WORLD WAR IEyewitness
Early gas helmet
Model of British motor ambulanceused on the Western Front
Early Britishreconnaissance
aircraft
German incendiarybomb, droppedduring first air raid on London
Book that stopped a bullet
British 20 lb (9 kg)Hales bomb
British carcassincendiary bomb
French tin soldiers
Signboard fromYpres station, 1916
IN ASSOCIATION WITHTHE IMPERIAL WAR MUSEUM
US DistinguishedService Cross
Prussian IronCross
Written by
SIMON ADAMSPhotographed by
ANDY CRAWFORD
Caricature puzzle ofHerbert Asquith,
British primeminister from
190816
British Maxim Mark 3machine gun
Figurine of GrandDuke Nicolas,commander-
in-chief of theRussian armies at
the start of the war
WORLD WAR I
Eyewitness
German steelhelmet adaptedfor use with a
telephone
British steel helmet with visor
British andGerman
barbed wire
Grenade
Britishofficerscompass
Germanmedicalorderlys
pouch
Dummy riflesused by Britisharmy recruits,
191415
French Croix deGuerre medalawarded for
valour
Project editor Patricia MossArt editors Julia Harris, Rebecca Painter
Senior editor Monica BylesSenior art editors Jane Tetzlaff, Clare Shedden
Category publisher Jayne ParsonsManaging art editor Jacquie Gulliver
Senior production controller Kate OliverPicture research Sean Hunter
DTP designers Justine Eaton, Matthew Ibbotson
PAPERBACK EDITIONManaging editor Linda Esposito
Senior editor Shaila AwanManaging art editor Jane ThomasCategory publisher Linda Martin
Art director Simon WebbEditor and reference compiler Clare Hibbert
Art editor Rebecca JohnsProduction Jenny Jacoby
Picture research Sean HunterDTP designer Siu Yin Ho
This Eyewitness Guide has been conceived by Dorling Kindersley Limited and Editions Gallimard
Hardback edition first published in Great Britain in 2001.This edition first published in Great Britain in 2004
by Dorling Kindersley Limited,80 Strand, London WC2R 0RL
Copyright 2001, 2004, Dorling Kindersley Limited, LondonA Penguin Group
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN 1 4053 0298 4
Colour reproduction by Colourscan, Singapore
Printed in China by Toppan Co., (Shenzhen) Ltd.
See our complete catalogue at
LONDON, NEW YORK, TORONTO, MELBOURNE, MUNICH, and DELHI
Contents6
Divided Europe8
The fatal shot10
War in the west12
Fighting men14
Joining up16
Digging the trenches18
Life in the trenches20
Ready to fight22
Communication and supplies24
Observation and patrol26
Bombardment28
Over the top30
Casualty32
Women at war34
War in the air36
Zeppelin38
War at sea40
Gallipoli42
Verdun
Highexplosive
shells
44Gas attack
46The Eastern Front
48War in the desert
50Espionage
52Tank warfare
54The US enters the war
56Under enemy lines
58The final year
60Armistice and peace
62The cost of the war
64Did you know?
66Key people and places
68Find out more
70Glossary
72Index
62
AT THE START of the 20th century, the countriesof Europe were increasingly hostile to eachother. Britain, France, and Germany competedfor trade and influence overseas, whileAustria-Hungary and Russia both tried
to dominate the Balkan states ofsouth-east Europe. Military tension
between Germany and Austria-Hungaryon the one hand and Russia and France onthe other led to the formation of powerfulmilitary alliances. A naval arms race addedto the tension. In 191213 two major wars
broke out in the Balkans as rival statesbattled to divide Turkish-controlled
lands between them. By 1914the political situation in Europewas tense, but few believed thata continental war was inevitable.
HMS DREADNOUGHTThe launch of HMS Dreadnought inFebruary 1906 marked a revolution inbattleship design. With its 10 12-inch(30-cm) guns and a top speed of 21knots, the British ship outperformedand outpaced every other battleship of the day. As a result, Germany,France, and other maritime nationsbegan to design and build their ownDreadnoughts, starting a worldwidenaval armaments race.
Divided Europe
KAISER WILHELM IIWilhelm II becameemperor of Germanyin 1888, when he wasjust 29. He had awithered arm andother disabilities, butovercame them throughhis strong personality. Asemperor, he tried to turnGermany from a European power to a world power, but his aggressivepolicies and arrogant behaviour upset other European nations,particularly Britain and France.
Some children had modelsof HMS Dreadnoughtand could recite everydetail of her statistics
Hand-painted,tinplate toybattleship
THE POWER HOUSEThe factory, shown above, in theRuhr valley of western Germany
belonged to the Alfred KruppArms Company. The Kruppfamily was the largest arms
supplier in the world. Germanywas a largely agricultural nationwhen it became a united country
in 1871. Over the next 30 years,new iron, coal, steel, engineering,
and shipbuilding industriesturned Germany into the third
biggest industrial country in theworld, after the USA and Britain.
Key to wind upclockwork motor
THE GERMAN FLEETIn 1898 Germany began an ambitiousnaval building programme designed tochallenge the supremacy of the BritishRoyal Navy. While German admiralscommanded these new ships in the Balticand North Seas, German children playedwith tin battleships in their baths.
EUROPEAN RIVALRIESIn 1882 Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italysigned the Triple Alliance to protect themselvesagainst invasion. Alarmed by this, France andRussia formed an alliance in 1894. Britain signedententes (understandings) with France in 1904 and Russia in 1907. During the war, Serbia,Montenegro, Belgium, Romania, Portugal, andGreece fought with the Allies. Bulgaria and Turkeyfought alongside Germany and Austria-Hungary the Central Powers. Italy joined the Allies in 1915.
Central Powers
Allied Nations
Neutral
Tsar Nicholas II of Russia George V of Britain
A FAMILY AFFAIR?Although George V and TsarNicholas II look very similar,
they were not directly related.Nicholass wife, Alexandra,
however, was a cousin ofGeorge V, as was Emperor
Wilhelm of Germany.
7
OTTOMANEMPIRE
(TURKEY)
RUSSIA
GERMANY
FRANCE
BULGARIA
GREECE
SPAIN
BRITAIN
IRELAND
NORWAY
SWEDEN
NETHERLANDS
BELGIUM
SWITZERLAND
ITALYPORTUGAL
ALBANIA
SERBIAROMANIA
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
DENMARK
MediterraneanSea
Black Sea
NorthAtlanticOcean
NorthSea
BalticSea
MONTENEGRO
8The fatal shot
MOBILIZE!During July1914, militarynotices wereposted up acrossEurope informingcitizens that theircountrys army wasbeing mobilized(prepared) for warand that all thosebelonging to regular and reserve forcesshould report for duty.
28 June Archduke Franz Ferdinandis assassinated in Sarajevo5 July Germany gives its ally,Austria-Hungary total support forany action it takes against Serbia
23 July Austria issuesa drastic ultimatum toSerbia, which wouldundermine Serbian independence25 July Serbia agrees to most of
Austria-Hungarys ultimatums,but still mobilizes as a safety
precaution28 July Austria-Hungary ignoresSerbias readiness to seek a peaceful
end to the crisis and declares war30 July Russia mobilizes in supportof its ally, Serbia 31 July Germany demands thatRussia stop its mobilization
ONE DAY IN SARAJEVOThe six assassins five Serbs and oneBosnian Muslim lay in wait alongArchduke Ferdinands route to theAustrian governors residence inSarajevo. One of them threw a bomb at Ferdinands car, but it bounced offand exploded under the following car, injuring two army officers. TheArchduke and his wife went to visitthe injured officers in hospital 45minutes later. When their car took a wrong turning, Gavrilo Principstepped out of the crowd and shot the couple. Ferdinands wife diedinstantly and he died 10 minutes later.
THE AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN ARMYThe Austro-Hungarian empire had three armies Austrian,Hungarian, and the Common Army. Ten main languages
were spoken! The official one was German, but officers had to learn their mens language, leading to frequent
communication difficulties. The complex structure of thearmy reflected Austria-Hungary itself, which in reality
was two separate monarchies ruled by one monarch.
ON 28 JUNE 1914 the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne,Archduke Franz Ferdinand, was assassinated in Sarajevo,Bosnia. Bosnia had been part of Austria-Hungary since 1908, but it was claimed byneighbouring Serbia. Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for
the assassination, and on 28 July declared war.What began as the third Balkan war rapidlyturned into a European war. Russia supportedSerbia, Germany supported Austria-Hungary,and France supported Russia. On 4 August,Germany invaded neutral Belgium on its wayto France. It intended to knock France out ofthe war before turning its attention to Russia,thus avoiding war on two fronts. But Britainhad guaranteed to defend Belgiums neutrality,and it too declared war on Germany. The Great War had begun.
Bomb bounced offcanopy and landedunder following car
Princip fired at closerange from therunning board
Archduke and his wifeSophie sat in the backof the open-top car
THE ASSASSINSGavrilo Princip, aboveright, fired the fatalshot. He belonged to the Black Handterrorists, who believedthat Bosnia should bepart of Serbia.
GERMANY REJOICESGermany prepared its armyon 1 August, declaring war
against Russia later the sameevening and against France on
3 August. Most Germans in thecities were enthusiastic for the
war and many civilians rushed tojoin the army in support of Kaiser
and country. Germans in thecountryside were less enthusiastic.
