ANNEX C Exposures to the public from man-made sources of radiation CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION ................................................... 158 I. TESTING AND PRODUCTION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS .............. 158 A. ATMOSPHERIC TESTS ..................................... 159 1. Number and yields of tests ................................ 159 2. Dispersion and deposition of radioactive debris ................ 160 3. Annual doses from global fallout ........................... 168 4. Local and regional exposures .............................. 172 B. UNDERGROUND TESTS .................................... 176 C. PRODUCTION OF WEAPONS MATERIALS .................... 177 1. United States .......................................... 177 2. Russian Federation ..................................... 177 3. United Kingdom ....................................... 179 4. France ............................................... 179 5. China ............................................... 180 II. NUCLEAR POWER PRODUCTION ................................ 180 A. MINING AND MILLING .................................... 180 1. Effluents ............................................. 181 2. Dose estimates ......................................... 181 B. URANIUM ENRICHMENT AND FUEL FABRICATION ............ 182 C. NUCLEAR REACTOR OPERATION ........................... 182 1. Effluents ............................................. 183 2. Local and regional dose estimates .......................... 186 D. FUEL REPROCESSING ..................................... 188 1. Effluents ............................................. 188 2. Local and regional dose estimates .......................... 188 E. GLOBALLY DISPERSED RADIONUCLIDES .................... 189 F. SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL AND TRANSPORT .................. 190 G. SUMMARY OF DOSE ESTIMATES ........................... 190 III. OTHER EXPOSURES ........................................... 191 A. RADIOISOTOPE PRODUCTION AND USE ..................... 191 B. RESEARCH REACTORS .................................... 192 C. ACCIDENTS .............................................. 192 CONCLUSIONS .................................................... 193
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ANNEX C
Exposures to the public from man-made sources of radiation
1. The Committee has continually kept under review theexposures of the world population resulting from releases tothe environment of radioactive materials from man-madesources. Exposures from such sources reviewed in theUNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3] included atmospheric nucleartesting, undergroundnuclear testing,nuclear weaponsfabrica-tion, nuclear power production, radioisotope production anduses, and accidents at various locations. New information onman-made environmental exposures is considered in thisAnnex.
2. The testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere wasthe most significant cause of exposure of the world popula-tion to man-made environmental sources of radiation. Thepractice continued from 1945 to 1980. Although the testinghas ceased and the Committee's assessment of global dosesbased on measured 90Sr deposition remains an accurateevaluation of the resulting exposures, particularly for long-lived radionuclides, new data on the yields of individual testshave been made available. These allow more detailedcalculations of the dispersal of radionuclides throughout theworld following the injection of debris into the atmosphere.Estimates of total deposition and doses from individual radio-nuclides are re-evaluated in this Annex, which also considersexposures to individuals who lived near the test sites. Previousestimatesofexposures from atmospheric testing were basedonaccumulated average doses (dose commitments), but there isinterest as well in the annual doses received by individuals.Annual dose estimates are derived in this Annex.
3. Following the cessation of atmospheric testing, nuclearweapons continued to be tested underground. Several furtherunderground tests were conducted in 1998. Undergroundtesting results only infrequently in releases of radionuclides
to the environment and the exposure of individuals. Beyondthe testing of nuclear weapons, the military fuel cycle,involving the production of weapons materials and thefabrication of the weapons, has also resulted in releases ofradioactive materials to the environment. Information onexposures in areas surrounding the industrial sites of nuclearmaterials production and weapons fabrication are consideredin this Annex. Both historical and contemporary data notpreviously reviewed by the Committee are presented.
4. Nuclear power production continues in a number ofcountries, where it is an important component of electricalenergygeneration. Rather complete monitoring and reportingof radionuclides released, especially from nuclear reactors,provide adequate data to allow analysing exposures from thissource. Data on annual releases for 1990�1997 and analysisof longer-term trends are included in this Annex. Anothercontinuing practice, radioisotope production and uses,involves at the production stage rather trivial doses that can beonly roughly estimated from the total size of the industryworldwide and some approximate figures on fractionalreleases of the radionuclides produced. The Committeepreviously assessed these exposures. The exposures of familymembers ofpatients who received therapeutic treatments with131I are considered in this Annex.
5. Another source of exposures that may be consideredto be man-made is the use of fuels or materials containingnaturally occurring radionuclides. These are referred to asenhanced natural radiation exposures. It has been thepractice of the Committee to evaluate these along withother exposures from natural radiation. These evaluationsare included in Annex B, “Exposures from naturalradiation sources”.
I. TESTING AND PRODUCTION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS
6. The testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere,which took place from 1945 until 1980, involved un-restrained releases of radioactive materials directly to theenvironment and caused the largest collective dose thus farfrom man-made sources of radiation. Previous assessmentsby the Committee of the total collective dose to the worldpopulation in the UNSCEAR 1982 and 1993 Reports [U3,
U6] are complete and still valid. In the latter Report [U3],transfer coefficients are given for the dose per unit releaseor per unit deposition density for over 20 radionuclides forthe inhalation, ingestion, and external exposure pathways.
7. The evaluation of doses to the hemispheric and worldpopulations from this practice has been based on the
158
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 159
measured global deposition density of 90Sr, limitedmeasurements of 95Zr deposition, and on estimated ratios ofthe deposition of other radionuclides to these. The annualdepositions of 90Sr were measured in some detail during theyears when testing in the atmosphere took place. This hasmeant that the collective doses could be evaluated moredirectly and with less uncertainty than would be the case ifuncertain estimates of the amounts of radionuclides producedin the tests and their dispersion in the environment had to berelied on. However, lack of sufficient data for other, andespecially the shorter-lived, radionuclides limits the reliabilityof the estimated ratios to 95Zr and 90Sr.
8. In recent years some further details of atmosphericnuclear testing have become available. In particular, thenumbers and total yields of the explosions have beenofficially reported, providing reliable basic input data, andestimates are being made of the local doses to populationsliving in the vicinities of the test sites. This information istaken note of by the Committee to complete the historicalrecord of this practice.
9. In its previous assessments, the Committee emphasizedthe estimation of the collective doses from atmosphericnuclear testing and did not evaluate annual doses in detail.Approximate magnitudes of annual doses were presented inthe UNSCEAR 1982 Report [U6]. The unfolding of collectivedoses to derive annual doses is presented below in more detailto illustrate the time dependence ofcontributions to the annualeffective doses already received by the world population fromvarious radionuclides and to estimate the future annualeffective doses from residual contamination.
10. The production of nuclear weapons involves securingquantities of enriched uranium or plutonium for fissiondevices and of tritium and deuterium for fusion devices. Thefuel cycle for military purposes is similar to that for nuclearelectrical energy generation: uranium mining and milling,enrichment, fuel fabrication, reactor operation, and repro-cessing. Releases of radionuclides mayoccur at all the variousstages but particularly during reprocessing and plutoniumseparation. Initial information on exposures from the opera-tion of military fuel cycle installations was included in theUNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3]. Some further data aresummarized in this Chapter. Discharges and hence exposureswere greatest in the early years when nuclear arsenals werebeing established.
A. ATMOSPHERIC TESTS
1. Number and yields of tests
11. Further information on the number and yields ofatmospheric nuclear tests has been reported by the countriesthat conducted the tests. In the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3],the number of tests by all countries was adjusted from 423 to520, an increase of more than 20%. The total has since beenmodified slightly, and at the same time the estimated total andfission yields have been revised downwards.
12. Compilations of data on atmospheric nuclear testshave been published within the last few years, first by theUnited States [D4], then by the former Soviet Union [M2],the United Kingdom [J3], and France [D3]. Informationwas provided on the date of each test, its name or designa-tion, location, type, purpose, and the total explosive yield.To verify production amounts of important globallydispersed fission radionuclides, it would also be necessaryto know the fission yield of each test or series of tests.
13. The data on atmospheric nuclear tests needed by theCommittee for exposure evaluations are given in Table 1,and a summary for each country and each test site isprovided in Table 2. The date, type, and total explosiveyield of individual tests are as reported by the country. Ina few cases, the total yields reported by the United Statesand the former Soviet Union were indefinite (“low”, “submegatonne”, or within a designated range). Specific valuesfor summations and analyses were estimated based onassumptions given in the footnotes to Table 1.
14. Assumptions are also needed to estimate the fissionand fusion yields of individual tests. Relatively low yieldexplosions may be assumed to be due to fission only, andvery high yield explosions were thermonuclear tests withsubstantial fusion yields. For the purpose of obtainingvalues for Table 1, all tests smaller than 0.1 Mt total yieldwere assumed to be due only to fission, unless otherwiseindicated. For tests in the range 0.5�5 Mt, fission yieldsaveraging about 50% have been reported to berepresentative [G4], and that value has been assumed here.For tests in the range 0.1�0.5 Mt, a fission yield of 67% isassumed. There were 17 tests in the range 5�25 Mt. Withno other indications available, fission yields of 33% wereassumed in Table 1 for these tests. However, the fissionyields of tests by the United States were arbitrarily adjustedto agree with the reported total fission yields for the years1952, 1954, and 1958. The large variation in assumedfission yields for the high-yield tests conducted in theseyears is consistent with unofficial reports that the test of 31October 1952 (Mike) had a relativelyhigh fission yield andwith the confirmation that some high-yield tests had veryhigh fission ratios [D7]. The largest test, 50 Mt, conductedby the former Soviet Union in 1961, was reported to havea fission yield of 3% and a fusion yield of 97% [M2].Special design measures were taken to obtain such a highfusion yield.
15. It would be desirable to have further information onthe fission and fusion yields of atmospheric nuclear tests tosubstantiate the somewhat arbitrary assumptions that mustbe made, particularly for the tests of the former SovietUnion. Because the largest atmospheric nuclear tests(�4 Mt) made such substantial contribution to the fission,fusion, and total yields, they are listed separately inTable 3. These 25 tests account for nearly 66% of the totalexplosive yield of all tests and about 55% of the estimatedfission yields. Tests with yields greater than 1 Mtaccounted for over 90% of the total fission yield.
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION160
16. Some exceptions to the general fission/fusion assump-tions can be made for the atmospheric tests conducted byChina. These tests occurred in the latter part of the testperiod, and the individual tests were relatively well separatedin time. It was thus possible to obtain independent estimatesof fission yields from the stratospheric monitoring ofradionuclides that took place regularly throughout this testingperiod [K7, K8, K9, K10, L7, L8, T5]. The estimates offission yields from 90Sr and 95Zr stratospheric inventoriesinclude some inconsistencies and uncertainties, but the directevidence is used in preference to the assumptions.
17. The annual number and yields ofatmospheric tests byall countries are summarized in Table 4 and illustrated inFigure I. The number of tests (Figure I, upper diagram)was greatest during 1951�1958 and 1961�1962. There wasa moratorium in 1959, which was largely observed in1960, as well. The most active years of testing from thestandpoint of the total explosive yields (Figure I, lowerdiagram) were 1962, 1961, 1958, and 1954. The totalnumber of atmospheric tests by all countries was 543, andthe total yield was 440 Mt. The fission yield of allatmospheric tests is estimated at present to be 189 Mt.
Figure I. Tests of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere and underground.
2. Dispersion and deposition of radioactivedebris
18. Nuclear weapons tests were conducted at variouslocations on and above the earth's surface, includingmountings on towers, placement on barges on the oceansurface, suspensions from balloons, drops from airplanes, andhigh-altitude launchings by rockets. Depending on thelocation of the explosion (altitude and latitude) the radio-active debris entered the local, regional, or global environ-ment. For tests conducted on the earth’s surface, a portion ofthe radioactive debris is deposited at the site of the test (localfallout) and regionally up to several thousand km downwind
(intermediate fallout). This fraction varies from test to testdepending on the meteorological conditions, height of the test,the type of surface and surrounding material (water, soil,tower, balloon, etc.). For refractory radionuclides such as 95Zrand 144Ce, 50% of the debris is assumed to be deposited locallyin the immediate vicinity of the test site and a further 25% isdeposited regionally [B9, B10, H5]. For volatile radionuclidessuch as 90Sr, 137Cs and 131I, 50% of the fission yield, onaverage, is assumed deposited locallyand regionally [P1]. Theremainder of the debris and all of the debris from airbursts iswidely dispersed in the atmosphere. Airbursts are defined astests occurring at or above a height in metres of 55 Y0.4, whereY is the total yield in kilotonnes [P1].
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 161
19. Depending on the conditions of a test, the radioactivedebris can be initially partitioned or apportioned into variousregions of the atmosphere. A basic compartment diagramrepresenting atmospheric regions and the predominantatmospheric transport processes is shown in Figure II. Thisrepresentation was developed to describe atmosphericdispersion and deposition of radioactive debris produced inatmospheric nuclear testing [B1, U6]. The atmosphere isdivided into equatorial and polar regions (from 0� to 30� and30� to 90� latitude, respectively). The troposphere height is
variable with latitude and season, but for modelling purposesit is assumed to be at an average altitude of 9 km in the polarregion and 17 km in the equatorial region. The lowerstratosphere is assumed to extend to 17 km and 24 km,respectively, in the two regions and the upper stratosphere to50 km in both regions. Only a few tests injected materialabove the upper stratosphere, designated the highatmosphere, which extends to several hundred kilometres andincludes the remainder of the region from which debris willeventually be deposited on the earth's surface.
Figure II. Atmospheric regions and the predominant atmospheric transport processes.
20. Apportionment of debris in the atmosphere is based onthe stabilization heights of cloud formation following theexplosion. Empirical values derived from a number ofobservations are given in Table 5 [P1]. These results wereused for the earlier estimates of fallout production fromatmospheric testing that were quoted in the UNSCEAR 1982Report [U6]. Adjustments can now be made according to therevised values of total yields and the fission yield estimatesgiven in Table 1. The partitioned yield estimates are includedin Tables 1 and 2, and annual injections into the variousatmospheric regions are summarized in Table 6. The estimateof the relative fractions of debris injected into the stratosphereand troposphere for a particular test with yield less thanseveral megatonnes is somewhat uncertain for several reasons.The empirical estimates were only available for equatorialtests and were highly variable [F5]. Values for polar latitudesare based on meteorological considerations [F5], and theheight of the troposphere varies seasonally.
21. Partitioning of debris into atmospheric regions wasinitially formulated for the equatorial and polar regions.Injections from the Chinese test site at Lop Nor (40�N)indicate that a temperate region formulation would also be
useful. This was not apparent for earlier tests at the Nevadatest site (37�N) or the Semipalatinsk test site (52�N) becausethere was relatively little or no stratospheric input from testsat these sites. Releases from temperate sites can be partitionedby averaging the equatorial and polar results. Basically, thisaveraging procedure reduces the input to the upperstratosphericregion compared with the partitioning for a polarrelease. Details of the assumptions, justified by the empiricalnature of the modelling, are specified in the footnote toTable 6.
22. With the indication of the type of test given inTable 1, the apportionment of fission yield correspondingto local and more widespread tropospheric and strato-spheric portions has been made in Tables 1, 2 and 4. Thetropospheric and stratospheric injections listed in theseTables are for volatile radionuclides (e.g. 90Sr, 137Cs) anddo not reflect the additional local and regional depositionthat occurred for refractory radionuclides (e.g. 95Zr, 144Ce).
23. As indicated in the summaryTables 2 and 4, the locallyand regionally deposited debris amounts to about 29 Mt (forvolatile elements). Therefore, about 160 Mt is estimated to
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION162
Northern hemisphere Southern hemisphere3030 090 90oo oo o
have been widely dispersed, contributing to global fallout.This latter value, inferred from yield information, may becompared with the value of 155 Mt derived from global 90Srmeasurements (604 PBq deposited worldwide divided by theproduction estimate of 3.9 PBq Mt�1). Since about 2%�3% of90Sr decayed before deposition, the total dispersed amount(injection into atmosphere) inferred from measurements isalso about 160 Mt. The fission yield estimates thus providemuch better agreement with the measured deposition(corresponding to 155 Mt) than the previous fission yieldestimates of 189 Mt [B1, U6]. The estimate of the total debrisdeposited locally and regionally is somewhat uncertain due tothe likely high variations from test to test, however, as seen,this component is a small fraction of the debris injected intothe global atmosphere, and thus this uncertainty will haveonly a small impact on the uncertainty in the total global 90Srdeposition.
24. From extensive monitoring following individual testsand for the entire period of dispersion and deposition, con-siderable information was gained on the movement andmixing processes in the atmosphere. The radioactive debris
served as a tracer material. Aerosols in the atmospheredescend by gravity at the highest altitudes and are transportedwith the general air movements at lower levels. Eddydiffusioncauses irregular migration of air masses in the generaldirections indicated in Figure II in the lower stratosphere andupper troposphere. The circular air flow pattern in thetroposphere at lower latitudes is termed Hadley cellcirculation. These cells increase or decrease in size and shiftlatitudinally with season. The balanced pattern shown inFigure II is that for the months of March, April, May, andSeptember, October, November. The mean residence time ofaerosols in the lower stratosphere ranges from 3 to 12 monthsin the polar regions and 8 to 24 months in the equatorialregions. The specific seasonal values, determined fromempirical fitting to fallout radionuclide measurements, areindicated in Figure III. The most rapid removal occurs duringthe spring months. Removal half-times to the next lowerregion from the upper atmosphere are 6 to 9 months and fromthe high atmosphere, 24 months was found to be represen-tative [B1]. A removal half-time of infinity (�) in Figure IIImeans that no transfer takes place via the particular pathwayduring that season of the year.
Figure III. Schematic diagram of transfers between atmospheric regions and the earth’s surface considered inthe empirical atmospheric model [B1].
The numbers in parentheses are the removal half-times (in months) for the yearly quarters in the following order:March-April-May, June-July-August, September-October-November, December-January-February.
25. An empirical atmospheric compartmental modelbased on Figures II and III had been used to estimatesurface air concentrations and deposition of long-livedfallout radionuclides starting with estimated fissionproduction yields of each test [B1]. However, since rathercomplete measurements of 90Sr in air and deposition were
available and there were uncertainties in the reportedfission yields, this modelling work was not pursued.Improved estimates of fission yields changes this situationand allows the possibilityof examining in greater detail thedeposition of other radionuclides, such as 106Ru and 144Ce,and of projecting the measurement records beyond levels
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 163
Calculation
Calculation
Measurements
Measurements
1958
1958
1957
1957
1959
1959
1960
1960
1961
1961
1962
1962
1963
1963
1964
1964
1965
1965
1966
1966
1967
1967
1968
1968
1969
1969
1970
1970
1971
1971
1972
1972
1973
1973
1974
1974
1976
1976
1975
1975
1977
1977
1978
1978
1979
1979
1980
1980
1981
1981
1982
1982
1983
1983
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
CO
NC
EN
TR
AT
ION
(Bq
m)
CO
NC
EN
TR
AT
ION
(Bq
m)
-2
-2
-4
-4
-5
-5
-3
-3
-3-3
-7
-7
-6
-6
Northern hemisphere
Southern hemisphere
of detection capabilities. Estimates can also be made forshort-lived radionuclides such as 95Zr, however theuncertainty will be greater, since most of the depositionfrom these radionuclides is from highlyuncertain fractionsof the total debris that were injected into the troposphere ordeposited locally and regionally.
26. The parameters of the empirical model were set bycomparisons with data on tracer radionuclides released insome of the tests at specific times, such as 185W, 109Cd, and54Mn, as well as with the longer-term records of 90Sr. Thefit of the calculation to the 90Sr data in surface air is shown
in Figure IV for the northern hemisphere (upper diagram)and for the southern hemisphere (lower diagram). With theavailable estimates of fission yields of individualatmospheric tests, the model matches rather well themonthly data that show seasonal variations in the con-centrations. The model indicates the total 90Sr inventory inthe hemispheric troposphere. This has been converted to aconcentration with use of a volume parameter of 0.0001Bq m�3 per PBq, empirically determined from the 90Sr datafor mid-latitudes [B1]. Annual average calculated andmeasured concentrations of 90Sr in surface air of the mid-latitude regions are summarized in Table 7.
Figure IV. Strontium-90 concentration in air in the mid-latitude regions.The measurements averaged over several sites are compared with results of the atmospheric model calculation.
27. Measurements of 90Sr in surface air were maderoutinely at a number of locations around the world. Aglobal surface�air monitoring network was maintained bythe United States Naval Research Laboratory from 1957 to1962 [L6] and continued by the Environmental Measure-ments Laboratory of the United States Department ofEnergyfrom 1963 to 1983 [F4]. After 1983, the levels wereundetectable with the methods used. The representativemeasured concentrations of 90Sr in air shown in Figure IV
are derived from averaging the results of several sites inthe mid-latitudes of both hemispheres (see footnotes toTable 7).
28. Some slight deviations between the measured andcalculated results of 90Sr in air may be due to inaccurateestimation of injection amounts or of the initial parti-tioning of debris in the atmosphere or to variations in themeasured results or in the meteorology that may occur
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION164
Cumulative deposit
Cumulative deposit
Annual deposition
Annual deposition
1945
1945
1950
1950
Northern hemisphere
Southern hemisphere
1955
1955
1960
1960
1965
1965
1970
1970
1975
1975
1980
1980
1985
1985
1990
1990
1995
1995
2000
2000
-410
-410
-310
-310
-210
-210
-110
-110
010
010
110
110
210
210
DE
PO
SIT
ION
(PB
q)D
EP
OS
ITIO
N(P
Bq)
310
310
from year to year. Furthermore, the measured results at thechosen representative mid-latitude sites may not berepresentative of the entire hemisphere as calculated fromthe model, particularly for years with relatively largetropospheric injections from low-latitude test sites. Debrisinjected into the equatorial troposphere at low latitudes willlikely remain in a low latitude band due to the Hadleycirculation patterns, as illustrated in Figure II. Somedeviations for tests conducted at high-latitude sites havealso occurred, for example the rapid depletion of the polarstratosphere in 1959 following the 1958 Soviet tests wasindicated by the measurements. Also notable is the absenceof a peak in 1962 in the southern hemisphere followinginjections into the troposphere and stratosphere of theequatorial region from tests in that year. Further deviationsoccur beyond 1980, when the low levels reached by themeasuredconcentrationsbecomeuncertain andsomeenhance-ment from resuspension of ground deposits may becomerelatively more important.
29. Long-term monitoring of 90Sr deposition based onprecipitation sampling was conducted with global networksoperated by the Environmental Measurements Laboratory ofthe United States [H1] and the Harwell Laboratory of theUnited Kingdom [P3]. Quite comparable results wereobtained. An earlier monitoring network based on gummed-film detectors at more than a hundred stations in manycountries was operated from 1952 to 1959 by the Health andSafetyLaboratory, which becametheEnvironmentalMeasure-ments Laboratory, in the United States [H8]. The results ofdeposition densities at individual sites have been averagedwithin latitude bands and multiplied by the area of the bandsto obtain estimates of the hemispheric and global depositionamounts. The annual results are shown in Figure V for thenorthern hemisphere (upper diagram) and southern hemi-sphere (lower diagram) and are compared to the estimatesderived from the atmospheric model. The agreement is quiteclose until the early 1980s, when uncertainties in themeasurements began to increase.
Figure V. Hemispheric depositions of 90Sr determined from global network measurements (points)and from atmospheric model calculations (lines).
30. Using the atmospheric model and the estimated fissionyields of individual tests, it is possible to distinguish thecontributions of the test programmes of individual countries
to the annual deposition of 90Sr. This is illustrated inFigure VI. In the northern hemisphere the contributions fromthe test programme of the United States dominated before
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 165
Measured total
United Kingdom
1945
1945
1950
1950
Northern hemisphere
Southern hemisphere
1955
1955
1960
1960
1965
1965
1970
1970
1975
1975
1980
1980
1985
1985
1990
1990
1995
1995
2000
2000
-510
-510
-410
-410
-310
-310
-610
-610
-210
-210
-110
-110
010
010
110
110
210
210Total
USSR
United States
United StatesFranceChina
DE
PO
SIT
ION
(PB
q)D
EP
OS
ITIO
N(P
Bq)
Measured total
United Kingdom
Total
USSR
United StatesFranceChina
Figure VI. Components of strontium-90 deposition from test programmesof countries calculated from fission yields of tests with the atmospheric model.
1958. From 1959 until 1967 the test programme of the formerSoviet Union contributed the greatest amounts to annual 90Srdeposition, and from 1968 until 1988 the deposition wasprimarily from the Chinese tests. In the southern hemisphere,the annual deposition was greatest from the tests of the UnitedStates before 1964 except for 1957 and 1958, when theequatorial tests of the United Kingdom took place. Sub-sequently, the greatest contributors to annual deposition werethe former Soviet Union during 1965�1967, France during1968�1976, and China during 1977�1988. Owing to slowerremoval ofdebris from inventories in the high atmosphereandupper stratosphere, the deposition of the test programmes ofthe United States and the former Soviet Union predominateagain in the 1990s, although at levels too low to bemeasurable.
31. A summary of the annual hemispheric totals ofmeasured and calculated 90Sr deposition is given in Table 7.The deposition rate of 90Sr was generallygreater by a factor ofabout 5 in the northern hemisphere from 1953 to 1965 andfrom 1977 to 1983. From 1967 to 1977 and since 1985, thefallout rates in both hemispheres have been roughly the same.The model results indicate a total global deposition of
610 PBq. Using the measurement results preferentially, whenavailable, the global deposition amount of 90Sr is unchanged,although the measurements indicate a slightly smallerproportion of the total deposition in the northern hemispherethan indicatedbythecalculations. The previous estimate ofthetotal deposition based on measurement results and measuredcumulative deposition up to 1958 was 604 PBq. Thecalculated results indicate a decay of about 2%�3% of theinjected amount of 90Sr prior to deposition (injected amount160.5 Mt × 3.9 PBq Mt�1 = 626 PBq; deposited amount610 PBq or 97.4% of the injected amount), corresponding toan average residence time of debris in the atmosphere ofabout1.1 years. The measured result of 604 PBq suggests anaverage residence time of about 1.3 years. The globalcumulative deposit reached a maximum in 1967�1972 of460 PBq (Table 7). By the year 2000, this will have decayed to250 PBq.
32. Since most of the atmospheric tests were conducted inthe northern hemisphere, the deposition amounts are greaterthere than in the southern hemisphere. Because of thepreferential exchange of air between the stratosphere andtroposphere in the mid-latitudes of the hemisphere and the air
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION166
circulation patterns in the troposphere, there is enhanceddeposition in the temperate regions and decreased deposition(by a factor of about 2) in the equatorial and polar regions.The latitudinal distribution of 90Sr deposition determinedfromthe global measurements is given in Table 8. This latitudinalvariation is only valid for long-lived radionuclides, for whichmost of the deposition was from debris originally injected intothe stratosphere. As the half-life of the radionuclide decreases,a larger fraction of the fallout was from injections into thetroposphere, sincelarger fractionsofthestratosphericamountsdecayduring the relatively long stratospheric residence times.The variation with latitude for these radionuclides thus willdepend more on the latitude of injection. (The model indicatesthat about 90% of the deposited 90Sr is from stratosphericdebris, while for 95Zr only about one third is due tostratospheric debris and for 131I, less than 5%).
33. With demonstrated good agreement for 90Sr obtainablewith the empirical atmospheric model, the concentrations inair and the deposition of other long-lived radionuclides can becalculated. Previously, estimates were made from ratios to 90Srvalues. The atmospheric model can take better account ofdecay prior to deposition and can start with the fissionproduction values that are independent of estimates for otherradionuclides. The model can be very usefully applied forshort-lived radionuclides that could not be adequatelymonitored at the time the testing occurred. However, becausethe deposition of these short-lived radionuclides is sodependent on the fractions injected into the troposphere andthe amounts of local and intermediate fallout, the modeldeposition estimates are less reliable, and the results need tobe adjusted to agree with available data.
34. The radionuclides produced and globally dispersed inatmospheric nuclear testing that are important from a dosi-metric point of view are listed in Table 9. These are theradionuclides that were also considered in the UNSCEAR1993 Report (Annex B, Table 1) [U3]. For fission radio-nuclides, the production per unit energy released in the testsassumes 1.45 1026 fissions Mt�1. Multiplying by the fissionyield and the decay constant gives the normalized activityproduction. For radionuclides produced in fusion reactions orby activation primarily in thermonuclear tests (3H, 14C, 54Mn,55Fe), the normalized production can be estimated frommeasured inventories in the environment and the associatedtotal fusion energy of all tests. The values for 54Mn and 55Feare those quoted in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3], whichmayyet be adjusted to take into account better estimates of theinventories and the total fusion energyof tests. The productionof transuranic radionuclides has been inferred from ratios to90Sr, as measured in deposition. These values are thus un-changed from previous estimates [U3]. The total productionof radionuclides in atmospheric testing associated with thegloballydisperseddebris (excluding local deposition at the testsites and regional deposition) and based on revised estimatesof fission and fusion energies is given in the last column ofTable 9. The fission yields in Table 9, which are assumed tobe representative of all atmospheric tests, are those forthermonuclear tests, since these contributed over 90% of thedebris. The fission yields for 89Sr and 125Sb has been revised
slightlyfrom those previouslyused [U3], based on the produc-tion ratios for thermonuclear tests reported by Hicks [H6].
35. The input data to the atmospheric model for thecalculation ofworldwide deposition of radionuclidesproducedin atmospheric testing are the fission and fusion yields ofindividual tests (Table 1), the normalized production ofradionuclides (Table 9), and the atmospheric partitioningassumptions (Tables 5 and 6). Because atmospheric transportis seasonal, it is necessary to work with monthly values ofinput and to calculate monthly deposition. For short-livedradionuclides it is necessary to use daily values to adequatelyaccount for decay before deposition. The total annual deposi-tion results are presented in Table 10 for each hemisphere andfor the world. Because thermonuclear fission yields were used,the estimates for years with mostly low-yield tests aresomewhat less certain, since the fission yields for low-yieldtests for some radionuclides vary significantly depending onthe mixture of fissile material used.
