Diversity of Monument Deterioration-Causing Fungi at ...

Pandey et al., Annals of Environmental Science / 2011, Vol 5, 35-40

www.aes.northeastern.edu, ISSN 1939-2621 35

DIVERSITY OF MONUMENT

DETERIORATION-CAUSING

FUNGI AT GWALIOR FORT

(M.P.) INDIA

A.K. Pandey1, Archana Shrivastav

2, Preeti

Bhatnagar2, S. Sarsaiya

1*, M.K. Awasthi

1

1 Mycological Research Laboratory, Department of

Biological Sciences, Rani Durgavati University,

Jabalpur- 482001 (M.P.) India 2 College of Life Sciences, Cancer Hospital &

Research Institute, Gwalior (M.P.), India

Received November 13, 2010; in final form March 31,

2011, accepted June 10, 2011

ABSTRACT

Fungi are complex communities of microorganisms

that damage historic monuments. The present study

was made to examine the diversity of fungi associated

with deteriorated monuments sites. In the present

investigation, 40 stone samples were collected from

15 deteriorating sites of Gwalior Fort. A dilution plate

method was used for isolation of fungi. Twenty-three

fungal species containing 19 genera isolated from

fifteen deteriorated monument sites are reported in

this paper. The most frequent isolated fungal species

from the historic monument sites are Alternaria sp, A.

nidulans, A. fumigatus, A. flavus, A. terreus, A. niger,

Beauveria sp., Bipolaris sp., Curvularia sp.,

Cochliobollus sp., Cladosporium sp., Chaetomium sp.,

Crysosporium sp., Conidiobolus sp., Drechslera sp.,

Exserohilum sp., Fusarium sp., Penicillium sp.,

Sepedonium sp., Scopulariopsis sp., Trichothecium

sp., Torula sp. and Ulocladium sp. The Bhimsen

Chatri, Gujri Mahal and Man Mandir sites contained

the maximum number of fungal species followed by

Barak, Bawari, Bahu Mandir, Bhim Singh Chatri,

Rang Mahal, Karan Mahal, Fansighar, Teli Ka

Mandir, Jail, Sas Mandir, Unknown site 1, Unknown

site 2 and Vikram Mandir. The diversity of these fungi

associated with deteriorated monuments sites provides

valuable data for future studies.

* Corresponding author: Surendra Sarsaiya, Regional

Office, M.P. Pollution Control Board, Vijay Nagar, Jabalpur

(M.P.), India, E-mail: [email protected]

Keywords: Biodeterioration, monument, fungi, stone.

1. INTRODUCTION

Gwalior Fort (Figure 1) is one of the most invisible

forts in India. It is built on a hill of sandstone. Its

sandstone surfaces are continuously affected by

physical, chemical and biological agents. Among

biological agents, microorganisms are responsible for

the destruction of cultural heritage [1-3]. They can

cause damage on the stone surface such as formation

of biofilms, chemical reactions with the substrate,

physical penetration into the substrate as well as

pigment production. Numerous studies have dealt with

establishing the role of biological agents in the stone

deterioration [4,5]. During recent decades there has

been a growing concern about deterioration of historic

buildings. Along with chemical and physical factors,

microbial growth plays an important role in this

process [6].

Microbial colonization of stones depends on

environmental factors such as water availability, pH,

climatic exposure, nutrient sources, and petrologic

parameters such as mineral composition, type of

cement, as well as the porosity and permeability of

rock material. The stone ecosystem is subject to harsh

environmental changes, especially due to temperature

and moisture, exerting extreme selective pressure on

any developing microbial community [7,8]. All fungi

need some organic source for their growth, which is

provided by metabolites of phototrophic organisms or

by air-borne deposition. It has been shown that very

low nutrient requirements of some rock inhabiting

fungi may be fulfilled by remains of polluted air and

rain or animal remains and secretion [9]. The present

study was initiated to isolate diversity of deterioration-

causing fungi for further research.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. Collection of Samples

Deteriorated stone samples were collected from 15

different localities of Gwalior Fort (M.P.), India

namely Barak, Bawari, Bahu Mandir, Bhim Singh

Chatri, Gujri Mahal, Man Mandir, Rang Mahal, Karan

Mahal, Fansighar, Teli Ka Mandir, Jail, Sas Mandir,

Unknown Site 1, Unknown Site 2 and Vikram Mandir

(Figure 2). After careful observation, visible

alterations and degradation were mapped and after

that the samples were taken. All samples were



processed within 5 hrs of collection.

2.2. Isolation of Fungi

A dilution plate method was used for isolation of

fungi, [10]. One gram of fresh ground samples were

placed in 10 mL of sterile distilled water and shaken

by vortexing the mixture for 30 min at room

temperature. Then 100 µL portions of the suspensions

were inoculated onto plates containing potato dextrose

agar containing 20% potato, 2.0% dextrose and 15%

Agar (w/v). Chloramphenicol was added to the molten

medium after autoclaving. The plates were incubated

at 28 ± 2oC for 4-8 days and examined regularly. As

soon as the colonies appeared, they were transferred

to potato dextrose agar slants. The isolated fungi were

purified by the single spore method [10]. Isolated

fungal strains were identified on the basis of

morphological studies [11-14]. The identified strains

were maintained on PDA slants at low temperature (4

± 1oC).