Austro-Hungarian Reiter(Trooper) of the 8th Uhlan
(Lancer) Regiment
9VIVE LA FRANCEThe French army mobilized on 1 August. For manyFrenchmen, the war was an opportunity to seek revengefor the German defeat of France in 187071 and the lossof Alsace-Lorraine to German control.
ALL ABOARD!The German slogans on thiswestbound train read Daytrip to Paris and See youagain on the Boulevard, asall Germans believed thattheir offensive against Francewould soon take them toParis. French trains headingeast towards Germany carriedsimilar messages about Berlin.
1 August Germany mobilizesagainst Russia and declares war;France mobilizes in support of itsally, Russia; Germany signs a treaty with Ottoman Turkey; Italy
declares its neutrality2 August Germany invadesLuxembourg and demands theright to enter neutral Belgium,which is refused
3 August Germany declares war on France4 August Germany invadesBelgium on route to France; Britain enters the war to safeguard
Belgian neutrality6 August Austria-Hungarydeclares war on Russia12 August France and Britaindeclare war on Austria-Hungary
The lamps aregoing out all over Europe
SIR EDWARD GREYBRITISH FOREIGN SECRETARY, 1914
German (above) and French (right) mobilization posters
War in the westEVER SINCE THE 1890s, Germany had feared that itwould face a war on two fronts against Russia in the east and against France, Russias ally since 1893, in the west. Germany knew the chances of winningsuch a war were slim. By 1905, the chief of the Germanstaff, Field Marshal Count Alfred von Schlieffen, haddeveloped a bold plan to knock France swiftly out ofany war before turning the full might of the Germanarmy against Russia. For this plan to work, the
German army had to pass through Belgium, a neutral country. In August1914, the plan went into operation. German troops crossed the Belgianborder on 4 August, and by the end of the month, invaded northernFrance. The Schlieffen Plan then required the army to sweep around thenorth and west of Paris, but the German commander, General Moltke,modified the plan and instead headed east of Paris. This meant his rightflank (side) was exposed to the French and British armies. At the Battleof the Marne on 5 September, the German advance was held and pushedback. By Christmas 1914, the two sides faced stalemate along a line fromthe Belgian coast in the north to the Swiss border in the south.
CHRISTMAS TREATThe London TerritorialAssociation sent each oftheir soldiers a Christmaspudding in 1914. Othersoldiers received gifts in the name of PrincessMary, daughter of KingGeorge V.
IN RETREATThe Belgian army was too smalland inexperienced to resist theinvading German army. Here,soldiers with dog-drawnmachine guns are withdrawingto Antwerp.
Third gunner firesthe gun on command
Second gunnerloads the shellIN THE FIELD
The British Expeditionary Force (B.E.F.)had arrived in France by 22 August1914. Its single cavalry divisionincluded members of the Royal HorseArtillery, whose L Battery fired this 13-pounder quick firing Mark I gunagainst the German 4th CavalryDivision at the Battle of Nry on 1September. This held up the Germanadvance into France for one morning.Three gunners in the battery receivedVictoria Crosses for their valour.
Shaft to attach gunto horses that pullthe gun along
Steel helmet
Soldiers woreputtees, long strips
of cloth wrappedaround their legs
First gunnerhands shell tosecond gunneron command
11
Rope wrappedaround recoilmechanism
EYEWITNESSCaptain E.R.P. Berryman of the 2nd Battalion 39thGarwhal Rifles, wrote a letter home describing thetruce. He told his family that the Germans had put up Christmas trees in theirtrenches. This cartoonillustrates the absurdity of his situation shooting theenemy one day and greetingthem as friends the next.
Fires 12.5-lb (5.6-kg)shells a distance of5,395m (5,900 yards)
HEADING FOR THE FRONTThe German advance into northern France was so rapid that
by early September, its troops were along the River Marne,only 40 km (25 miles) east of Paris. General Gallieni, military
governor of Paris, took 600 taxis and used them to convey6,000 men to the front line to reinforce the French 6th Army.
Soldier shooting atenemy with a notesaying Christmas
Eve Get em!
British and Germansoldiers greeting each
other on Christmas Day
THE CHRISTMAS TRUCE On Christmas Eve 1914, soldiers on
both sides of the Western Front sangcarols to each other in comradely
greeting. The following day, troopsalong two-thirds of the front observeda truce. All firing stopped, and church
services were held. A few soldierscrossed into no-mans-land to talk to
their enemy and exchange simplegifts of cigarettes and other items.
Opposite Ploegsteert Wood, south ofYpres, Belgium, a game of football
took place between members of theGerman Royal Saxon Regiment and
the Scottish Seaforth Highlanders.The Germans won 32. In some
places, the truce lasted for almost a week. A year later, however,
sentries on both sides were ordered to shoot anyone attempting a
repeat performance.
German trench
THE OUTBREAK OF WAR in Europe inAugust 1914 changed the lives of millionsof men. Regular soldiers, older reservists,eager recruits, and unwilling conscriptsall found themselves caught up in thewar. Some of them were experiencedsoldiers, but many had barely held a riflebefore. In addition to the European forces,both Britain and France drew heavily on armies recruited from their overseascolonies and from the British dominions.The design and detail of their uniformsdiffered considerably, although brightercolours soon gave way to khaki, dullblue, and grey.
12
Fighting men
GRAND DUKE NICOLASAt the outbreak of war, the Russian army was ledby Grand Duke Nicolas, uncle of Tsar Nicholas II.In August 1915, the Tsar dismissed his uncle andtook command himself. As commander-in-chief,the Tsar dealt with the overall strategy of the war.The Russian armies were led by generals whodirected the battles. The other warring countriesemployed similar chains of command.
Jerkin could bemade of goat-or sheepskin
Hat flaps could bepulled down to
keep out the cold
Ammunitionpouch
France
Russia
EASTERN ALLIESIn Eastern Europe,Germany faced the vastRussian army, as well as smaller armies fromSerbia and Montenegro.In the Far East, Germancolonies in China and the Pacific Ocean wereinvaded by Japan. Theseillustrations come from a poster showingGermanys enemies.
THE BRITISH ARMYAt the start of war, the Britisharmy contained 247,432regulars and 218,280reservists. Soldiers wore akhaki uniform consisting of a single-breasted tunic with a folding collar, trousers,puttees or leggings worn toprotect the shins, and ankle-boots. In the winter soldierswere issued with additionalitems such as jerkins. Manywore knitted scarves andbalaclavas sent from home.
Woollenputteeswrappedaroundshins
Thick boots toprotect feet
Britishsoldier
EMPIRE TROOPSThe British and French armies includedlarge numbers of recruits from theircolonial possessions in Africa, Asia, thePacific, and the Caribbean. In addition,the British dominions of Australia, NewZealand, Canada, and South Africa senttheir own armies to take part in theconflict. Many of these troops had neverleft their home countries before. TheseAnnamites (Indo-Chinese), above, fromFrench Indo-China were stationed withthe French army at Salonika, Greece, in1916. They wore their own uniformsrather than those of the French army.
Lee Enfield rifleNo. 1 MkIII
13
Tent cloth
Mauser rifle
Gasmask
Stick grenade
Cartridgepouch
Field tunic(Waffenrock)
France Belgium
Russia
Germansoldier
Serbia Montenegro Japan
Britain
French infantryman,known as
le poilu
THE FRENCH ARMYThe French army was oneof the largest in Europe.Including reservists andcolonial troops, the Frencharmy totalled 3,680,000trained men at the
outbreak of war.
THE GERMAN ARMYThe German armywas the strongest inEurope because it hadbeen preparing forwar. At the outbreakof hostilities, itconsisted of 840,000men. All men underthe age of 45 weretrained for militaryservice and belongedto the reserve army.On calling up thereserves, the Germanarmy could expand to over four milliontrained men.
Steel helmetswere issuedin 1916
WESTERN ALLIESIn Western Europe, Britain,France, and Belgium were
allied against Germany.The British and Frencharmies were large, but the Belgian army was
small and inexperienced. These illustrations come
from a German posteridentifying the enemy.
Lebel rifle
Haversack withpersonal items
Water bottle
French infantrymen photographed in 1918
AT
TH
EO
UT
BR
EA
KO
FW
AR
, eve
ryE
urop
ean
coun
try
but o
ne h
ad a
larg
est
and
ing
arm
y of
con
scri
pted
troo
psre
ady
to f
ight
. The
exc
epti
on w
asB
rita
in, w
hich
had
a s
mal
l arm
ym
ade
up o
f vo
lunt
eers
. On
6A
ugus
t 191
4, th
e Se
cret
ary
ofW
ar, L
ord
Kit
chen
er, a
sked
for
100,
000
new
rec
ruit
s.W
hole
str
eets
and
vill
ages
of
pat
riot
ic m
en q
ueue
d to
enlis
t. M
ost t
houg
ht th
ey w
ould
be h
ome
by C
hris
tmas
. By
the
end
of
1915
, 2,4
46,7
19 m
en h
advo
lunt
eere
d, b
ut m
ore
wer
e ne
eded
to f
ill th
ed
eple
ted
ran
ks o
f so
ldie
rs. I
n Ja
nuar
y19
16, c
onsc
ript
ion
was
intr
oduc
edfo
r al
l sin
gle
men
age
d 1
841
.
14
Join
ing
up
TH
E T
ES
TE
very
Bri
tish
rec
ruit
had
to u
nder
go a
med
ical
test
to m
ake
sure
he
was
fit
tofi
ght.