36. Only for 90Sr are there adequate measurements ofhemispheric deposition that could be used in place of thecalculated results. Limited data are available for 89Sr from thesampling network of the United States [H7]. Some data onother radionuclides are also available for a few sites duringparticular time periods. There are onlyminor discrepancies incalculated and measured results for 90Sr, but the measuredresults are used preferentially in Table 10, i.e. 1958�1985. Animportant component of the residual global contaminationfrom atmospheric testing is 137Cs. Because of the similarity inthe half-life of 137Cs (30.07 a) and 90Sr (28.78 a), depositionoccurs according to the ratio of fission yields and (inversely)half-lives: 137Cs/90Sr = 1.5. Thus, the estimates of 137Cs inTable 10 are based on this ratio times the measured 90Srdeposition for the period 1958�1985. The estimates for 144Ce,106Ru and 125Sb, 54Mn and 55Fe are based solely on thecalculated results. The calculated results for the refractoryradionuclides, 95Zr, 141Ce, 144Ce, 54Mn, and 55Fe take intoaccount the higher local and intermediate depositiondiscussed earlier. The estimates of annual deposition of 95Zr,91Y, 89Sr, 103Ru, 141Ce, 140Ba, and 131I have been normalized tothe total depositions reported at the bottom of Table 10. Theestimates of total deposition are based on comparisons withavailable data, production ratios, and relative half-lives. Theratios of total deposition for these radionuclides to 90Sr differsomewhat from those reported in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report[U3], because of revised assessment of the available data aswell as an adjustment to account for a greater proportion ofdeposition at low latitudes than assumed earlier.
37. A basic indication of deposition amounts determined bymeasurements and needed in dose calculations is thedeposition density, the activity of deposited radionuclides perunit ground surface area. Global measurements of 90Sr arerelated to the areas of the 10� latitude bands in which themeasurements were made. These areas are given in Table 8.From the evaluated fractional deposition in each band, thetotal hemispheric deposition is apportioned and the depositiondensities determined. By weighting these results with thepopulations in the bands, the population-weighted deposition
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 167
densityfor the hemisphere is obtained. With 89% of the worldpopulation in the northern hemisphere and 11% in thesouthern hemisphere, the hemispheric results may beweighted accordingly to obtain the world average depositiondensity. This latitudinal apportionment is valid only for thelong-lived radionuclides for which most of the depositionoriginated from debris injected into the stratosphere. Forshort-lived radionuclides, for which most of the depositionwas from debris injected into the troposphere, adjustmentsmust be made to account for the increased deposition at lowlatitudes resulting from tests of the United States and theUnited Kingdom in the Pacific. Since the population inthe northern hemisphere is about equally divided betweenlatitudes greater and less than 30�, an increase in the relative
fraction of the deposition below 30� has only a small impact(about 10%) on the population-weighted deposition density.However, because 86% of the population of the southernhemisphere lives between 0��30� latitude and almost all ofthe debris injected into the southern hemisphere tropospherewas at latitudes less than 30�, the value to convert from totaldeposition topopulation-weighteddeposition densityfor short-lived radionuclides (half-lives less than 30 days) for monthsin which the input was primarily from United States tests inthe Pacific would be 6.7 rather than 3.74 (see Table 8). Anintermediate weight of 5.7 based on 75% of the debris fromtropospheric injections and 25% from stratospheric injectionswould be more appropriate for radionuclides with half-lives ofabout 30 to 100 days.
Figure VII. Caesium-137 deposition density in the northern and southern hemispherescalculated from fission production amounts with the atmospheric model.
38. The hemispheric and world average cumulative deposi-tion densities are given in Table 11. The monthly depositionresults from the atmospheric model have been averaged overthe year. The model accounts for decay during the month ofdeposition as well as after deposition. The total deposition forlong-lived radionuclides (half-life >100 d) in the hemisphereis multiplied by the parameters in Table 8 (4.65 and 3.74Bq m�2 per PBq in the northern and southern hemisphere,respectively) to obtain the population-weighted depositiondensities of Table 11. For radionuclides with half-livesbetween 30 and 100 d, and <30 d, factors of 5.7 and 6.7Bq m�2 per PBq, respectively, were used for the southernhemisphere. A value of 4.0 was used for the northernhemisphere for all short-lived radionuclides. The worldaverage is the population-weighted sum of the hemisphericvalues: 0.89 times theaveragepopulation-weighted depositiondensityof the northern hemisphereplus0.11 times the averagepopulation-weighted deposition density of the southernhemisphere. For the long-lived radionuclides, the depositiondensities in particular latitudinal regions maybe obtainedwithuse of the factor given in the last column of Table 8. Forexample, the deposition density for 90Sr in the 40��50�latitude region of the northern hemisphere is 1.5 times thenorthern hemisphere average value.
39. An important component of the residual radiationbackground caused bydeposition of radionuclides produced in
atmospheric testing is that of 137Cs. Calculated depositiondensities of 137Cs in various latitude regions are shown inFigure VII. These levels were perturbed by additionaldeposition from the Chernobyl accident in 1986, especially inEuropean countries.
40. The world average deposition densities of radionuclidesproduced in atmospheric testing are illustrated in Figure VIII.Considerable variations are noted for the short-lived radio-nuclides, and these have by now decayed to negligible levels.When the tests were taking place, the deposition densities ofseveral short-lived radionuclides, especially 144Ce, 106Ru, and95Zr, were highest, but since 1965, 137Cs and 90Sr dominate inthe residual cumulative deposit.
41. The summations of the annual deposition densities ofTable 11 give the integrated deposition densities (Bq a m�2)for the radionuclides. Only for 90Sr and 137Cs are theresignificant contributions beyond the year 2000. The total inTable 11 extended for all time (1945 to infinity) may alsobe obtained from the total deposited amounts (Table 10)multiplied by the mean lives of the radionuclides (1/λ =half-life ÷ ln2) and the appropriate population-weightedconversion factor from Table 8. This demonstrates theconsistency of the annual calculation of deposition and thecumulative deposition density.
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION168
Figure VIII. Worldwide population-weighted cumulative deposition density of radionuclides produced inatmospheric testing. The monthly calculated results have been averaged over each year. Several short-lived
radionuclides with half-lives and deposition patterns intermediate between 140Ba and 95Zr are not shown.
3. Annual doses from global fallout
42. The Committee provided a rough indication of theaverage annual doses to the world population from falloutradionuclides in the UNSCEAR 1982 Report [U6]. For1958�1979, the maximum dose rate was estimated to be0.14 mSv a�1 in 1963, and it had decreased by almost anorder of magnitude by 1979. Using available empiricalmodels, the annual doses can be estimated in much moredetail. The results of this exercise are presented in thisSection.
43. The basic input to dose calculations from falloutradionuclides has been the measured deposition density of90Sr. The measured annual hemispheric deposition amountsfor representative mid-latitude sites are listed in Table 7. Themeasurements, which began in 1958, were continued until1985. By then the stratospheric inventory from atmospherictests was largely depleted. Some of the monitoring sites wereaffected by the Chernobyl accident in 1986. Subsequently, alow, constant level of deposition has been measured thatreflects resuspended soil particles [A4, I5]. Longer-livedradionuclides in global fallout other than 90Sr have also beenmonitored, but they have been present in relatively constantratios to 90Sr. For short-lived radionuclides (half-life <100days), decay before deposition is significant. For theseradionuclides, the pattern of deposition was previously takento be that of 95Zr, with the magnitude estimated from theaverage value of the ratio determined by availablemeasurements. The empirical atmospheric model with inputfrom individual nuclear tests now allows the time course ofdeposition ofall radionuclidesproduced in atmospheric testingto be determined in greater detail and with better generalaccuracy.
44. Thegeneral procedures for deriving dose estimates fromthe measured or calculated deposition densities of radio-nuclides are presented in Annex A, “Dose assessmentmethodologies”. It is only necessary to summarize here thevalues of transfer coefficients needed for the annual dose
evaluations for the various pathways: external, inhalation, andingestion. The transfer coefficients P25 used to evaluate theeffective dose committed by unit deposition density of aradionuclide were given in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report(Annex B, Table 8) [U3].
45. Of the radionuclides contributing to external exposure,only 137Cs has a half-life greater than a few years. For thisradionuclide the depth distribution in soil has been taken tocorrespond to a relaxation length of 3 cm. Previous assess-ments of external doses from fallout assumed a plane sourcedistribution for the other radionuclides [U3, U4]. Thisassumption is now altered to provide a more realistic basis forthe dose estimation. A relaxation length of 3 cm is also usedfor the other long-lived radionuclides (half-lives >100 days).For radionuclides with half-lives between 30 and 100 days, arelaxation length of 1 cm is more appropriate. For the othershort-lived radionuclides (half-lives <30 days), a relaxationlength of 0.1 cm is assumed rather than a plane source, toaccount for ground roughness. The chosen relaxation lengthsare consistent with the values used in the UNSCEAR 1988Report [U5] to estimate external exposures from theChernobyl accident and more adequately reflect the observedpenetration of the radionuclides into the soil with time. Theparameters required to calculate the annual effective dosesfrom external irradiation are summarized in Table 12.
46. For the external irradiation pathway, the effectivedose rate per unit deposition density is derived bymultiplying the dose rate in air per unit deposition densityby the conversion factor 0.7, which relates the dose rate inair to the effective dose, and the occupancy-shieldingfactor, 0.2 fractional time outdoors + 0.8 fractional timeindoors × 0.2 building shielding = 0.36. The averageannual effective dose is then obtained bymultiplying by theaverage annual deposition density.
47. The values of annual doses due to external exposurefrom radionuclides produced in atmospheric testing aregiven in Table 13. The components of the world average
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 169
Cd,i � b1 Fi � b2 Fi�1 � b3��
n�1e �λ
�n Fi�n(1)
Cb,i � c Cd,i � g��
m�0e�λbm Cd,i�m
(2)
external dose are illustrated in Figure IX (upper diagram).The short-lived radionuclide 95Zr, with its decay product95Nb, was the main contributor to external exposure duringactive testing. Of less significance were 106Ru, 54Mn, and144Ce. Beginning in 1966, 137Cs became the most importantcontributor, and presently it is the only radionuclidecontributing to continuing external exposure fromdeposited radionuclides.
48. Several radionuclides contribute to exposure via theingestion pathway. They are listed, along with the transfercoefficients, in Table 12. For the short-lived radionuclides(131I, 140Ba, 89Sr), the exposures occur within weeks or monthsfollowing deposition. For annual dose rates, it is sufficient toassume that the exposures occur evenly over the mean life ofthe radionuclide. The transfer coefficients relating dose rate todeposition density are obtained by dividing the transfercoefficients for the committed dose [U3] by the radioactivemean lives. These are the entries in Table 12.
49. In previous UNSCEAR assessments, exposures via theingestion pathway from the longer-lived radionuclides 90Srand 137Cs have been derived from empirical transfer modelsapplied to the measured deposition densityof 90Sr (the 137Cs to90Sr ratio of 1.5 is used to derive the deposition density of137Cs). The parameters of the models were evaluated fromregression fits to the measured concentrations of theseradionuclides in diet and the human body. These models applyto continuing deposition throughout the year, as occurredduring fallout deposition. Thus, the seasonal variability intransfers to diet is averaged out in a single annual value.
50. The model used to describe the transfer of 90Sr or137Cs from deposition to diet is of the form
where Cd,i is the concentration of the radionuclide in a foodcomponent d or in the total diet in the year i due to thedeposition density rate Fi in the year i, Fi�1 in the previousyear, and the sum of the deposition density rates in allprevious years, reduced by exponential decay. Theexponential decay with decay constant λ� reflects bothradioactive decay and environmental loss of theradionuclide. The coefficients bi and the parameter λ� aredetermined by regression analysis of measured depositionand diet data. The coefficients bi represent the transfer perunit annual deposition in the first year (b1), primarily fromdirect deposition, in the second year (b2), from lagged useof stored food and uptake from the surface deposit, and insubsequent years (b3), from transfer via root uptake fromthe accumulated deposit.
51. The transfer from diet to the human body (bone) for90Sr is described by a two-component model:
where Cb,i is the concentration of 90Sr in bone in the year i, cis a coefficient for short-term retention, and g is a coefficientfor longer-term retention, with removal governed by the decayconstant λb. The parameters c, g, and λb are determined byregression fits to monitoring data.
52. The retention of 137Cs in the body is relatively short-term (retention half-time of around 100 days). The annualdose per unit intake can therefore be expressed by a singletransfer coefficient, P34, which applies to the year of intake.The annual doses from 90Sr and 137Cs in the body areevaluated using the transfer coefficient P45. The values ofthe transfer coefficients used in calculating the annualeffective dose from ingestion of 90Sr and 137Cs, derived fromlong-term monitoring, are given in Annex A, “Doseassessment methodologies”.
53. Further exposure via ingestion of longer-lived radio-nuclides occurs from 55Fe and the transuranium elements. Thedosescommitted from thetransuranium radionuclidesareverysmall, and the contributions to annual doses are negligible. Atransfer model does not exist for 55Fe. Its half-life is only 2.73years; therefore, it is assumed, as for the short-lived radio-nuclides, that the dose-rate transfer coefficient is equal to thecommitment transfer coefficient [U3] divided by the radio-active mean life. This result is entered in Table 12.
54. The components of annual dose via the ingestionpathway from radionuclides produced in atmospheric testingare listed in Table 14 and illustrated in Figure IX (middlediagram). During active testing, 137Cs was the mostsignificant component, owing to its more immediate transferto diet and delivery of dose. Because of the longer-term,continuing transfer of 90Sr to diet and its longer retention inthe body, this radionuclide became the most importantcontributor to dose beginning in 1967. The short-livedradionuclideshave been relativelyinsignificant contributors toingestion exposure (see Figure IX).
55. For the inhalation pathway, exposures depend on theconcentrations of radionuclides in air, but because of theassociation between concentrations in air and depositiondensities through the deposition velocity, the transfercoefficients for the dose from inhalation can be given in termsof the measured deposition densities of the radionuclides.These transfer coefficients, P25, were given in the UNSCEAR1993 Report (Annex B, Table 8) [U3] and are repeated herein Table 12. These are the committed doses per unit intake.The dose from inhalation can be assumed delivered in thesame year that the deposition occurred. Subsequent exposuresfrom resuspension are accounted for in the measured airconcentrations and the derived deposition velocity, andalthough these exposures may continue for a few more years,including all of the exposure in the year of initial depositiondoes not introduce much error.
56. The estimates of annual doses from the inhalation ofradionuclides produced in atmospheric testing are given inTable 15, and several of the components are illustrated inFigure IX (lower diagram). Important contributors to
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION170
Figure IX. Worldwide average doses from radionuclides produced in atmospheric testing.External exposure: Contributions from radionuclides 131I, 140Ba, 144Ce, 106Ru are included with 95Zr;Ingestion exposure: Contributions from 90Sr and 140Ba are included with 131I;Inhalation exposure: Contributions from short-lived radionuclides (131I, 140Ba, 141Ce, 103Ru, 89Sr, 91Y) are included
with 95Zr and from intermediate-lived radionuclides (54Mn, 125Sb, 55Fe) are included with 137Cs.
inhalation exposure were 144Ce, the transuranicradionuclides, 106Ru, 91Y, 95Zr, and 89Sr. Deposition, andthus the concentrations of these radionuclides in air,
dropped rapidly once atmospheric testing ceased in 1980.Even for the long-lived transuranic radionuclides,inhalation exposure became insignificant after 1985.
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 171
57. One further contribution to annual exposures comesfrom the globally dispersed radionuclides 3H and 14C. Inboth cases, there is no external exposure and onlynegligible exposure from inhalation. Exposure arises mostentirely from the ingestion pathway. Global models have
been formulated to describe the dispersion and long-termbehaviours of these radionuclides in the environment.Estimates of the annual doses from 3H and 14C produced inatmospheric testing are included in Table 14 andillustrated in Figure X.
Figure X. Worldwide average dose (mainly from ingestion pathway) from globally dispersed 3H and 14C.
58. The annual doses from tritium have been evaluatedusing the seven-compartment model presented by theUnited States National Council on Radiation Protectionand Measurements (NCRP) [N1]. With volumes andtransfer rates applicable for the hydrological cycle of theworld and intake of water by humans assumed to be 33%from the atmosphere, 53% from surface fresh waters,13.3% from groundwater, and 0.7% from ocean surfacewater (through fish) [N1], the dose per unit release is0.06 nGy PBq�1. Further details of the model are presentedin Annex A, “Dose assessment methodologies”.
59. The annual doses from 14C have been derived using themulti-compartment model described in Annex A, “Doseassessment methodologies”. The estimates are only approxi-mate, since widespread, immediate mixing in large regions
is assumed in the model formulation. To compensate for this,the hemispheric values have been adjusted to an initial ratioof 4 to 1 in the northern and southern hemispheres, reflectingthe deposition pattern of longer-lived radionuclides. This ratiowas maintained through 1970 and then reduced uniformly toa ratio of 1 to 1 by the year 2000, representing assumedcompletion of uniform mixing throughout the world. Thisprocedure provides more realistic estimates of doses in thehemispheres, but does not affect the estimated global average.The average annual global effective dose from 14C producedin atmospheric nuclear testing was at a maximum, 7.7 µSv, in1964 and has decreased by a factor of 4 since that time. Thedose would be estimated to be somewhat less when account istaken of the input of stable carbon into the atmosphere fromfossil fuel burning, which dilutes the 14C.
Figure XI. Contributions of pathways to worldwide average dose from radionuclides produced in atmospheric testing.
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION172
60. The estimates of the total annual effective doses fromradionuclides produced in atmospheric nuclear testing aresummarized in Table 16, and the world average contributionsfrom the main pathways are illustrated in Figure XI. Theseresults are for the hemispheric- and world-population-weighted averages of deposition of fallout radionuclides. Thedoses in more specific regions of the world may be obtainedby adjusting to the latitudinal distribution of depositiondetermined from measurement of 90Sr (Table 8). In thetemperate zones (40��50�), the annual doses from long-livedradionuclides are higher than the hemispheric averages byfactors of 1.5 in the northern hemisphere and 1.65 in thesouthern hemisphere. For the short-lived radionuclides (seeparagraph 37), the distribution with latitude is more uniformin the northern hemisphere, while the doses in the temperatezones of the southern hemisphere are about one third less thanthe hemispheric average. The hemispheric average annualdose was highest in 1963 in the northern hemisphere (0.13mSv) and in 1962 in the southern hemisphere (0.06 mSv).
61. The estimated world average annual dose fromatmospheric nuclear testing was highest in 1963 (0.11 mSv)and subsequently declined to less than 0.006 mSv in the1990s. External exposure generally made the highestcontributions toannual doses, when the annual doses from 14Cand 3H are not included, initially by short-lived radionuclidesand subsequently by 137Cs. Both external and ingestionexposure peaked in 1962. The annual doses at present are duealmost equally to external irradiation (53%) and ingestionexposures (47%). The dose from 14C (30% of the total) nowexceeds that from ingestion of other radionuclides. The dosesyet to be delivered at future times are also indicated inTable 16. The summation of annual doses for all time definesthe dose commitment, which is the dose quantity previouslyevaluated in UNSCEAR assessments of the exposure fromatmospheric nuclear testing [U3]. With use of the modelcalculations, the revised external dose coefficients, and the re-evaluation of the total deposition of short-lived radionuclides,the present dose estimates for some radionuclides differslightly from the previous assessment, although the currentestimated total effective dose commitment to the worldpopulation, 3.5 mSv, is little different from the result given inthe UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3], 3.7 mSv.
4. Local and regional exposures
62. Since atmospheric nuclear tests were conducted inrelatively remote areas, exposures of local populations didnot contribute significantly to the world collective dosefrom this practice. Nevertheless, those individuals livingdownwind of the test sites received greater-than-averagedoses. In addition, individuals who might now or in thefuture occupy contaminated areas of the former test sitescould receive exposures through external or internalpathways. Efforts are being made to evaluate these sites toguide possible rehabilitation and resettlement, and work iscontinuing to reconstruct the exposure conditions and toestimate the local and regional doses that were received atthe time of the tests. Available information was presentedin the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3] and is summarized
here in Table 17. Further results, although still notsystematic and complete, are presented in this Section. Itwill be necessary to add details as the dose reconstructionefforts progress.
63. The locations of several test sites are shown in FiguresXII, XIII, and XIV. The areas within a few hundredkilometres of the site are generally designated as local andthose within a few thousand kilometres, regional. Distances of500 km and 1,000 km from the test sites are delineated in thefigures for reference purposes. The exposed populations weregenerally only those living in downwind, generally eastwarddirections.
(a) Nevada test site
64. The Nevada test site in the United States was thelocation for 86 atmospheric nuclear tests: 83 tests wereconducted from 1951 to 1958, and 3 more tests wereconducted in 1962. Additional cratering tests also injecteddebris into the atmosphere [N10]. Local areas were affectedby relatively few tests, but for those few tests they weremuch more affected than more distant areas of the UnitedStates, which received less deposition and exposure butwere more evenly affected by a larger number of tests. Theexternal exposures to local populations were estimated atthe time of testing to be low; however, public concernabout the health impact of the exposures grew. As aconsequence, rather detailed dose reconstruction projectswere undertaken in the 1980s.
65. Estimates of external exposures from atmospheric testsat the Nevada test site were reported by Anspaugh et al. [A1,A3]. Results were derived from survey meter and film badgemeasurements for 300 communities in the local areas(<300 km) around the test site in Nevada and in southwesternUtah. The distribution of individual cumulative exposures isgiven in Table 18. The effective dose exceeded 3 mSv in 20%of the population of 180,000. The highest effective doses werein the range 60�90mSv, and thepopulation-weighted averagevalue was 2.8 mSv [A1]. The exposures resulted primarilyfrom short-lived gamma-emitters (half-lives <100 days).The estimates were based on outdoor occupancy of 50%and a building shielding factor of 0.5; the usual UNSCEARassumptions are 20% and 0.2, respectively. Most of theexposures resulted from relatively few events; 90% of thecumulative collective dose of 470 man Sv resulted from 17events, the most significant being test Harry on 19 May1953 (180 man Sv), test Bee on 22 March 1955 (70man Sv), and test Smoky on 31 August 1957 (50 man Sv)[A3]. Collective doses that included areas furtherdownwind, encompassing all ofNevada and Utah and partsof several other western states, were estimated to have beeneven greater than for the local area, about 10,000 man Sv,primarily due to the exposure of the large population areasaround Salt Lake City [A7, B9]. All of the United Statesreceived some fallout from Nevada weapons tests [B10].Beck and Krey [B11] reported cumulative doses fromexternal exposure averaged about 1 mSv to persons livingin the midwest and east of the country.
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 173
Ujae
Ujelang
Enewetak
Lae
Ebadon
Wotho
BikiniRongerik
RongelapAilinginae Taka Utirik
Bikar
MejitLemoLikiep
RoiKjawalein
Lib
NamuJabwot
Jaluit
KiliNamorik
Mili
Ebon
ButaritariMakin
KIRIBATI
Majuro ArnoAilinglapalap
Aur
Maloelap
Erikub
Wotje
M A R S H A L L
I S L A N D S
1010
5
170
170165
N O R T H
P A C I F I C
O C E A N
Ailuk
MARSHALLISLANDS
Equator
NORTHPACIFICOCEAN
SOUTHPACIFICOCEAN
FED. STATESOF MICRONESIA
Wake Island(USA)
Guam(USA)
NorthernMarianaIslands(USA)
PAPUANEW GUINEA
VANATU FIJI
KIRIBATI
TUVALU
NAURU
SOLOMONISLANDS
CoralSea
66. Internal exposures resulting from atmospheric testingat the Nevada test site have been estimated from depositionmeasurements and an environmental transfer model [K2,W2]. Absorbed doses to organs and tissues from internalexposure were substantially less than those from externalexposure, with the exception of the thyroid, in which 131Ifrom ingestion of milk contributed relatively higher doses.Estimates of absorbed doses in the thyroid of 3,545 locallyexposed individuals ranged from 0 to 4.6 Gy; the averagewas 98 mGy and the median 25 mGy [T4]. Fiveindividuals received absorbed doses greater than 3 Gy, andall of them drank milk from a family-owned goat [T4]. Thecollective absorbed dose to the thyroid of the population ofstates in the western United States was estimated to be140,000 man Gy [A7]. An extensive study has beencompleted by the National Cancer Institute of the UnitedStates of thyroid doses in all counties of the United Statesfrom 131I deposition following the atmospheric tests inNevada [B6, N10]. The individual thyroid doses ranged upto 100 mGy in local areas. For the entire population of theUnited States, the estimate was 20 mGy, with a collectiveabsorbed dose of 4 106 man Gy. Although not involvingexposure, it should be noted that plutonium migration from
an underground nuclear test conducted at the Nevada TestSite was detected 30 years following the test in a groundwater monitoring well 1.3 km from the test location [K12].In this very arid region, no migration had been anticipated.The authors concluded that colloid-facilitated transport wasimplicated in the field findings.
(b) Bikini, Enewetak test sites
67. An extensive nuclear test programme was conductedby the United States at locations in the Pacific (Table 1).The test resulting in the most significant local exposureswas the thermonuclear test Bravo on 28 February 1954 atBikini Atoll. Unexpectedly heavy fallout occurred in thelocal area eastward of the atoll (Figure XII). Within a fewhours of the explosion, fallout particles descended onRongelap and Ailinginae atolls, 200 km from Bikini,exposing 82 persons. The Japanese fishing vessel LuckyDragon was also in this area, and 23 fishermen wereexposed. Farther east, exposures occurred at RongerikAtoll (28 United States servicemen) and Utrik Atoll (159persons). These individuals were evacuated within a fewdays of the initial exposures.
Figure XII. Bikini and Enewetak test sites.The inner dotted circle indicates a distance of 500 km, the outer dashed circle 1,000 km from the test sites.
68. Average external exposures from the Bravo test, mainlyfrom short-lived radionuclides, ranged from 1.9 Sv onRongelap (67 persons, including 3 in utero), 1.1 Sv onAilinginae (19 persons, including 1 in utero), and 0.1 Sv onUtrik (167 persons, including 8 in utero) [L4]. The collectivedose from the exposures received by these individuals beforeevacuation was, therefore, 160 man Sv. Thyroid doses fromseveral isotopes of iodine and tellurium and from external
gamma radiation were estimated to be 12 Gy on average(42 Gy maximum) to adults, 22 Gy (82 Gy maximum) tochildren of 9 years, and 52 Gy (200 Gy maximum) to infantsof 1 year [L4].
69. The external exposure from the Bravo test to theservicemen on Rongerik Atoll was 0.8 Sv [L4]. For the 23Japanese fishermen, the external exposures from the fallout
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION174
Semipalatinsk
Almaty
Bishkek
Ulaanbaatar
G A N S U
A L T A I
Barnaul
Irkutsk
Ulan-Ude
Bratsk
Xining
Yinchuan
Lanzhou
Chengdu
Lop Nor
New Delhi
Urümqi
Korla
KashiKashi
KYRGYZSTAN
R U S S I A
C H I N A
I N D I A
KAZAKHSTAN
Burqin
Aqmola
Golmud
90
45
30
105
105
M O N G O L I A
45
30
75 90
deposition on deck ranged from 1.7 to 6 Sv, mostly receivedon the first day of the fallout but continuing for 14 days, untilthe ship arrived in its port [C9]. The thyroid doses to thefishermen were estimated to have been 0.2�1.2 Gy from 131I,based on external counting, but since other short-lived iodineisotopes were also present, the total doses to the thyroid frominhalation during a period of five hours were estimated tohave been 0.8�4.5 Gy [C9].
70. There seem to have been no other tests that causedsignificant exposures to the population in the Pacific region.The populations of the atolls where tests were conducted hadbeen relocated prior to the testing. Exposures to residualradiation levels on Utrik and Rongelap atolls to residents whoreturned to these islands in 1954 and 1957, respectively, wereof the order of 20�30 mSv over the following 20�year periodfrom external irradiation and 20�140 mSv from internalexposure [C9]. During the temporary resettlement of BikiniAtoll from 1971 to 1978, total whole-body exposures wereestimated to have been 2�3 mSv a�1 [G5]. A radiologicalsurvey of residual radiation levels, primarily due to globalfallout deposition, was conducted throughout the Marshall
Islands in 1994 [S2], and more detailed surveys have beenmade of Bikini and Enewetak atolls, in order to evaluateeventual permanent resettlement [I4, R1]. Estimated effectivedoses caused by residual contamination to persons who mightreturn at present to Bikini Atoll were estimated to be 4 mSvwith a diet composed of both local and imported foods andabout 15 mSv for a diet of local origin only [I4]. Tests at otherlocations in the Pacific(ChristmasIslandandJohnston Island)were conducted in the high atmosphere, and there was littlelocal fallout deposition.
(c) Semipalatinsk test site
71. The Semipalatinsk test site is located in the northeastcorner of Kazakhstan (see map in Figure XIII). At thislocation, 456 nuclear tests were conducted, including 86atmospheric and 30 surface tests [M2]. The most affectedlocal populations lived mainly east and northeast of the testsite, in the Semipalatinsk region of Kazakhstan and the Altairegion of the Russian Federation. After some tests, traces ofradioactive contamination were also formed in southern andsoutheastern directions [G8].
Figure XIII. Lop Nor and Semipalatinsk test sites.The inner dotted circle indicates a distance of 500 km, the outer dashed circle 1,000 km from the test sites.
The measurement areas in Gansu Province (for Lop Nor) and the Altai Region (for Semipalatinsk)are shown within elliptical areas.
72. Two tests were most significant in exposing thepopulation of Kazakhstan: the first test on 29 August 1949and the first thermonuclear test on 12 August 1953. These and
two additional test (on 24 September 1951 and 24 August1956) are stated in [G8] to have contributed 85% of the totalcollective effective dose from all tests. There are several
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 175
Emu
Derby
Wyndham
Alice Springs
Cooktown
Cairns
TownsvilleCloncurry
Rockhampton
Charleville
Bourke
Porto Augusta
Geraldton
Coolgardie
Albany
Ashburton
Dariing
MonteBello
Islands
Maralinga
Perth
Darwin
CAPEYORK
Brisbane
Sidney
CANBERRA
Q U E E N S L A N D
N O R T H E R NT E R R I T O R Y
S O U T H A U S T R A L I A
N E W S O U T HW A L E S
W E S T E R NA U S T R A L I A
Melbourne
Adelaide
132
132
144
144
1212
24
36
24
36
120
120
Adelaide
documents listing doses at specific locations for thepopulation in Kazakhstan [G8, S7, T1], but the presentedresults differ markedly. Example results from the latestpublication [S7] of accumulated effective doses for severaldistricts indicate effective doses in the range from 0.04 to2.4 Sv. The collective effective dose for ten districts isestimated to be 3,000�4,000 man Sv [S7]. The absorbed doseto the thyroid from the ingestion of radioiodines is quiteuncertain, but is estimated to be as high as 8 Gyto children inthe Akbulak settlement [S7].