3. RESULTS

In the present investigation, twenty-three fungal

species belonging to 19 genera isolated from Gwalior

Fort were shown in Table 1. These fungi were

Alternaria sp., A. nidulans sp., A. fumigatus, A. flavus,

A. terreus, A. niger, Beauveria sp., Bipolaris sp.,

Curvularia sp., Cochliobollus sp., Cladosporium sp.,

Chaetomium sp., Chrysosporium sp., Conidiobolus

sp., Drechslera sp., Exserohilum sp., Fusarium sp.,

Penicillium sp., Sepedonium sp., Scopulariopsis sp.,

Trichothecium sp., Torula sp., Ulocladium sp. (Figure

3). The Bhimsen Chatri, Gujri Mahal and Man Mandir

sites contain the maximum number of fungal species

followed by Barak, Bawari, Bahu mandir, Bhim singh

Chatri, Rang Mahal, Karan mahal, Fansighar, Teli Ka

Mandir , Jail, Sas mandir, Site 1, Site 2 and Vikram

Mandir. Results obtained during the present

investigation also revealed that A. fumigatus, A. niger,

Curvularia sp., Penicillium sp., Scopulariopsis sp. and

Trichothecium sp. occur relatively toward the higher

side and Alternaria sp., A. nidulans, A. flavus, A.

terreus, Cladosporium sp., Chaetomium sp., Sepedo-

nium sp., Torula sp. and Ulocladium sp. are in the

moderate range.

Figure 1 Gwalior Fort



Berak Bawari Bahu Mandir

Rang Mahal Karan Mahal

Bhim Singh Chatri Gujri Mahal Man Mandir

Teli Ka Mandir Sas Mandir

Unknown Site 1 Unknown Site 2 Vikram Mandir

Jail

Fansighar

Figure 2 Different deteriorating sites of Gwalior Fort.



Figure 3 A: Alternaria sp., B: Curvularia sp., C: Aspergillus sp., D: Chaetomium sp., E: Penicillium sp. and F:

Fusarium sp.

Table 1 Fungi isolated from deteriorated stone materials.

Fungi Habitats 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Alternaria sp. + - + + + + - - + - + - + - -

Aspergillus flavus - - + + - - + + + - - - - - -

A. nidulans - + + - - + - - - + - + - + +

A. terreus - - - + - + - - - - + - - - -

A. niger - - - + - - - + - - + - - - +

A. fumigatus - - - - - - - - - - - - - - +

Bipolaris sp. + - - - + + - - - - - - - - -

Beauveria sp. + - + + - - + - - - - - - - +

Chaetomium sp. - - - - + - - - - + + - - + -

Cladosporium sp. + + - - + + + - + - - - + - -

Curvularia sp. + + + - + + - - - - + + + + +

Cochliobollus sp. - - - - - - - - - - - + - - -

Conidiobolus sp. - - - + - - - - - - - - - - -

Chrysosporium sp. - - - - + - - - - - - - - - -

Drechslera sp. - + + - + - - - - - - - + - -

Exserohilum sp. - + - - - + - - - + + - - - -

Fusarium sp. - - - - + + - + - - - + + - -

Penicillium sp. - - + - - + + + + + - - - + -

Scopulariopsis sp. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - +

Sepedonium sp. - + - - - - - - - - - - - - +

Torula sp. - - - - - - + - - - + - - - -

Trichothecium sp. - + - + - - - - - + - + - - -

Ulocladium sp. - - - + + - - + - - - - - + -

1- Barak, 2- Bawri,3-Bahu Mandi, 4- Bhimsen Chatri, 5- Gujri Mahal, 6- Man Mandir, 7-Rang Maha, 8- Karan Mahal,

9-Fasighar, 10- Teli Ka Mandir, 11- Jail, 12-Sas Mandir, 13- Site 1, 14- Site 2, 15-Vikram Mandir (+ Present & -

Absent).



4. DISCUSSION

The mentioned fungal species are typically soil fungi,

which is in accordance with the results of ref. [15]

who noted a considerable number of the same genus

and species. The identified microfungi cause dis-

coloration as well as mechanical exfoliation of stone

material that was analyzed through mechanical hyphae

penetration and production of different pigments

(Cladosporium sp. and Alternaria sp.) and organic

acids (some species of genus Aspergillus sp.,

Alternaria sp. and Penicillium sp.). Refs [15, 16]

reported that a large number of fungi have great

biochemical decay potential.

Recently, it has been apparent that the ability of

fungi to interact with minerals, metals, metalloids and

organic compounds through biomechanical and bio-

chemical processes, makes them ideally suited as

biological weathering agents of rock and building

stone. Biological and mycological investigations are a

very important part of good conservation and cannot

be ignored in the modern conservation concept, which

includes close collaboration between art and science.

This collaboration is the comparative study of the role

of microbial colonization on the degradation of

historic monuments [17, 18].

5. CONCLUSIONS

Cultural heritage is made up of a variety of material

produced by nature and used by man. Cultural

heritage objects are subjected to damage by fungi. The

results of this study suggest that these fungi should not

be ignored for their potential role in nutrient cycling

by bio-deterioration of monuments. The possible

outcome of this study is that valuable information

about the diversity of fungi involved in the

deterioration on monuments will be obtained.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to College of Life Sciences,

Cancer Hospital and Research Institute, Gwalior

(M.P.) for providing laboratory facilities, the Head of

the Department of Biological Sciences, Rani

Durgavati University, Jabalpur (M.P.), India is also

thankfully acknowledged for support of this research.

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