Lar
ge n
umbe
rs f
aile
d th
is te
st, b
ecau
se o
f po
or e
yesi
ght,
ches
t com
plai
nts,
or
gen
eral
ill h
ealt
h. O
ther
s w
ere
refu
sed
bec
ause
they
wer
e un
der
19,
alt
houg
hm
any
lied
abo
ut th
eir
age.
Onc
e he
pas
sed
the
test
, the
rec
ruit
took
the
oath
of
loya
lty
to th
e ki
ng a
nd w
as th
en a
ccep
ted
into
the
arm
y.
YO
UR
CO
UN
TR
Y N
EE
DS
YO
U
Apo
rtra
it o
f B
riti
sh W
ar M
inis
ter,
Gen
eral
Kit
chen
er w
as u
sed
as
a re
crui
ting
pos
ter.
By
the
tim
e it
app
eare
d in
late
Sep
tem
ber
1914
, how
ever
,m
ost p
oten
tial
rec
ruit
s ha
d a
lrea
dy
volu
ntee
red
.
QU
EU
E H
ER
E F
OR
KIN
G A
ND
CO
UN
TR
YA
t the
out
brea
k of
war
, lon
g qu
eues
form
ed a
t rec
ruit
ing
offi
ces
arou
nd
the
coun
try.
Men
fro
m th
e sa
me
area
or
ind
ustr
y gr
oupe
d to
geth
er
to f
orm
the
fam
ous
Pals
bat
talio
ns,
so th
ey c
ould
fig
ht to
geth
er. B
y m
id-
Sept
embe
r, ha
lf a
mill
ion
men
had
volu
ntee
red
to f
ight
.
Smal
l box
resp
irat
orga
s m
ask
Hav
ersa
ckco
ntai
ned
the
filte
r of
the
sm
all
box
resp
irat
or
Pou
chco
ntai
ned
thre
e cl
ips,
whi
ch e
ach
held
five
bulle
ts
Two
sets
of f
ive
amm
unit
ion
pouc
hes
on b
elt
WA
R L
EA
DE
RB
riti
sh P
rim
e M
inis
ter
Her
bert
Asq
uith
was
cari
catu
red
as
the
last
of th
e R
oman
s a
ndre
plac
ed b
y D
avid
Llo
yd G
eorg
e in
Dec
embe
r 19
16.
15
RA
TIO
NS
Eac
h so
ldie
r w
as g
iven
an
iro
n ra
tion
, c
onsi
stin
gof
har
d b
iscu
its,
cor
ned
bee
f, an
d a
tin
cont
aini
ngte
a an
d s
tock
cub
es. D
aily
rat
ions
cou
ld in
clud
ebr
ead
, har
d b
iscu
its,
bu
lly
mea
t, ti
nned
ste
w,
tinn
ed p
ork
and
bea
ns, s
ugar
, tea
, tin
ned
plu
man
d a
pple
jam
, and
tinn
ed b
utte
r. R
atio
n pa
rtie
sca
rrie
d th
e fo
od to
the
fron
t lin
e in
san
dba
gs.
PAY
ING
FO
R T
HE
TR
OO
PS
The
cos
t of
rais
ing
and
sup
plyi
ngva
st a
rmie
s m
eant
eac
h co
untr
y ha
dto
rai
se ta
xes.
Ban
ks a
nd p
riva
tein
vest
ors
wer
e as
ked
to le
nd m
oney
to th
eir
gove
rnm
ent i
n th
e fo
rm o
fw
ar lo
ans.
Thi
s fa
mou
s Fr
ench
post
er e
xhor
ts p
atri
ots
to s
uppo
rtth
e go
vern
men
ts s
econ
d n
atio
nal
def
ence
loan
wit
h th
e w
ord
s O
n le
s au
ra!
(W
ell
get t
hem
!).
TH
E B
AS
IC K
ITA
Bri
tish
sol
die
r ca
rrie
d e
noug
h ba
sic
equi
pmen
t to
figh
t and
to s
urvi
ve in
the
tren
ches
. Alo
ng w
ith
his
rifl
e an
d b
ayon
et, h
e ca
rrie
d s
uppl
ies
of a
mm
unit
ion
in p
ouch
es o
n hi
s be
lt a
nd a
n en
tren
chin
g to
ol to
dig
a sh
allo
w h
ole
to ta
ke c
over
in. B
y 19
17, e
very
sol
die
ral
so c
arri
ed a
res
pira
tor
in c
ase
of g
as a
ttac
ks. H
issu
rviv
al k
it in
clud
ed c
utle
ry, w
ashi
ng k
it, a
nd s
pare
clot
hes.
Whe
n he
wen
t int
o ba
ttle
, he
tran
sfer
red
th
e m
ost n
eed
ed it
ems
out o
f hi
s pa
ck in
to a
sm
alle
r ha
vers
ack.
Bis
cuit
s
Line
n ba
gto
sto
reir
on r
atio
n
Hav
ersa
ck u
sed
for
sold
ier
s ki
t w
hen
in t
he t
renc
hesBul
ly b
eef
Tin
cont
aini
ngte
a an
dst
ock
cube
s
Spoo
n
But
ton
stic
k
Kni
fe
ForkS
havi
ngbr
ush
Cut
-thr
oat
razo
r
Raz
or c
ase
Ent
renc
hing
tool
han
dle
Bay
onet
Wat
er-b
ottl
e
Boo
t la
ces
Con
scie
nti
ous
obje
ctor
sSo
me
peop
le w
ho r
efus
ed
to jo
in u
p w
ere
give
n w
hite
feat
hers
as
a si
gn o
f co
war
dic
e.C
erta
in r
elig
ious
gro
ups
obje
cted
to th
e w
ar a
s th
ey b
elie
ved
it w
asw
rong
to k
ill, a
nd s
ome
Soci
alis
tsob
ject
ed to
fig
htin
g fe
llow
wor
kers
.B
oth
grou
ps w
ere
know
n as
cons
cien
tiou
s ob
ject
ors.
Som
eob
ject
ors
serv
ed in
non
-com
bata
ntun
its,
suc
h as
med
ical
ser
vice
s.
Sold
ier
s sm
all k
it
Hol
dall
EM
PIR
E T
RO
OP
S
Whe
n w
ar w
as d
ecla
red
, tho
usan
ds
of m
envo
lunt
eere
d f
rom
acr
oss
the
Bri
tish
Em
pire
.E
xist
ing
regi
men
ts, s
uch
as th
ese
Ben
gal L
ance
rs,
wer
e au
gmen
ted
by
new
rec
ruit
s. I
ndia
n tr
oops
serv
ed w
ith
dis
tinc
tion
on
the
Wes
tern
Fro
nt, i
nG
erm
an E
ast A
fric
a, a
nd in
the
Mid
dle
Eas
t.
16
Digging the trenchesAT THE OUTBREAK OF WAR, both sides on the Western Front expected to take partin massive military manoeuvres overhundreds of kilometres of territory, and to fight fast-moving battles of advance and retreat. No-one expected a static fightbetween two evenly matched sides. Astalemate occurred mainly becausepowerful long-range artillery weapons andrapid-fire machine guns made it dangerousfor soldiers to fight in unprotected, openground. The only way to survive suchweapons was to dig defensive trenches.
Front line of trenches
POSITIONING THE TRENCHNeither side had great expertise indigging trenches at the outbreak of war,but they quickly learned from their mistakes.The Germans usually built trenches where theycould best observe and fire at the enemy while remainingconcealed. The British and French preferred to capture asmuch ground as possible before digging their trenches.
THE FRONT LINEBy December 1914, a network of trenches stretched along theWestern Front from the Belgiancoast in the north down througheastern France to the Swiss border,645 km (400 miles) in the south. By1917, it was possible in theory towalk most of the length of the frontalong the winding trench network.
THE FIRST TRENCHESEarly trenches were just deep
furrows, which provided minimalcover from enemy fire. These troopsfrom the 2nd Scots Guards dug this
trench near Ypres in October 1914.Their generals believed that suchtrenches were only temporary, as
the normal war of movementwould resume in the spring.
ENTRENCHING TOOLSEach soldier carried an entrenching tool.With it, the soldier could dig a scrape abasic protective trench if he was caught
out in the open by enemy fire. He couldalso use it to repair or improve a trench
damaged by an enemy artillerybombardment.
Bladecover
SIGNPOSTSEach trench wassignposted to makesure no-one lost his way during anattack. Nicknamesfrequently becamesignposted names.
PasschendaeleYpres
Verdun
AmiensRiver Somme
ParisRiver Marne
BELGIUMGERMANY
LUXEMBOURG
FRANCE
American M1910entrenching tool
17
BOARDED UPOne of the main dangers of trench life was the possibility ofbeing buried alive if the walls collapsed. By summer 1915,many German trenches were reinforced with wooden wallsto prevent this happening. They were also dug very deep tohelp protect the men from artillery bombardments.
HOME SWEET HOME?The Germans constructed very elaborate trenchesbecause, as far as they were concerned, this was thenew German border. Many trenches had shutteredwindows and even doormats to wipe muddy boots on! Allied trenches were much morebasic because the Allies expected torecapture the occupied territory.
Officersshelter
Passing point
Front-line trench
Latrine
Section ofshell trench
Shelltrench
TRENCH PLANA trench system consisted ofa series of trenches runningroughly parallel to the enemytrenches. The front-linetrench zig-zagged to stop anenemy raiding party killingeveryone along its lengthwith a well-positionedmachine gun, and to reducethe effects of a shell landingin a fire bay.
COPING WITH THE MUDRain, snow, and natural seepage soon filledtrenches with water. Wooden slats, known asduckboards, were laid on the ground to keepsoldiers feet reasonably dry, but the constantmud remained one of the major features of trench life.