73. The Altai region of the Russian Federation is about200 km from the Semipalatinsk Test Site. This populationexperienced exposure following about 40 explosions [S8].The most significant exposure was caused by the nucleartest of 29 August 1949 with other major exposuresfollowing tests on 3 September 1953, 1 August 1962, 4August 1962, and 7 August 1962. Effective doses of about2 Sv are estimated to have occurred in the Uglovski districtfollowing the 1949 test. The total collective dose to allresidents in 58 districts with a total population of 1.9million persons is estimated to be 42,000 man Sv [S8].
74. The results for Kazakhstan and the Altai region inthe Russian Federation must at present be regarded withcaution. There are significant discrepancies among thereported results for Kazakhstan, and the reported resultsfor the Altai region differ markedly when derived frommeasured results or model calculations. Validation ofresults based upon contemporary measurements of 137Cs
deposition density might be useful in resolving some ofthese discrepancies.
75. Investigation of residual contamination levels at theSemipalatinsk site has begun. In 1993�1994, an inter-national team performed a preliminary survey of the testsite and surrounding area [I9]. More significantly con-taminated areas were found at ground zero locations andsurrounding Lake Balapan. Projected annual doses wereestimated to be 10 mSv, mainly from external exposure, toindividuals making daily visits to these sites and 100 mSvto those who might permanently reside at these locations.Present annual effective doses to persons living outside thetest site boundaries were estimated to be of the order of0.1 mSv from residual contamination levels.
(d) Novaya Zemlya test site
76. The test site Novaya Zemlya in the Russian Arctic islarge and remote. Although an extensive atmospheric testprogramme was conducted there, most of the tests werecarried out at high altitudes, thus minimizing local fallout.There was one test with a 32 kt yield on the land surface on7 September 1957 [M2]. In addition, there were two testson the surface of the water and three tests underwater atthe site. Research programmes to investigate residualcontamination both on- and off-site have been initiated. Itmay be that reindeer herders and those who consumereindeer meat received low internal exposures, primarilyfrom 137Cs, that could be attributed to tests at this site.
Figure XIV. Maralinga, Emu and Monte Bello test sites.The inner dotted circle indicates a distance of 500 km, the outer dashed circle 1,000 km from the test sites.
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION176
(e) Maralinga, Emu test sites
77. The nuclear weapons testing programme of the UnitedKingdom included 21 atmospheric tests at sites in Australiaand the Pacific. The tests in the Pacific at Malden and theChristmas Islands in 1957 and 1958 were airbursts over theocean (six tests with submegatonne and megatonne yields) orexplosions of devices suspended by balloons at 300�450 mover land (one test of 24 kt and two tests each with 25 ktyield) [D2]. Local fallout would have been minimal followingthose tests. Twelve tests were conducted from 1952 to 1957 atthree sites in Australia: Monte Bello Islands, Emu, andMaralinga, which are shown on the map in Figure XIV.These were mainly surface tests with yields of 60 kt or less.For each of these tests, trajectories of the radioactive cloudwere determined, and local and countrywide monitoring ofairand deposition was performed [W1]. Estimates of externalexposures in local areas were not made for the earlier tests; forthe tests in 1956 and 1957, the external effective doses wereless than 1 mSv [W1]. The sizes of local populations were notindicated. Estimates of internal exposures were also made forthe entire Australian population. The average effective dosewas 70 µSv, and the collective effective dose was 700 man Svin this population [W1]. A number of safety tests wereconducted at the Maralinga and Emu sites in South Australia,resulting in the dispersal of 239Pu over some hundreds ofsquare kilometres. The potential doses to local inhabitants ofthese areas have been evaluated [D1, H2, W3]. Followingrehabilitation of the Maralinga test site it is estimated thatpotential doses to future inhabitants living a semi-traditionalnomadic lifestyle will be less than 5 mSv [D1].
(f) Algerian, Mururoa, Fangataufa test sites
78. The French nuclear testing programme began with fourlow-yield surface tests at a site near Reggane in the AlgerianSahara in 1960 and 1961 [D3]. There is no information onlocal exposures following these tests. Some residualcontamination remains at this site and at a nearby site, InEcker, where 13 underground tests were conducted. Smallquantities of plutonium were dispersed at these sites fromsafety experiments, which involved conventional explosivesonly. Investigations of the present radiation levels andpotential exposures of individual whomight utilize these areashave been initiated by the IAEA.
79. The subsequent programme of France was conducted atthe uninhabited atolls of Mururoa and Fangataufa in FrenchPolynesia in the South Pacific. Most of these tests involved thedetonation of devices suspended from balloons at heights of220�500 m [D3], limiting local fallout. Radiological monitor-ing has been conducted at surrounding locations. The closestinhabited atoll is Tureia (140 persons) at a distance of 120 kmto the north; only 5,000 persons lived within 1,000 km of thetest site. A larger population (184,000 persons in 1974) islocated 1,200 km to the northwest, at Tahiti. Under theconditions that normally prevail at the test site, radioactivedebris of the local and tropospheric fallout was carried to theeast over uninhabited regions of the Pacific. On occasion,however, some material was transferred to the central South
Pacific within a few days of the tests by westerly movingeddies. French scientists [B8] have identified five tests, follow-ing which regional population groups were more directlyexposed (Table 19). A single rain-out event caused exposuresin Tahiti after the test of 17 July 1974. Exposures resultedmainly from external irradiation from deposited radio-nuclides. Milk production on Tahiti is sufficient for onlyabout20% of local needs, and consumption is in any case low,which limited ingestion exposures. Estimated effective dosesto maximally exposed individuals after all five events were inthe range 1�5 mSv in the year following the test. A collectiveeffective dose of 70 man Sv was estimated for all localexposures at this test site. Estimates of exposures were basedon more extended measurements that were made beginning in1982. In that year the external exposures in the region were inthe range 1�10 µSva�1, internal exposures were 2�32 µSva�1,and total exposure was 3�33 µSv a�1, due mostly to residual137Cs deposition from global fallout. The collective effectivedose was estimated to be about 1 man Sv in 1982 for all ofFrench Polynesia [R2]. An international investigation of thepresent radiological conditions at Mururoa and Fangataufawas conducted during 1996�1998 [I7]. Residual contamina-tion levels were, on the whole, found to be negligibly low.Small areas with surface contamination from plutonium exist,but it was regarded as only remotely conceivable that aplutonium-containing particle could enter the body of anindividual, e.g. through a cut in the skin. Plutonium, tritium,and caesium in the sediments of the lagoons were consideredunlikely to cause non-negligible exposures at present or in thefuture to any repopulated individuals or to residents of otherislands throughout the Pacific region [I7].
(g) Lop Nor test site
80. The Chinese nuclear weapons testing programme wascarried out at the Lop Nor test site in western China,shown on the map in Figure XIII; 22 atmospheric testswere conducted between 1964 and 1980. Limitedinformation is available on local deposition following thetests. Balloons were used to follow the trajectory of thedebris clouds, and airborne and ground-based instrumentswere used to monitor the radiation levels. Estimates ofexposures were made over a downwind area to a distanceof 800 km [Z1]. Estimates of external exposures in cities ortowns within 400�800 km of the test site in GansuProvince ranged from 0.02 to 0.11 mSv (Table 20), with anaverage of about 0.04 mSv for three tests, which accountedfor over 90% of the dose from all Chinese tests [Z1].Indoor occupancy of 80% and a building shielding factorof 0.2 were assumed. A retrospective dose evaluation basedon soil sampling was conducted in 1987�1992 [R4]. Thedose commitment from 137Cs was estimated to range from1.5 to 10 mSv in the northwest Ganzu province.
B. UNDERGROUND TESTS
81. Testing of nuclear weapons underground was begunin 1951 by the United States and in 1961 by the formerSoviet Union. Following the limited nuclear test ban treaty
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 177
of 1963, which banned atmospheric tests, both countriesconducted extensive underground test programmes. TheUnited Kingdom participated with the United States in afew joint underground tests. The underground test pro-grammes of France and China continued until 1996. Indiaconducted a single underground test in 1974 and fivefurther tests in 1998. Pakistan reported conducting six testsin 1998. A comprehensive test ban treaty was formulatedin 1996, but it has not yet been ratified by all countries orentered into force. Thus, it cannot yet be said that thepractice of underground weapons testing has also ceased.
82. The number of underground tests (Figure I, upperdiagram) has greatly exceeded the number of atmospherictests, but the total yield of the former (Figure I, lowerdiagram) has been much less. The largest underground testshad a reported yield of 1.5�10 Mt (27 October 1973, atNovaya Zemlya by the former Soviet Union) [M2] and lessthan 5 Mt (6 November 1971 at Amchitka, Alaska, by theUnited States) [D4], but most tests have been of a much loweryield, particularly if containment of nuclear debris wasdesired. Only with venting or diffusion of gases following thetests, as has happened on occasion, could local populations beexposed.
83. Underground test programmes were summarized in theUNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3] and the resultant exposureswere estimated. No further information has become availablethat could allow exposure estimates to be improved. It wouldbe desirable to have a more complete list of those tests inwhich venting occurred and estimates of the amounts ofradioactive materials thereby dispersed in the atmosphere.Thirty-twounderground tests conducted at the Nevada test sitewere reported to have led to off-site contamination as a resultof venting [H3].
84. The number of underground tests requires revision,based on recentlypublished information [D4, M2]. Severaltests involved the simultaneous detonation of two or morenuclear charges, either in the same or in separate boreholesor tunnels. These so-called salvo tests were done forreasons of efficiency or economy, but they also deterreddetection by distant seismic measurements. The testsusually involved two to four charges; the maximumnumber was eight. Since each charge has now beenidentified, they can be properly specified as separate tests.The annual numbers of underground tests conducted byeach country are given in Table 21. The total number oftests by all countries is 1,876.
85. The yields of individual underground tests have notbeen directlyspecified. Manyare simply reported to be withina range of energies, for example <20 kt or 20�150 kt. Theannual yields of underground tests at all locations have beencompiled by the National Defense Research Establishment inSweden [N6]. These estimates were included in theUNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3]. The total yield of all testsconducted through 1992 was 90 Mt. The yields ofsubsequent tests have not altered this total amount. Thetotal yield of all underground tests conducted by the former
Soviet Union has been reported to be 38 Mt [M2]. Theyields apportioned to other countries are listed in Table 22.
86. Table 22 provides a summary listing of all nuclearweapons tests, both atmospheric and underground. Thetotal number of tests was 2,419; this includes the twocombat explosions of nuclear weapons in Japan and anumber of safety tests. The latter had no nuclear yield, buttheyare conventionally included in listings ofnuclear tests.The total yield of all tests was 530 Mt.
C. PRODUCTION OF WEAPONSMATERIALS
87. In addition to weapons testing, the installationswhere nuclear materials were produced and weapons werefabricated were another source of radionuclide releases towhich local and regional populations were exposed. Someinformation on this practice was presented in theUNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3]. Especially in the earliestyears of this activity, the pressures to meet productionschedules and the lack of stringent waste dischargecontrols resulted in higher local exposures than in the lateryears. Efforts are being made to evaluate the exposures thatoccurred during all periods in which these installationsoperated. Although it may not be possible to systematicallyevaluate all such exposures, newly acquired information issummarized in this Section. Also, at some sites, weaponsare now being dismantled.
1. United States
88. Nuclear weapons plants in the United States includedFernald, in Ohio (materials processing); Portsmouth, in Ohio,and Paducah, in Kentucky (enrichment); Oak Ridge, inTennessee (enrichment, separations, manufacture of weaponsparts, laboratories); Los Alamos, in New Mexico (plutoniumprocessing, weapons assembly); Rocky Flats, in Colorado(manufacture of weapons parts); Hanford, in Washington(plutonium production); and Savannah River, in SouthCarolina (plutonium production). There are many more sitesat which such operations were conducted and wastes werestored or disposed. It has been estimated that there are some5,000 locations in the United States where contamination byradioactive materials has occurred, not all of which areassociatedwith weaponsmaterialsproduction [W4]. Estimatesof releases of radioactive materials during the periods ofoperation of the nuclear installations are summarized inTable 23. Also listed are the exposures estimated to have beenreceived by the local populations. This information might beextended when studies now underway are concluded, thusallowingbetter documentation ofthehistorical exposures fromthis practice.
2. Russian Federation
89. There were three main sites where weapons materialswere produced in the former Soviet Union: Chelyabinsk,Krasnoyarsk, and Tomsk. Relatively large routine releases
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION178
occurred during the early years of operation of thesefacilities. In additions, accidents have contributed to thebackground levels of contamination and to the exposure ofindividuals living in the local and regional areas.
(a) Chelyabinsk
90. The Mayak nuclear materials production complex islocated in the Chelyabinsk region between the towns ofKyshtym and Kasli near the eastern shore of Lake Irtyash.Uranium-graphite reactors for plutonium production anda reprocessing plant began operating in 1948. Relativelylarge discharges of radioactive materials to the Techa Riveroccurred from 1949 to 1956 [D5]. The available informa-tion on exposures to the local population was summarizedin the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3].
91. Estimates of releases of radionuclides during the earlyyears of operation of the Mayak complex are presented inTable 24. Controls of releases were introduced in the early1960s. The maximum releases in airborne effluents, primarily131I, occurred from 1949 to 1956 [D6]. During the sameperiod, the discharges of radionuclides into the Techa Riveroccurred [D5, K3]. Of the 100 PBq released from 1949 to1956, 95 PBq were released in 1950 and 1951. Along with thefission products listed in Table 24, plutonium isotopes werealso released.
92. The individuals most highly exposed from the releasesto the Techa River were residents of villages along the river,who used the water for drinking, fishing, waterfowl breeding,watering of livestock, irrigation of gardens, bathing, andwashing. In April-May 1951, a heavy flood resulted incontamination of the flood plain used for livestock grazingand hay making. The collective dose to the most exposedpopulation from 1949 to 1956 was 6,200 man Sv (Table 25).Doses from external irradiation decreased in 1956, whenresidents of the upper reaches of the river moved to newplaces and the most highly contaminated part of the floodplain was enclosed. For some inhabitants, however, the TechaRiver contamination remains a significant source of exposureup to the present time.
93. On 29 September 1957, a fault in the cooling system ofa storage tank containing liquid radioactive wastes led to achemical explosion and a large release of radionuclides. Thetotal activitydispersed off-site over the territoryof the Chelya-binsk, Sverdlovak, and Tyumen regions was approximately74 PBq. The composition of the release is indicated inTable 24. Although the release was characterized mainly byrather short-lived radionuclides (144Ce, 95Zr), the long-termhazard was due primarily to 90Sr. An area of 23,000 km2 wascontaminated at levels of 90Sr greater than 3.7 kBq m�2 [N8].In 1957, 273,000 people lived in the contaminated area. Ofthem, 10,000 lived where the 90Sr deposition densityexceeded74 kBq m�2 and 2,100 where the levels were over3,700 kBq m�2. In areas where 90Sr contamination exceeded74 kBq m�2, the population was evacuated, and relocated firstfrom the most severelyaffected area within 7�10 days and theremaining population over the next 18 months. The main
pathways of exposure following the accident were externalirradiation and internal exposure from the consumption oflocal food products.
94. The Mayak complex was responsible for furtherexposure of the local population in 1967, when water recededfrom Lake Karachy, which had been used for waste disposal,and the wind resuspended contaminated sediments from theshoreline. The dispersed material, about 0.022 PBq, consistedmainly of 137Cs, 90Sr, and 144Ce (Table 24). The contaminatedarea, defined as having levels of 90Sr greater than 3.7 kBq m�2
and of 137Cs greater than 7.4 kBq m�2, extended 75 km fromthe lake. Approximately 40,000 people lived within this areaof 2,700 km2. The exposures from external irradiation and theconsumption of local foods were considerably less than thosefollowing the 1957 storage tank accident.
95. Present levels of exposure associated with operation ofthe Mayak complex have been estimated from the residualcontamination [K4]. For internal exposure, the average (andrange) of daily consumption of food were determined to bemilk 0.7 (0.5�1.0) kg, meat 0.14 (0.09�0.18) kg, bread 0.36(0.27�0.52) kg, potatoes 0.57 (0.2�1.0) kg, vegetables 0.24(0.14�0.43) kg, fish 0.05 (0.03�0.11) kg, mushrooms 0.02(0.01�0.03) kg, and berries 0.04 (0.01�0.06) kg [K4]. Thesevalues were used with the concentrations given in Table 26 toestimate the average annual dose from internal exposure of100 µSv. Average annual dose from external exposure isestimated to be 10 µSv. For the population of 320,000surrounding the Mayak complex, the annual collectiveeffective dose from present operations (1993�1996) isestimated to be 35 man Sv (Table 27).
(b) Krasnoyarsk
96. The Krasnoyarsk nuclear materials production complexis located about 40 km from the city of Krasnoyarsk. The firsttwo reactors at Krasnoyarsk were direct-flow typecommissioned in 1958 and 1961. A third, closed-circuitreactor, was commissioned in 1964. A radiochemical plant forirradiated fuel reprocessing began operation in 1964. In 1985,a storage facility for spent fuel assemblies from reactors in theSoviet republics of Russia and Ukraine was put into service.There are plans to reprocess this fuel from the civilian nuclearfuel cycle in the future at the Krasnoyarsk site.
97. Radioactive wastes discharges from the Krasnoyarskcomplex enter the Yenisei River. Trace contamination can befound from the complex to the estuary, about 2,000 km away[V1]. An estimate of the collective dose from radioactivedischarges of the Krasnoyarsk complex during 1958�1991 ispresented in Table 25 [K5]; the estimate is derived from dataon the content of radionuclides in water, fish, flood plain, andother components of the river ecosystem [N9, V1]. On thewhole, the collective dose was about 1,200 man Sv. The mostimportant contributor (70%) tothisdosewasfish consumption[K6]. External exposure from the contaminated flood plainaccounted for 17% of the collective dose. The main radio-nuclides contributing to the internal dose from fish consump-tion were 32P, 24Na, 54Mn, and 65Zn. The main contributor to
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 179
the external dose (over 90%) was gamma-emitting radio-nuclides, primarily 137Cs, 60Co, and 152Eu. Individual doses tothe population varied over a wide range, from 0.05 to2.3 mSv a�1. The main portion of the collective dose (about84%) was received by the population living within 350 km ofthe site of the radioactive discharges.
98. In 1992, the direct-flow reactors of the Krasnoyarskcomplex were shut down. This considerably reduced theamount of radioactive discharges to the Yenisei River, and theannual collective dose to the population was decreased by afactor of more than 4. Present estimates of average doses(1993�1996) are 30 µSv a�1 (external) and 20 µSv a�1
(internal). With a local population of 200,000, the annualcollective effective dose is estimated to be 10 man Sv(Table 27).
(c) Tomsk
99. The Siberian nuclear materials production complex islocated in the town of Tomsk-7 on the right bank of the TomRiver 15 km north of the city of Tomsk. The Siberiancomplex was commissioned in 1953. It is the largest complexfor the production of plutonium, uranium, and transuranicelements in the Russian Federation. The Siberian complexincludes five uranium-graphite production reactors that beganoperation in 1958�1963, enrichment and fuel fabricationfacilities, and a reprocessing plant [B7].
100. Radionuclides in liquid wastes are discharged into theTom River, which flows into the Ob River. An estimate of thecollective dose from radioactive discharges of the Siberiancomplex from 1958 to 1992 is presented in Table 25. Theexposure pathways considered in the dose evaluation were theingestion of fish, drinking water, waterfowl, and irrigatedproducts and external exposure from the contaminated floodplain. The collective effective dose was estimated to be 200man Sv. The largest contributor (73%) to this dose was fishconsumption. The main radionuclides contributing to theinternal dose from fish consumption were 32P and 24Na. Thelargest portion of the collective dose (about 80%) was receivedby the population living within 30 km of the site of radioactivedischarges.
101. In 1990�1992, three of the five reactors of the Siberiancomplex were shut down. This considerably reduced theamount of radioactive discharges to the Tom River and theannual collective dose to the population. The average annualdoses to the local population are estimated to be 0.4 µSv(external) and 5 µSv (internal). For the local population of400,000, the collective effective dose at present (1993�1996)is estimated to be 2.2 man Sv (Table 27).
102. On 6 April 1993, an accident occurred at theradiochemical plant of the Siberian complex that resulted inthe release of radioactive materials [B7, G6, I6]. A narrowtrace of radioactive contamination 35�45km longwas formedin a northeasterly direction from the complex (based on traceconcentrations of 95Zr and 95Nb in soil). The total area of thecontamination with dose rate levels at the time of the accidenthigher than the natural radiation background was estimated
to be about 100 km2 [M8]. The dominant radionuclides insnow samples from the contaminated area were 95Zr, 95Nb,106Ru, and 103Ru. Traces of 239Pu and 144Ce were also detected.A non-uniformity of contamination was noted, with thepresence of hot particles in the composition of radioactivematerials deposited on the snow. There are no populatedplaces in the area of the pattern, except for the village ofGeorgievka, which has a population of 73 persons (including18 children). The cumulative dose from external exposure tothe inhabitants of Georgievka from the accident during 50years of permanent residence will amount to 0.2�0.3 mSv[B7], which is negligible, compared to the dose from naturalbackground radiation over the same period.
3. United Kingdom
103. The production of nuclear materials and thefabrication of weapons began in the 1950s in the UnitedKingdom. The work was carried on for several years atsites such as Springfields (uranium processing and fuelfabrication), Capenhurst (enrichment), Sellafield (produc-tion reactors and reprocessing), Aldermaston (weaponsresearch), and Harwell (research). Subsequently, workrelated to the commercial nuclear power programme wasincorporated at some of these sites. In the earliest years ofoperation of these installations, the radionuclide dischargesmay be associated almost wholly with the military fuelcycle.
104. Plutonium production reactors were operated in theUnited Kingdom at Sellafield (two graphite-moderated,gas-cooled reactors known as the Windscale piles) and,later, at Calder Hall on the Sellafield site and Chapelcrossin Scotland. A fire occurred in one of the Windscalereactors in 1957, resulting in the release of radionuclides,most notably 131I, 137Cs, 106Ru, 133Xe, and 210Po. The promptimposition of a ban on milk supplies in the affected regionreduced exposures to 131I. The collective effective dose fromthe accident was estimated to be 2,000 man Sv.
4. France
105. A nuclear programme in France began in 1945 with thecreation of the Commissariat à l'Energíe Atomique (CEA).The nuclear research laboratoryat Fontenay-aux-Roses beganactivities in the following year. The first experimental reactor,named EL1 or Zoé, went critical in 1948, and a pilotreprocessing plant began operation in 1954. A secondexperimental reactor, EL2, was constructed at the Saclaycentre. From 1956 to 1959, three larger production reactorsbegan operation at the Marcoule complex on the Rhône River.Thesegas-cooled, graphite-moderated reactors, designatedG1,G2, and G3, operated until 1968, 1980, and 1984. A full-scalereprocessing plant, UP1, was built and operated from 1958,also at the Marcoule site. Two more plants to reprocess fuelfrom commercial reactors were constructed at La Hague in thenorth of France: UP2, completed in 1966, and UP3, in 1990.
106. Although some systematic reporting of radionuclidedischarge data is available beginning in 1972 [C10], some
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION180
of this may reflect the reprocessing of commercial reactorfuel. It should be possible to estimate plutonium productionamounts at the various installations, and some reports ofenvironmental monitoring (e.g. [M9]) maygiveindicationsof early operating experience.
5. China
107. A nuclear weapons development programme wasinitiated in China that led to the first nuclear explosion of thatcountry, conducted in 1964. The Institute of Atomic Energywas created in 1950. The first experimental reactor wasconstructed in Beijing, and a uranium enrichment plant wasbuilt at Lanzhou in Ganzu Province in western China. Thefirst nuclear test was of an enriched uranium device. Pluton-
ium production and reprocessing were conducted at theJiuquan complex, also located in Ganzu Province. Theproduction reactor began operation in 1967 and thereprocessing plant in 1968. Production and reprocessing alsooccurred in Guangyuan in Sichuan Province, where largerinstallations were constructed. The weapons were assembledat the Jiuquan complex.
108. Assessment of exposures from nuclear weaponsproduction in China have been reported by Pan et al. [P4,P5, P6]. Exposures to populations surrounding specificinstallations were estimated. This experience relates to themilitary fuel cycle, since the commercial nuclear powerprogramme started only in the last decade.
II. NUCLEAR POWER PRODUCTION
109. The Committee has routinely collected data on releasesof radionuclides from the operation of nuclear fuel cycleinstallations. In the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3], anoverview was provided of annual releases of radionuclides forthe general types of reactors and other fuel cycle installationssince the beginning of the practice of commercial nuclearpower generation. Data for individual mines, mills, reactors,and reprocessing plants were given for the years 1985�1989.In this Annex, the data for another five-year period,1990�1994, anda three-year period, 1995�1997, areassessed.
110. Thegeneration ofelectrical energybynuclear meanshasgrown steadily from the start of the industry in 1956. Therelatively rapid rate of expansion that occurred from 1970 to1985, an increase in energy generation of more than 20% peryear, slowed to a pace averaging just over 2% per year from1990 to 1996 [I1]. At the end of 1997, there were 437 nuclearreactors operating in 31 countries. The total installed capacitywas 352 GW, and the energygenerated in 1997 was 254 GW a[I1]. It is projected [I1] that nuclear energy will continue tosupplyabout 17%ofthetotal electrical energygenerated in theworld, as at present, or possibly a few percent less.
111. The nuclear fuel cycle includes the mining andmilling of uranium ore and its conversion to nuclear fuelmaterial; the fabrication of fuel elements; the production ofenergy in the nuclear reactor; the storage of irradiated fuelor its reprocessing, with the recycling of the fissile andfertile materials recovered; and the storage and disposal ofradioactive wastes. For some types of reactors, enrichmentof the isotopic content of 235U in the fuel material is anadditional step in the fuel cycle. The nuclear fuel cycle alsoincludes the transport of radioactive materials between thevarious installations.
112. Radiation exposures of members of the public resultingfrom discharges of radioactive materials from installations ofthe nuclear fuel cycle were assessed in previous UNSCEARreports [U3, U4, U6]. In this Annex, the trends in normalized
releases and the resultant doses from nuclear reactor operationare presented for the years 1970�1997. The doses areestimated using the environmental and dosimetric modelsdescribed in Annex A, “Dose assessment methodologies”.
113. The doses to the exposed individuals vary widely fromone installation to another, between different locations andwith time. Generally, the individual doses decrease markedlywith distance from a specific source. To evaluate the totalimpact of radionuclides released at each stage of the nuclearfuel cycle, the results are evaluated in terms of collectiveeffective dose per unit electrical energy generated, expressedas man Sv(GW a)�1. Onlyexposures to members of the publicare considered in this Annex. Occupational exposuresassociated with nuclear power production are included inAnnex E, “Occupational radiation exposures”.
A. MINING AND MILLING
114. Uranium mining involves the removal from theground of large quantities of ore containing uranium andits decay products. Underground and open-pit mining arethe main techniques. Underground mines produced 40% ofthe world´s total uranium production in 1996 and open-pitmines, 39% [O1]. Uranium is also mined using in situleaching, which produced 13% of the world uranium in1996 [O1]. The remaining 8% was recovered as a by-product of other mineral processing. Milling operationsinvolve the processing of the ore to extract the uranium ina partially refined form, known as yellowcake.
115. Uranium mining and milling operations are con-ducted in several countries. Production in recent years isgiven in Table 28. In 1997 about 90% of world uraniumproduction took place in 9 countries: Australia, Canada,Kazakhstan, Namibia, Niger, the Russian Federation,South Africa, the United States, and Uzbekistan. It is notedthat oversupply, leading to large stockpiles and low prices,
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 181
has led to considerable reductions in output since 1989[O1]. However, beginning in 1995, production of uraniumwas substantially increased in some countries, mainlyAustralia, Canada, Namibia, Niger, and the United States.The world production in 1997 was 35,700 t uranium.
1. Effluents
116. There are few new data on releases of radionuclides,mainly radon, in mining and milling operations. Limiteddata for underground mines, based on concentrations inexhaust air, were given in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report[U3] for Australia, Canada, and Germany. There were noestimates of releases in open-pit operations. For under-ground mines the release of radon, normalized to theproduction of uranium oxide (U3O8), ranged from 1 to2,000 GBq t�1, with a production-weighted average of 300GBq t�1. Based on the estimated uranium (fuel) require-ments for the reactor types presently in use, 250 t uraniumoxide are required to produce 1 GW a of electrical energy[U3]. This leads to an average normalized radon releasefrom mines of approximately 75 TBq (GW a)�1.
117. In the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3], the averagenormalized radon release from mills in Australia andCanada, also from the limited data available, was estimatedto be 3 TBq (GW a)�1 [U3]. These values are not expectedto change with current mining and milling practices. Formining operations in arid areas, liquid effluents areminimal, and radionuclide releases via this pathway areestimated to be of little consequence.
118. The mining and milling processes create variouswaste residues in addition to the uranium product. Thetailings consist of the crushed and milled rock from whichthe mineral has been extracted, together with anychemicals and fluids remaining after the extractionprocess. The long-lived precursors of 222Rn, namely 226Ra(half-life 1,600 a) and 230Th (half-life 80,000 a), present inthe mill tailings provide a long-term source of radonrelease to the atmosphere. Based on available data, theradon emission rates were estimated in the UNSCEAR1993 Report [U3] to be 10 Bq s�1 m�2 of tailings during theoperational phase of the mill (assumed to be five years) and3 Bq s�1 m�2 from abandoned but stabilized tailings(assumed period of unchanged release of 10,000 years).Assuming that the production of a mine generates about1 ha (GW a)�1, the normalized radon releases are 3 and1 TBq (GW a)�1 for the operational and abandonedtailings, respectively. The in situ leach facilities have nosurface tailings and little radon emissions after closure.Release estimates from mining and milling operations aresummarized in Table 29.
