiti tt o ot g xou ttu ov tim; t mov to xou mog to

ommuiti tt i ot xi bi xou; t ig o xou mog to

ommuiti xo i t bi. T t ttmt itio mio t timt

ttmt t om t im i mo t i Tb 3 4.

Ti o x t o utio om umtio bout t otoig vi-

b. Fut, it wk t y umtio gig t o tm, quiig oy

tt, oitio o t obvb, t xt vu o t o tm i qu o t tt-

mt oto . Ti i i ott to t i umtio tt, oitio o tobvb, t xt vu o t o tm i o. (S Jm J. Hkm, Hiiko

Iimu, Pt To 1997, 1998; Rjv H. Dji Sk Wb 2002.)

U t t mtig mo, obvtio gou by vu o t obvb

(bi i omoitio, ity, ot otio miti o oxi) , witi

, i i outom btw tt utt obvtio ut.

Howv, t umb o qui to o ti b oibitivy g. Pu R. Robum

Do B. Rubi (1983) ow tt w g umb o obv vib t too

my mty , o , it, mt o uivit ix tig ov it i

t o obvb btw ttmt obvtio it mt oto().

W timt t Euii it btw ommuiti i t o t m t oobvb om t gio mo. T uiv o otti oto ommuiti i

to imit oouig ttmt. Fo ommuity ivig o o t tiv TRI


19/21


ttmt, w om it iom t to t vg mog ou t (mot

imi) oto ommuiti. T i, t timt ttmt t, oo to

t t tm i qutio (6) (witout t otiuou tm). To out o t otti bi

oit wit omio wit oto ommuiti vig igty it obvb, w

jut o t i uig i gio.12

T t ow i tio o Tb 3 4 ot t m vg ttmt t omt t-igbo mtig timto. St o omut uig t o o-

o by Abto Abi Guio Imb (2006). Quittivy, mot outom ug

om t gio mo oitt wit ou iv yot, wit o xtio.

Fo t w xou ttmt, t outom o t w t (but ot tg

g) v ig.13 Ov, owv, t ut ovi mo vi o t

iom t it by t mo.14

IV. Conclusions

Tibout uggtio tt o vot wit ti t to t ommuity tt ovi ti

otim tx ubi goo i y t o i t toy o o ubi i t to t tuy o umou oiy iu iuig oo quity, outio, ouig

12 I tiu, w timt i gio o t tiv outom o titi mog oto om-muiti. W mtig, w t t out t t it to b u to t i i obvb vib. Tti, w t out b 1Xtreat2 Xcotrol 2 , w X t t vto oyi, Di, aLi.

13 Ti omy i imit w ouig o t vg t mog tt ommuiti oy, i ott tot vg t o t ti m. It i o imit w uig y umb o mt tt mt tit it-io o imiity, t t wy ou. Bot o t quitio uggt t ig g i iky t ut ot m umb o w ttmt vib o mtig to t oto ommuiti.

14 I itio to t im t-igbo timt ot , w o timt t ttmt t byut titig t mt to to oto ommuiti ot witi t m oo itit t tt om-muity, o ogou to ou x t gio mo. T ut mi ug w w titt mt to to witi t m oo itit.

Table 4AEstimated Income Effects: Unweighted

Avg t obi TRI xou

Avg t ow TRI xou


No oto 7,619 (,0.01) 7,652 (,0.01) 1,899 (,0.01) 0.01

Bi oto 2,618 (,0.01) 624 (0.52) 1,344 (0.06) 0.31Soo itit x t 2,458 (,0.01) 277 (0.75) 1,693 (0.01) 0.41

Zi o x t 2,194 (,0.01) 189 (0.82) 1,416 (0.03) 0.50

Mtig timto 3,182 (0.01) 6,115 (,0.01) 530 (0.33)

S ootot o Tb 3.

Table 4BEstimated Income Effects: Population-Weighted

Avg t obi TRI xou

Avg t ow TRI xou


No oto 3,951 (,0.01) 5,205 (,0.01) 784 (0.18) 0.01Bi oto 362 (0.33) 216 (0.77) 35 (0.94) 0.42Soo itit x t 179 (0.62) 937 (0.18) 22 (0.96) 0.51

Zi o x t 222 (0.55) 795 (0.23) 126 (0.76) 0.60

Mtig timto 2,433 (,0.01) 2,015 (,0.01) 30 (0.93)

S ootot o Tb 3.


20/21


oiy, txtio. Dit it imot, ti mo b ubjt to w it tt o

it bi mim: ouo jutig otio i o to g i t miti.

Tow ti , w u g i t miio o toxi i outt o tiy i-

t igbooo to tt o viomty motivt migtio tt oit wit

i m o i imovig igbooo, wi my t t mogimix btw i oo ouo. Uig w o to ommuity itio tt

ovom t obm oit wit t u o u tt, i ojutio wit btt

oto o ottiy oouig to t v b u i viou tui, w ovi

t togt vi to t o t ik btw g i viomt quity o

g i ommuity mogi. W tog vi o t o mgitu

tt i bot ttitiy igit miiy vt. W o vi o iom

t tt uggt tt outio i giv otio i oit wit t migtio o i

ouo /o immigtio o oo ouo.