Fire bay
Communication trench
Second linesupport trench
Communicationtrench
18
Life in the trenchesDAYTIME IN THE TRENCHES alternated between shortperiods of intense fear, when the enemy fired, andlonger periods of boredom. Most of the work was doneat night when patrols were sent out to observe and raid enemy trenches, and to repair their own front-lineparapets and other defences. Dawn and dusk were themost likely times for an enemy attack, so all the troopsstood to, that is manned the fire bays, at these times.The days were usually quiet, so the men tried to catchup on sleep while sentries watched the enemy trenches.Many soldiers used this time to write home or keep adiary of events. There were no set mealtimes on thefront line, and soldiers ate as and when transport wasavailable to bring food to the front by carrying parties.To relieve the boredom, soldiers spent one week to 10days in the front line, then moved into the reserve lines,and finally went to a rear area to rest. Here, they weregiven a bath and freshly laundered clothes beforereturning to the trenches.
CLEAN AND TIDYThe cleaning of kit and the waterproofing of boots was as much a part of life in the trenches as it was in the barracks back home.These Belgian soldiers cleaning their rifles knew that such taskswere essential to maintaining combat efficiency.
A LITTLE SHELTERThe trenches were usually very narrow and often exposedto the weather. The Canadian soldiers in this trench havebuilt a makeshift canopy to shelter under. The sides aremade of sandbags piled on top of each other.
OFFICERS DUG-OUTThis re-creation in Londons Imperial War Museum of an
officers dug-out on the Somme in autumn 1916 shows thecramped conditions people endured in the trenches. The
officer on the telephone is calling in artillery support for animminent trench raid, while his weary comrade is asleep
behind him on a camp bed. Official notices, photographs,and postcards from home are pinned around the walls.
A RELAXING READ?This re-creation from Londons
Imperial War Museum shows a soldier reading. While there
was plenty of time for thesoldiers to read during the day,they were often interrupted by
rats scurrying past their feet and itching lice in their clothes.
Soldier removing mudfrom ammunition pouchwith a piece of cloth
Artists and poetsSome soldiers used their spare time in the trenches to write poemsor make sketches. A huge number wrote long letters home, or kept a diary. After the war, many of these writings were published.Literary records of trench life made fascinating and
shocking reading. In 1916, the Britishgovernment began to
send officialwar artists,
such as PaulNash (18891946), to thefront to recordthe war in paint.
19
French authorHenri Barbusse
(18731935)wrote of life inthe trenches,
denouncing thewar in his novel
Le Feu (UnderFire) of 1916.
Poem and self-portrait by British poet and
artist IsaacRosenberg
(18901918)
The Menin Road (1918) by Paul Nash
CAVE MENOrdinary soldiers such as these members of the British BorderRegiment at Thiepval Wood on the Somme in 1916 spent their timeoff duty in funk holes, holes carved out of the side of the trench, orunder waterproof sheets. Unlike the Germans, the British did notintend to stay in the trenches too long, so did not want the soldiers to make themselves comfortable.
TRENCH CUISINEThese French officers are dining well in
a reserve trench in a quiet area. Others were less fortunate, enduring tinned food or mass-produced meals cooked and brought up from
behind the lines and reheated in the trench.
Soldiers servedalongside aregiment ofrats and lice
Paints and brushesbelonging to Britishwar artist Paul Nash
20
PREPARE TO FIREThese German troops on the Marne in 1914 are firing through purpose-built gun holes.This enabled them to view and fire at theenemy without putting their heads above theparapet and exposing themselves to enemyfire. Later on in the war, sandbags replaced the earth ramparts. On their backs, the troopscarry leather knapsacks with rolled-upgreatcoats and tent cloths on top.
WRITING HOMECanon Cyril Lomax served in
France in 191617 as a chaplain tothe 8th Battalion Durham Light
Infantry. As a non-combatant, hehad time to describe in illustrated
letters home some of the horrorshe encountered. The armies of
both sides had chaplains andother clergy at the front.
IT IS EASY TO imaginethat most of the actionon the Western Fronttook place when soldiersleft their trenches andfought each other inopen ground, or no-mans-land, between thetwo opposing front lines.In reality, such events werefar rarer than the constantbattle between soldiers in theirfacing lines of trenches. Botharmies took every opportunity to take shots at anyone foolish orunfortunate enough to be visible to theother side. Even soldiers trying to rescuewounded comrades from no-mans-land orretrieve bodies caught on the barbed-wire fences wereconsidered fair targets. Raiding parties from one frontline to the other added to the danger. This relentless warof attrition kept every soldier on full alert, and meantthat a watch had to be kept on the enemy lines everyhour of the day.
Ready to fight
IN CLOSE QUARTERSSoldiers were armed with a range ofclose-combat weapons when they wenton raiding parties in case they needed to kill an enemy. The enemy could be killed silently so that the raidingsoldiers did not draw attention tothemselves. Theweapons were rarely used.
Germanstick
grenade
Frenchtrenchknife
British Millsbomb
German timedand fused ball
grenade
Germanclub
21
WALKING WOUNDEDThis recreation in Londons
Imperial War Museum shows a wounded German prisoner
being escorted by a medicalorderly from the front line backthrough the trench system to a
regimental aid post. Many,however, were not so fortunate.
A soldier wounded in no-mans-land would be left until it was
safe to bring him back to histrench, usually at nightfall.
Many soldiers risked their livesto retrieve wounded comrades.
Sadly some soldiers diedbecause they could not be
reached soon enough.
REGIMENTAL AID POSTBattalion medical officers, as shown in this recreation fromLondons Imperial War Museum, worked through the heat
of battle and bombardment to treat the flood of casualties asbest they could. They dressed wounds, tried to relieve pain,
and prepared the badly wounded for the uncomfortablejourney out of the trenches to the field hospital.
SAVED BY A BOOKThe soldier carrying this book was lucky. By the time the bullet had passed through thepages, its passage was slowed enough tominimise the injury it caused.
Path of bullet
The German that I shot was a fine
looking man ... I didfeel sorry but it was
my life or his BRITISH SOLDIER JACK SWEENEY,
21 NOVEMBER, 1916
ALWAYS IN ACTIONThis photograph of Bulgarian soldiers
was taken in 1915. It shows thatsoldiers could never let their guard
down while in a trench. A permanentlook-out must be kept, and
guns always primed andready in case the enemy
mounted a sudden attack.The soldiers had to eat in
shifts to ensuretheir constant
readiness forbattle.
PIGEON POSTCarrier pigeons were often used to carrymessages to and from the front line wheretelephone lines did not exist. In fact, thenoise and confusion of the front meant thatthe birds easily became bewildered andflew off in the wrong direction. Germanyused war dogs specially trained to carrymessages in containers on their collars.
22
Communicationand supplies
GETTING IN TOUCHTeams of engineers such as this Germangroup were trained to set up, maintain, andoperate telephones in the field. This allowedcloser and more regular contact between thefront line and HQ than in previous wars.
MISSILE MESSAGESEnemy fire often cut telephone lines,so both sides used shells to carrywritten messages. Flares on the shellslit up to signal their arrival. Signalgrenades and rockets were alsowidely used to convey pre-arrangedmessages to front-line troops.
French armypigeon handlers
badge
Germanmessage shell
Message rolledup in base
Britishnightsignal
Canvas topsecured
with ropes
COMMUNICATING WITH andsupplying front-line troops is thebiggest problem faced by everyarmy. On the Western Front, thisproblem was particularly acutebecause of the length of the front line and the large number of soldiersfighting along it. In mid-1917, forexample, the British army required500,000 shells a day, and million-shell days were not uncommon. Tosupply such vast and hungry armies,both sides devoted great attention tolines of communication. The main form of transport remained the horse, but increasing use was made of mechanized vehicles.Germany made great use of railways to move men and suppliesto the front. Both sides set up elaborate supply systems to ensurethat front-line troops never ran out of munitions or food. Front-line troops also kept in close touch with headquarters and otherunits by telephone and wireless.
FIELD TELEPHONETelephones were the maincommunication method between the front line and headquarters. They relayed voice and Morse code messages.
TWO-WAY TRAFFICOne of the main
problems on the WesternFront was the lack of good roads
to and from the front line. Quietcountry lanes suddenly became major
thoroughfares as columns of marching men, supply lorries, munitions wagons, fieldambulances, and other vehicles forced their waythrough. The traffic was frequently two-way, withsoldiers ready for combat marching to the front,passing their exhausted and often woundedcomrades heading in the opposite direction.
23
Supply trucksheading forthe front
Sides dropped downfor access
Open drivers cab
FABULOUS BAKER GIRLSBehind the lines, vast quantities of food wereproduced every day to feed the soldiers at thefront. British kitchens, canteens, and bakeries,such as this one in Dieppe, France, were oftenstaffed by members of the Womens ArmyAuxiliary Corps (W.A.A.C.). The Corps was setup in February 1917 to replace the men needed to fight on the front line. Women also played amajor role as clerks, telephone operators, andstorekeepers, ensuring that the front line wasadequately supplied and serviced at all times.
WHEEL POWERBoth sides used lorries and vans to ferry menand supplies to the front line. This British 3-ton (3,050-kg) Wolseley transport lorry was specially built for war service, but othersmaller lorries and vans were also used.