119. In a recent study of eight major uranium productionfacilities in Australia, Canada, Namibia, and Niger [S6],measured emission rates were reported to range frombackground to 35 Bq s�1 m�2 from the tailings of presentlyoperating mills. Following decommissioning, therelease ratesare at present or are expected to be no more than 7 Bq s�1 m�2
[S6]. For many of the uranium mill tailings, the long-termmanagement involvessubstantial water-saturatedcover,whichreduces the radon emission rate to 0�0.2 Bq s�1 m�2. Takinginto account present tailings areas yet to be rehabilitated withgood present techniques and the anticipated future practice,the emission rate from abandoned mill tailings can beassumed to be less than 1 Bq s�1 m�2. This value is adopted forthe present evaluation. The previous estimate was 3 Bqs�1 m�2 [U3]. For comparison, the average emission ratecorresponding to soils in normal background areas is 0.02Bq s�1 m�2 [U3].
2. Dose estimates
120. The methodologyused bythe Committee toestimate thecollective dose from mining and milling is described in theUNSCEAR 1977 and 1982 Reports [U4, U6]. The doseestimate is based on representative release rates from a modelmine and mill site having the typical features of existing sites.An air dispersion model is used to estimate the radonconcentrations from releases as a function ofdistance from thesite, and the most common environmental pathways areincluded to estimate dose. Thus, the results are not applicableto any given site without duly considering site-specific databut are meant to reflect the overall impact of mining andmilling facilities.
121. The previously estimated exposures for the model mineand mill site assumed population densities of 3 km�2 at0�100 km and 25 km�2 at 100�2,000 km. The collectiveeffective dose factor for atmospheric discharges in a semi-aridarea with an effective release height of 10 m was 0.015man Sv TBq�1 [U3], based on the dose coefficient for radon of9 nSv h�1 per Bq m�3 (EEC). As the dilution factor at 1 kmhas been reduced from 3 10�6 to 5 10�7 s m�3, the dose per unitrelease of radon becomes 0.0025 man Sv TBq�1. Using thisfactor, the collective effective dose per unit electrical energygenerated is estimated to be 0.2 man Sv (GW a)�1 duringoperation of the mine and mill and 0.00075 man Sv (GW a)�1
per year of release from the residual tailings piles. For theassumed 10,000-year period of constant, continued releasefrom the tailings, the normalized collective effective dosebecomes 7.5 man Sv (GW a)�1 (Table 29). The variousrevisions in the parameters have led to a considerablereduction from the previously estimated value of 150 man Sv(GW a)�1 [U3].
122. An alternative assessment of exposures from milltailings has been proposed in a study prepared for theUranium Institute [S6]. In this study, site-specific datarelating to currently operating mills in four countries(Australia, Canada, Namibia, and Niger) were utilized.Differences from the UNSCEAR results arise from the useof a more detailed dispersion model, much-reducedpopulation densities (<3 km�2 within 100 km and from 2 to7 km�2 in the region between 100 and 2,000 km), and moreambitious future tailings management with substantialcovers to reduce radon emissions. The overall result (adjust-ing for the radon dose coefficient of 9 nSv h�1 per Bq m�3, asused above) is 1.4 man Sv (GW a)�1 over a 10,000-year
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION182
period, which although less by a factor of 5, it is in reason-able agreement with the estimate derived in the previousparagraph.
123. In France, exposures from mill tailings at Lodevemining site were assessed considering measurements ofradon releases prior toand after remediation [T6]. Calcula-tions were based on a Gaussian plume dispersion model,and actual population densities of 63 km�2 at 0�100 kmand 44 km�2 at 100�2,000 km were used. Before re-mediation the average measured flux was found to be28 Bq m�2 s�1. The average annual effective dose toindividuals within 10 km from the tailings was assessed tobe about 20 µSv. Considering that 12,850 tonnes ofuranium were extracted during the whole duration ofprocessing, the collective effective dose to the populationliving within 2,000 km of the tailings and over a period of10,000 years was estimated to be 380 man Sv (GWa)�1.This value is much higher than the estimate of the previousparagraph, which is due to higher radon fluxes andpopulation densities and to the different atmosphericdispersion model. After remediation of the site, the radonfluxes were found not to be different from the background,and the collective dose was assess to be almost zero.
124. For the model mining and milling operations, theannual release of radon is of the order of 80 TBq (GW a)�1
(Table 29). With annual average production of 4,000 t inthe main producing countries (Table 28: 36,000 t mostlyfrom 9 countries) and assuming the collective dose isreceived by the population within 100 km from the mineand mill sites (3 km�2 to 100 km = 90,000 persons), theannual dose is estimated to be about 40 µSv [4,000 t ÷250 t (GW a)�1 × 80 TBq (GW a)�1 × 0.0025 man Sv TBq�1
÷ 90,000 persons]. This dose rate would be imperceptiblefrom variations of the normal background dose rate fromnatural sources.
125. The Committee recognizes that considerable devia-tions are possible from the representative values ofparameters selected for the more general conditions ofpresent practice. For example, much higher populationdensities are reported in areas surrounding the mills inChina [P4], and previously abandoned tailings may nothave been so carefully secured as is evidently possible.Although careful management of tailings areas would beexpected in the future, the extremes of leaving the tailingsuncovered to providing secure and covered impoundmentcould increase or decrease the estimated exposure by atleast an order of magnitude. Further surveys of site-specificconditions would be useful to establish realistic parametersfor the worldwide practice.
B. URANIUM ENRICHMENT AND FUELFABRICATION
126. For light-water-moderated and -cooled reactors (LWRs)and for advanced gas-cooled, graphite-moderated reactors(AGRs), the uranium processed at the mills needs to be
enriched in the fissile isotope 235U. Enrichments of 2%�5%are required. Before enrichment, the uranium oxide (U3O8)must be converted to uranium tetrafluoride (UF4) and then touranium hexafluoride (UF6). Enrichment is not needed forgas-cooled, graphite-moderated reactors (GCRs) or heavy-water-cooled and -moderated reactors (HWRs).
127. In fuel fabrication for LWRs (PWRs and BWRs) andAGRs, the enriched UF6 is chemically converted to UO2. TheUO2 powder is sintered, formed into pellets, and loaded intotubes (cladding) of Zircaloy and stainless steel, which aresealed at both ends. These fuel rods are arranged in arrays toform the reactor fuel assemblies. The fuel pins for HWRs areproduced from natural uranium or slightly enriched uraniumsintered into pellets and clad in zirconium alloy. The naturaluranium metal fuel for GCRs is obtained by compressing theUF4 with shredded magnesium and heating. The reduceduranium is cast into rods that are machined and inserted intocans.
128. The releases of radioactive materials from theconversion, enrichment, and fuel fabrication plants aregenerallysmall and consist mainlyof uranium series isotopes.Available data from operating installations were reported inthe UNSCEAR1993 Report [U3]. For the model installations,the normalized collective effective dose from these operationswas estimated to be 0.003 man Sv (GW a)�1. Inhalation is themost important exposure pathway. The collective doses fromliquid discharges comprise less than 10% of the totalexposure.
C. NUCLEAR REACTOR OPERATION
129. The reactors used for electrical energy generation areclassified, for the most part, by their coolant systems andmoderators: light-water-moderated and -cooledpressurized orboiling water reactors (PWRs, BWRs), heavy-water-cooledand -moderated reactors (HWRs), gas-cooled, graphite-moderated reactors (GCRs), and light-water-cooled, graphite-moderated reactors (LWGRs). These are all thermal reactorsthat use the moderator material to slow down fast fissionneutrons to thermal energies. In fast breeder reactors (FBRs),there is no moderator, and the fission is induced by fastneutrons; the coolant is a liquid metal. FBRs are making onlyminor contributions to energy production. The electricalenergy generated by these various types of reactors from 1970through 1997 is illustrated in Figure XV and the data since1990 for individual reactor stations are given in Table 30 [I3].
130. The Committee derives average releases of radio-nuclides from reactors based on reported data, and theseaverages are used to estimate the consequent exposures for areference reactor. Mathematical models for the dispersion ofradionuclides in the environment are used to calculate, foreach radionuclide or a combination of radionuclides, the dosesresulting from released activity. The geographical location ofthe reactor, the release points, the distribution of thepopulation, food production and consumption habits, and the
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 183
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Figure XV. Contributions by reactor type to total electrical energy generated worldwide by nuclear means.
environmental pathways of radionuclides are factors thatinfluence the calculated dose. The same release of activityandradionuclide composition from different reactors can give riseto different radiation doses to the public. Thus, the calculatedexposures for a reference reactor provide only a generalizedmeasure of reactor operating experience and serve as astandardized parameter for analysing longer-term trends fromthe practice.
1. Effluents
131. Theradioactivematerials released in airborneand liquideffluents from reactors during routine operation are reportedwith substantial completeness. The data for 1990�1997 areincluded in Tables 31�36: noble gases in airborne effluents(Table31), tritium in airborne effluents (Table32), iodine-131in airborne effluents (Table 33), particulates in airborneeffluents (Table 34), tritium in liquid effluents (Table 35), andradionuclides other than tritium in liquid effluents (Table 36).Each table also includes a summary of the total releases andthe normalized releases (amount of radionuclide released perunit electrical energy generated) for each year of the five-yearperiod 1990�1994 and for the three-year period 1995�1997for each type of reactor and for all reactors together. Averagenormalized releases of radionuclides from each reactor type infive-year periods beginning in 1970 and for the three-yearperiod 1995�1997 are presented in Table 37.
132. The normalized releases have traditionally beencompiled for each reactor type. This is justified by thedifferent composition of the releases, e.g. for noble gases, 41Arfrom GCRs and krypton and xenon isotopes from other typesof reactors. In this case, different dose factors are required toestimate the doses. For other release components, e.g. 14C or131I, there may be no inherent differences between reactortypes, and atypical releases from one or a few reactors maydominate the normalized release values. In this case, theaverage normalized releases reflect only the prevailingoperating experience, which cannot be taken as representativeof the releases from a particular reactor type. With relativelycomplete data, little extrapolation is needed for estimating the
collective doses from the total releases, and the normalizedvalues are retained by reactor type mainly for convenience.
133. The release experience of individual reactors duringthe last five-year period (1990�1994) is evaluated inFigure XVI and shown as the characteristic distributions ofthe different reactor types. All reactors with relativelycomplete entries in Tables 31�36 (four or five years of datafor both release amount and energygenerated) are includedin the figures. Each point has been derived from the totalrelease of the radionuclide in 1990�1994 divided by theelectrical energy generated in the same period. Thisevaluation of normalized release partly eliminatesvariations in annual values during the five-year period.There are, however, substantial differences in values fromone reactor to another. Some factors affecting releases ofradionuclides include the integrity of the fuel, the wastemanagement systems, and procedures and maintenanceoperations conducted during the period of interest.
134. To obtain the characteristic distribution diagrams, thedata are put in ranked order. The cumulative fractional valueof point i of n points is specified as i/(n + 1). The inverse ofthe standard normal cumulative distribution ofeach fractionalpoint is then derived. The value expresses the standarddeviation of the data point from the centre of the distribution.In Figure XVI, the abscissa has been transformed to apercentage scale (0 = 50%, 1 SD = 84.14%, 2 SD = 97.73%,etc.). With a logarithmic scale on the ordinate, a straight lineindicates a log-normal distribution. A steep slope indicateswide variations in the data. Breaks in the line indicateseparate subpopulations of the available data. Outlier pointsare readily identified in these plots.
135. The distribution of normalized releases from reactorsare approximately log-normal, often with a wide distributionof the data. The normalized releases of noble gases(Figure XVI) span seven orders of magnitude. There may besome differences in the composition of noble gases reported inairborne effluents, particularly the short-lived isotopes. The
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION184
Radionuclides other than tritiumin liquid effluents
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Figure XVI. Normalized release of noble gases, tritium, iodine-131 and particulates in airborne effluentsand tritium and other radionuclides in liquid effluents from reactors during 1990�1994.
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION186
distributions for PWRs and BWRs are similar, but withdeviations to higher normalized releases from BWRs in theupper range of the distribution. The highest values for BWRsare from the reactors Big Rock Point, Ringhals 1, and Tarapur1�2, ranging from 3,400 to 41,000 TBq (GW a)�1. The meanvalue for all BWRs is 18 TBq (GW a)�1. The distributions forGCRs and HWRs are similar and somewhat higher than thosefor PWRs and BWRs.
136. The normalized releases of tritium in airborne effluents(Figure XVI) are less wide ranging. The distributions forPWRs and BWRs are identical; the distribution for GCRs issomewhat higher, with fewer values available, however. Thedistribution for HWRs is much higher, reflecting the largeamounts of tritium produced in the moderator of thesereactors. Among HWRs, those in Canada and the reactorsFugen, Embalse, and Wolsong 1 are all below 800 TBq(GW a)�1, while Karachi, Atucha 1, and the Indian reactorsare at higher values.
137. The distribution of 131I releases in airborne effluents(Figure XVI) are quite wide and are somewhat higher forBWRs and HWRs than for PWRs. There are fewer values forGCRs; however, when several reactors with data for threeyears in 1990�1994 are included, the distribution is similar tothat of BWRs and HWRs.
138. The distributions of particulate releases are also shownin Figure XVI. The strikingly high values in Table 34 for theSwedish BWR Ringhals 1 in 1994 and 1995 are attributableto damage in fuel elements beginning in 1993 and a problemin delaying releases of radionuclides entering turbine room air[N3]. These releases were to a large extent due to rather short-lived nuclei. Nuclei with half-lives of less than 83 minutesgave rise to98% of the released activity. Authorized dischargelimits were not exceeded; the atmospheric releases reached amaximum of 36% of the total dose limit for individuals(0.1 mSv a�1) of the hypothetical critical group. The averagevalue for 1990�1994 for this reactor [17 TBq (GW a)�1] is thehighest in the distribution for BWRs (Figure XVI). Relativelyhigh values [0.04�0.1 TBq (GW a)�1] were also derived forthe BWRs Forsmark 1�3, Tarapur 1�2, and Oskarshamn1�3. The distributions ofparticulate releases are verydifferentfor the different reactor types and are somewhat higher forBWRs and GCRs than for PWRs.
139. Normalized releases of tritium in liquid effluents(Figure XVI) are fairly uniform about the mean values formost of the reactors. The distribution for BWRs is lowest andfor HWRs, highest. Intermediate are the distributions forPWRs and GCRs. The mean value for the group is about1 TBq (GW a)�1. The GCRs seem to form two distributions,with newer reactors at the higher end and the older reactors atthe lower end, the opposite of the case for the noble gasreleases. The HWRs are gathered about a mean normalizedrelease of tritium in liquid effluents of about 400 TBq(GW a)�1; at the lower extreme is the Pickering 5�8 station[28 TBq (GW a)�1] and at the higher end [1,100�3,700 TBq(GW a)�1] are Bruce 1�4, Kalpakkam 1�2, and Atucha 1.
140. A wide range (eight orders of magnitude) is necessaryto illustrate the normalized releases of radionuclides otherthan tritium in liquid effluents (Figure XVI); this may be aresult of the radionuclides identified and of the hold-up timesprovided in the waste treatment systems. The distributions aresimilar, although that for GCRs is somewhat higher. A dualityin the GCR distribution is again noted, this time taking thepattern for noble gases mentioned above (higher normalizedreleases from the older reactors).
141. The radionuclide composition of releases has beenexamined for the various reactor types. In general, thereleases of noble gases from PWRs are dominated by 133Xe,with a half-life of 5.3 days, but short-lived radionuclides suchas 135Xe (half-life = 9.2 h) are also present. For the BWRs thecomposition of the noble gas releases is more varied, withmost krypton and xenon radionuclides included. The releasesof particulates from BWRs are also variable and difficult togeneralize from the limited data available. The radionuclides88Rb (half-life = 17.8 min), 89Rb (half-life = 15.2 min), 138Cs(half-life = 33.4 min), and 139Ba (half-life = 83.1 min) wereprominent in the large releases mentioned above from theRinghals 1 reactor. The radionuclide compositions of liquidreleases from PWRs seem to vary from reactor to reactor; thecobalt isotopes (58Co, 60Co) as well as the caesium isotopes(134Cs, 137Cs) are usually present. In some cases, large relativeproportions of 110mAg and 124Sb are reported. It may be thatsome differences are accentuated by the various measuringand reporting practices at reactor stations.
142. The longer-term temporal trends in normalized releasesof radionuclides for the various reactor types are illustrated inFigure XVII. The trends are shown for the time designated“pre-1970" to 1994, averaged over five-year time periods, andfor the three-year period from 1995 to 1997. Except for theatmospheric releases of particulates, the normalized releasesare either fairly constant or slightlydecreasing. The increasedrelease of particulates to air reflects the operation of a specificreactor and is not characteristic of all reactors.
2. Local and regional dose estimates
143. The concentrations of the released radionuclides in theenvironment are generally too low to be measurable exceptclose to the nuclear facility and then for a limited number ofradionuclides only. Therefore, dose estimates for the popula-tion (individual and collective doses) are generally based onmodelling the atmospheric and aquatic transport and environ-mental transfer of the released radioactive materials and thenapplying a dosimetric model.
144. The environmental and dosimetric models previouslyused for dose estimates were described in the UNSCEAR1982 and 1988 Reports [U4, U6]. Based on the review inAnnex A, “Dose assessment methodologies”, the values of thedose coefficients for some radionuclides have been revised.The dose assessment procedures are applied to a model sitewith representative environmental conditions. The averagepopulation density is 20 km�2 within 2,000 km of the site.Within 50 km of the site, the population density is taken to be
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 187
Pre 1970 1970-1974 1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1997
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Figure XVII. Trends in releases of radionuclides from reactors.Values of 1970�1974 are assumed to apply prior to 1970.
400 km�2. For the model site the collective effective doses perunit release (man Sv PBq�1) for the different releasecategories and reactor types are presented in Table 38.Because of the variability in annual releases, normalizedreleases [TBq (GW a)�1] have been averaged over a five-yearperiod (Table 37) to assess the collective dose.
145. The collective effective dose per unit electrical energygenerated [man Sv (GW a)�1] is obtained by multiplying thenormalized releases per unit electrical energy generated
(Table 37) by the collective effective dose per unit release(Table 38). The resulting estimates for 1990�1994 are givenin Table 39. The total normalized collective effective dose forall reactors, weighted bythe relative energyproduction ofeachreactor type (Table 39), is 0.43 man Sv (GW a)�1. Theradionuclide releases were generally similar to those thatprevailed in the preceding five-year assessment period [U3],but revisions in the dose coefficients have reduced thenormalized collective effective dose by a factor of 3.
Figure XVIII. Local and regional collective effective doses from average annual releases of radionuclidesfrom reactors. The increasing trend in electrical energy generated is indicated with scale on left in units of GW a.
146. From the total energy generated and the normalizedcollective dose, the local and regional collective dose from theoperation of nuclear power plants during 1990�1994 isestimated to be 490 man Sv. During 1985�1989 thecorresponding collective dose was 390 man Sv. This is anincrease of just over 25%, which is nearly the same as theincrease in the energy generated by nuclear reactors(1985�1989: 936 GW a; 1990�1994: 1,147 GW a). Toreduce the effect of variability in annual releases, thecalculation of the collective dose is based on normalizedreleases averaged over five-year periods (Table 37). However,
outliers in the data set can still have a substantial impact onthe dose estimate. If, for example, the particulate releases fromthe Ringhals 1 reactor are excluded, the corresponding doseestimates will be 0.39 man Sv (GW a)�1 and 450 man Sv,respectively. However, this point could not be taken out of thedata set without examining other possible outliers for1990�1994 and for earlier years.
147. It should be noted that the average normalized dosesderived here may not apply to specific reactors of a particulartype. There may be further variations in release compositions,
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION188
population densities, and local environmental pathways thatcould significantlychange the collective dose contributions. Ina few cases, reactor operators report estimates of doses to localresidents based on possible exposure scenarios. The data have,however, not been collected or assessed by the Committee.
148. The temporal trends of the local and regional collectiveeffective doses for the different radionuclide categories over alonger time are shown in Figure XVIII. The collective dosefrom 131I has decreased for a number of years, and thisdecrease continues for the latest five-year and three-yearperiods. The collective doses from tritium (airborne andliquid), 14C, and particulates have been increasing through the1990�1994 period. Overall, the total collective dose has beenrelatively constant since 1970�1979, even though theelectrical energy generated has continuously increased.
149. For the model site, the annual average effective doses toindividuals, estimated from the release data and assuming thetotal collective dose for a reactor type exposes a single localpopulation group (400 km�2 to 50 km), are 5 µSv for PWRsand GCRs, 10 µSv for BWRs and HWRs, 2 µSv for LWGRs,and 0.04 µSv for FBRs. In comparison, reported annualindividual doses from a number of reactor sites are in therange 1�500 µSv.
D. FUEL REPROCESSING
150. Fuel reprocessing is carried out to recover uranium andplutonium from spent fuel for reuse in reactors. Most spent
fuel from reactors is retained on-site in interim storage,pending decisions on ultimate disposal or retrievable storage.Only about 5%�10% of fuel is submitted to the reprocessingstage of the nuclear fuel cycle. The main commercial repro-cessing plants are in France, Japan, and the United Kingdom.
1. Effluents
151. Relatively large quantities of radioactive materials areinvolved at the fuel reprocessing stage. The radionuclides arefreed from their contained state as the fuel is brought intosolution, and the potential for release in waste discharges isgreater than for other stages of the fuel cycle. Routine releaseshave been largely in liquid effluents to the sea. Operatingstandards have been considerably improved at these plantsover the years, with substantial reductions occurring inreleased amounts.
152. Some revisions and additions have been made to therelease quantities previously reported by the Committee. Also,more direct data on fuel throughput, which were previouslyestimated from 85Kr discharges, are available. Therefore, theannual release data for fuel reprocessing plants from 1970through 1997 are given in Table 40. The average normalizedreleases per unit of energy generated in five-year periods(except for 1970�1979, a 10-year period) are summarized inTable 41 and shown in Figure XIX. It can be observed thatthe releases to both air and sea of most radionuclides havebeen decreasing over the long term. This is particularly so forthe releases of 106Ru, 90Sr, and 137Cs to the sea and for 137Csand 131I to the air (Table 41).
Figure XIX. Trends in releases of radionuclides from fuel reprocessing plants.Average values ere derived for 1970-1979 and assumed to apply also prior to 1970.
2. Local and regional dose estimates
153. Collective doses from nuclear fuel reprocessing can beestimated from the normalized releases per unit of energygenerated, the electrical energy equivalent of the fuelreprocessed, and the collective dose per unit release ofradionuclides [U3]. This analysis is given in Table 41. For theentire period of fuel reprocessing, the total collective effective
dose is estimated to be 4,700 man Sv. Liquid releases of 137Cscontributed 87% of the total dose. The collective effective dosefrom each radionuclide is shown in Figure XX. In the mostrecent five-year period (1990�1994) the dose from 14Cexceeded that from 137Cs. During the 1980s and 1990s, thecollective dose from fuel reprocessing has been decreasing,even though the amount of fuel reprocessed has beenincreasing (Figure XX).
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 189
Figure XX. Local and regional collective effective doses from average annual release of radionuclides fromfuel reprocessing plants. The amount of fuel reprocessed is indicated by the heavy dashed line (units GW a).
154. From the data provided in Table 41, it may bedetermined that the annual components of collective dosefrom fuel reprocessing are of the order of 20�30 man Sv. Ifthis were received only by a single local population (3.1 106
persons within 50 km), the effective dose commitment toindividuals would be about 10 µSv per year of operation. Thisdose commitment is delivered over a longer-term, especiallyfrom 14C, and is distributed, as well, among separate installa-tions (in three countries).
E. GLOBALLY DISPERSED RADIONUCLIDES
155. Radionuclides that are sufficiently long-lived and easilydispersed in the environment can give rise to global doses.The radionuclides of specific interest are 3H, 14C, 85Kr, and129I, with half-lives of 12.26, 5,730, 10.7, and 1.6 107 years,respectively. The large uncertainties involved in estimatingdoses over prolonged time periods are due to problems inpredicting environmental pathways, population distributions,dietary habits, climate change, etc. The uncertainties of dosecalculations increase when the integration is carried out forvery long periods of time, hundreds or thousands of years oreven longer. In this assessment, as was done for the case ofcollective dose from mill tailings, the global dosecommitments are truncated at 10,000 years.
156. The normalized releases of the globally dispersedradionuclides given in Tables 37 and 41 are summarized inTable 42. From the electrical energy generated or the energyequivalent offuel reprocessed, the total activityrelease of theseradionuclides may be calculated (Table 43). Applying thefactors of collective dose per unit release to these results givesestimates of the collective effective dose commitments(Table 44). For the very long-lived radionuclides (14C and129I), a world population of 1010 was assumed at the time of the
release, and for 3H and 85Kr, a population of 5 109 wasassumed.
157. The total collective effective dose per unit electricalenergy generated is obtained from the normalized releasesfrom reactors and reprocessing plants (Table 42) and thefactors of collective dose per unit release (as revised inAnnex A, “Dose assessment methodologies”). In normalizingto the total energy generated, the contribution from thereprocessing plants is weighted according to the fraction of thefuel reprocessed (0.11 for 1990�1994). The estimates of thenormalized collective dose commitments are 41 and 43man Sv (GW a)�1 for 1990�1994 and 1995�1997,respectively, which are due mostly to 14C (Table 44).
158. The commitment calculations may be used to indicatethe maximum dose rate for a continuing practice. The 14Ccollective dose commitment (10,000 years) based on presentpractice is roughly 40 man Sv (GW a)�1. This means that acontinuing practice of 250 GW a energyproduction each yearinto the future, as at present, would result in an maximumdose rate of 1 µSv a�1 [40 man Sv (GW a)�1 × 250 GW a/a ÷1010 persons]. A limited practice of nuclear power generationwould result in progressively less annual dose, e.g. a 100 or200 year practice would cause 0.1 or 0.16 µSv a�1,respectively (1950�2000 actual practice with 50 or 150 yearprojected releases as at present). This is illustrated inFigure XXI.
159. In a similar fashion, the maximum dose rates for theother globally dispersed radionuclides may be determined.These are of the order of 0.1 µSv a�1 for 85Kr and 0.005µSv a�1 for 3H and 129I. For limited duration practice, themaximum annual dose rates reached will be less. These arethus negligible annual dose rates for these globally dispersedradionuclides.
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION190
100-year practice
200-year practice
1950 2050 2100 2150 220020000
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
-1E
FF
EC
TIV
ED
OS
ER
AT
E(
Sv
a)
µ
Figure XXI. Average annual dose rate from globally dispersed 14C released from nuclear installations based onactual practice 1950�2000 and projection of current releases for the duration of the practice.
The equilibrium annual dose rate for a constant, continuing practice is 1 µSv a�1.
F. SOLID WASTE DISPOSALAND TRANSPORT
160. Solid wastes arise at various stages of the nuclear fuelcycle. They include low- and intermediate-level wastes,mainly from reactor operations, high-level wastes from fuelreprocessing, and spent fuel for direct disposal. Low- andintermediate-level wastes are generallydisposed ofbyshallowburial in trenches or concrete-lined structures, but there arealsomoreadvanceddisposal sites. High-level wastesand spentfuel are retained in interim storage tanks until adequatesolutions for disposal have been devised and disposal siteshave been selected.
161. Doses from solid waste disposal have been estimatedbased on the projected eventual migration of radionuclidesthrough the burial site into groundwater. These estimatesdepend criticallyon the assumptions used for the containmentof the solid wastes and the site characteristics and are,accordingly, highly uncertain in a general sense. Theapproximate normalized collective effective dose from low-and intermediate-level waste disposal is, however, quite low,of the order of 0.5 man Sv (GW a)�1, due almost entirely to14C [U3, U4].
162. A repository for high-level waste and spent fuel has notyet been constructed. The radiological impact assessment ofsuch a repository has to rely on modelling of the long-termbehaviour of the waste packages and the migration of releasedradionuclides near the site and at greater distance over a longperiod of time. To carry out such performance assessments, anumber of site-specific data, including waste characterizationand transport models, are needed. Such assessmentshavebeenperformed, mainly to help in formulating design criteria forthe hypothetical repositories.
163. The transportation of radioactive materials of varioustypes between nuclear fuel cycle installations may causemembers of the public who happen to be near the transport
vehicles to be exposed. Doses can be estimated only byapplyinghypothetical assumptions. Aconservativeestimateis,in this case, of the order of 0.1 man Sv (GW a)�1 [U4].
164. Decommissioning of nuclear facilities gives rise toradioactive waste, and some experience is accumulating. Theinformation available indicates that exposures of the publicfrom the decommissioning practice will be very small.
G. SUMMARY OF DOSE ESTIMATES
165. The normalized collective effective doses to members ofthe public from radionuclides released in the various stages ofthe nuclear fuel cycle are summarized in Table 45. The localand regional collective dose in the twomost recent assessmentperiods is 0.9 man Sv (GW a)�1. The largest part of this doseis received within a limited number of years after the releasesand is mainly due to the normal operation of nuclear reactorsand mining operations. The global dose, which is estimatedfor 10,000 years, amounts to 50 man Sv (GW a)�1. The maincontribution is from globally dispersed 14C (reactors andreprocessing). The longer-term trends in collective effectivedoses per unit electrical energy generated show decreases,attributable to reductions in the release of radionuclides fromreactors and fuel reprocessing plants. The components ofnormalized collective effective dose have decreased by muchmore than an order of magnitude for releases fromreprocessing plants, bya factor of 7 for releases from reactors,and by a factor of 2 for globally dispersed radionuclides,compared to the earliest assessment period, 1970�1979.