Ou ut oitt wit t yot gt om im Tibout mo

m Tibout yoti tt ouo o vot wit ti t i o to o ubi

goo. Ty o oitt wit t ig o t otti gtitio t oxogou imovmt i o miti (Sig t . 2004; Job Vigo 2002).

REFERENCES

Abadie, Alberto, and Guido W. Imbens. 2006. Lg Sm Poti o Mtig Etimto o Av-g Ttmt Et.Ecoometrica, 74(1): 23567.

Anderton, Douglas L., Andy B. Anderson, John Michael Oakes, and Michel R. Fraser. 1994. Evio-mt Equity: T Dmogi o Dumig.demograhy, 31(2): 22948.

Bayer, Patrick, and Christopher Timmins. 2007. Etimtig Equiibium Mo o Sotig AoLotio.Ecoomic Joural, 117(518): 35374.

Been, Vicki, and Francis Gupta. 1997. Comig to t Nui o Goig to t Bio? A LogituiAyi o Eviomt Juti Cim.Ecology Law Quarterly, 24: 156.

Brueckner, Jan K. 1982. A Tt o Aotiv Eiy i t Lo Pubi Sto. Joural o publicEcoomic, 19(3): 31131.

Cameron, Trudy Ann, and Ian T. McConnaha. 2006. Evi o Eviomt Migtio.La Eco-omic, 82(2): 27390.

De Marchi, Scott, and James T. Hamilton. 2006. Aig t Auy o S-Rot Dt: A Ev-utio o t Toxi R Ivtoy.Joural o Rik a Ucertaity, 32(1): 5776.

Dehejia, Rajeev H., and Sadek Wahba. 2002. Poity So-Mtig Mto o NoximtCu Stui.Review o Ecoomic a statitic, 84(1): 15161.

Epple, Dennis, Radu Filimon, and Thomas Romer. 1984. Equiibium Amog Lo Juiitio: Tow Itgt Ttmt o Votig Riti Coi.Joural o public Ecoomic, 24(3): 281308.

Epple, Dennis, and Holger Sieg. 1999. Etimtig Equiibium Mo o Lo Juiitio. Joural opolitical Ecoomy, 107(4): 64581.Ferreyra, Maria Marta. 2007. Etimtig t Et o Pivt Soo Vou i Mutiitit Eoo-

mi.America Ecoomic Review, 97(3): 789817.Gramlich, Edward M., and Daniel L. Rubinfeld. 1982. Mio Etimt o Pubi Sig Dm

Futio Tt o t Tibout Mi-Vot Hyot. Joural o political Ecoomy,90(3): 53660.

Graves, Philip E., and Donald M. Waldman. 1991. Mutimkt Amity Comtio t Bvioo t Ey.America Ecoomic Review, 81(5): 137481.

Greenstone, Michael, and Justin Gallagher. 2006. Do Hou Wt Mtt? Evi om tHouig Mkt t Suu Pogm. MIT Dtmt o Eoomi Wokig P 0527.

Heckman, James J., Hidehiko Ichimura, and Petra E. Todd. 1997. Mtig Eoomti Evu-tio Etimto: Evi om Evutig Job Tiig Pogmm.Review o Ecoomic stuie,

64(4): 60554.Heckman, James J., Hidehiko Ichimura, and Petra E. Todd. 1998. Mtig Eoomti Evu-

tio Etimto.Review o Ecoomic stuie, 65(2): 26194.


21/21


Hersh, Robert. 1995. R Iuti H: A Hitoi Gogy o t Pittbug Rgio,19001990. Rou o t Futu Diuio P 9518.

Kahn, Matthew E. 2000. Smog Rutio Imt o Cioi Couty Gowt.Joural o Regioalsciece, 40(3): 56582.

Oates, Wallace E. 1969. T Et o Poty Tx Lo Pubi Sig o Poty Vu:

A Emii Stuy o Tx Cititio t Tibout Hyoti.Joural o political Ecoomy,77(6): 95771.

Oates, Wallace E. 2005. T My F o t Tibout Mo. I The Tiebout Moel at ity: Eayi public Ecoomic i Hoor o Wallace Oate, . Wiim A. Fi, 2145. Cmbig, MA: Li-o Ititut o L Poiy.

Rhode, Paul W., and Koleman S. Strumpf. 2003. Aig t Imot o Tibout Sotig: LoHtogity om 1850 to 1990.America Ecoomic Review, 93(5): 164877.

Rosenbaum, Paul R., and Donald B. Rubin. 1983. T Ct Ro o t Poity So i Obv-tio Stui o Cu Et.Biometrika, 70(1): 4155.

Rubinfeld, Daniel L. 1987. T Eoomi o t Lo Pubi Sto. IHabook o public Ecoom-ic. Vo. 2, . A J. Aub Mti Fti, 571645. Amtm: Not-Ho.

Sieg, Holger, V. Kerry Smith, H. Spencer Banzhaf, and Randy Walsh. 2004. Etimtig t GEquiibium Bt o Lg Cg i Stiy Dit Pubi Goo.Iteratioal EcoomicReview, 45(4): 104777.

Tiebout, Charles. 1956. A Pu Toy o Lo Exitu. Joural o political Ecoomy 64(5):41624.

Vigdor, Jacob L. 2002. Do Gtitio Hm t Poo? Brookig-Wharto paer o UrbaAair: 13373.

Do People Vote With Their Feet

Documents