Soldier hitching alift to the front ona supply wagon
Wounded Britishtroops returningfrom the trenches in November 1916
British Wolseley 3-ton(3,050-kg) transport lorry
24
AE
RIA
LR
EC
ON
NA
ISS
AN
CE
B
oth
sid
es u
sed
air
craf
t to
obse
rve
enem
ypo
siti
ons
on th
e W
este
rn F
ront
. At f
irst
, Alli
edco
mm
and
ers
wer
e su
spic
ious
of
this
new
met
hod
. But
in S
epte
mbe
r 19
14, F
renc
h A
irSe
rvic
e pi
lots
saw
the
adva
ncin
g G
erm
anar
mie
s ch
ange
dir
ecti
on n
ear
Pari
s. T
his
info
rmat
ion
enab
led
the
Alli
es to
sto
p th
eG
erm
an a
dva
nce
into
Fra
nce
at th
e B
attl
e of
the
Mar
ne. T
he B
E2a
, abo
ve a
nd le
ft, w
asst
rong
, sta
ble,
and
eas
y to
fly
, mak
ing
it id
eal
for
reco
nnai
ssan
ce w
ork.
The
cra
fts
pilo
t,L
ieut
enan
t H.D
. Har
vey-
Kel
ley
was
the
firs
tB
riti
sh p
ilot t
o la
nd in
Fra
nce
afte
r th
eou
tbre
ak o
f w
ar.
Sold
ier
rest
s on
inte
rnal
ste
p-la
dder
whi
le lo
okin
g th
roug
hca
mou
flage
d sp
y-ho
le
Art
ifici
al t
ree
was
an
exac
tre
plic
a of
the
rea
ltr
ee it
rep
lace
d
Obs
erva
tion
and
patr
ol
CO
MPA
SS
BE
AR
ING
SA
nigh
t pat
rol c
ould
eas
ily g
et lo
stin
no-
man
s-l
and
bec
ause
obv
ious
feat
ures
of
the
land
scap
e, s
uch
as la
nes,
woo
ds,
fie
lds,
and
even
hill
s ha
d a
ll be
en b
low
naw
ay. A
refl
ecti
ve c
ompa
ssw
as th
eref
ore
esse
ntia
l if
the
patr
ol w
as to
navi
gate
saf
ely
and
get b
ack
aliv
e to
its
own
tren
ch b
efor
ed
aybr
eak.
Twin
-pro
pelle
ren
gine
Solid
whe
els
Twin
-sea
ter
cock
pit
Gla
ss fr
ont
Mot
her-
of-p
earl
face
to
catc
h th
e lig
ht
Roy
al A
ircr
aft F
acto
ryB
lri
ot E
xper
imen
tal (
BE
)2a
used
for
rec
onna
issa
nce
and
ligh
t bom
bing
Leat
her
case
Can
vas
win
g ov
erw
oode
n fr
ame
Ger
man
ster
eosc
opic
peri
scop
e
GA
TH
ER
ING
INT
EL
LIG
EN
CE
AB
OU
Tth
e en
emy
is o
f gr
eat i
mpo
rtan
ce d
urin
g w
ar, b
ecau
se
that
info
rmat
ion
can
be u
sed
to m
ount
a
succ
essf
ul a
ttac
k or
rep
el a
n en
emy
adva
nce.
Int
erro
gati
ng p
riso
ners
was
a v
ery
succ
essf
ul m
etho
d o
f ga
ther
ing
info
rmat
ion.
Ad
dit
iona
lly, a
long
the
Wes
tern
Fro
nt, b
oth
sid
es w
ere
inge
niou
s in
dev
isin
g ne
w m
etho
ds
to g
athe
r in
telli
genc
e. N
ight
-tim
e pa
trol
s pr
obed
the
stre
ngth
s an
d w
eakn
esse
s of
ene
my
lines
. Thi
sw
as h
azar
dou
s w
ork,
as
it m
eant
cro
ssin
g ro
ws
ofba
rbed
-wir
e en
tang
lem
ents
and
per
haps
dis
turb
ing
an u
nexp
lod
ed s
hell
or a
ttra
ctin
g en
emy
gunf
ire.
Obs
erva
tion
turr
ets
and
peri
scop
es w
ere
also
used
. Air
craf
t bec
ame
incr
easi
ngly
pop
ular
sin
ceth
ey c
ould
fly
vir
tual
lyun
hind
ered
ove
r th
e en
emy,
obse
rve
thei
r tr
ench
es a
nd g
unem
plac
emen
ts, a
nd p
hoto
grap
hth
e fr
ont l
ine.
Thi
s in
form
atio
nco
uld
then
be
used
to p
rod
uce
map
s of
the
enem
y lin
es.
25
SIL
EN
T P
OS
TS
The
fir
st b
arbe
d-w
ire
enta
ngle
men
ts w
ere
stru
ng a
long
woo
den
pos
ts k
nock
ed in
toth
e gr
ound
wit
h m
alle
ts. T
he n
oise
of
stri
king
mal
lets
oft
en a
ttra
cted
ene
my
fire
,so
met
al p
icqu
ets
wer
e so
on u
sed
by
the
Alli
es. T
he p
icqu
ets
wer
e sc
rew
edsi
lent
ly in
to th
e gr
ound
and
rol
ls o
fba
rbed
-wir
e w
ere
hung
on
the
loop
s.Bri
tish
w
ire
cutt
ers
Scre
w s
ecur
edpi
cque
t in
th
e gr
ound
BIR
DS
EY
E V
IEW
Bot
h si
des
con
stru
cted
art
ific
ial
tree
s as
an
arti
llery
obs
erva
tion
post
to d
irec
t fir
e at
the
enem
y.
Aso
ldie
r cl
ambe
red
up
a la
dd
erin
sid
e th
e tr
ee a
nd p
eere
d w
ith
bino
cula
rs a
t the
ene
my
lines
thro
ugh
a sp
y-ho
le in
the
sid
e of
the
trun
k. T
he s
old
ier
pass
ed o
nw
hat h
e sa
w to
a s
econ
d s
old
ier
at th
e ba
se o
f th
e po
st. T
hefo
rwar
d o
bser
vati
on o
ffic
er th
enre
laye
d d
irec
tion
s by
tele
phon
e to
an
arti
llery
bat
tery
beh
ind
the
lines
. Thi
s in
form
atio
n en
able
dth
e ar
tille
ry b
atte
ry to
dir
ect i
tsfi
re a
t the
ene
my
mor
e ac
cura
tely
than
bef
ore.
The
rec
reat
ion,
ri
ght,
is a
t Lon
don
s I
mpe
rial
W
ar M
useu
m.
Bri
tish
dou
ble-
stra
nd b
arbe
dw
ire
Loop
s at
var
ying
heig
hts
to h
ang
barb
ed-w
ire
enta
ngle
men
ts o
n
AL
ON
G T
HE
WIR
ET
he tr
ench
es a
long
the
Wes
tern
Fron
t wer
e pr
otec
ted
by
row
s of
bar
bed
-wir
e en
tang
lem
ents
.Pa
trol
s w
ent o
ut a
t nig
ht to
repa
ir e
ntan
glem
ents
and
tore
conn
oitr
e en
emy
lines
. If
an a
ssau
lt w
as p
lann
ed f
or th
ene
xt d
ay, p
atro
ls c
lear
ed a
pat
hth
roug
h th
e en
tang
lem
ents
toal
low
thei
r in
fant
ry u
nhin
der
edac
cess
to th
e en
emy
s fr
ont l
ine.
Ger
man
wir
e cu
tter
s
PE
RIS
CO
PE
SSo
ldie
rs lo
okin
g at
the
enem
y ov
er th
e to
p of
atr
ench
ris
ked
bei
ng s
hot
at. A
s a
resu
lt, b
oth
sid
esd
evel
oped
sop
hist
icat
edpe
risc
opes
. The
Bri
tish
als
oad
apte
d a
rif
le f
or u
se in
the
tren
ches
. Tw
o m
irro
rs w
ere
atta
ched
to th
e ri
fle
so, w
hile
held
upr
ight
, the
sol
die
rco
uld
use
it a
s a
peri
scop
e.
Bri
tish
O
cent
ric
rifl
e pe
risc
ope
Mir
ror
tovi
ew e
nem
ypo
siti
on
Adj
usta
ble
eye
piec
es
Ger
man
sing
le-s
tran
dba
rbed
wir
e
26
BombardmentARTILLERY DOMINATED the battlefields ofWorld War I. A well-aimed bombardment could destroy enemy trenches, and knock out artillery batteries and communication lines. It could also help break up an infantryattack. But as defensive positions strengthened,artillery bombardments became longer andmore intense. New tactics were required tobreak down enemy lines. The most effective was the creeping barrage, which rained down a moving curtain of heavy and insistent fire just ahead of attacking infantry.
BEWARE!Soldiers at the front neededconstant reminders to keeptheir heads down as they wereso used to shells flying past.Warning signs were common.
Breastplate
Articulatedplates to cover
lower body
HIDING THE GUNTwo main types of artillerywere used during the war light field artillery, pulledby horses, and heavierguns, such as howitzers,moved by tractor and setup on reinforced beds.Once in place, artillerypieces were camouflagedto conceal them from the enemy.
British 8-in (20-cm)Mark V howitzer
SHELL POWERThe huge number of
shells needed to maintain a constant artillery barrage
against the enemy can beseen in this photograph of a British shell dump
behind the Western Front.
GERMAN ARMOURIn January 1916 the German army replacedits distinctive spikedPickelhaube with a rounded steel helmet. Body armour was first issued in 1916 to machine gunners.