166. The local and regional collective dose from thebeginning of nuclear power production can be derived fromthe normalized collective doses (Table 45) and the electricalenergy generated in each period (Table 43). The result isabout 5,000 man Sv from fuel reprocessing, 3,000 man Svfrom reactor operations, and 900 man Sv from mining and
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 191
milling. This analysis is summarized in Table 46. In recentyears, the annual total from all these operations amounts to200 man Sv received by the local and regional population.Assuming that the current practice of nuclear powerproduction continues for 100 years, the maximum per caputdose can be estimated from the truncated collective dose perunit electrical energygenerated. Figure XXI shows that about10% of the dose from globally dispersed radionuclides iscommitted in the first hundred years, and using Table 45, the
collective effective dose in the hundredth year of the practice,from globally dispersed radionuclides, would be 5 man Sv(GW a)�1. For an annual production of 250 GW a thisamounts to 1,250 man Sv per year, which when added to thelocal and regional dose of 200 man Sv per year gives a totaldose of nearly 1,500 man Sv in the last year of the practice.The maximum annual effective dose arising from 100 yearsof the practice of nuclear power production is then less than0.2 µSv per caput for a global population of 1010 persons.
III. OTHER EXPOSURES
A. RADIOISOTOPE PRODUCTIONAND USE
167. Radioisotopesarewidelyused in industry,medicine, andresearch. Exposures may occur from trace amounts releasedin production or at subsequent stages of the use or disposal ofthe radionuclide-containing products. For very long-livedradionuclides such as 14C, all of the amount utilized mayultimately reach the environment. For short-lived radio-nuclidessuch asmost radiopharmaceuticals, radioactivedecayprior to release is an essential consideration. The isotopes usedmost widely in medical examinations and nuclear medicineprocedures are 131I and 99mTc.
168. Estimates ofdoses from radioisotopeproduction and useare uncertain, owing to limited data on the commercial pro-duction of the radioisotopes and on the release fractions fromproduction and use. The main radionuclides of interest are 3H,14C, 125I, 131I, and 133Xe. The estimated annual collective effect-ive dose from the practice is of the order of 100 man Sv [U3].
169. An important use of radionuclides is in medicaldiagnostic examinations and in therapeutic treatments.Medical radioisotopes or their parent radionuclides can beproduced in a reactor (by fission of uranium, e.g. 99Mo, 131I, orby activation, e.g. 59Fe) or in a cyclotron (by nuclear reaction,e.g.123I, 201Tl). The main radioisotope, used in 80% of alldiagnostic examinations, is 99Mo. In many countries theproduction, isolation, and incorporation of the radioisotopesinto generators, diagnostic kits, or pharmaceuticals are oftensubdivided in different facilities [K11]. As an example, severalresearch reactors in neighbouring countries supply99Moto theradioisotope production plant in Belgium [W6]. Threedifferent facilities are involved in the Netherlands in thegeneration of 99Mo, its extraction and incorporation into 99mTcgenerators [L10]. This subdivision of the manufacturingprocess hampers quantification of the fractional releaseamounts from the overall production phase.
170. In its request for a permit in 1996, a medicalradioisotope production plant in the Netherlands reported acontrolled annual release of 131I to the atmosphere of at most300 MBq. Since it handles more than 52 TBq in a year, therelease fraction would be less than 0.001%. The maximum
annual dose to an individual from this release would 1 µSv[L10]. This plant receives the 131I as raw material deliveredfrom another company. Therefore, the data are unsuited forthe entire production phase.
171. Over the period 1989�1992, a single facility supplied90% of the annual amount of 131I (35.9 TBq) used in Chinaand 100% of the 125I (0.98 TBq) [P7]. The average releasefraction was reported to be 0.01% for 131I ( a reduction from4.6% in 1975�1978) and 0.7% for 125I. The annual collectivedose was estimated to be 0.13 man Sv for 131I and 0.1�0.6man Sv for 125I, assuming a local population density of500 km�2. The collective dose per unit release of 131I is thus 36man Sv TBq�1. This maybe compared with 0.3 man SvTBq�1
that was estimated for release from a representative nuclearinstallation (Table 38).
172. Global usage of 131I in nuclear therapy is approximately600 TBq (Table 47). With application of the above dosefactors, and assuming the release fraction on production to be0.01%, the global annual collective dose from 131I productionand usage is 0.02�2 man Sv. A further contribution to thecollective dose arises from wastes discharged from hospitals.
173. Limited data on 131I releases from hospitals were citedin the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3]. Discharges of 131I fromhospitals in Australia and Sweden in the late 1980scorresponded to110�190 GBq per 106 population [U3]. Thereis high excretion of 131I from patients following oraladministration, but waste treatment systems with hold-uptanks are effective in reducing the amounts in liquid effluentsto 5 10�4 of the amounts administered to patients [J4]. Thisseems to be confirmed by the very low concentrations of 131Imeasured in the surface waters and sewage systems of severalcountries [U3]. This information seems not to besystematically collected.
174. With the estimated global annual usage of 131I intherapeutic treatments of 600 TBq, a release fraction of 5 10�4
and a dose coefficient of 0.03 man Sv TBq�1 for 131I releasedin liquid effluents (from Annex A, “Dose assessmentmethodologies”), the further contribution tothecollectivedoseis just 0.009 man Sv. The presence of the hold-up tanksshould reduce the release of 99mTc, the other majorradionuclide, to negligible levels.
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION192
175. Several recent studies consider the external exposure ofthe groups that are mainly exposed, i.e. parents, infants, whocome in contact with therapeutically treated patients or fellowtravellers on the journey home from the hospital [B12, C12,D8, G9, M11]. These assessments are based either on use ofintegrating dosimeters or on dose-rate measurements close tothe patients with appropriate occupancy factors. Assessmentsbased on the first approach gave doses of 0.04�7 mSv topartners and children of the patients treated forhyperthyroidism with 200�800 MBq of 131I [B12, M11].Average doses were 1 mSv to partners and 0.1 mSv tochildren [M11]. Treatment of thyroidcancer patientswith 4�7GBq of 131I resulted in doses below 0.5 mSv to familymembers [M11]. All of about 200 family members involvedin these studies were given advice, according to currentpractice, about limiting close contact with the patient. Doserates to fellow travellers ranged from 0.02�0.5 mSv h�1.
176. An approximate estimate of the collective dose to familymembers of patients therapeutically treated with 131I can bederived as follows. In developed countries about 20% oftherapeutic treatments with 131I are for thyroid cancer and80% for hyperthyroidism with average administered amountsof 5 GBq and 0.5 GBq, respectively. The weighted averageamount administered is thus 1.4 GBq per patient. For globalusage of 600 TBq of 131I, 430,000 patients could be treated.With average exposures of 0.5 mSv to 2�3 family members,the collective dose to those other than the patients could be400�600 man Sv.
177. The importance of inhalation of radioiodine exhaled bypatients treated with radioiodine (0.3�1.3 GBq), was assessedby whole body measurements of their relatives [W7]. Theeffective dose ranged from 0.3 to about 60 µSv (17 persons)with a median value of about 4 µSv. Diagnostic procedureswith most radionuclides are estimated to result in cumulativedoses of less than 40 µSv to someone who remains in theclose vicinity of the patient [B13]. Breast feeding followingmaternal radiopharmaceutical administration mayresult in aneffective dose to the infant of more than 1 mSv, if the feedingis not temporarily interrupted or ceased. This is the case for alimited number of treatments with radioiodine but also forsome with 99mTc and 67Ga [M11, M12].
178. The most important component in the overall dose tothegeneral population from radioisotopeproduction andusageis that to relatives of patients given therapeutic treatments.The dominant component of the global collective dose is from131I. It was assumed that decay between production and use ofthe isotope can be neglected, which means that the data onisotope consumption can be used. The resulting global annualcollective dose is estimated to range up to about 600 man Sv.The small doses to relatives of patients after diagnosticprocedures may add up to a comparable collective dose, sincetheir number exceeds that of the therapeutic treatments bytwoorders of magnitude. The dose to family members was notconsidered in the previous assessment bytheCommitteein theUNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3]. The earlier estimate of 100man Sv, of which 80% was from 14C, represented possiblereleases mainly at the production stage. Since this estimate is
quite uncertain and likely an overestimate, it is seen that theexposure of family members of patients treated with 131I maybe considered tobe the most important component ofexposureto radioisotopes used in medicine, industry and education.
B. RESEARCH REACTORS
179. Research reactors differ from reactors producingelectrical energy in their wide varietyof designs and modes ofoperation, as well as a wide range of use. Research reactorsare used for tests of nuclear fuels and different materials, forinvestigations in nuclear and neutron physics, biology, andmedicine, and for the production of radioisotopes. At the endof 1999, there were 292 nuclear research reactors operating inthe world, with a total thermal energyof 3,000 MW. The totaloperating experience exceeds 13,000 reactor-years. TheCommittee has not previously collected data on releases ofradionuclides from research reactors.
180. Exposures resulting from the operation of researchreactors are exemplified by some data reported from theRussian Federation. From 1993 to 1996, annual releases fromtwo research reactors in Obninsk averaged 0.7 PBq of noblegases, 5 GBq 131I, 0.3 GBq 90Sr, 0.6 GBq 137Cs, and 0.1 GBqplutonium [M8, M10]. The annual effective doses toindividuals in Obninsk were estimated not to exceed 30 µSv[M8]. Further data on research reactors are not available.
C. ACCIDENTS
181. Accidents involving releases of radionuclides to theenvironment occur from time to time. To the extent that theseresult in significant human exposures, they are reviewed andanalysed. A separate Chapter on accidents was included in theUNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3], and a brief account was givenof all earlier accidents. Since then only one accident hasoccurred at a nuclear installation involving some exposure ofthe local population. This was the accident on 30 September1999 at the Tokaimura nuclear fuel processing plant in Japan[J6]. A criticality event took place because of improperprocedures. During the 24-hour event and because of onlylimited shielding provided by the building, some directirradiation was measurable outside the plant site. There wasonly trace release of gaseous fission products. Three workersinside the plant received serious overexposures. Their doseswere estimated to be in the range 16�20 Gy, 6�10 Gy, and1�4.5 Gy (gamma equivalent dose). The doses to 169 otheremployees were determined from personal dosimeters, whole-body counting, and survey of their locations during theaccident [I8, J6, S9]. Doses to members of the public, about200 in all, who were living or working within 350 m of thefacility were estimated individually [F6]. Direct exposures topersons outside the site were estimated to be up to 21 mGy(gamma plus neutron). The highest dose, estimated bywhole-body counting, was received by a person at a constructioncompany just beyond the plant boundary.
182. Themisuseor mishandlingofradiation sources isgener-ally a hazard to workers. Improper administration of thera-
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 193
peutic treatment sometimes result in accidental overexposuresof patients. Lost or unregulated (orphaned) sources can causeexposures of the public. These topics are considered further inthe separate assessments by the Committee of occupationaland medical radiation exposures. The Committee has nootherinformation on recent accidents that may have involved
exposures of the public. The Committee has begun a morecomplete analysis of the doses and effects from the Chernobylaccident in the populations living nearest to the reactor inareas of the former Soviet Union. These results are presentedseparately in Annex J, “Exposures and effects of theChernobyl accident”.
CONCLUSIONS
183. Releasesof radioactive materials totheenvironment andexposures of human populations have occurred in severalactivities, practices, and events involving radiation sources.The main contribution to the collective doses to the worldpopulation in such cases has come from the testing of nuclearweapons in the atmosphere. This practice occurred from 1945through 1980. Each nuclear test resulted in unrestrainedrelease to the environment of substantial quantities ofradioactive materials. These were widely dispersed in theatmosphere and deposited everywhere on the earth’s surface.
184. The Committee has given special attention to theevaluation of exposures from atmospheric nuclear testing.Numerous measurements of the global deposition of 90Sr and137Cs and of the occurrence of these and other falloutradionuclides in diet and the human body were made at thetime the testing was taking place. The worldwide collectivedose from this practice was evaluated in the UNSCEAR 1982Report [U6], and a systematic listing of transfer coefficientsfor a number of fallout radionuclides was given in theUNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3].
185. New information has become available on the numbersand yields of nuclear tests. These data were not fully revealedearlier by the countries that conducted the tests because ofmilitary sensitivities. An updated listing of atmosphericnuclear tests conducted at each of the test sites is included inthis Annex. Although the total explosive yields of each testhave been divulged, the fission and fusion yields are stillmostly suppressed. Some general assumptions have beenmade to allow specifying the fission and fusion yields of eachtest in order to estimate the amounts of radionuclidesproduced in the explosions. The estimated total of fissionyields of individual tests is in agreement with the globaldeposition of the main fission radionuclides 90Sr and 137Cs, asdetermined by worldwide monitoring networks.
186. With improved estimates of the production of eachradionuclide in individual tests and using an empiricalatmospheric transport model, it is possible to determine thetime course of the dispersion and deposition of radionuclidesand to estimate the annual doses from various pathways ineach hemisphere of the world. In this way it has beenestimated that theworld average annual effective dose reacheda peak of 110 µSv in 1963 and has since decreased to about5 µSv, from residual levels in the environment, mainly of 14C,
90Sr, and 137Cs. The average annual doses are 10% higher thanthe world average in the northern hemisphere, where most ofthe testing took place, and much lower in the southernhemisphere. Although there was considerable concern at thetime of testing, the exposures remained relatively low,reaching at most about 5% of the background level fromnatural radiation sources.
187. The exposures to local populations surrounding the testsites have also been assessed using available information. Thelevel of detail is still not sufficient to document the exposureswith great accuracy. Attention to the local conditions and thepossibilities of exposure was not great in the early years of thetest programmes. However, dose reconstruction efforts areproceeding toclarifythis experience and todocument the localand regional exposures that occurred.
188. Underground testing caused exposures beyond the testsites only if radioactive gases leaked or were vented. Mostunderground tests had a much lower yield than atmospherictests, and it was usually possible to contain the debris.Underground tests were conducted at the rate of 50 or moreper year from 1962 to 1990. Although it is the intention ofmost countries to agree to ban all further tests, bothatmospheric and underground, the treatyhas not yet come intoforce. Further underground testing occurred in 1998. Thus, itcannot yet be stated that the practice has ceased.
189. During the time when nuclear weapons arsenals werebeing built up and especially in the earlier years (1945�1960),there were releases of radionuclides and exposures of localpopulationsdownwindor downstream ofnuclear installations.Since there was little recognition of exposure potentials andmonitoring of releases was limited, the exposure evaluationsmust be based on the reconstruction of doses. Results are stillbeing obtained that document this experience. Practices havegreatly improved and arsenals are now being reduced.
190. A continuing practice is the generation of electricalenergy by nuclear power reactors. In recent years, 17% of theworld’s electrical energy has been generated by this means.During routine operation of nuclear installations, the releasesof radionuclides are low, and exposures must be estimatedwith environmental transfer models. For all fuel cycleoperations (mining and milling, reactor operation, and fuelreprocessing) the local and regional exposures are estimated
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION194
at present to be 0.9 man Sv (GW a)�1. With present worldnuclear energy generation of 250 GW a, the collective doseper year of practice is of the order of 200 man Sv. Theassumed representative local and regional population sur-rounding a single installation is about 250 million persons,and the per caput dose to this population would be less than1 µSv. The collective doses from globally dispersed radio-nuclides are delivered over very long periods and to theprojected maximum population of the world. If the practice ofnuclear power production is limited to the next 100 years atthe present capacity, the maximum annual effective dose percaput to the global population would be less than 0.2 µSv.This dose rate is small compared to that from natural back-ground radiation.
191. Except in the case of accidents, in which more localizedareas can be contaminated to significant levels, there are noother practices that result in important exposures fromradionuclides released to the environment. Estimates ofreleases of isotopes produced and used in industrial andmedical applications are being reviewed, but these seem to beassociated with rather insignificant levels of exposure. Thehighest exposures, averaging about 0.5 mSv, may be receivedby family members of patients who have received 131Itherapeutic treatments. Possible future practices, such asweapons dismantling, decommissioning of installations, andwaste management projects, can be reviewed as experience isacquired, but these should all involve little or no release ofradionuclides and consequently little or no exposure.
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 195
Table 1Atmospheric nuclear tests
CHINA
Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)
Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional
Troposphere Stratosphere
Test site: Lop Nor
1964: 16 October Land surface 0.02 0 0.02 0.01 0.01
1965: 14 May Air 0.04 0 0.04 0.037 0.003
1966: 9 May27 October28 December
AirAirLand surface
0.20.020.2
0.10
0.1
0.30.020.3 0.10
0.110.02
0.056
0.09
0.044
1967: 17 June24 December
AirAir
1.70.02
1.30
30.02 0.02
1.7
1968: 28 December Air 1.5 1.5 3 1.5
1969: 29 September Air 1.9 1.1 3 1.9
1970: 14 October Air 1.9 1.1 3 1.9
1971: 18 November Land surface 0.02 0 0.02 0.01 0.01
1972: 7 January18 March
AirAir
0.020.1
00
0.020.1
0.020.08 0.02
1973: 27 June Air 1.4 1.1 2.5 1.4
1974: 17 June Air 0.3 0.3 0.6 0.065 0.235
1976: 23 January26 September17 November
Land surfaceAirAir
0.020.12.2
00
1.8
0.020.14
0.01 0.010.08 0.02
2.2
1977: 17 September Air 0.02 0 0.02 0.02
1978: 15 March14 December
Land surfaceLand surface
0.020.02
00
0.020.02
0.010.01
0.010.01
1980: 16 October Air 0.5 0.1 0.6 0.11 0.39
FRANCE
Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)
Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional
Troposphere Stratosphere
Test site: Algeria
1960: 13 February1 April
27 December
TowerLand surfaceTower
0.067 b
0.003 b
0.002 b
000
0.0670.0030.002
0.03350.00150.001
0.03260.00150.001
0.0009
1961: 25 April Tower 0.0007 b 0 0.0007 0.00035 0.00035
Test site: Fangataufa
1966: 24 September Barge 0.125 b 0 0.125 0.0625 0.0595 0.003
1968: 24 August Balloon 1.3 1.3 2.6 1.3
1970: 30 May3 August
BalloonBalloon
0.47250.072
0.47250
0.9450.072 0.07
0.47250.002
Table 1 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION196
Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)
Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)
Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional
Troposphere Stratosphere
Test site: Monte Bello Islands, Australia
1952: 3 October Water surface 0.025 0 0.025 0.0125 0.0125
1956: 16 May19 June
Tower (31 m)Tower (31 m)
0.0150.06
00
0.0150.06
0.00750.03
0.00750.0293 0.0007
Test site: Emu, Australia
1953: 14 October26 October
Tower (31 m)Tower (31 m)
0.010.008
00
0.010.008
0.0050.004
0.0050.004
Table 1 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 197
Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)
Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional
Troposphere Stratosphere
Test site: Maralinga, Australia
1956: 27 September4 October
11 October22 October
Tower (31 m)Land surfaceAir drop (150 m)Tower (31 m)
0.0150.00150.0030.01
0000
0.0150.00150.0030.01
0.00750.00075
0.005
0.00750.00075
0.0030.005
1957: 14 September25 September9 October
Tower (31 m)Tower (31 m)Balloon (300 m)
0.0010.0060.025
000
0.0010.0060.025
0.00050.003
0.00050.0030.025
Test site: Malden Island, Pacific
1957: 15 May31 May19 June
Air burstAir burstAir burst
0.20.360.13
0.10.360.07
0.30.720.20
0.170.2650.12
0.030.0950.01
Test site: Christmas Island, Pacific
1957: 8 November Air burst 0.9 0.9 1.8 0.315 0.585
1958: 28 April22 August2 September
11 September23 September
Air burstAir burstAir burstAir burstAir burst
1.50.024
0.50.4
0.025
1.50
0.50.40
30.024
10.8
0.025
0.120.0240.3250.2850.025
1.38
0.1750.115
UNITED STATES
Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)
Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional
Troposphere Stratosphere
Test site: New Mexico
1945: 16 July Tower 0.021 0 0.021 0.011 0.01
Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan (combat use)
1945: 5 August9 August
Air dropAir drop
0.0150.021
00
0.0150.021
0.0150.021
Test site: Nevada
1951: 27 January28 January1 February2 February6 February
22 October28 October30 October1 November5 November
19 November29 November
Air drop (320 m)Air drop (330 m)Air drop (330 m)Air drop (335 m)Air drop (340 m)Tower (100 m)Air drop (340 m)Air drop (340 m)Air drop (430 m)Air drop (900 m)SurfaceSurface (-5 m)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION204
Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)
Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional
Troposphere Stratosphere
a Estimated fission and fusion yields unless otherwise indicated; reported total yields.b Reported fission or fusion yield.c Indefinite reported yield; value assigned as follows: low, 0.02 Mt; no indication, 0.05 Mt; submegatonne, 0.5 Mt.d Fission yield arbitrarily adjusted to obtain agreement with reported total fission yields for test series: 1952�1954 = 37 Mt (36 Mt from >1 Mt events),
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION206
a Estimated from measured stratospheric inventories [L7, L8] and global deposition [F7].b Fission yield arbitrarily adjusted to obtain agreement with reported total fission yields for test series: 1952�1954 = 37 Mt (36 Mt from >1 Mt events),
30 October 196124 December 19625 August 196225 September 196227 September 196223 October 196122 October 196231 October 196127 August 19624 October 19616 October 196125 August 196219 September 1962
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 207
a Includes two cases of military combat use in Japan.b Total includes additional 39 safety tests: 22 by the United States, 12 by the United Kingdom, and 5 by France.c Inferred from 90Sr measurements. Since radioactive decay of 2%�3% occurred prior to deposition of 90Sr, the estimated dispersed amount (injection
into atmosphere) would also be about 160 Mt.
Table 4Annual fission and fusion yields of nuclear tests and atmospheric partitioning, all countries
Total worldwide dispersion (troposphere and stratosphere) 160.5
Total measured global deposition 155 c
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION208
a Atmospheric heights: Troposphere <17 km, lower stratosphere 17�24 km, upper stratosphere 24�50 km.b Atmospheric heights: Troposphere <9 km, lower stratosphere 9�17 km, upper stratosphere 17�50 km.
Table 5Empirical estimates of the partitioning of yields from atmospheric tests into the troposphere and stratosphere[P1]
Totalyield(Mt)
Partitioned yield (Mt)
Equatorial airburst a (0��30� latitude) Polar airburst b (30��90� latitude)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 209
a Yields were partitioned according to values of Table 5. For sites at temperate locations (30��60� latitude) and yields of 1�4 Mt, input to the upperstratospheric region was reduced by one half, essentially averaging equatorial and polar partitioning assumptions; polar partitioning was maintainedfor the tropospheric portion. For tests in June, July, and August, inputs from temperate sites were assumed to be to the equatorial atmosphere and fromall other months to the polar atmosphere. Partitioning from equatorial sites (Christmas Island and high altitude tests at Johnston Island) were assumedequally divided between the northern and southern hemispheres.
Table 6Estimated annual injections of nuclear debris into atmospheric regions a
Year
Fission energy (Mt)
High equatorialatmosphere
Polar stratospherenorth
Equatorialstratosphere north
Equatorialstratosphere south
TroposphereTotal
North South Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower North South
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION210
Tab
le7
(con
tinue
d)
Year
Ave
rage
annu
alco
ncen
trat
ion
inai
rof
mid
-lat
itude
s(m
Bq
m-3
)A
nnua
lhem
isph
eric
depo
sitio
n(P
Bq)
Cum
ulat
ive
depo
sit(
PB
q)
Nor
ther
nhe
mis
pher
eSo
uthe
rnhe
mis
pher
eN
orth
ern
hem
isph
ere
Sout
hern
hem
isph
ere
Nor
thSo
uth
Tota
l
Cal
cula
ted
aM
easu
red
bC
alcu
late
da
Mea
sure
dc
Cal
cula
ted
aM
easu
red
dC
alcu
late
da
Mea
sure
dd
Mea
sure
de
Mea
sure
de
Mea
sure
de
aA
nnua
lave
rage
ofm
onth
lyca
lcul
ated
valu
e.b
Ave
rage
ofm
easu
rem
ents
perf
orm
edm
onth
lyat
Was
hing
ton,
D.C
.,an
dM
iam
i(19
57-1
962)
,atN
ewY
ork
City
,Mia
mi,
and
Ster
ling,
Vir
gini
a(1
963-
1973
)an
dat
New
Yor
kC
ityan
dM
iam
i(19
74-1
963)
[F4,
L6]
.c
Ave
rage
ofm
easu
rem
ents
perf
orm
edm
onth
lyat
Ant
ofag
asta
and
Sant
iago
,Chi
le(1
958-
1976
)an
dat
Lim
a,Pe
ruan
dSa
ntia
go,C
hile
(197
7-19
83)
[F4,
L6]
.d
Mea
sure
din
glob
alm
onito
ring
netw
ork
[L9,
V2]
.e
Cal
cula
ted
from
deca
yed
mon
thly
mea
sure
dde
posi
tion;
prio
rto
1958
only
calc
ulat
edm
onth
lyde
posi
tion
valu
esar
eav
aila
ble.
fL
ess
than
0.00
1m
Bq
m-3
or0.
001
PBq.
gM
easu
red
valu
esin
clud
edpr
efer
entia
llyin
tota
l.h
Prev
ious
lyde
rive
dva
lue
base
don
mea
sure
dcu
mul
ativ
ede
posi
tion
prio
rto
1958
[U6]
.
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
0.00
30.
002
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.00
50.
001
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.00
2-
0.30
0.09
0.04
0.01
30.
005
0.00
20.
001
- - - - - - - - - - - -
0.47
0.33
0.27
0.07
8
0.05
50.
033
0.01
70.
008
0.00
40.
002
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.22
0.19
0.11
0.05
2
289
283
276
269
263
256
250
244
238
233
227
222
216
211
206
201
196
192
187
90.3
88.2
86.1
84.0
82.0
80.0
78.1
76.2
74.4
72.6
70.9
69.2
67.5
65.9
64.3
62.8
61.3
59.8
58.4
379
370
362
353
344
336
328
320
313
305
298
291
284
277
270
264
258
251
245
Tot
alg
6.1
mB
qa
m-3
8.9
mB
qa
m-3
1.3
mB
qa
m-3
1.7
mB
qa
m-3
499
PBq
470
PBq
460
PBq
h11
1PB
q14
2PB
q14
4PB
qh
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 211
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION212
a Distributions valid only for long-lived radionuclides where majority of fallout is from debris originally injected into the stratosphere.b Valid only for long-lived radionuclides. Value of 4.0 used for radionuclides with half-lives less than 100 d to reflect greater proportion of fallout from
debris injected into the troposphere at low latitudes.c Valid only for long-lived radionuclides. Value of 6.7 and 5.7 used for nuclides with half-lives less than 30 d and 30�100 d, respectively, to reflect
greater proportion of fallout from debris injected into the troposphere at low latitudes.
Table 8Latitudinal distribution of radionuclide deposition from atmospheric nuclear testing based onmeasurements of 90Sr a
Latitudeband
(degrees)
Areaof band
(1012 m2)
Populationdistribution
(%)
Integrateddeposition
of 90Sr(PBq)
Fractionaldeposition
in band
Depositiondensity per unit
deposition(Bq m-2 per PBq)
Latitudinalvalue relativeto hemispheric
value
Northern hemisphere
80�9070�8060�7050�6040�5030�4020�3010�200�10
3.911.618.925.631.536.440.242.844.1
00
0.413.715.520.432.7116.3
17.932.973.9
101.685.371.250.935.7
0.0020.0170.0710.1610.2210.1850.1550.1110.078
0.561.483.786.277.015.093.852.581.76
0.120.320.811.351.511.090.830.560.38
Total 255 100 460 1.0
Population-weighted value b 4.65 1.00
Southern hemisphere
80�9070�8060�7050�6040�5030�4020�3010�200�10
3.911.618.925.631.536.440.242.844.1
000
0.50.913
14.916.754
0.32.56.712.128.127.628.117.821
0.0020.0170.0460.0840.1950.1910.1950.1230.146
0.531.502.463.286.195.264.852.893.30
0.140.400.660.881.651.401.290.770.88
Total 255 100 144 1.0
Population-weighted value c 3.74 1.00
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 213
a For fission products, the value is 1.45 1026 fissions per Mt times the fission yield times the decay constant (ln2 / half-life) divided by 3.15 107 s a-1.b Corresponds to total globally dispersed fission energy of atmospheric tests of 160.5 Mt or fusion energy of 250.6 Mt (excludes releases associated with
local and regional deposition).c Estimate of Miskel [M3].d Production per unit fusion energy of atmospheric tests.e Estimated from total production up to 1972 [U6] and present data on fusion yields.f Because of mobility and half-lives of 3H and 14C, the release is associated with a total fusion energy of 251 Mt.g Estimated from ratios to 90Sr in global deposition.
Table 9Radionuclides produced and globally dispersed in atmospheric nuclear testing
Radionuclide Half-lifeFission yield
(%)Normalized production a
(PBq Mt-1)Global release b
(PBq)
3H14C
54Mn55Fe89Sr90Sr91Y95Zr
103Ru106Ru125Sb
131I140Ba141Ce144Ce137Cs239Pu240Pu241Pu
12.33 a5 730 a312.3 d2.73 a
50.53 d28.78 a58.51 d64.02 d39.26 d373.6 d2.76 a8.02 d
12.75 d32.50 d284.9 d30.07 a
24 110 a6 563 a14.35 a
3.173.503.765.075.202.440.402.905.184.584.695.57
740 c, d
0.85 c, e
15.9 c
6.1 c
7303.88748921
1 54076.04.62
4 2104 7301 6401915.90
186 000 f
213 f
3 9801 530
117 000622
120 000148 000247 00012 200
741675 000759 000263 00030 700
9486.52 g
4.35 g
142 g
Tab
le10
An
nu
ald
epo
siti
on
of
rad
ion
ucl
ides
pro
du
ced
inat
mo
sph
eric
nu
clea
rte
stin
g
Year
Ann
uald
epos
ition
(PB
q)a
131 I
140 B
a14
1 Ce
103 R
u89
Sr91
Y95
Zr14
4 Ce
54M
n10
6 Ru
125 Sb
55F
e90
Sr13
7 Cs
No
rth
ern
hem
isp
her
e
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
13.7
9.82 -b
15.9
3.34 -
96.5
90.5
69.5
144
70.1
303
278
961
0.25
10.4
395
126
040
.73.
0411
.046
.518
.52.
9911
.45.
883.
1330
.32.
4020
.2 -34
.06.
705.
530.
4735
.60.
023
- - - - -
24.3
17.2 -
28.0
5.95 -
171
165
129
322
127
556
511
178
05.
3118
.474
02
320
124
5.39
19.7
81.9
37.1
6.61
33.7
16.8
6.27
54.5
6.84
36.6
0.01
63.0
15.3
9.23
1.45
65.4
0.52 - - - - -
15.8
10.3 -
10.1
2.15
0.01
88.8
107
98.3
240
71.5
300
412
111
079
.16.
6659
31
960
435
2.07
14.5
60.4
38.7
7.85
68.9
33.4
18.0
41.1
13.4
29.4
0.58
45.2
36.5
3.04
0.91
49.7
6.87
0.00
05 - - - -
18.2
12.6
0.01
120
.64.
400.
028
124
123
143
437
97.8
489
434
155
012
813
.761
92
110
627
4.76
15.0
62.4
43.7
9.97
85.9
43.5
29.5
43.3
16.5
32.1
1.09
48.2
49.4
6.10
2.00
51.0
10.4
0.00
3- - - -
9.23
6.39
0.01
110
.52.
230.
023
62.7
62.4
84.4
253
55.5
263
234
822
109
7.19
319
116
050
14.
857.
7132
.125
.37.
3755
.830
.724
.022
.710
.418
.61.
1424
.435
.63.
191.
0825
.98.
190.
011
- - - -
11.9
8.24
0.01
913
.52.
860.
038
80.5
80.2
119
350
80.4
350
314
1089
182
9.84
414
158
082
511
.710
.041
.635
.112
.282
.147
.839
.730
.115
.026
.62.
1231
.355
.44.
381.
4533
.313
.20.
038
0.00
02 - - -
14.0
9.19
0.02
38.
911.
890.
028
76.8
92.3
118
284
79.6
322
421
113
626
47.
8454
72
160
127
021
.613
.355
.248
.418
.811
770
.959
.140
.221
.237
.73.
4639
.581
.63.
700.
9843
.919
.80.
083
0.00
05 - - -
6.95
4.70
0.05
04.
480.
930.
040
37.1
45.0
103
231
193
263
355
791
572
97.5
297
179
02
820
791
162
57.3
45.2
59.1
143
145
142
54.9
26.1
62.1
20.2
22.6
122
32.2
6.40
22.2
32.1
3.04
0.37
0.05
10.
0074
0.00
11
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.24
2.39
5.80
12.1
9.13
21.1
25.0
57.7
52.3
9.85
19.0
299
408
131
27.9
6.44
3.08
3.83
11.0
8.54
7.88
2.25
1.74
4.55
1.52
0.61
8.24
2.34
0.48
0.42
0.58
0.12
00.
025
0.00
500.
0010
0.00
01
3.19
2.28
0.02
93.
670.
760.
035
21.2
21.4
72.4
183
182
178
186
417
299
65.2
130
777
131
044
711
035
.822
.429
.064
.468
.868
.428
.112
.929
.110
.710
.454
.417
.94.
389.
4714
.41.
690.
250.
043
0.00
80.
002
0.20
0.15
0.00
20.
240.
049
0.00
31.
351.
375.
3513
.717
.716
.116
.230
.526
.08.
6110
.557
.311
256
.520
.97.
773.
553.
265.
466.
316.
463.
181.
512.
661.
260.
934.
292.
060.
740.
781.
180.
220.
054
0.01
40.
0039
0.00
11
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.10
0.95
2.89
6.08
6.51
11.3
14.6
28.6
31.4
10.4
10.9
158
265
138
50.2
17.1
6.34
4.03
6.47
5.84
5.47
2.35
1.42
2.81
1.33
0.57
4.41
2.12
0.75
0.38
0.37
0.07
70.
019
0.00
540.
0015
0.00
04
0.18
0.13
0.00
20.
202
0.04
20.
002
1.16
1.18
5.00
13.0
19.4
17.9
17.6
23.3
38.9
9.69
13.0
53.4
97.0
61.3
28.6
12.1
6.24
7.22
5.45
7.62
6.97
3.19
1.18
4.46
2.16
1.00
3.01
3.70
1.16
1.11
1.65
0.47
0.33
0.27
0.07
80.
0053
0.26
0.19
0.00
30.
300.
062
0.00
41.
731.
777.
5019
.529
.126
.926
.534
.958
.414
.519
.580
.114
691
.942
.918
.29.
3610
.88.
1711
.410
.54.
781.
776.
693.
231.
504.
515.
551.
741.
672.
470.
71 0.5
0.41
0.12
0.00
81
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION214
Tab
le10
(con
tinue
d)
Year
Ann
uald
epos
ition
(PB
q)a
131 I
140 B
a14
1 Ce
103 R
u89
Sr91
Y95
Zr14
4 Ce
54M
n10
6 Ru
125 Sb
55F
e90
Sr13
7 Cs
No
rth
ern
hem
isp
her
e(c
ontin
ued)
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.00
02 - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.00
04 - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.00
03 - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.00
01 - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.00
230.
0011
0.00
050.
0003
0.00
020.
0001 - - - - - - -
0.00
350.
0016
0.00
080.
0005
0.00
030.
0002
0.00
01 - - - - - -
Tot
al4
000
750
06
000
750
04
300
600
07
500
956
01
144
489
244
679
747
470
6
So
uth
ern
hem
isp
her
e
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
- - - - - -0.
004
4.33
3.07
1.39
0.00
0128
.225
114
70.
0007
0.00
000.
012
642
0.00
560.
0000
0.00
0174
.013
.914
.09
0.00
340
.521
.2
- - - - - -0.
024
7.72
5.41
9.48 -
62.5
442
273
0.04
50.
000
0.06
01
160
0.09
50.
000
0.00
113
030
.040
.80.
091
81.7
44.2
- - - - - -0.
043
2.73
2.16
24.5
10.
116
47.0
273
218
1.84
0.00
20.
1692
14.
870.
007
0.00
258
.335
.268
.94.
3388
.950
.6
- - - - - -0.
126.
045.
3173
.20.
7490
.434
327
84.
060.
010
0.21
21
060
11.2
0.04
00.
004
102
44.2
87.5
8.37
109
62.8
- - - - - -0.
077
2.99
3.37
51.5
1.23
50.8
172
150
4.27
0.03
50.
1355
413
.10.
140.
003
50.9
25.3
51.1
7.98
62.1
36.6
- - - - - -0.
124.
145.
6085
.13.
1575
.124
021
88.
850.
130.
1979
128
.00.
520.
010
70.6
37.8
76.9
15.5
92.7
55.8
- - - - - -0.
088
2.75
4.27
62.4
2.97
68.8
282
270
12.9
0.28
0.27
107
047
.51.
210.
027
60.1
50.9
107
24.9
129
78.5
- - - - - -0.
071
1.12
8.88
66.5
33.2
53.0
140
169
61.4
22.4
7.79
550
206
74.0
22.1
30.8
34.6
75.8
74.5
102
81.2
- - - - - -0.
003
0.00
90.
613.
211.
695.
1310
.515
.06.
242.
420.
8843
.122
.89.
963.
401.
781.
423.
424.
846.
735.
50
- - - - - -0.
061
0.92
8.19
59.0
35.1
39.0
73.0
82.4
37.4
16.0
6.39
231
102
44.2
16.0
20.8
16.3
33.2
36.2
46.2
37.9
- - - - - -0.
004
0.05
90.
704.
553.
893.
925.
916.
484.
002.
461.
4316
.110
.16.
413.
472.
661.
782.
743.
494.
043.
48
- - - - - -0.
001
0.00
40.
373
1.72
1.44
2.85
5.39
7.58
4.78
3.01
1.80
20.2
17.0
12.3
7.04
3.76
2.02
2.25
3.40
4.16
3.68
- - - - - -0.
004
0.05
10.
714.
384.
554.
706.
349.
456.
846.
226.
449.
7511
.415
.613
.27.
664.
073.
765.
214.
745.
56
- - - - - -0.
006
0.07
71.
065
6.57
6.83
7.05
9.51
14.2
10.3
9.34
9.66
14.6
17.1
23.4
19.8
11.5
6.11
5.65
7.82
7.11
8.34
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 215
Tab
le10
(con
tinue
d)
Year
Ann
uald
epos
ition
(PB
q)a
131 I
140 B
a14
1 Ce
103 R
u89
Sr91
Y95
Zr14
4 Ce
54M
n10
6 Ru
125 Sb
55F
e90
Sr13
7 Cs
So
uth
ern
hem
isp
her
e(c
ontin
ued)
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
3.58
11.0
44.5
0.00
050.
0003
0.00
000.
0000
0.00
000.
0007 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6.22
23.4
82.1
0.02
90.
001
- - -0.
003
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
5.37
25.0
66.4
1.03
0.00
10.
041
- -0.
005
0.01
0- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6.95
30.0
76.1
1.89
0.00
30.
110.
001
0.00
00.
006
0.02
4
- - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - -
4.57
16.4
39.6
1.69
0.00
60.
135
0.00
40.
000
0.00
30.
032
0.00
23 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
7.65
23.9
56.4
3.16
0.02
10.
300.
015
0.00
00.
005
0.07
10.
0068 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
11.5
32.7
76.1
5.00
0.04
80.
510.
033
0.00
10.
007
0.12
0.14
0.00
03 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
30.8
22.9
43.7
14.6
2.80
2.25
1.45
0.54
0.15
0.56
0.35
0.11
0.02
60.
0005
0.00
090.
0001 - - - - - - - - - - - -
2.25
1.37
1.37
0.77
0.17
0.16
0.11
0.04
50.
014
0.01
30.
0078
0.00
260.
0006
0.00
01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
15.8
10.7
19.1
7.31
1.73
1.21
0.86
0.38
0.13
0.29
0.19
0.07
50.
021
0.00
500.
0012
0.00
02 - - - - - - - - - - - -
1.81
1.09
1.52
0.78
0.28
0.17
0.13
0.08
0.04
00.
039
0.02
90.
015
0.00
620.
0022
0.00
080.
0002 - - - - - - - - - - - -
1.95
1.06
0.92
0.64
0.25
0.16
0.14
0.08
0.04
20.
024
0.01
30.
0060
0.00
230.
0008
0.00
030.
0001 - - - - - - - - - - - -
3.55
1.13
1.45
1.27
0.77
0.81
0.67
0.39
0.39
0.29
0.22
0.19
0.11
0.05
20.
0036
0.00
170.
0008
0.00
040.
0002
0.00
01 - - - - - - - -
5.32
1.70
2.17
1.90
1.15
1.22
1.01
0.59
0.59
0.43
0.33
0.28
0.17
0.07
70.
0055
0.00
260.
0012
0.00
060.
0004
0.00
020.
0001 - - - - - - -
Tot
al1
300
240
01
900
240
01
300
190
02
400
193
415
599
894
110
142
213
Wo
rld
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
13.6
9.82 -
15.9
3.34 -
96.5
94.9
72.6
145
70.1
331
24.3
17.2 -
28.0
5.95 -
171
172
134
331
127
618
15.8
10.3
0.00
410
.02.
150.
009
88.8
109
100
265
71.6
347
18.2
12.6
0.01
120
.64.
400.
028
125
129
149
510
98.5
579
9.23
6.39
0.01
110
.42.
230.
023
62.8
65.4
87.8
304
56.8
314
11.9
8.24
0.01
913
.52.
860.
038
80.7
84.4
125
435
83.6
426
14.0
9.20
0.02
38.
911.
890.
028
76.9
95.0
122
346
82.5
391
6.95
4.70
0.05
04.
480.
930.
040
37.1
46.1
112
298
227
317
0 0 0 0 0 00.
252.
406.
4115
.310
.826
.3
3.19
2.28
0.02
93.
670.
760.
035
21.2
22.3
80.5
242
217
217
0.20
0.15
0.00
20.
240.
049
0.00
31.
351.
436.
0618
.321
.620
.0
0 0 0 0 0 00.
100.
963.
267.
807.
9514
.1
0.18
0.13
0.00
20.
200.
042
0.00
21.
161.
235.
7117
.424
.022
.6
0.26
0.19
0.00
30.
300.
062
0.00
41.
741.
848.
5726
.135
.933
.9
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION216
Tab
le10
(con
tinue
d)
Year
Ann
uald
epos
ition
(PB
q)a
131 I
140 B
a14
1 Ce
103 R
u89
Sr91
Y95
Zr14
4 Ce
54M
n10
6 Ru
125 Sb
55F
e90
Sr13
7 Cs
aD
eriv
edfr
omes
timat
edfi
ssio
n/fu
sion
yiel
dsof
test
sw
ithat
mos
pher
icm
odel
.Mea
sure
dre
sults
used
pref
eren
tially
for
90Sr
and
137 C
sdu
ring
1958
-198
5.M
odel
valu
esfo
r13
1 I,14
4 Ba,
141 C
e,10
3 Ru,
89Sr
,91Y
,and
95Z
rno
rmal
ized
toto
talh
emis
pher
icde
posi
tion
estim
ated
from
avai
labl
em
easu
rem
ents
.Lat
itudi
nald
istr
ibut
ions
for
long
-liv
edra
dion
uclid
esm
aybe
estim
ated
byus
eof
para
met
ers
inT
able
8.b
Indi
cate
ses
timat
edva
lue
less
than
0.00
01PB
q.
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
529
111
00.
2510
.439
51
900
40.7
3.04
11.0
121
32.4
17.1
11.4
46.4
24.4
33.9
13.4
64.7
0.00
134
.06.
715.
530.
4735
.60.
023
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
953
205
05.
3518
.474
03
470
124
5.39
19.7
212
67.1
47.5
33.8
98.5
50.5
60.7
30.2
119
0.03
963
.015
.39.
231.
4565
.40.
518
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
685
133
081
.06.
6759
32
880
440
2.07
14.5
119
73.9
76.8
73.2
122
68.6
46.5
38.4
95.8
1.61
45.2
36.5
3.04
0.92
49.7
6.88 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
777
182
013
213
.761
93
170
638
4.80
15.0
165
87.9
97.5
94.3
153
92.4
50.2
46.4
108
2.98
48.2
49.5
6.10
2.00
51.0
10.4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
406
972
113
7.23
319
172
051
44.
997.
7183
.050
.658
.563
.892
.860
.727
.326
.858
.22.
8224
.435
.83.
201.
0825
.98.
220.
013
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
554
131
019
19.
9841
42
370
853
12.2
10.0
112
72.9
89.1
97.5
141
95.4
37.7
39.0
82.9
5.28
31.3
55.7
4.39
1.45
33.3
13.3
0.04
5- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
702
141
027
78.
1254
83
220
131
022
.813
.311
599
.312
614
219
913
851
.754
.011
48.
4639
.682
.13.
730.
9843
.919
.90.
220.
001
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
495
960
633
120
305
234
03
030
865
184
88.1
79.7
135
217
247
223
85.7
49.1
106
34.8
25.4
124
33.6
6.94
22.4
32.6
3.39
0.48
0.07
70.
008
0.00
20.
0003 - - - - - - - - - - - -
35.6
72.7
58.6
12.3
19.9
342
430
141
31.3
8.22
4.50
7.24
15.9
15.3
13.4
4.49
3.11
5.92
2.29
0.79
8.40
2.46
0.53
0.44
0.59
0.12
0.02
60.
005
0.00
10.
0001 - - - - - - - - - - - - -
259
500
336
81.3
136
101
01
420
491
126
56.5
38.7
62.1
101
115
106
43.9
23.7
48.2
18.0
12.1
55.6
18.8
4.77
9.60
14.7
1.88
0.33
0.06
40.
013
0.00
30.
0002 - - - - - - - - - - - -
22.1
37.0
37.0
11.1
11.9
73.4
122
63.0
24.3
10.5
5.33
6.00
8.95
10.4
9.94
4.99
2.60
4.18
2.04
1.21
4.45
2.19
0.82
0.82
1.22
0.25
0.07
0.02
0.00
60.
002
0.00
050.
0002 - - - - - - - - - - -
20.0
36.2
36.2
13.4
12.7
178
282
150
57.3
20.9
8.36
6.28
9.87
9.99
9.15
4.30
2.48
3.73
1.98
0.81
4.58
2.26
0.84
0.42
0.39
0.09
00.
025
0.00
80.
002
0.00
10.
0001 - - - - - - - - - - - -
24.0
32.7
45.8
15.9
19.4
63.2
108
76.9
41.8
19.8
10.3
11.0
10.7
12.4
12.5
6.74
2.31
5.91
3.42
1.77
3.82
4.37
1.55
1.50
1.93
0.69
0.52
0.39
0.13
0.00
890.
0039
0.00
190.
0010
0.00
050.
0003
0.00
020.
0001 - - - - - -
36.0
49.1
68.6
23.9
29.2
94.8
163
115
62.7
29.7
15.5
16.5
16.0
18.5
18.8
10.1
3.47
8.86
5.13
2.66
5.73
6.56
2.33
2.25
2.90
1.04
0.78
0.58
0.19
0.01
40.
0060
0.00
290.
0015
0.00
080.
0005
0.00
030.
0002
0.00
01 - - - - -
Tot
al5
300
990
07
900
990
05
600
790
09
900
1149
41
299
589
054
090
761
291
9
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 217
Tab
le11
Po
pu
lati
on
-wei
gh
ted
cum
ula
tive
dep
osi
tio
nd
ensi
tyo
fra
dio
nu
clid
esp
rod
uce
din
atm
osp
her
icn
ucl
ear
test
ing
Year
Cum
ulat
ive
depo
sitio
nde
nsity
(Bq
m-2
)a
131 I
140 B
a14
1 Ce
103 R
u89
Sr91
Y95
Zr14
4 Ce
54M
n10
6 Ru
125 Sb
55F
e90
Sr13
7 Cs
No
rth
ern
hem
isp
her
e
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1.73
1.17 -b
1.94
0.43 -
12.2
11.2
9.33
18.2
8.70
38.0
33.5
121
4.06
1.31
49.8
155
10.2
0.38
1.40
5.39
2.57
0.65
1.46
0.74
0.39
3.88
0.30
2.58
0.00
4.08
0.96
0.57
0.19
4.50
0.03 - - - - -
4.92
3.31 -
5.49
1.21 -
33.7
29.6
30.6
65.0
23.5
111
96.1
356
17.2
3.69
141
449
51.6
1.05
4.04
15.3
8.05
2.02
6.63
3.23
1.43
11.3
1.37
7.35
0.00
11.4
4.05
1.43
0.75
12.6
0.78 - - - - -
7.53
5.28
0.22
5.02
1.02
0.15
36.9
41.1
70.9
121
27.6
151
182
522
135
3.57
200
896
434
1.75
7.70
28.0
21.3
5.53
30.6
16.8
14.2
21.8
6.03
15.3
0.89
15.2
25.5
1.94
0.91
16.6
12.5
0.00
5- - - -
9.99
7.84
0.61
12.3
2.51
0.52
63.1
55.9
119
261
56.1
285
235
869
249
9.38
225
114
071
07.
1810
.134
.428
.78.
7845
.327
.125
.328
.38.
4020
.52.
0318
.340
.24.
312.
3218
.319
.90.
032
0.00
01 - - -
5.96
5.27
0.72
7.80
1.73
0.51
38.5
36.0
87.5
187
50.6
186
165
568
237
8.97
126
774
667
19.4
6.70
22.0
20.9
8.68
37.1
25.5
24.9
19.4
6.27
15.6
2.64
10.4
35.2
3.95
1.59
9.94
17.1
0.11
0.00
1- - -
8.33
7.99
1.43
11.3
2.76
0.91
54.7
53.6
139
289
96.0
276
261
845
429
20.0
169
118
01
200
60.8
10.7
32.1
33.0
16.7
62.1
46.6
46.0
30.4
10.0
25.9
5.58
14.3
60.6
7.85
2.48
13.2
29.1
0.39
0.00
5- - -
10.2
10.1
1.96
8.04
2.10
0.73
51.3
67.3
155
255
95.1
276
358
944
605
30.6
229
173
01
950
133
16.3
45.8
49.3
28.0
95.8
76.3
75.0
44.3
15.2
40.2
9.86
18.0
94.8
12.2
2.02
17.8
45.2
0.16
50.
0006 - - -
8.70
21.7
17.0
16.2
12.1
6.99
57.2
128
362
637
982
105
01
340
234
03
460
210
01
150
394
010
300
874
04
660
217
01
040
619
582
693
749
566
308
302
235
134
350
340
184
94.4
168
69.0
28.4
11.7
4.80
1.97
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.49
1.30
20.2
36.2
52.0
68.4
104
179
290
197
109
625
156
01
430
825
407
193
98.8
70.0
61.5
54.5
37.1
20.6
21.9
18.4
10.2
23.1
24.4
14.2
7.14
5.51
2.45
1.09
0.48
0.22
0.10
4.17
11.4
10.4
13.2
11.8
7.83
39.5
77.8
251
526
976
102
01
090
157
02
240
156
095
92
100
529
05
250
339
01
910
105
063
348
347
548
238
824
121
116
710
719
320
513
478
.710
050
.825
.713
.06.
583.
33
0.28
0.96
1.15
1.46
1.58
1.38
3.61
7.41 23
.52
.711
615
217
523
432
230
626
234
166
584
980
167
354
343
535
530
126
022
117
914
812
198
.688
.981
.668
.555
.148
.337
.429
.022
.517
.513
.6
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.23
0.69
11.5
25.8
48.7
71.1
106
172
280
288
253
548
139
01
890
181
01
530
123
097
277
762
951
241
232
626
321
316
814
212
410
180
.464
.249
.938
.730
.123
.418
.1
0.25
0.96
1.36
1.85
2.25
2.35
4.62
8.99
25.9
61.4
146
222
281
368
535
604
634
795
114
01
480
162
01
670
167
01
660
165
01
640
163
01
620
159
01
560
154
01
510
1480
1470
144
01
410
138
01
350
132
01
290
126
01
230
0.38
1.44
2.05
2.78
3.39
3.54
6.95
13.5
38.9
92.2
219
333
423
554
805
910
955
120
01
710
222
02
440
252
02
520
251
02
490
248
02
480
246
02
410
238
02
350
230
02
260
224
02
200
216
02
120
208
02
040
199
01
950
190
0
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION218
Tab
le11
(con
tinue
d)
Year
Cum
ulat
ive
depo
sitio
nde
nsity
(Bq
m-2
)a
131 I
140 B
a14
1 Ce
103 R
u89
Sr91
Y95
Zr14
4 Ce
54M
n10
6 Ru
125 Sb
55F
e90
Sr13
7 Cs
No
rth
ern
hem
isp
her
e(c
ontin
ued)
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.81
0.33
0.14
0.05
70.
023
0.01
00.
0039
0.00
160.
0007
0.00
030.
0001 - -
0.04
30.
019
0.00
840.
0038
0.00
170.
0007
0.00
030.
0001
0.00
01 - - - -
1.68
0.85
0.43
0.22
0.11
0.05
60.
028
0.01
40.
0072
0.00
370.
0019
0.00
090.
0005
10.5
8.16
6.33
4.91
3.81
2.96
2.29
1.78
1.38
1.07
0.83
0.64
0.50
14.1
10.9
8.49
6.60
5.12
3.98
3.09
2.40
1.86
1.45
1.12
0.87
0.68
120
01
170
115
01
120
109
01
070
104
01
020
991
967
944
921
899
186
01
820
178
01
740
170
01
660
162
01
580
155
01
510
148
01
440
141
0
Tot
alc
1945
-199
920
00-2
099
2100
-219
9
2200
- �
510
152
03
080
466
03
440
556
07
590
5000
06
560
3330
00.
0003
816
01.
7514
600
2.3
5290
033
900
300
029
2
8100
055
300
555
062
0
1945
- �51
01
520
308
04
660
344
05
560
759
050
000
656
033
300
816
014
600
9000
014
200
0
So
uth
ern
hem
isp
her
e
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
- - - - - -0.
0009
0.92
0.65
0.30 -
5.97
50.1
31.5
0.85 -
0.00
213
50.
006
- - - - - -0.
008
2.53
1.83
3.29
0.00
120
.913
796
.13.
23 -0.
0238
90.
17
- - - - - -0.
029
1.44
1.70
17.3
1.09
31.4
163
169
25.1
0.01
70.
059
642
31.3
- - - - - -0.
095
3.47
5.09
59.6
7.01
69.4
248
253
51.2
0.13
0.08
086
178
.5
- - - - - -0.
073
1.89
4.03
49.5
11.6
46.0
155
170
50.4
0.57
0.05
554
199
.6
- - - - - -0.
122.
757.
4388
.829
.174
.124
628
110
1.1
2.26
0.12
847
221
- - - - - -0.
093
1.87
5.95
68.3
27.0
71.5
296
380
151
4.76
0.24
121
038
2
- - - - - -0.
072
0.76
11.5
85.9
175
168
289
484
540
314
165
717
129
0
- - - - - -0.
003
0.00
90.
664.
58 9.1
11.5
23.8
41.6
50.9
32.8
18.7
57.4
118
- - - - - -0.
064
0.66
10.8
81.4
186
188
232
320
358
248
155
364
672
- - - - - -0.
005
0.04
90.
977.
4221
.129
.036
.149
.058
.955
.549
.661
.894
.9
- - - - - -0.
001
0.00
60.
433.
128.
1912
.521
.537
.553
.353
.749
.966
.411
8
- - - - - -0.
004
0.04
71.
017.
9225
.441
.857
.084
.511
713
715
618
521
9
- - - - - -0.
007
0.07
01.
5111
.938
.162
.885
.712
717
720
623
527
833
0
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 219
Tab
le11
(con
tinue
d)
Year
Cum
ulat
ive
depo
sitio
nde
nsity
(Bq
m-2
)a
131 I
140 B
a14
1 Ce
103 R
u89
Sr91
Y95
Zr14
4 Ce
54M
n10
6 Ru
125 Sb
55F
e90
Sr13
7 Cs
So
uth
ern
hem
isp
her
e(c
ontin
ued)
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
- -15
.62.
962.
990.
008.
594.
540.
732.
339.
460.
0014 - - - -
0.00
01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- -43
.110
.713
.60.
2527
.615
.02.
087.
8627
.70.
120
- - - -0.
001
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.06
70.
002
35.2
31.4
39.8
15.1
58.6
38.9
8.12
17.0
44.1
6.84
0.00
50.
028
0.00
2-
0.00
20.
009
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.46
0.00
4167
.257
.857
.031
.281
.660
.715
.323
.558
.613
.90.
036
0.08
40.
011
0.00
00.
002
0.02
3- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1.84
0.02
337
.943
.439
.332
.353
.848
.315
.315
.336
.913
.90.
150.
130.
033
0.00
060.
0011
0.03
3- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
7.16
0.16
56.0
74.9
65.4
65.2
86.9
87.7
31.0
24.7
58.6
27.7
0.57
0.31
0.11
0.00
360.
0017
0.07
800.
0010 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
17.0
0.52
51.6
88.4
96.8
107
127
137
51.7
36.0
84.7
45.3
1.33
0.56
0.24
0.01
130.
0026
0.14
000.
0005 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
867
470
245
188
178
313
305
375
306
180
147
150
79.9
37.8
20.4
11.0
5.32
2.93
1.20
0.50
0.20
0.08
40.
035
0.01
40.
0058
0.00
240.
0010
0.00
040.
0002
0.00
01 - - - - - -
94.5
58.9
32.4
18.2
12.4
18.7
20.3
26.7
22.8
13.9
9.49
7.49
4.42
2.31
1.40
0.83
0.44
0.23
0.10
0.04
50.
020
0.00
890.
0040
0.00
180.
0008
0.00
030.
0002
0.00
01 - - - - - - - -
539
353
218
167
134
186
187
220
191
127
99 95 59.1
33.2
19.7
11.8
6.63
3.83
1.94
0.98
0.50
0.25
0.13
0.06
40.
033
0.01
70.
0083
0.00
420.
0021
0.00
110.
0005
0.00
030.
0001 - - -
102
95.9
83.9
730
62.5
60.4
57.8
58.3
54.8
46.9
40.2
35.8
29.5
23.6
18.8
14.9
11.8
9.26
7.19
5.57
4.32
3.36
2.60
2.02
1.57
1.22
0.94
0.73
0.57
0.44
0.34
0.27
0.21
0.16
0.12
0.10
142
144
130
110
91.5
81.3
74.1
71.8
65.9
55.8
46.4
39.0
31.8
25.3
20.1
16.0
12.7
9.93
7.71
5.99
4.65
3.61
2.80
2.18
1.69
1.31
1.02
0.79
0.61
0.48
0.37
0.29
0.22
0.17
0.13
0.10
262
313
341
355
359
368
377
388
396
395
389
386
380
374
368
361
353
346
339
331
324
317
309
302
294
287
281
274
267
261
255
249
243
237
231
226
394
472
514
536
542
557
571
587
601
599
591
587
578
570
561
551
541
530
520
509
498
487
476
466
455
445
435
425
415
406
396
387
379
370
362
353
Tot
alc
1945
-199
920
00-2
099
2100
-219
9
2200
- �
273
808
138
02
100
147
02
490
713
08
120
714
547
01
380
0.40
163
00.
3012
600
848
075
273
1920
013
400
139
015
5
1945
- �27
380
81
380
210
01
470
249
07
130
812
071
45
470
138
01
630
2190
035
000
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION220
Tab
le11
(con
tinue
d)
Year
Cum
ulat
ive
depo
sitio
nde
nsity
(Bq
m-2
)a
131 I
140 B
a14
1 Ce
103 R
u89
Sr91
Y95
Zr14
4 Ce
54M
n10
6 Ru
125 Sb
55F
e90
Sr13
7 Cs
Wo
rld
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1.54
1.04 -
1.73
0.38 -
10.9
10.0
8.38
16.3
7.74
34.5
35.3
111
3.71
1.17
44.3
153
9.11
0.34
1.25
6.51
2.62
0.91
1.30
1.60
0.84
3.53
0.52
3.34
0.00
3.63
0.86
0.51
0.17
4.00
0.02
9- - - - -
4.38
2.94 -
4.89
1.07 -
30.0
26.6
27.4
58.2
20.9
101
101
327
15.7
3.29
125
443
45.9
0.93
3.60
18.4
8.34
3.29
5.93
5.91
2.92
10.3
2.08
9.59
0.02
10.1
3.61
1.27
0.67
11.2
0.70 - - - - -
6.70
4.70
0.20
4.47
0.91
0.13
32.9
36.8
63.3
110
24.7
138
180
483
123
3.18
178
868
390
1.56
6.86
28.8
22.5
9.30
28.9
21.4
17.0
20.3
7.24
18.5
1.54
13.6
22.7
1.73
0.81
14.8
11.2
0.00
46 - - - -
8.89
6.98
0.54
10.9
2.24
0.47
56.1
50.1
107
239
50.7
261
236
802
228
8.36
200
111
064
16.