Helmet
SIGHT SAVERIn 191617 a chain-mail visorwas added to the basic Britishhelmet to protect the eyes. Visorswere soon removed as they weredifficult to see through.
Visor for extraprotection
27
LOADING A HOWITZERLarge pieces of artillery required a teamof experienced gunners to load and firethem. This British 15-in (38-cm)howitzer was used on the MeninRoad near Ypres in October 1917.The huge shell on the left ofthe picture is too largeand heavy to lift, so itis being winchedinto position.
CLASSIFYING SHELLSShells were classified by weight or diameter. High-explosiveshells exploded on impact. Anti-personnel shrapnel shellsexploded in flight and were designed to kill or maim.
German 15-cm (5.9-in)shrapnel shell
British 4.5-in(11.4-cm) high-explosive shell
French 75-mm(2.9-in)
shrapnelshell
British 13-pounder(5.9-kg) high-
explosive shell
EXPLOSION!The devasting impact of artilleryfire can be seen in this dramaticpicture of a British tank hit by a shell and bursting into flames. To its right, another tank breaksthrough the barbed wire. It was unusual for moving targets,such as tanks, to be hit, and mostartillery fire was used to soften upthe enemy lines before an attack.
Fired froma howitzer
Over the top
Water-cooledbarrel
Tripodmounting
British .303-in (7.7-mm)Maxim Mark 3 medium
machine gun
QUICK FIRINGMachine guns fired up to 600 bullets a minute.Ammunition was fittedinto a fabric or metal-link belt, or in a metaltray fed into the gunautomatically. The gunbarrel was surroundedwith a cold-water jacketto cool it.
Steel water jacketto cool gun barrel
Disc is part of theflash hider assembly,making the gunharder to spot
IN ACTIONThis German machine-gun crew isprotecting the flank (side) of an advancinginfantry troop on the Western Front. Thereliability and firepower of machine gunsmade them effective weapons. Also, theirsmall size and manoeuvrability made them difficult for the enemy to destroy.
ONCE THE ARTILLERY bombardment had poundedthe enemys defences, the infantry climbed out of their trenches and advanced towards enemy lines. The advance was very dangerous. Artillerybombardments rarely knocked out every enemydefence. Often, many gun emplacements andbarbed-wire fences were still intact. Gaps in the defensive line were filled by highly mobilemachine-gunners. Against them, a soldier armedwith only a rifle and bayonet and laden withheavy equipment was an easy target. On the first day of the Battle of the Somme in July 1916,German machine-gun fire accounted for twoBritish soldiers killed or injured along eachmetre (three feet) of the 28-km(16-mile) front.
German MG08 Maxim
machine gun
LEAVING THE TRENCHThe most frightening moment
for a soldier was scrambling upa ladder out of his trench and
into no-mans-land. Few men knew the horrors
that awaited them.
Trenchmounting
FUTILE ATTACKThe Battle of the Somme lasted
from 1 July 1916 until 18November, when snowstorms
and rain brought the attack to amuddy halt. The Allies capturedabout 125 sq km (48 sq miles) ofland, but failed to break through
the German lines, reducing much of the area to a desolatewasteland. The Germans had
been on the Somme since 1914, soknew the terrain well. The British
belonged to Kitcheners newarmy. Young and inexperienced,this was the first battle many of
them had fought in.
Below: Soldiers of the 103rd(Tyneside Irish) Brigade attack
La Boisselle on the first day of the Somme
TENDING THE WOUNDEDThe cramped conditions in a trench
can be seen in this picture of an armymedical officer tending a wounded
soldier at Thiepval near the Somme inSeptember 1916. Movement along atrench was often difficult and slow.
First day on the Somme The Allies planned to break through the German lines north of the River Somme, France, in 1916. On 24 June, the British
began a six-day artillery bombardment on German lines, butthe Germans retreated into deep bunkers and were largelyunharmed. As the British infantry advanced at 7.30 am on
1 July, German machine gunners emerged from their bunkersand opened fire. Believing the artillery bombardment had
destroyed German lines, the infantry marched in long, slowwaves towards the enemy who literally mowed them down.
The sunkenroad ... (was) ...filled with pieces
of uniform,weapons, anddead bodies.
LIEUTENANT ERNST JUNGER,GERMAN SOLDIER, THE SOMME, 1916
30
Casualty NO-ONE KNOWS how many soldiers were wounded in the war, but a possible figure is 21 million. Caringfor casualties was a major military operation. Theywere first treated at regimental aid posts in thetrenches. Then, they were taken to casualty clearingstations behind the front line. Here, they receivedproper medical attention and basic surgery, if required,before being transported to base hospitals still furtherfrom the front. Soldiers with severe injuries went hometo recover in convalescent hospitals. Over 78% ofBritish soldiers on the Western Front returned to activeservice. Sickness was a major cause of casualty inMesopotamia over 50% of deaths were due to disease.
LUCKY MANDespite a splinterfrom a shell piercinghis helmet, this soldierescaped with only aminor head wound.Many soldiers werenot so fortunate,receiving severeinjuries that stayedwith them for life ifthey survived at all.
Inventorylistingcontents andwhere to findthem in thepouch
Bottles of liquidantisepticsand pain-killers
THE GERMAN KITGerman Sanittsmannschaften (medicalorderlies) carried two first-aid poucheson their belts. The pouch on the right(above) contained basic antiseptics,pain-killers, and other treatments,while the pouch on the leftcontained dressings andtriangular bandages.
Germanbandages
TRENCH AIDInjured soldiers had their wounds
dressed by medical orderlies in thetrench where they fell. They were then
transferred to the regimental aid post, where their injuries
could be assessed.Strip oflace curtain
RECYCLED BANDAGESFollowing the naval blockade by Britain,Germany ran out of cotton and linen.Wood fibre, paper, and lace curtainswere used to make bandages instead.
31
AMBULANCEThe British Royal ArmyMedical Corps, like itsGerman counterpart, had a fleet of field ambulancesto carry the wounded tohospital. Many of theseambulances were staffedby volunteers, oftenwomen, and those fromnon-combatant countriessuch as the USA.
THE FIELD HOSPITALFarmhouses, ruined factories, and even bombed-out churches, such as this
one in Meuse, France, were used as casualty clearing stations to treat thewounded. Care was basic, and many were left to help themselves.
Forceps andclamps heldsecurely in ametal tray
Bunks for the injuredto lie on
Shellshock Shellshock is the collective name that was used to describeconcussion, emotional shock, nervous exhaustion, and othersimilar ailments. Shellshock was not identified before World War I,but trench warfare was so horrific that large numbers of soldiersdeveloped symptoms. Most of them eventually recovered, butsome suffered nightmares and other effects for the rest of theirlives. The condition caused great controversy, and in 1922 theBritish War Office Committee announced that shellshock didnot exist and was a collection of already known illnesses.
A medicalorderly helps a
wounded soldieraway from the
trenches
Red Cross symbol to signify non-combatant status of the ambulance
TOOLS OF THE TRADEArmy doctors carried a standard set of
surgical instruments, as in this set issued bythe Indian army. Their skills were in greatdemand, as they faced a wide variety ofinjuries from bullets and shell fragments that required immediate attention.
Lower traycontains sawsand knives foramputation
32
Women at warWHEN THE MEN went off to fight, the women were called upon totake their place. Many women were already in work, but their rolewas restricted to domestic labour, nursing, teaching, agricultural workon the family smallholding, and a few other jobs considered suitablefor women. Now they went to work in factories, drove trucks andambulances, and did almost everything that only men had done
before. Many working womenleft their low-paid, low-statusjobs for higher-paid work in munitions and other
industries, achieving a new status in the eyes of
society. Such gains, however,were short-lived, as most
women returned to the homewhen the war ended.
FRONT-LINE ADVENTUREFor some women, the war was abig adventure. English nurse ElsieKnocker (above) went to Belgiumin 1914 where she was joined byScottish Mairi Chisholm. Thewomen set up a dressing station atPervyse, Belgium, and dressed thewounded until both were gassed in1918. They were almost the onlywomen on the front line. The twobecame known as the Women ofPervyse and were awarded theOrder of Leopold by Belgian KingAlbert, and the British MilitaryMedal. Elsie later married aBelgian officer, Baron de TSercles.
ARMY LAUNDRYTraditional pre-war womens work, such asworking in a laundry or bakery, continuedduring the war on a much larger scale.The French women employed at thisBritish Army laundry at Prevent,France in 1918 were washing andcleaning the dirty clothes of manythousands of soldiers every day.
QUEEN MARYS AUXILIARYFew women actually fought in
the war, but many were enlistedinto auxiliary armies so that men
could be released to fight on thefront line. They drove trucks,
mended engines, and did much of thenecessary administration and supply work.
In Britain, many women joined The Womens(later Queen Marys) Army Auxiliary Corps,whose recruiting poster featured a khaki-cladwoman (left) with the words The girl behindthe man behind the gun. The women remainedcivilians, despite their military work.
33
WOMENS LAND ARMYThe war required a huge increase in food production at home as both sidestried to restrict the enemys imports of food from abroad. In Britain, 113,000women joined the Womens Land Army, set up in February 1917 to provide a well-paid female workforce to run the farms. Many members of the LandArmy, such as this group of healthy looking women, came from the middleand upper classes. They made a valuable contribution, but their numberswere insignificant compared with the millions of working-class womenalready employed on the land in the rest of Europe.
SUPPORT YOUR COUNTRYImages of ideal women were used to gain support for acountrys war effort. This Russian poster urges people tobuy war bonds (fund-raising loans to the government) bylinking Russian women to the love of the motherland.