448.
9538
.031
.914
.143
.833
.129
.226
.910
.124
.73.
3316
.335
.83.
842.
0616
.217
.70.
0280 - - - -
5.31
4.69
0.64
6.94
1.54
0.45
34.2
32.3
78.3
172
46.3
171
164
525
216
8.05
112
748
604
17.5
5.97
23.7
23.4
12.1
36.5
28.6
27.5
19.0
7.26
17.9
3.89
9.29
31.3
3.51
1.41
8.84
15.3
0.10
20.
0007 - - -
7.41
7.11
1.27
10.1
2.45
0.81
48.7
48.0
124
267
88.7
254
259
782
393
18.0
151
114
01
090
54.9
9.58
34.8
37.6
22.0
62.4
51.1
50.6
30.4
11.7
29.5
8.01
12.8
54.0
7.00
2.21
11.8
25.9
0.34
0.00
45 - - -
9.06
8.99
1.74
7.15
1.87
0.65
45.7
60.1
139
234
87.6
253
352
882
555
27.8
204
167
01
770
120
14.6
46.4
53.6
35.6
97.1
81.9
81.9
45.2
17.5
45.1
13.8
16.2
84.5
10.9
1.79
15.8
40.3
0.15
0.00
05 - - -
7.74
19.3
15.1
14.4
10.8
6.22
50.9
114
323
576
893
949
123
02
130
314
01
900
104
03
590
929
07
870
420
01
960
942
570
553
650
708
538
294
285
225
128
316
305
165
84.6
150
61.5
25.3
10.4
4.28
1.76
- - - - - -0.
441.
1618
.032
.747
.262
.295
.016
426
317
999
.556
21
400
128
074
136
617
489
.364
.357
.051
.435
.519
.920
.617
.29.
5920
.821
.912
.76.
414.
922.
190.
970.
430.
190.
086
3.71
10.1
9.24
11.7
10.5
6.97
35.2
69.3
224
477
889
926
992
142
82
030
142
087
11
900
478
04
730
306
01
720
954
578
450
444
453
366
229
198
159
102
176
185
121
70.8
89.7
45.4
23.0
11.6
5.88
2.98
0.25
0.85
1.03
1.30
1.40
1.23
3.22
6.60
20.7
47.7
106
139
160
214
293
278
239
311
602
767
723
608
491
394
323
274
238
202
164
137
113
91.0
81.7
74.7
62.6
50.3
44.0
34.1
26.5
20.5
15.9
12.4
- - - - - -0.
210.
6110
.323
.344
.364
.696
.715
725
526
223
049
51
250
169
016
301
370
110
087
570
056
846
337
429
623
919
415
312
911
291
.872
.958
.345
.335
.127
.321
.216
.5
0.22
0.86
1.21
1.65
2.01
2.09
4.11
8.01
23.2
55.5
133
202
257
337
489
553
581
728
104
01
340
148
01
520
152
01
520
151
01
500
150
01
480
146
01
430
141
01
380
136
01
340
132
01
290
127
01
240
121
01
190
116
01
130
0.33
1.28
1.82
2.47
3.02
3.15
6.19
12.0
34.8
83.4
199
304
386
507
736
833
876
110
01
560
202
02
230
230
02
300
229
02
280
227
02
270
225
02
210
218
02
150
211
02
080
206
02
020
198
01
950
191
01
870
183
01
790
175
0
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 221
Tab
le11
(con
tinue
d)
Year
Cum
ulat
ive
depo
sitio
nde
nsity
(Bq
m-2
)a
131 I
140 B
a14
1 Ce
103 R
u89
Sr91
Y95
Zr14
4 Ce
54M
n10
6 Ru
125 Sb
55F
e90
Sr13
7 Cs
aD
eriv
edfr
omes
timat
edfi
ssio
n/fu
sion
yiel
dsof
test
sw
ithat
mos
pher
icm
odel
.Inc
lude
sre
sidu
alde
posi
tion
from
prev
ious
year
s.M
easu
red
resu
ltsus
edpr
efer
entia
llyfo
r90
Sran
d13
7 Cs
duri
ng19
58-1
985.
Lat
itudi
nal
valu
esm
aybe
deri
ved
byus
eof
para
met
ers
inT
able
8.T
here
sults
for
the
wor
ldar
eth
epo
pula
tion-
wei
ghte
dav
erag
esof
the
nort
hern
and
sout
hern
hem
isph
eres
(89%
and
11%
ofth
ew
orld
popu
latio
n,re
spec
tivel
y).
bIn
dica
tes
estim
ated
valu
ele
ssth
an0.
0001
Bq
m-2
.c
Inte
grat
edde
posi
tion
dens
ityw
ithun
itsB
qa
m-2
.
Wo
rld
(con
tinue
d)
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.72
0.30
0.12
00.
050
0.02
10.
0085
0.00
350.
0014
0.00
06 - - - -
0.03
80.
017
0.00
760.
0034
0.00
150.
0007
0.00
030.
0001
0.00
01 - - - -
1.51
0.76
0.39
0.20
0.10
0.05
00.
025
0.01
30.
0065
0.00
330.
0017
0.00
080.
0004
9.58
7.44
5.77
4.48
3.47
2.69
2.09
1.62
1.26
0.98
0.76
0.59
0.46
12.8
9.92
7.70
5.98
4.65
3.61
2.80
2.18
1.69
1.31
1.02
0.79
0.61
110
01
080
105
01
030
100
097
895
493
290
988
786
684
582
5
171
01
670
163
01
590
156
01
520
149
01
450
142
01
390
136
01
330
130
0
Tot
alc
1945
-199
920
00-2
099
2100
-219
9
2200
-�
482
144
02
900
438
03
220
522
07
130
4540
05
920
3030
00.
0007
742
01.
813
200
2.1
4844
031
000
275
026
8
7410
050
700
509
056
9
1945
- �48
21
440
290
04
380
322
05
220
713
045
400
592
030
300
742
013
200
8300
013
100
0
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION222
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 223
a Values from Beck [B2], converted with 0.869 rad R-1, 0.01 Gy rad-1, 0.7 Sv Gy-1 and applying a shielding/occupancy factor of 0.36. Relaxation lengthof 0.1 cm assumed for 131I and 140Ba, 1 cm for 141Ce, 103Ru and 95Zr; 3 cm for remainder.
b Transfer coefficient P25 [U3 (page 127)] divided by the mean life of the radionuclide (T½ divided by ln 2) applied to the average cumulative deposition.c Transfer coefficient P25 [U3 (page 127)] applied to the annual deposition density (nSv per Bq m-2). The exposure occurs only in the year of deposition.d Includes decay product.e Time�dependent model used for components of annual dose.
Table 12Coefficients for evaluating annual effective doses from radionuclides produced in atmospheric nucleartesting
RadionuclideDose coefficient (nSv a-1 per Bq m-2)
External a Ingestion b Inhalation c
131I140Ba141Ce103Ru89Sr91Y95Zr
144Ce54Mn106Ru125Sb55Fe90Sr
137Cs238Pu239Pu240Pu241Pu
241Am
3.2818.5 d
0.3762.72�
�
11.3 d
0.175 d
3.260.809 d
1.64�
�
2.24�
�
�
�
�
1330.357�
�
0.601�
�
�
�
�
�
0.506�
e
�e
�
�
�
�
�
0.170.0140.0340.0330.160.18
0.1041.30
0.0221.70
0.0450.0043
4.600.1180084084012920
Tab
le13
Ext
ern
alex
po
sure
tora
dio
nu
clid
esp
rod
uce
din
atm
osp
her
icn
ucl
ear
test
ing
Year
Wor
ldw
ide
aver
age
annu
alef
fect
ive
dose
(µSv
)
131 I
140 B
a,La
141 C
e10
3 Ru
95Zr
,Nb
144 C
e,P
r54
Mn
106 R
u,R
h12
5 Sb13
7 Cs
Tota
l
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
0.00
510.
0034
-a
0.00
570.
0012 -
0.03
60.
033
0.02
70.
053
0.02
50.
110.
120.
370.
012
0.00
380.
150.
500.
030
0.00
110.
0041
0.02
10.
0086
0.00
300.
0043
0.00
530.
0028
0.01
20.
0017
0.01
1-
0.01
20.
0028
0.00
170.
0006
0.08
10.
055
-0.
091
0.02
00.
0001
0.56
0.50
0.51
1.08
0.39
1.89
1.87
6.09
0.29
0.06
12.
338.
230.
850.
017
0.07
0.34
0.16
0.06
0.11
0.11
0.05
40.
190.
039
0.18
0.00
030.
190.
067
0.02
40.
012
0.00
250.
0018
0.00
010.
0017
0.00
03 -0.
012
0.01
40.
024
0.04
10.
009
0.05
20.
068
0.18
0.04
60.
0012
0.06
70.
330.
150.
0006
0.00
260.
011
0.00
840.
0035
0.01
10.
0081
0.00
640.
0076
0.00
270.
0069
0.00
060.
0051
0.00
850.
0006
0.00
03
0.02
0.02 -
0.03
0.01 -
0.15
0.14
0.29
0.65
0.14
0.71
0.64
2.19
0.62
0.02
0.55
3.03
1.75
0.01
80.
024
0.10
0.08
70.
038
0.12
0.09
00.
080
0.07
30.
027
0.06
70.
009
0.04
50.
098
0.01
00.
006
0.10
0.10
0.02
00.
082
0.02
10.
0074
0.52
0.69
1.58
2.67
1.00
2.89
4.01
10.1
6.32
0.32
2.32
19.0
20.2
1.37
0.17
0.53
0.61
0.41
1.11
0.93
0.93
0.51
0.20
0.51
0.16
0.18
0.96
0.12
0.02
0
0.00
140.
0034
0.00
260.
0025
0.00
190.
0011
0.00
890.
020
0.05
70.
100.
160.
170.
210.
370.
550.
330.
180.
631.
631.
380.
740.
340.
160.
100.
100.
110.
120.
094
0.05
10.
050
0.03
90.
022
0.05
50.
053
0.02
9
- - - - - -0.
0014
0.00
380.
059
0.11
0.15
0.20
0.31
0.53
0.86
0.58
0.32
1.83
4.54
4.17
2.41
1.19
0.56
0.29
0.21
0.19
0.17
0.12
0.06
50.
067
0.05
60.
031
0.06
80.
071
0.04
1
0.00
300.
0082
0.00
750.
0095
0.00
850.
0056
0.02
80.
056
0.18
0.39
0.72
0.75
0.80
1.15
1.64
1.15
0.70
1.54
3.86
3.82
2.47
1.39
0.77
0.47
0.36
0.36
0.37
0.30
0.18
0.16
0.13
0.08
0.14
0.15
0.10
0.00
040.
0014
0.00
170.
0021
0.00
230.
0020
0.00
530.
011
0.03
40.
079
0.17
0.23
0.26
0.35
0.48
0.46
0.39
0.51
0.99
1.27
1.19
1.00
0.81
0.65
0.53
0.45
0.39
0.33
0.27
0.23
0.19
0.15
0.13
0.12
0.10
0.00
070.
0029
0.00
410.
0055
0.00
680.
0071
0.01
40.
027
0.07
80.
190.
450.
680.
861.
141.
651.
861.
962.
463.
494.
534.
985.
155.
165.
135.
115.
095.
085.
044.
964.
894.
834.
734.
654.
604.
53
0.22
0.20
0.03
70.
230.
068
0.02
51.
341.
482.
845.
363.
217.
679.
1622
.412
.54.
798.
9738
.137
.516
.612
.110
.18.
347.
157.
667.
357.
216.
685.
806.
175.
405.
456.
195.
164.
84
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION224
Tab
le13
(con
tinue
d)
Year
Wor
ldw
ide
aver
age
annu
alef
fect
ive
dose
(µSv
)
131 I
140 B
a,La
141 C
e10
3 Ru
95Zr
,Nb
144 C
e,P
r54
Mn
106 R
u,R
h12
5 Sb13
7 Cs
Tota
l
aE
stim
ated
valu
ele
ssth
an0.
0001
µSv
.
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
0.01
30.
0001 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.21
0.01
3- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.00
560.
0042 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.04
40.
048
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.18
0.46
0.00
17 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.01
50.
026
0.01
10.
0044
0.00
180.
0007
0.00
030.
0001
0.00
01 - - - - - - - - - - -
0.02
10.
016
0.00
710.
0032
0.00
140.
0006
0.00
030.
0001
0.00
01 - - - - - - - - - - -
0.05
70.
072
0.03
70.
019
0.00
940.
0048
0.00
240.
0012
0.00
060.
0003
0.00
020.
0001 - - - - - - - -
0.08
30.
073
0.05
60.
044
0.03
40.
026
0.02
00.
016
0.01
20.
0095
0.00
740.
0057
0.00
440.
0034
0.00
270.
0021
0.00
160.
0012
0.00
100.
0008
4.44
4.36
4.27
4.18
4.09
4.00
3.91
3.82
3.73
3.65
3.57
3.49
3.41
3.33
3.25
3.18
3.11
3.04
2.97
2.90
5.07
5.07
4.39
4.25
4.14
4.03
3.93
3.84
3.75
3.66
3.57
3.49
3.41
3.33
3.26
3.18
3.11
3.04
2.97
2.90
1945
-199
920
00-2
099
2100
-219
9
2200
- �
1.58
26.7
1.09
12.0
81.3
7.94
19.2
24.5
12.2
0.00
316
611
411
.41.
3
353
114
11.4
1.3
1945
- �1.
5826
.71.
0912
.081
.37.
9419
.224
.512
.229
247
9
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 225
Tab
le14
Ing
esti
on
exp
osu
reto
rad
ion
ucl
ides
pro
du
ced
inat
mo
sph
eric
nu
clea
rte
stin
g
Year
Wor
ldw
ide
aver
age
annu
alef
fect
ive
dose
(µSv
)
131 I
140 B
a,La
89Sr
55F
e90
Sr13
7 Cs
Tota
l3 H
14C
Tota
l
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
0.21
0.14 -a
0.23
0.05
1-
1.45
1.33
1.11
2.16
1.03
4.59
4.69
14.8
0.49
0.16
5.89
20.4
1.21
0.04
60.
170.
870.
350.
120.
170.
210.
110.
470.
069
0.44 -
0.48
0.11
0.06
80.
023
0.00
160.
0011 -
0.00
170.
0004 -
0.01
10.
010
0.01
00.
021
0.00
750.
036
0.03
60.
120.
0056
0.00
120.
045
0.16
0.01
60.
0003
0.00
130.
0066
0.00
300.
0012
0.00
210.
0021
0.00
100.
0037
0.00
070.
0034 -
0.00
360.
0013
0.00
050.
0002
0.00
320.
0028
0.00
040.
0042
0.00
090.
0003
0.02
10.
019
0.05
0.10
0.02
80.
100.
100.
320.
130.
0048
0.06
70.
450.
360.
010
0.00
360.
014
0.01
40.
0072
0.02
20.
017
0.01
70.
011
0.00
440.
011
0.00
230.
0056
0.01
90.
0021
0.00
09
- - - - - -0.
0001
0.00
030.
0052
0.01
20.
022
0.03
30.
049
0.07
90.
130.
130.
120.
250.
630.
860.
820.
690.
560.
440.
350.
290.
230.
190.
150.
120.
100.
077
0.06
50.
057
0.04
6
0.00
440.
0088
0.00
590.
0082
0.01
00.
0060
0.03
40.
072
0.18
0.53
1.02
1.32
1.46
1.77
2.50
2.45
1.94
3.11
5.58
6.56
5.47
4.45
3.83
3.57
3.42
3.30
3.22
3.00
2.72
2.60
2.50
2.30
2.19
2.15
2.02
0.02
70.
040
0.01
60.
032
0.03
10.
0063
0.18
0.32
0.92
2.69
4.69
5.25
5.10
6.06
9.15
6.53
3.62
10.3
21.9
21.8
12.7
6.29
3.32
2.71
2.57
2.70
2.86
2.17
1.33
1.55
1.57
1.10
1.25
1.57
1.25
0.24
0.19
0.02
20.
280.
093
0.01
31.
691.
752.
285.
536.
8011
.311
.423
.212
.49.
2711
.734
.629
.729
.319
.212
.38.
076.
856.
546.
516.
445.
854.
284.
734.
183.
973.
643.
853.
33
0 0 0 0 0 0 - - 0.2
0.7
0.2
0.7
0.6
0.8
0.8
0.4
0.7
7.2
2.7
1.6
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.09
0 0 0 0 0 0 -0.
06 0.1
0.3
0.6
0.8
1.1
1.6
1.9
2.0
2.9
5.5
7.4
7.7
7.5
7.1
6.6
6.1
5.5
5.0
4.6
4.3
4.0
3.8
3.5
3.3
3.1
2.9
2.6
0 0 0 0 0 0 -0.
06 0.3
1.0
0.8
1.5
1.7
2.4
2.7
2.4
3.6
12.7
10.1
9.3
8.7
8.1
7.4
6.7
6.1
5.4
5.0
4.6
4.3
4.0
3.7
3.4
3.3
3.0
2.7
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION226
Tab
le14
(con
tinue
d)
Year
Wor
ldw
ide
aver
age
annu
alef
fect
ive
dose
(µSv
)
131 I
140 B
a,La
89Sr
55F
e90
Sr13
7 Cs
Tota
l3 H
14C
Tota
l
aIn
dica
tes
estim
ated
valu
ele
ssth
an0.
0001
µSv
.
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
0.53
0.00
38 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.00
400.
0002 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.00
530.
0092 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.03
70.
029
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1.85
1.77
1.66
1.53
1.44
1.35
1.26
1.18
1.11
1.04
0.98
0.92
0.86
0.81
0.76
0.71
0.67
0.63
0.59
0.56
0.92
0.98
0.85
0.67
0.63
0.57
0.52
0.50
0.48
0.47
0.45
0.44
0.43
0.41
0.40
0.39
0.38
0.37
0.36
0.35
3.35
2.79
2.51
2.20
2.07
1.92
1.78
1.68
1.59
1.51
1.43
1.36
1.29
1.22
1.16
1.10
1.05
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
90.
009
2.5
2.5
2.4
2.4
2.3
2.3
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.1
2.1
2.0
2.0
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.7
2.6
2.6
2.5
2.5
2.3
2.3
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.1
2.1
2.0
2.0
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.7
1945
-199
920
00-2
099
2100
-219
9
2200
- �
64.2
0.51
1.9
6.6
97.0
8.6
0.02 -
154
10 0.50
0.03
324
19 0.52
0.03
23.7
0.10
144
120
502
180
167
120
502
180
1945
- �64
.20.
511.
96.
610
616
534
423
.82
494
251
7
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 227
aE
stim
ated
valu
ele
ssth
an0.
0001
µSv
.
Tab
le15
Inh
alat
ion
exp
osu
reto
rad
ion
ucl
ides
pro
du
ced
inat
mo
sph
eric
nu
clea
rte
stin
g
Year
Wor
ldw
ide
aver
age
annu
alef
fect
ive
dose
(µSv
)
131 I
140 B
a14
1 Ce
103 R
u89
Sr91
Y95
Zr14
4 Ce
54M
n10
6 Ru
125 Sb
55F
e90
Sr13
7 Cs
Pu,
Am
Tota
l
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
0.00
830.
0059
-a
0.00
960.
0020 -
0.05
80.
055
0.04
20.
087
0.04
20.
190.
200.
600.
0002
0.00
630.
240.
840.
025
0.00
180.
0067
0.03
70.
013
0.00
360.
0069
0.00
860.
0046
0.01
90.
0028
0.01
8-
0.02
10.
004
0.00
330.
0003
0.02
2- - - - -
0.00
120.
0009 -
0.00
140.
0003 -
0.00
850.
0083
0.00
650.
016
0.00
630.
028
0.03
00.
092
0.00
030.
0009
0.03
70.
130.
0062
0.00
030.
0010
0.00
540.
0022
0.00
080.
0017
0.00
170.
0008
0.00
280.
0006
0.00
27 -0.
0031
0.00
080.
0005
0.00
010.
0033 - - - - -
0.00
190.
0012 -
0.00
120.
0003 -
0.01
10.
013
0.01
20.
030
0.00
870.
037
0.05
60.
140.
0096
0.00
080.
072
0.26
0.05
30.
0003
0.00
180.
0085
0.00
540.
0024
0.00
840.
0059
0.00
330.
0051
0.00
210.
0050
0.00
010.
0055
0.00
440.
0004
0.00
010.
0060
0.00
08 - - - -
0.00
210.
0015 -
0.00
240.
0005 -
0.01
50.
015
0.01
70.
053
0.01
20.
059
0.05
80.
190.
015
0.00
160.
073
0.27
0.07
40.
0006
0.00
180.
0094
0.00
610.
0030
0.01
00.
0074
0.00
480.
0052
0.00
260.
0053
0.00
020.
0057
0.00
580.
0007
0.00
020.
0060
0.00
12 - - -
0.00
520.
0036 -
0.00
590.
0013 -
0.03
60.
036
0.04
80.
150.
032
0.15
0.15
0.45
0.06
20.
0041
0.18
0.71
0.29
0.00
280.
0044
0.02
30.
017
0.00
930.
032
0.02
40.
017
0.01
30.
0075
0.01
50.
0008
0.01
40.
020
0.00
180.
0006
0.01
50.
005
- - - -
0.00
760.
0053 -
0.00
860.
0018 -
0.05
20.
052
0.07
70.
230.
052
0.23
0.23
0.72
0.12
0.00
630.
271.
100.
530.
0075
0.00
640.
035
0.02
70.
016
0.05
40.
041
0.03
20.
020
0.01
20.
023
0.00
20.
020
0.03
60.
0028
0.00
090.
021
0.00
9- - - -
0.00
010.
0052
0.00
34 -0.
0033
0.00
07 -0.
029
0.03
40.
048
0.11
0.03
40.
140.
170.
420.
097
0.00
290.
270.
800.
470.
0080
0.00
880.
0237
0.02
50.
0086
0.05
20.
031
0.02
30.
017
0.01
30.
014
0.00
130.
015
0.03
00.
0014
0.00
040.
016
- - - -
0.03
80.
025
0.00
030.
024
0.00
500.
0002
0.20
0.24
0.56
1.28
1.06
1.45
1.98
4.35
3.11
0.54
1.60
9.93
15.3
4.29
0.88
0.33
0.26
0.36
0.81
0.84
0.81
0.31
0.15
0.36
0.12
0.12
0.66
0.17
0.03
50.
120.
170.
016
0.00
200.
0003 -
- - - - - - -0.
0002
0.00
050.
0011
0.00
080.
0020
0.00
240.
0054
0.00
480.
0009
0.00
170.
028
0.03
70.
012
0.00
260.
0006
0.00
030.
0004
0.00
100.
0008
0.00
080.
0002
0.00
020.
0004
0.00
010.
0001
0.00
080.
0002 - -
0.00
01 - - - -
0.02
20.
016
0.00
020.
026
0.00
540.
0002
0.15
0.15
0.52
1.33
1.30
1.28
1.36
2.99
2.13
0.47
0.92
5.63
9.31
3.17
0.79
0.27
0.17
0.23
0.48
0.52
0.51
0.21
0.10
0.22
0.08
0.07
50.
380.
130.
031
0.06
70.
102
0.01
20.
0018
0.02
710.
0001
- - - - - -0.
0003
0.00
030.
0010
0.00
260.
0034
0.00
310.
0031
0.00
580.
0049
0.00
160.
0020
0.01
10.
021
0.01
10.
0040
0.00
150.
0007
0.00
070.
0011
0.00
130.
0013
0.00
060.
0003
0.00
050.
0002
0.00
020.
0008
0.00
040.
0001
0.00
010.
0002 - - - -
- - - - - - - -0.
0001
0.00
010.
0001
0.00
020.
0003
0.00
050.
0006
0.00
020.
0002
0.00
290.
0047
0.00
250.
0009
0.00
030.
0001
0.00
010.
0001
0.00
010.
0001 - -
0.00
01 - -0.
0001 - - - - - - - -
0.00
330.
0024 -
0.00
380.
0008 -
0.02
20.
023
0.09
70.
260.
380.
350.
350.
460.
750.
200.
261.
041.
871.
200.
570.
250.
130.
150.
110.
150.
140.
067
0.02
50.
088
0.04
30.
021
0.05
90.
072
0.02
30.
022
0.03
20.
0094
0.00
660.
0053
0.00
16
0.00
010.
0001 -
0.00
01 - -0.
0008
0.00
080.
0035
0.00
920.
014
0.01
30.
013
0.01
70.
027
0.00
700.
0093
0.03
70.
067
0.04
30.
020
0.00
880.
0045
0.00
520.
0041
0.00
550.
0051
0.00
240.
0009
0.00
310.
0016
0.00
070.
0021
0.00
260.
0008
0.00
080.
0011
0.00
030.
0002
0.00
020.
0001
0.01
40.
010
0.00
020.
016
0.00
30.
0002
0.09
00.
092
0.40
1.05
1.55
1.43
1.43
1.89
3.09
0.81
1.06
4.24
7.66
4.90
2.34
1.01
0.52
0.59
0.47
0.63
0.59
0.28
0.10
0.36
0.18
0.08
40.
240.
290.
094
0.09
00.
130.
038
0.02
70.
022
0.00
65
0.10
0.07
80.
006
0.09
70.
026
0.00
20.
630.
721.
814.
514.
615.
216.
0012
.09.
912.
154.
6524
.336
.214
.24.
631.
981.
181.
391.
992.
292.
150.
950.
431.
110.
440.
371.
430.
710.
190.
370.
480.
048
0.03
40.
027
0.00
8
Tot
al2.
580.
400.
770.
932.
564.
072.
9252
.50.
1135
.20.
085
0.01
49.
220.
3337
.814
9
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION228
Tab
le16
An
nu
alef
fect
ive
do
sefr
om
rad
ion
ucl
ides
pro
du
ced
inat
mo
sph
eric
nu
clea
rte
stin
g
Year
Ave
rage
annu
alef
fect
ive
dose
(µSv
)
Nor
ther
nhe
mis
pher
eSo
uthe
rnhe
mis
pher
eW
orld
Ext
erna
lIn
gest
ion
aIn
hala
tion
Tota
lE
xter
nal
Inge
stio
na
Inha
latio
nTo
tal
Ext
erna
lIn
gest
ion
aIn
hala
tion
Tota
l
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
0.25
0.22
0.04
20.
260.
077
0.02
81.
501.
653.
175.
883.
528.
409.
3824
.213
.65.
269.
9839
.641
.318
.313
.310
.99.
017.
668.
257.
777.
637.
216.
246.
535.
825.
956.
795.
645.
285.
545.
554.
78
0.27
0.21
0.02
50.
310.
100.
014
1.90
2.02
2.92
7.17
8.26
14.0
13.5
27.7
16.6
12.6
16.7
50.0
43.7
42.3
30.4
21.8
16.7
14.6
13.6
12.7
12.2
11.2
9.17
9.27
8.51
7.97
7.43
7.39
6.56
6.46
5.77
5.41
0.12
0.08
70.
0046
0.11
0.02
70.
0016
0.72
0.80
2.01
4.95
5.03
5.76
6.40
13.2
10.8
2.30
5.23
26.5
40.2
15.6
5.04
2.07
1.23
1.42
2.11
2.38
2.25
1.00
0.43
1.16
0.46
0.41
1.59
0.79
0.21
0.41
0.52
0.08
3
0.64
0.52
0.07
10.
680.
210.
043
4.12
4.48
8.10
18.0
16.8
28.2
29.3
65.2
41.0
20.2
31.9
116
125
76.2
48.7
34.8
26.9
23.7
24.0
22.9
22.1
19.4
15.8
17.0
14.8
14.3
15.8
13.8
12.0
12.4
11.8
10.3
-b - - - - -0.
0016
0.08
20.
141.
140.
661.
837.
387.
822.
980.
970.
8325
.36.
622.
141.
783.
252.
933.
032.
933.
883.
782.
392.
233.
222.
061.
431.
361.
321.
271.
241.
211.
18
- - - - - -0.
0010
0.15
0.34
1.35
1.89
3.03
9.47
8.15
4.17
3.45
3.79
25.5
7.36
8.32
8.53
9.11
5.68
4.84
4.49
5.62
5.08
4.21
3.54
4.08
2.72
2.47
2.33
2.20
2.03
1.92
1.87
1.81
- - - - - -0.
0014
0.03
20.
171.
280.
791.
152.
722.
991.
160.
760.
658.
162.
732.
021.
381.
240.
761.
151.
091.
531.
310.
590.
360.
690.
240.
093
0.09
10.
072
0.04
00.
036
0.03
00.
022
- - - - - -0.
0039
0.27
0.65
3.77
3.34
6.01
19.6
19.0
8.31
5.18
5.26
59.0
16.7
12.5
11.7
13.6
9.37
9.02
8.52
11.0
10.2
7.19
6.14
7.98
5.01
4.00
3.78
3.59
3.34
3.20
3.11
3.01
0.22
0.20
0.03
70.
230.
068
0.02
51.
341.
482.
845.
363.
217.
679.
1622
.412
.54.
798.
9738
.137
.516
.612
.110
.18.
347.
157.
667.
357.
216.
685.
806.
175.
405.
456.
195.
164.
845.
075.
074.
39
0.24
0.19
0.02
0.28
0.09
0.01
1.69
1.81
2.58
6.53
7.60
12.8
13.1
25.6
15.1
11.7
15.3
47.3
39.8
38.6
27.9
20.4
15.5
13.6
12.6
11.9
11.4
10.4
8.58
8.73
7.88
7.37
6.94
6.85
6.02
5.93
5.36
4.97
0.10
0.07
70.
0041
0.10
0.02
40.
0014
0.64
0.72
1.81
4.55
4.57
5.26
6.00
12.1
9.75
2.13
4.73
24.5
36.0
14.1
4.63
1.98
1.18
1.39
1.99
2.28
2.15
0.96
0.42
1.11
0.44
0.37
1.43
0.71
0.19
0.37
0.47
0.07
6
0.57
0.47
0.06
0.60
0.19
0.03
93.