WORKING IN POVERTYThe war brought increased status and
wealth to many women but this was not the case everywhere. These Italian
women worked in terrible conditions in amunitions factory. Many were very youngand could not even afford shoes. This was
common in factories across Italy, Germany,and Russia. The women worked long, hard
hours but earned barely enough to feedtheir families. Strikes led by women
were very common as a result.
MEMENTOS FROM HOMEWomen kept in contact with their absenthusbands, brothers, and sons by writingletters to them at the front. They alsoenclosed keepsakes, such as photographsor pressed flowers, to reassure the men thatall was well in their absence and to remindthem of home. Such letters and mementosdid much to keep up the morale ofhomesick and often very frightened men.
RUSSIAS AMAZONSA number of Russian women joined the Legion of Death to fight for their country. The first battalion from Petrograd (St Petersburg)distinguished itself by taking more than 100 German prisoners during a Russian retreat, although many of the women died in the battle.
Letters to men at thefront describing events
at home
Lace handkerchief
Familyphotographs
34
SOPWITH CAMELThe Sopwith F1 Camel first flew in battle in June 1917 and becamethe most successful Alliedfighter in shootingdown German aircraft.Pilots enjoyed flyingthe Camel because ofits exceptional agility andability to make sharp turnsat high speed.
War in the airWHEN WAR BROKE OUT in August 1914, the history ofpowered flight was barely 10 years old. Aircraft had fought brieflyin the ItalianTurkish war of 1911, but early aircraft development hadbeen almost entirely for civilian use. Some military leaders could noteven see how aircraft could be used in war but they soon changedtheir minds. The first warplanes flew as reconnaissance craft,looking down on enemy lines or helping to direct artillery fire
with great precision. Enemy pilots tried to shoot them down,leading to dogfights in the sky between highly skilled and
immensely brave aces. Specialized fighter planes, suchas the Sopwith Camel and the German Fokker line, weresoon produced by both sides, as were sturdier craft
capable of carrying bombs to drop on enemy targets. By the end of the war, the role of military aircraft had changed from being a minor help to the ground
forces into a major force in their own right.
DRESSED FOR THE AIRPilots flew in opencockpits, so theywore soft leathercoats and balaclavas,sheepskin-lined furboots, and sheepskin-lined leather gloves tokeep out the cold. Laterin the war, one-piecesuits of waxed cottonlined with silk and furbecame common.
8.2-m (26-ft 11-in)wingspan
Pouch to keep maps in
Sheepskin-linedleather gloves toprotect againstfrostbite
Coat of soft,supple leather
Turned-upcollar to keep
neck warm
DOGFIGHTSPilots engaged indogfights with enemyaircraft above the WesternFront. Guns weremounted on top of thecraft, so pilots had tofly straight at theenemy to shoot.
Anti-splinter glass goggles
Leather face mask
Leather balaclava
Fins to stopthe bomb fromspinning on its descent
Perforated casingto help bomb catchfire on impact
British Carcassincendiary
bomb
Wooden box-structurewings coveredwith canvas
Sheepskin boots
Thick sole togive a good grip
Propeller to guidethe bomb
British 9.1-kg(20-lb) Marten
Hale bomb,containing 2 kg (4.5 lb)
of explosives
BOMBS AWAYThe first bombs were literally droppedover the side of the aircraft by the pilot.Specialized bomber aircraft soonappeared, equipped with bombsights,bomb racks beneath the fuselage,and release systems operatedby the pilot or anothercrew member.
MANOEUVRESThe art of aerial warfarewas unknown to pilots atthe start of the war andhad to be learned fromscratch. This Britishinstruction poster showsthe correct method ofattacking a Germanfighter, althoughtheory on theground was no substitute for actualexperience in the sky.
35
ANTI-AIRCRAFT GUNSThe first anti-aircraft guns,such as this British QF 1-pounder, were originallyinstalled on ships to fire
at torpedo boats. Onceadapted for high-angleshooting, they becameuseful anti-aircraftguns on land.
GERMAN FIGHTERThe formidable German Fokker DVIIappeared in April 1918. Althoughslower than the Sopwith Camel, itclimbed rapidly, recovered quicklyfrom a dive, and flew well atall altitudes.
AIR ACESTo qualify as an air ace, a pilot had to bringdown at least 10 enemy aircraft. Those whodid became national heroes. Baron vonRichthofen the Red Baron was thehighest-scoring ace of the war, shooting down80 Allied aircraft. The British ace, CaptainAlbert Ball, had more decorations for braverythan any other man of his age, including theVictoria Cross; he was only 20 when he wasshot down and killed in 1917.
Wooden struts
Captain EddieRickenbacker(USA) 24 13
hits (18901973)
Captain Albert Ball(Britain) 44 hits
(18961917)
Rittmeister Manfredvon Richthofen
(Germany), centre 80 hits (18921918)
Captain RenFonck (France)
75 hits(18941953)
Symbol of British RoyalFlying Corps, later the Royal Air Force
Barrel couldfire 1-pound(453.6-g) shell
Pivot to changedirection andangle of gun
"You ask me to letthe devils have it ...
when I fight ... I dontthink them devils ... I only scrap because
it is my duty."CAPTAIN ALBERT BALL, 1916
Germanaircraft holds a steady course
British fightercomes up frombelow andbehind
Fokker DV11
Side cutaway toshow internalsteel-tubingframework
BMW engine
36
ZeppelinIN THE SPRING OF 1915, the first Germanairships appeared in Britains night sky. Thesight of these huge, slow-moving machinescaused enormous panic at any moment ahail of bombs could fall from the airship. Yet in reality, airships played little part in the war. The first airship was designed by the German Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin in 1900. Airships are often called zeppelins,but technically only those designed by himshould bear the name. Early in the war,airships could fly higher than planes, so itwas almost impossible to shoot them down.This made them useful for bombing raids. But soon, higher flying aircraft and the use ofincendiary (fire-making) bullets brought theseaerial bombers down to earth. By 1917, mostGerman and British airships were restricted to reconnaissance work at sea.
GETTING BIGGERThis L3 German airshiptook part in the firstairship raid on Britainon the night of 1920January 1915, causing 20 civilian casualties.Eyewitnesses werescared by its size, but by 1918 Germany wasproducing ships almostthree times as big.
INSIDE THE GONDOLAThe crew operated the airship from the gondola a spacious cabinbelow the main airship. The gondola had open sides, so the crewhad little protection from the weather.
BOMBS AWAY!Crews in the first airshipshad to drops their bombs,such as this incendiarybomb, over the side of thegondola by hand. Latermodels had automaticrelease mechanisms.
Fuel tank Gondola
German incendiary bombdropped by Zeppelin LZ38
on London, 31 May 1915
CAPITAL TARGETThe first German airship raid on London tookplace on 31 May 1915, and was followed by a more powerful attack on 8 September. Theartist R. Schmidt from Hamburg recorded onesuch night raid. In total, there were 51 airshipattacks on British cities. They dropped 196 tons(2,000 kg) of bombs, killing 557 people andwounding 1,358.
HIGH ABOVE THE SEASThe British used airshipschiefly to patrol the seaslooking for German U-boats.The machine gunnerprotected the crew and shipagainst an enemy fighter,while other crew memberswere on look-out. These twocrew members are perchingon a flimsy gantry mountedto the side of the gondolastrung beneath the airship.
SEA SCOUT ZEROThe British SSZ (Sea Scout Zero) was firstintroduced into service in 1916. It was a non-rigid airship, meaning it had no internalframework. Its light weight gave it animpressive top speed of 72 km/h (45 mph)and it could stay airborne for 17 hours. Its crew of three were employed mainly on submarine patrol or on escort duty for convoys.
Gantry
Lewis gunner
The engine gantry waslinked to the gondola
by a rope ladder
Float in case airshiplanded on sea
Engine andpropeller toprovide powerand steer airship
Observer
Stabilizer
Emblem of BritishRoyal Naval AirService
38
War at seaSINCE THE LAUNCH OF Britains Dreadnoughtbattleship in 1906, Britain, Germany, and othercountries had engaged in a massive navalbuilding programme. Yet the war itself wasfought largely on land and both sides avoidednaval conflict. The British needed their fleet tokeep the seas open for merchant ships bringingfood and other supplies to Britain, as well as toprevent supplies reaching Germany. Germanyneeded its fleet to protect itself against possibleinvasion. The only major sea battle offDanish Jutland in the North Sea in 1916 wasinconclusive. The main fight took place underthe sea, as German U-boats waged a damaging
war against Allied merchant andtroop ships in an effort to forceBritain out of the war.
CONSTANT THREATThis German propaganda poster, The U-boatsare out!, shows the threat posed to Alliedshipping by the German U-boat fleet.
SUCCESS AND FAILUREGerman U-boats operated both underthe sea and on the surface. Here, thecrew is opening fire with a deckcannon to stop an enemy steamer.German U-boats sank 5,554 Allied and neutral merchant ships as well as many warships. Their own losses,however, were also considerable. Outof a total fleet of 372 German U-boats,178 were destroyed by Allied bombs or torpedoes.
Gun
LIFE INSIDE A U-BOATConditions inside a U-boat werecramped and uncomfortable. Fumesand heat from the engine and poorventilation made the air very stuffy.The crew had to navigate their craft through minefields, and avoiddetection from reconnaissance aircraft,in order to attack enemy ships.
I WANT YOUWhen the USA enteredthe war in April 1917, a poster showing anattractive woman innaval uniform (above)urged volunteers to enlist.