674.
017.
2316
.415
.425
.828
.360
.137
.318
.629
.011
011
369
.344
.632
.525
.022
.122
.321
.520
.818
.114
.816
.013
.713
.214
.612
.711
.111
.410
.99.
43
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 229
Tab
le16
(con
tinue
d)
Year
Ave
rage
annu
alef
fect
ive
dose
(µSv
)
Nor
ther
nhe
mis
pher
eSo
uthe
rnhe
mis
pher
eW
orld
Ext
erna
lIn
gest
ion
aIn
hala
tion
Tota
lE
xter
nal
Inge
stio
na
Inha
latio
nTo
tal
Ext
erna
lIn
gest
ion
aIn
hala
tion
Tota
l
aIn
clud
esco
ntri
butio
nfr
omgl
obal
lydi
sper
sed
3 Han
d14
C.
bE
stim
ated
valu
ele
ssth
an0.
0001
µSv
.
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
4.64
4.51
4.40
4.29
4.18
4.08
3.99
3.90
3.81
3.72
3.63
3.55
3.47
3.39
3.31
3.24
3.16
5.01
4.79
4.57
4.36
4.19
4.04
3.90
3.76
3.63
3.50
3.37
3.26
3.14
3.03
2.92
2.81
2.71
0.04
00.
060
0.00
870.
0006
0.00
03 - - - - - - - - - - - -
9.69
9.36
8.98
8.65
8.38
8.12
7.89
7.65
7.43
7.22
7.01
6.81
6.61
6.42
6.23
6.05
5.87
1.15
1.12
1.10
1.07
1.05
1.02
1.00
0.97
0.95
0.93
0.91
0.89
0.87
0.85
0.83
0.81
0.79
1.77
1.72
1.68
1.64
1.62
1.61
1.60
1.60
1.61
1.62
1.63
1.65
1.68
1.72
1.76
1.82
1.89
0.01
80.
010
0.00
50.
0003
0.00
02 - - - - - - - - - - - -
2.93
2.85
2.78
2.71
2.66
2.63
2.60
2.58
2.56
2.55
2.54
2.54
2.55
2.57
2.59
2.63
2.68
4.03
3.93
3.84
3.75
3.66
3.57
3.49
3.41
3.33
3.26
3.18
3.11
3.04
2.97
2.90
4.65
4.41
4.26
4.01
3.91
3.82
3.63
3.55
3.38
3.31
3.14
3.07
3.01
2.86
2.81
2.66
2.61
0.03
80.
055
0.00
80.
0006
0.00
02 - - - - - - - - - - - -
8.94
8.60
8.30
7.94
7.75
7.57
7.29
7.12
6.87
6.72
6.48
6.33
6.20
5.97
5.85
5.63
5.51
1945
-199
920
00-2
099
2100
-219
9
2200
- �
382
124
12 1.4
531
141
512
180
164
107
626
463
218
1
115
31 3.1
0.3
178
126
502
180
3532
815
753
218
0
353
114
11 1.3
492
139
512
180
149
994
253
622
181
1945
- �52
02
900
164
358
014
92
530
352
720
479
286
014
93
490
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION230
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 231
a Exposures from Bravo test of 28 February 1954 to residents of Rongelap, Utrik, and Ailinginae atolls.b External exposure to local population only.c Population in settlements bordering the test site. The extended population of Semipalatinsk and Altai regions was 1.7 million in 1960.d Maralinga, Emu, and Monte Bello Island.
a Assumed to be geometric mean of range.
Table 17Local doses from atmospheric nuclear testing
Test site PopulationMaximum absorbed dose
in thyroid of children(Gy)
Maximumeffective dose
(Sv)
Collectiveeffective dose
(man Sv)Ref.
United StatesNevadaPacific a
180 000245
1200 1.9
500 b
160[A1][L4]
Former USSRSemipalatinsk 10 000 c 20 4 600 [T1]
United KingdomAustralian sites d 700 [W1]
Table 18Distribution of cumulative effective doses to individuals exposed in local areas downwind of the Nevada test site[A1]
Effective dose (mSv) Number of individuals Collective effective dose (man Sv)
Range Mean a 1951�1958 1961�1963 1951�1958 1961�1963
<0.06�0.60.6�33�66�30
30�6060�90
0.21.34.2134273
61 00080 00019 00020 000
52045
180 000480
0000
1210480260223.2
360.6
Total (rounded) 180 000 180 000 460 40
Table 19Estimated local exposures from atmospheric nuclear tests conducted by France at the South Pacific testsite[B8]
Location Date of test PopulationEffective dose (mSv) Collective
effective dose(man Sv)External Inhalation Ingestion Total
GambierIslands
2 July 19668 August 1971
4068
3.40.9
0.180.002
1.90.24
5.51.2
0.20.5
Tureia Atoll 2 July 196712 June 1971
516545
0.70.9
0.0230.003
0.170.043
0.91.3
0.70.08
Tahiti(Mahina)
17 July 1974 84,000 0.6 0.08 0.06 0.8 67
Total 70
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION232
a Includes cratering tests carried out by the United States and the USSR, some of which released radionuclides to the atmosphere.
Table 20Effective dose estimates from external exposures at locations 400�800 km downwind of the Lop Nor testsite[Z1]
Savannah River 1954�1989 140 (Pu) 23 (Pu) 0.12 0.0024 [C1]
Table 24Releases of radioactive materials associated with the early operation of the materials production complexat Chelyabinsk-40 in the eastern Urals region of the Russian Federation[D5, K4, N8]
Circumstances of release Time periodRadionuclide composition (%) Total
activityrelease(PBq)
90Sr 95Zr 106Ru 137Cs 144Ce
Routine operationAtmospheric effluentsLiquid effluents to Techa River a
1948�19561949�1956 11.6 13.6 25.9 12.2 100
Accident at waste storage site 1957 5.4 24.9 3.7 0.036 66.0 74
Resuspension from shoreline of LakeKarachay 1967 34 48 18 0.022
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION234
a Dry weight.
Table 25Estimated collective effective dose from operation of weapons material production centres in the formerSoviet Union [D5, K4, K5, N8]
Production centre Time period Population exposedCollective effective dose
(man Sv)
ChelyabinskDischarges to Techa RiverWaste storage accident
1949�19561957
28 000273 000
6 2002 500
KrasnoyarskDischarges to Yenesei River 1958�1991 200 000 1 200
TomskDischarges to Tom/Ob Rivers 1958�1992 400 000 200
Total 10 100
Table 26Present (1990�1993) levels of contamination surrounding the Chelyabinsk site [K4]
Location MaterialDeposition density (kBq m�2) Concentration (Bq kg�1)
90Sr 137Cs 90Sr 137Cs
Techa River WaterBottom sedimentsFish
7�2340�2 000 a
50�560
0.06�0.23100�280 000 a
4�10
Eastern Urals
Agricultural areas SoilPotatoesGrainMilkBeef
3.7�74 7.4�370.2�6.70.5�12.60.2�6.30.2�1.7
0.5�3.80.3�2.90.2�4.50.3�2.6
Forest areas SoilMushroomsBerries
37�74 000 37�740400�1 100
700�16 000110�1 600
150
Lakes removed from use WaterBottom sedimentsFish
17�120
70 000�110 000
0.7250�860 a
1 700
Lakes of multipurpose use WaterBottom sedimentsFish
0.10�0.3420�300 a
30�220
0.06�0.3680�240 a
8�26
Table 27Present (1993�1996) exposures from nuclear materials production/processing centres in the RussianFederation [B7, K4]
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 235
a Values in parentheses are estimates.b Uranium is produced as a byproduct from imported phosphates.c Decommissioning product.
a Normalization basis: production, 250 t (GW a)�1; tailings, 1 ha (GWa)�1.b Dose coefficient: 0.0025 man Sv TBq�1.c Normalized release rate: TBq a�1 (GWa)�1.d Assuming release period of five years.e Assuming release period of 10,000 years and unchanging population density.
United Kingdom [M7]Sizewell B - - - - - - 6 110 4 360
United States [T3]Arkansas One 1-2Beaver Valley 1-2Braidwood 1-2Byron 1-2Callaway 1Calvert Cliffs 1-2Catawba 1-2Comanche Peak 1-2Crystal River 3Davis-Besse 1Diablo Canyon 1-2Donald Cook 1-2
32 9003 02090 30045 90033 40024 90039 50033 500
270 00040 3002 0806 960
77 1005 510
389 0003 8505 03095 10029 700
218 00052 20042 9001 7102 620
95 9005 7408 62013 90014 800
217 00031 70065 10029 1001 34091.0
7 570
2 59020 600
102 0004 51029 9007 92048 0007 1001 41012 900
79.276 200
14 4007 62056 100
1 2205 74033 400
814 3205 4607 23010 730
153 0005 8101 1004 2601 8203 1308 8101 046
11 10016 5005 030
16 65010 500
1 0105 1502 9405 330932386
17 8006 1803 860
1275 660
14 9007 9606 310
95
16482.5639
Table 31 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION244
Country / reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
United States (continued)Farley 1-2Fort Calhoun 1R. E. GinnaHaddam NeckHarris 1Indian Point 1-3KewauneeMaine YankeeMcGuire 1-2Millstone 2-3North Anna 1-2Oconee 1-2-3PalisadesPalo Verde 1-3Point Beach 1-2Prairie Island 1-2Rancho Seco 1H. B. Robinson 2Salem 1-2San Onofre 1-3Seabrook 1Sequoyah 1-2South Texas 1-2St. Lucie 1-2Surry 1-2Three Mile Island 1TrojanTurkey Point 3-4Virgil C. Summer 1Vogtle 1-2Waterford 3Watts BarWolf CreekYankee NPSZion 1-2
United States [T3]Arkansas One 1-2Beaver Valley 1-2Braidwood 1-2Byron 1-2Callaway 1Calvert Cliffs 1-2Catawba 1-2Comanche Peak 1-2Crystal River 3Davis-Besse 1Diablo Canyon 1-2Donald Cook 1-2
4783 2403 18039.6
1 37016.7
3 370225980
1 0702 070366
8694 9603 61033.3
1 360428
4 61086.2500
2 3903 4701 070
1 1208 03010 000
1141 950362
6 150112555799
5 110725
64412 8001 440
343 370909
4 230222488829
5 770955
85212 4001 280
3 31046.3
3 450316
1 550831
16 9001 370
1 13012 800
525158
3 69093.0
5 270857
7795 4403 490
95913 100
1 3803 24098.9
6 8501 625576
1 3504 6603 300
8259 070
2 980213
6 2802 160
1 3105 11010 900
Table 32 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION250
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
United States (continued)Farley 1-2Fort Calhoun 1R. E. GinnaHaddam NeckHarris 1Indian Point 1-3KewauneeMaine YankeeMcGuire 1-2Millstone 2-3North Anna 1-2Oconee 1-2-3PalisadesPalo Verde 1-3Point Beach 1-2Prairie Island 1-2Rancho Seco 1H. B. Robinson 2Salem 1-2San Onofre 1-3Seabrook 1Sequoyah 1-2South Texas 1-2St. Lucie 1-2Surry 1-2Three Mile Island 1TrojanTurkey Point 3-4Virgil C. Summer 1Vogtle 1-2Waterford 3Watts BarWolf CreekYankee NPSZion 1-2
United Kingdom [M7]Sizewell B - - - - - - 0.049 0.034
United States [T3]Arkansas One 1-2Beaver Valley 1-2Braidwood 1-2Byron 1-2Callaway 1Calvert Cliffs 1-2Catawba 1-2Comanche Peak 1-2Crystal River 3Davis-Besse 1Diablo Canyon 1-2Donald Cook 1-2
0.00740.00510.0770.15
0.00530.0540.051
-0.0280.0870.0016
0.12
0.0810.260.40
0.00630.0006
0.490.0670.00070.0094
0.320.0220.031
0.0360.0280.00140.0160.0170.62
0.0210.0310.0200.011
-0.27
0.00020.250.12
0.0160.0230.52
0.0270.00370.0007
0.270.00020.0028
-0.0140.14
0.000560.16
0.0160
0.000180.0690.150.35
0.0400.0910.0310.0240.00160.0670.014
0
0.0210.230.33
0.0070.47
0.0170.00300.020
00.000050.000009
0.0940.0740.23
0.000080.041
0.00070.037
00
0.0010
0.076
Table 33 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION256
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
United States (continued)Farley 1-2Fort Calhoun 1R. E. GinnaHaddam NeckHarris 1Indian Point 1-3KewauneeMaine YankeeMcGuire 1-2Millstone 2-3North Anna 1-2Oconee 1-2-3PalisadesPalo Verde 1-3Point Beach 1-2Prairie Island 1-2Rancho Seco 1H. B. Robinson 2Salem 1-2San Onofre 1-3Seabrook 1Sequoyah 1-2South Texas 1-2St. Lucie 1-2Surry 1-2Three Mile Island 1TrojanTurkey Point 3-4Virgil C. Summer 1Vogtle 1-2Waterford 3Watts Bar 1Wolf CreekYankee NPSZion 1-2
United Kingdom [M7]Sizewell B - - - - - - 0.0087 0.0051
United States [T3]Arkansas One 1-2Beaver Valley 1-2Braidwood 1-2Byron 1-2Callaway 1Calvert Cliffs 1-2Catawba 1-2Comanche Peak 1-2Crystal River 3Davis-Besse 1Diablo Canyon 1-2Donald Cook 1-2
United Kingdom [M7]Sizewell B - - - - - - 37 600 44 200
United States [T3]Arkansas One 1-2Beaver Valley 1-2Braidwood 1-2Byron 1-2Callaway 1Calvert Cliffs 1-2Catawba 1-2Comanche Peak 1-2Crystal River 3Davis-Besse 1Diablo Canyon 1-2Donald Cook 1-2
United Kingdom [M7]Sizewell B - - - - - - 19.9 21.3
United States [T3]Arkansas One 1-2Beaver Valley 1-2Braidwood 1-2Byron 1-2Callaway 1Calvert Cliffs 1-2Catawba 1-2Comanche Peak 1-2Crystal River 3Davis-Besse 1Diablo Canyon 1-2Donald Cook 1-2
96.694.115843.71.4352.372.40.4422.95.2210459.6
14211.674724.80.5958.828.21.806.666.8131.338.1
20112.638.71520.1753.134.414.860.34.0727.541.4
82.414.735.346.61.4857.033.115.519.61.9336.419.9
52.47.6238.2
0.3638.922.29.243.359.984.72.46
82.914.829.766.80.3820.623.24.6
2.9040.510.9
49.141.4
29.512.711.45.523.091.214.379.4
24.613.7
7.1917.84.94.2
9.948.649.3
Table 36 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION274
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
United States (continued)Farley 1-2Fort Calhoun 1R. E. GinnaHaddam NeckHarris 1Indian Point 1-3KewauneeMaine YankeeMcGuire 1-2Millstone 2-3North Anna 1-2Oconee 1-2-3PalisadesPalo Verde 1-3Point Beach 1-2Prairie Island 1-2Rancho Seco 1H. B. Robinson 2Salem 1-2San Onofre 1-3Seabrook 1Sequoyah 1-2South Texas 1-2St. Lucie 1-2Surry 1-2Three Mile Island 1TrojanTurkey Point 3-4Virgil C. Summer 1Vogtle 1-2Waterford 3Watts BarWolf CreekYankee NPSZion 1-2
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 279
a Previously assessed values [U3] indicated in parentheses unless unchanged.b Also assumed for LWGRs and FBRs.c Also assumed for HWRs.d Local and regional.e Expressed in terms of 131I.
a Local and regional components only.
Table 38Collective effective dose per unit release of radionuclides from reactors
Type of release Radionuclide PathwayCollective dose per unit release a
(man Sv PBq-1)
Airborne Noble gasesPWRBWRGCR
ImmersionImmersionImmersion
0.11 b c (0.12)0.43 (0.26)0.90 (0.011)
Tritium Ingestion 2.1 (11)
Carbon-14 Ingestion 270 d (1 800)
Iodine e ExternalIngestionInhalation
All pathways
4.525049
300 (340-510)
Particulates ExternalIngestionInhalation
All pathways
1 08083033
2 000 (5 400)
Liquid Tritium Ingestion 0.65 (0.81)
Particulates Ingestion 330 (20-170)
Table 39Normalized collective effective doses from radionuclides released from reactors, 1990-1994
Reactortype
Electricalenergy
generated(%)
Collective effective dose per unit electrical energy generated [man Sv (GW a)-1]
Airborne effluents Liquid effluents
Noble gases 3H 14C a 131I Particulates 3H Other
PWRBWRGCRHWRLWGRFBR
65.0421.953.655.044.090.24
0.0030.151.440.230.19
0.042
0.0050.0020.010
1.40.050.10
0.0590.140.380.430.35
0.032
0.00010.00020.00040.00010.002
0.00009
0.00040.36
0.00060.00010.0280.024
0.0140.0006
0.140.32
0.0070.0012
0.0060.0140.17
0.0430.0020.016
Weighted average 0.11 0.075 0.12 0.0002 0.080 0.031 0.016
Total 0.43
Tab
le40
Rad
ion
ucl
ides
rele
ased
fro
mfu
elre
pro
cess
ing
pla
nts
Year
Fue
lre
proc
esse
d(G
Wa)
Rel
ease
inai
rbor
neef
fluen
ts(T
Bq)
Rel
ease
inliq
uid
efflu
ents
(TB
q)
3 H14
C85
Kr
129 I
131 I
137 C
s3 H
14C
90Sr
106 R
u12
9 I13
7 Cs
Fra
nce
(Cap
deLa
Hag
ue)
[C4]
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1.4
1.6
2.9
2.8
3.3
3.7
5.2
4.8
9.3
7.2
9.1
7.1
10.8
12.3
18.5
16.4
21.5
34.3
43.4
43.0
49.8
a
0.9
3.1
2.6
7.1
3.3
1.8
2.3
4.4
7.1
9.2
10 6.3
8.3
8.5
33 6.1
15 21 25 25 28 30 42 55 84 75 76
2.6
2.3 2 3.8
5.4
8.5
12 17
230
04
400
890
08
500
2700
024
000
1300
025
000
2900
024
000
3000
036
000
5100
050
000
2700
071
000
2900
035
000
2700
042
000
6300
010
000
095
000
120
000
180
000
230
000
260
000
300
000
0.00
021
0.00
220.
010.
0074
0.01
70.
0098
0.01
50.
021
0.02
70.
021
0.01
10.
014
0.02
10.
027
0.01
80.
023
0.01
10.
010
0.02
10.
032
0.03
80.
017
0.00
026
0.00
740.
10.
026
0.01
90.
067
0.01
10.
0000
70.
0001
0.02
80.
0003
30.
0003
10.
0001
80.
0005
0.00
051
0.00
057
0.00
041
0.00
054
0.00
059
0.00
077
0.00
053
0.00
074
0.00
038
0.00
058
0.00
049
0.00
078
0.00
150.
0012
0.00
081
<0.
0000
1
<0.
0000
1<
0.00
001
<0.
0000
1<
0.00
001
<0.
0000
1<
0.00
001
0.00
008
<0.
0000
1<
0.00
001
<0.
0000
1<
0.00
001
<0.
0000
1<
0.00
001
<0.
0000
1<
0.00
001
<0.
0000
1<
0.00
001
<0.
0000
1
61 78 84 110
281
411
264
331
729
539
539
710
810
117
01
460
260
02
310
296
02
540
372
03
260
471
03
770
515
08
090
961
010
500
1190
09.
949.
65
2 8.3
16 19 52 37.6
20 36.4
70 56 29.4
27.1
86.3
141.
810
9.6
47 68.5
57 39.5
28.5
15.8
29.8
17.5
24.6
15.6
29.6
10.6
3.7
100
143
140
132
269
415
278
270
401
374
387
331
469
337
351
437
403
525
259
275
150
18 11 8 14 15.2
16.9
19.6
0.1
0.1
0.13
0.13
0.20
0.26
0.33
0.46
0.48
0.65 1.1
1.5
1.7
1.6
89 243
33 69 56 34 35 51 39 23 27 39 51 23 30 29 10 7.6
8.5
13 13 5.6
3.0
4.4
11 4.6
2.4
2.5
Jap
an(T
okai
)[J
1,J5
]
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
0.04
0.11
0.18
0.61
0.60
0.54
0.01
0.12 1.2
0.25
0.93
0.85 3.5
3.6
4.1
1.5
0.67
2.8
810
180
01
800
740
07
800
780
018
01
300
1000
0
0.00
016
0.00
081
0.00
032
0.00
070.
0004
10.
0005
60.
0000
90.
0000
40.
001
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4.8
30 59 160
140
200
5.6
32 260
0.00
014
0.00
004
0.00
009
0.00
002
00.
0000
1<
0.00
001
0.00
006
<0.
0000
1
00.
0044
0.00
250.
0004
40.
0003
30.
0002
30 0 0
00.
0011
0.00
180.
0001
70.
0000
40.
0000
1<
0.00
01<
0.00
001
0.00
009
0.00
093
0.00
100.
0002
80.
0002
20.
0001
70.
0001
40.
0000
20
0.00
008
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION280
Tab
le40
(con
tinue
d)
Year
Fue
lre
proc
esse
d(G
Wa)
Rel
ease
inai
rbor
neef
fluen
ts(T
Bq)
Rel
ease
inliq
uid
efflu
ents
(TB
q)
3 H14
C85
Kr
129 I
131 I
137 C
s3 H
14C
90Sr
106 R
u12
9 I13
7 Cs
aE
stim
ated
base
don
norm
aliz
ed85
Kr
rele
ase
of6,
020
TB
q(G
Wa)
-1.
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1.2
0.93
0.17 1.1
1.5
1.5
1.5
0.8
1.5
1.0
1.5 0
2.7
3.7
2.5
3.7
4.2
3.2
2.8
2.2
5.4
3.8
3.7
1.5
0.34
0.78
0.31
0.80
0.44
0.48
0.00
47
1300
012
000
270
09
800
1300
015
000
980
05
300
1800
08
600
1200
01.
6
0.00
230.
0001
40.
0000
90.
0002
40.
0000
240.
0003
00.
0003
00.
0002
40.
0003
30.
0001
60.
0001
60
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
� � � � � �
0.00
1�
240
260
74 240
360
330
380
160
490
220
240
3.6
� � � � � � � �
0.00
003
<0.
0000
10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
<0.
0000
1<
0.00
001
00.
0000
10.
0000
40.
0000
30.
0000
70.
0000
50.
0000
70.
0000
80.
0000
50.
0000
1
0.00
017
0.00
015
0.00
009
0.00
004
00.
0000
30.
0000
70.
0000
50.
0000
70 0 0
Un
ited
Kin
gd
om
(Sel
lafie
ld)
[B5,
J2]
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
2.6
3.2
3.2
2.1
1.8
2.5
2.2
3.7
3.1
3.0
2.7
1.7
3.8
2.4
2.8
3.7
3.8
4.5
2.7
5.7
3.8
6.9
7.1
6.8
443
443
303
443
443
444
444
296
222
290
252
459
360
268
349
268
171
78.3
186
677
593
619
324
860
550
580
530
170
9.0
10.0
17.3
24.3
17.3
20.3
32.3
26.3
8.6
7.3
8.5
19.3
9.5
7.3
7.3
7.3
5.7
9.8
3.6
4.2
4.1
5.8
2.5
11.4
4.2
4.2
3.8
1.8
3700
0
4400
044
000
3300
026
000
3500
031
000
5200
044
000
4180
037
100
2380
053
300
3400
039
700
5170
037
600
4460
027
400
5700
038
000
9700
010
000
095
000
0.02
20.
022
0.02
20.
022
0.02
20.
022
0.02
40.
018
0.00
780.
017
0.04
50.
027
0.03
30.
027
0.03
00.
021
0.03
00.
019
0.02
40.
024
0.01
20.
012
0.01
90.
039
0.02
40.
020
0.02
50.
025
0.02
70.
069
2.4
0.13
0.00
130.
0011
0.00
90.
0078
0.04
50.
091
0.00
330.
900.
017
0.01
50.
006
0.00
60.
003
0.00
350.
0022
0.00
210.
0012
0.00
190.
0016
0.00
200.
0017
0.00
110.
0023
0.00
26
0.06
60.
130.
015
0.06
80.
038
0.09
60.
110.
490.
510.
510.
930.
190.
054
0.04
60.
040
0.03
60.
038
0.00
710.
0038
0.00
260.
0028
0.00
360.
0020
0.00
070.
0007
0.00
060.
0009
0.00
06
620
01
200
124
074
01
200
140
01
200
910
100
01
200
128
01
966
175
01
831
158
61
062
215
01
375
172
42
144
169
91
803
119
92
309
168
02
700
300
02
600
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.3
2.6
2.1 3 2 2.0
2.4
0.8
2.0
8.2
12 11 4.4
230
460
562
280
390
466
381
427
597
250
352
277
319
204
72 52 18.3
15 10.1
9.2
4.2
4.1
4.2
17.1
28.9
28 16 37
100
01
400
113
01
400
110
076
276
681
681
039
034
053
042
055
334
881 28 22
.123
.625 16
.518
.712
.617
.16.
77.
39.
09.
8
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.13
0.09
60.
074
0.12
0.14
0.19
0.10
0.20
0.10
0.10
0.12
0.10
0.13
0.17
0.11
0.16
0.07
0.16
0.16
0.25
0.41
0.52
120
01
300
128
977
04
100
523
04
289
448
04
090
260
02
970
236
02
000
120
043
432
517
.911
.813
.328
.623
.515
.615
.321
.913
.812 10 7.
9
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 281
aC
olle
ctiv
edo
ses
prio
rto
1970
and
in19
70-1
974
and
1975
-197
9ar
ees
timat
edus
ing
the
norm
aliz
edre
leas
ees
timat
esof
1970
-197
9.b
Est
imat
edto
be8%
ofel
ectr
ical
ener
gyge
nera
ted.
Tab
le41
No
rmal
ized
rele
ases
and
colle
ctiv
ed
ose
sin
fuel
rep
roce
ssin
g
Year
Fue
lre
proc
esse
d
(GW
a)
Nor
mal
ized
rele
ase
[TB
q(G
Wa)
-1]
Air
born
eef
fluen
tsLi
quid
efflu
ents
3 H14
C85
Kr
129 I
131 I
137 C
s3 H
14C
90Sr
106 R
u12
9 I13
7 Cs
1970
-197
919
80-1
984
1985
-198
919
90-1
994
1995
-199
7
29.2
36.3
62.5
131
160
93 48 24 24 9.6
7.3
3.5
2.1
0.4
0.3
1392
011
690
726
36
300
690
0
0.00
60.
007
0.00
30.
001
0.00
1
0.12
0.03
0.00
030.
0000
90.
0000
5
0.09
0.04
0.00
20.
0000
80.
0000
1
399
376
378
270
255
0.4
0.3
0.8
0.8
0.4
131
45 7.5
2.0
0.8
264
112
33 2.1
0.5
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.04
102
025
27.
41.
00.
2
Col
lect
ive
effe
ctiv
edo
sepe
run
itre
leas
e(m
anSv
TBq-1
)
Year
Fue
lre
proc
esse
d
(GW
a)
Air
born
eef
fluen
tsLi
quid
efflu
ents
3 H14
C85
Kr
129 I
131 I
137 C
s3 H
14C
90Sr
106 R
u12
9 I13
7 Cs
0.00
210.
270.
0000
074
440.
37.
40.
0000
014
1.0
0.00
470.
0033
0.09
90.
098
Col
lect
ive
effe
ctiv
edo
se(m
anSv
)a
Year
Fue
lre
proc
esse
d(G
Wa)
Air
born
eef
fluen
tsLi
quid
efflu
ents
3 H14
C85
Kr
129 I
131 I
137 C
s3 H
14C
90Sr
106 R
u12
9 I13
7 Cs
Pre-
1970
1970
-197
419
75-1
979
1980
-198
419
85-1
989
1990
-199
419
95-1
997
2.3
b
7.0
22.2
36.3
62.5
131
160
0.5
1.4
4.3
3.7
3.1
6.6
3.2
4.5
14 44 35 36 13 13
0.2
0.7
2.3
3.1
3.4
6.1
8.2
0.6
1.9
5.9
11 9.5
8.4
6.9
0.08
0.25
0.79
0.28
0.00
60.
003
0.00
2
1.6
4.9
15 11 0.80
0.08
0.02
0.00
10.
004
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.06
0.9
2.7
8.7
12 48 98 66
1.4
4.3
14 7.6
2.2
1.2
0.6
2.0
6.1
19 13 6.9
0.9
0.3
0.00
90.
030.
09 0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
230
704
222
089
546 12 3.
9
Tot
al42
023
158
2444
1.4
340.
1823
631
491.
44
110
280
443
0
471
0
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION282
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 283
a Estimated value.
a Collective dose per unit release (man Sv TBq-1): 3H, 0.002; 3H (to sea), 0.0002; 14C: 70; 85Kr, 0.002; 129I, 20.b Assumes world population at time of release: 5 109 (for 3H and 85Kr); 1010 (for 14C and 129I).
Table 42Normalized activity releases of globally dispersed radionuclides from reactors and reprocessing plants
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION284
a Analysis is based on reported releases per unit electrical energy generated and presently adopted dose coefficients. These results may, therefore, differsomewhat from earlier evaluations by the Committee.
Table 45Normalized collective effective dose to members of the public from radionuclides released in effluents from thenuclear fuel cycle a
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 285
a Assumes total world population of 6 109 and average amounts administered per treatment of 5 GBq (thyroid cancer) and 0.5 GBq (hyperthyroidism).
Table 46Local and regional component of the collective effective dose to members of the public from radionuclidesreleased in effluents from the nuclear fuel cycle
Table 47Estimated amount of 131I used in medical radiation therapy
Healthcarelevel
Fractionof world
population
Treatments per 1,000 population Total activityadministered a
(TBq)Thyroid cancer Hyperthyroidism
IIIIIIIV
0.260.530.110.10
0.0380.01
0.00270
0.150.02
0.0170.0004
41019015-
Total (rounded) 600
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 287
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