LAND AND SEASeaplanes are able to take off and land
on both water and ground. They were used for reconnaissance and
bombing work. This version of theShort 184 was the first seaplane
to sink an enemy ship with a torpedo.
Observationballoon
Floats forlanding onwater
39
Medalsawarded to
Jack Cornwall
Flight deck
THE BRITISH GRAND FLEETThe British Royal Navy was the
biggest and most powerful in theworld. It operated a policy known as the two-power standard thecombined might of the British fleetshould be the equal of the two next
strongest nations combined. Despitethis superiority, the navy played a
fairly minor role in the war comparedwith the army, keeping the seas free of
German ships and escorting convoysof merchant ships to Britain.
DAZZLEDDuring the war, many artistscontributed to their countrys wareffort, some in surprising ways. Themodern British painter EdwardWadsworth supervised the applicationof dazzle camouflage to ships hulls.He later painted a picture (above),Dazzle ships in dry dock at Liverpool,showing the finished result.
BOY (1ST CLASS) John Travers Cornwall was only 16 when he first
saw action at the Battle of Jutland on 31 May 1916. He was a ships boy (1st class) aboard HMS Chester and
was mortally wounded early in the battle. While othercrew members lay dead or injured, Cornwall stayed at his post until the end of the action. He died of his wounds on
2 June and was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross.
CONFUSE AND SURVIVEIn 1917 the British Admiralty began tocamouflage merchant ships with strange and garish designs.These grey, black, and blue geometric patterns distorted thesilhouette of the ship and made it difficult for German U-boatsto determine its course and thus aim torpedoes at it with anyaccuracy. More than 2,700 merchant ships and 400 convoyescorts were camouflaged in this way before the war ended.
HMS FURIOUSAircraft carriers firstsaw service during WorldWar I. On 7 July 1918, sevenSopwith Camels took off from the deck of HMS Furious to attackthe zeppelin base at Tondern innorthern Germany, destroying bothsheds and the two Zeppelins inside.
VictoriaCross (VC)
BritishWar
Medal
VictoryMedal
THE CASUALTY RATEDespite the efforts of the medical staff, some of whomeven carried portable surgical kits, the treatment andevacuation of casualties from Gallipoli was complicatedby the enormous numbers of soldiers who were sick, aswell as those who were wounded.
IN EARLY 1915 the Allies decided toforce through the strategic, but heavilyfortified, Dardanelles straits andcapture the Ottoman Turkish capital of Constantinople. Naval attacks on 19 February and 18 March both failed.On 25 April, British, Australian, andNew Zealand troops landed on the
Gallipoli peninsula, while French troops staged adiversion to their south. In August, there was a secondlanding at Suvla Bay, also on the peninsula. Although thelandings were a success, the casualty rate was high andthe Allies were unable to move far from the beaches dueto fierce Turkish resistance. As the months wore on, thedeath rate mounted. The Allies eventually withdrew inJanuary 1916, leaving the Ottoman Empire still in controlof the Dardanelles and still in the war.
40
Gallipoli
GALLIPOLI PENINSULAThe Gallipoli peninsula lies to the north of theDardanelles, a narrow waterway connecting the AegeanSea to the Black Sea via the Sea of Marmara. Control ofthis waterway would have given Britain and France adirect sea route from the Mediterranean to the Black Seaand their ally, Russia. But both sides of the waterwaywere controlled by Germanys ally, the Ottoman Empire.
TASTY GREETINGSBritish army biscuits wereoften easier to write onthan to eat, as this hard-baked Christmas cardfrom Gallipoli illustrates.
IMPROVISED GRENADESThe fighting at Gallipoli
was often at very closerange. Hand-thrown
grenades were particularlyeffective in knocking out
enemy positions. During amunitions shortage, Allied
troops improvised bymaking grenades out
of jam tins.
Gallipolipeninsula
BlackSea
Sea ofMarmara
MediterraneanSea
Dardanellesstraits
AegeanSea
CRETE
GREECE
OTTOMANEMPIRE
Privately purchased medical kit usedby a British officer on the front line
Jetty for boatscarrying sick andwounded soldiers
Scissors Tweezers
Pouch
Scalpel
Hypodermicneedles
GERMAN HELPThe Allies expected theGallipoli peninsula to be lightlydefended, but with the helpof Germany, the Turks hadbuilt strong defensivepositions. They dug trenches,erected barbed-wire fences, andbuilt well-guarded artillerypositions. Germany alsoequipped the Turks withmodern pistols, rifles,and machine guns.
THE SICK BEACHBoth sides had their food contaminated by flies carrying diseasefrom the many corpses. Dysentery was endemic in September1915, 78% of the Anzac troops in the No. 1 Australian StationaryHospital at Anzac Cove (above) were being treated for the disease.
41
Narrow beach unprotectedagainst Turkish fire
Turkish defences lookdown on beach
ANZAC MEMORIALDuring the war, both Australia andNew Zealand suffered large numbersof deaths in proportion to their smallpopulations. Australia lost 60,000 menfrom a population of less than fivemillion. New Zealand lost 17,000 froma population of one million. Of those,11,100 died at Gallipoli. Today,Australia and New Zealand remembertheir war dead on Anzac Day, 25 April.
FOR DISTINCTIONThe Turkish Order of the Crescentwas instituted on 1 March 1915 for distinguished service. It wasawarded to German and Turkishsoldiers who fought at Gallipoli.
British soldiers evacuated by raftfrom Suvla Bay, 19 December 1915
Large horse-drawn gun
Many soldiers weresuffering from frostbite
WINTER EVACUATIONOn 7 December 1915, the Allies decided to withdrawfrom Gallipoli. A flotilla of ships evacuated thetroops and their supplies. Unlike the chaos andcarnage of the previous six months, the withdrawalsunder the cover of darkness went without a hitchand not a single person was injured. British andAnzac forces withdrew from Anzac and Suvla on thenight of 1819 December, with the rest of the Britishforces at Cape Helles following on 89 January 1916.
ANZAC COVEOn 25 April, the Australian and NewZealand Army Corps, known as the Anzacs,landed on the western coast of the Gallipolipeninsula. All hopes of swiftly capturing thepeninsula were thwarted by the unyieldingterrain. The beach was very narrow and thesteep, sandy hills gave the men no cover.They were under constant fire from thewell-hidden Ottoman Turks above. Thebeach is now known as Anzac Cove as a sign of remembrance.
KEMAL ATATURKBorn in 1881, Mustafa Kemaldistinguished himself fighting for the Ottoman Turkish army in Libya in 1911 and against the Bulgarians in 191213. At Gallipoli, Kemal wasappointed divisional commanderwhere he helped to strengthen theOttoman Turkish defences. Kemalthen brilliantly led the 19th Divisionon the ridges above AnzacCove, preventing the Alliesfrom penetrating inland.After the war, Kemal led a revolt to prevent thedismemberment of Turkey.In 1923 he became the firstpresident of the TurkishRepublic, later gaining the name Atatrk (Father of the Turks).
Sultans Cypher with the year 1333in the Muslim calendar, which is
1915 in the Western calendar
Hyde ParkMemorial,
Sydney,Australia
42
VerdunON 21 FEBRUARY 1916, Germany launched a massive attackagainst Verdun, a fortified French city. Verdun lay close to theGerman border and controlled access into eastern France. After a huge, eight-hour artillery bombardment, the German infantryadvanced. The French were caught by surprise and lost control ofsome of their main forts, but during the summer their resistancestiffened. By December, the Germans had been pushed backalmost to where theystarted. The cost to bothsides was enormous over 400,000 Frenchcasualties and 336,831German casualties. The German GeneralFalkenhayn later claimedhe had tried to bleedFrance to death. He did not succeed and,including losses at theBattle of the Somme,German casualties thatyear were 774,153.
BURNING WRECKAGEOn 25 February, the ancient city of Verdunwas evacuated. Many buildings were hit bythe artillery bombardment, and even moredestroyed by the fires that raged often fordays. Firefighters did their best to controlthe blazes, but large numbers of houseshad wooden frames and burned easily.
FORT DOUAUMONTVerdun was protected by three rings of fortifications. FortDouaumont, in the outer ring, was the strongest of theseforts. It was built of steel and concrete and surrounded byramparts, ditches, and rolls of barbed wire. But althoughthe fort itself was strong, it was defended by just 56 elderlyreservists. The fort fell to the Germans on 25 February.
LE POILUThe French slang for aninfantry soldier was le poilu,or hairy one. Les poilusbore the brunt of theGerman attack, enduringthe muddy, cold, and wetconditions and sufferingdreadful injuries fromshellfire and poison gas.
GENERAL PETAINGeneral Henri-Philippe Ptaintook command of the Frenchforces of Verdun on 25February, the same day as theloss of Fort Douaumont. Heorganized an effective defenceof the town and made sure
the army was properlysupplied. His rallying cry,
"Ils ne passeront pas!"(They shall not pass!),
did much to raiseFrench morale.
Machine-gun postExposed concrete
fort wall
Haversack
Horizon-blueuniform
Double-breastedgreatcoat
Lebel rifle
Steel helmet
Thick boots withputtees wrappedaround the legs
Background picture: Ruined Verdun cityscape, 1915
43
SURROUNDING VILLAGESThe village of Ornes was one ofmany French villages attacked andcaptured during the German advanceon Verdun. The devastation was sogreat that this village, along witheight others, was not rebuilt after thewar, but is still marked on maps as asign of remembrance.
LEGI