Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 1 Title: The Impact of Senior Pastor Leadership Behavior on Volunteer Motivation Stephen G. Fogarty Alphacrucis College, Sydney Australia Key Words: volunteer motivation, self-determination theory, extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation, nonprofit leadership, church leadership, transactional leadership, transformational leadership, trust, value congruence
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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 1
Title:
The Impact of Senior Pastor Leadership Behavior on Volunteer Motivation
Knudsen, 2006; Larsson and Ronnmark, 1996; Onnen, 1987; Rowold, 2008;
Rowold and Rohmann, 2009; Son, 2003). Therefore, the leadership behavior of
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 6
senior pastors is conceptualized using transactional and transformational leadership
theory.
Transactional leadership involves a reciprocal process of exchange between leader
and followers (Bass, 1985; Riggio et al., 2004). It is defined in terms of three inter-
related behaviors: (a) contingent reward, (b) active management by exception, and
(c) passive management by exception (Yammarino and Bass, 1990). Contingent
reward implies the provision of an adequate exchange of valued resources for
follower support (Judge and Bono, 2000). Active management by exception
involves monitoring performance and taking corrective action. Passive
management by exception means intervening only when problems become serious.
Both active and passive management by exception involve enforcing rules to avoid
mistakes (Judge and Bono, 2000). The impact of transactional leadership behaviors
on volunteer workers will be to provide them with a clear understanding of their
tasks and the desired outcomes, to create in them an expectation of the rewards for
achievement, and to assist them in improving their performance.
Transformational leadership “transcends transactional leadership because it is built
around the notion that leaders and followers are held together by some higher-level,
shared goal or mission, rather than because of some personal transaction” (Riggio
et al., 2004, p. 51). It involves a reciprocal process of inspiration between leader
and followers which results in both performing beyond expected levels of
commitment and contribution, and which is based on the leader developing
“positive, rich, emotional relationships with followers that build commitment to a
common purpose or cause” (Riggio et al., 2004, p. 50). Transformational leadership
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 7
is defined in terms of four interrelated behaviors: (a) idealized influence, (b)
inspirational motivation, (c) intellectual stimulation, and (4) individualized
consideration (Riggio et al., 2004; Yammarino and Bass, 1990). Idealized influence
involves leaders serving as idealized role models for followers (Avolio and Bass,
2004; Judge and Bono, 2000; Riggio et al., 2004). Inspirational motivation
“arouses followers’ enthusiasm and sense of team spirit” (Riggio et al., 2004, p. 51)
as the leader provides followers with a clear vision of the organization’s future, the
value of high standards of operation, and a sense of meaningfulness in their work
(Avolio and Bass, 2004). Intellectual stimulation involves leaders encouraging
followers to be innovators and creative problem solvers (Avolio and Bass, 2004;
Yammarino and Bass, 1990). Individualized consideration involves the leader’s
attention to the unique gifts and talents of each follower and the leader’s ability to
coach or mentor followers with challenges and opportunities that suit each
individual (Avolio, et al., 1999; Bass, 1985; Yammarino and Bass, 1990;
Yammarino, et al., 1993).
Overall, transformational leadership theory encapsulates a “sense of moral good
and a passionate commitment to the cause” (Riggio et al., 2004, p. 52) that is
essential for leadership in nonprofit organizations which are mission-driven and
which rely on the motivation and performance of volunteers to achieve the
organizational mission. The impact of transformational leadership behaviors on
volunteer workers will be to augment the effect of transactional leadership
behaviors by providing volunteers with vision and values to motivate them to
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 8
continue in voluntary activity at high levels of volition and quality performance
(Bass, 1985; Judge and Piccolo, 2004).
Leadership Behaviors and Volunteer Motivation
Linking the two literatures of self-determination theory and transactional and
transformational leadership theory is the observation that the augmentation effect of
transformational leadership on the effectiveness of transactional leadership is likely
to be related to volunteers’ extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Transactional
leadership behaviors are likely to produce extrinsic motivation in volunteers as they
are motivated to attain contingent rewards such as personal recognition or standing
within the organization. Transformational leadership behaviors are likely to
produce intrinsic motivation as volunteers are motivated by identification with and
commitment to the mission of the organization. This personal identification and
commitment is internally driven and volunteers are likely to sense that they are
satisfying the needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. A leader’s exercise
of transformational behaviors will augment the impact of his or her use of
transactional behaviors by stimulating volunteer intrinsic motivation and producing
more sustained and higher quality task performance.
Trust and Value Congruence
The effective exercise of leadership is based upon leader–follower relationships
that incorporate followers’ trust in and value congruence with the leader (Yukl,
2006). Trust in a leader is “faith in and loyalty to the leader” (Podsakoff et al.,
1990, p. 113). Value congruence with a leader is belief that the follower’s personal
values are congruent with and aligned with those of the leader (Posner, 2010). Both
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 9
transactional and transformational leadership behaviors can inspire trust and value
congruence in followers.
Transactional leaders build followers’ trust by engaging in consistent behavior and
by honoring agreements (Bass, 1985; Jung and Avolio, 2000; Podsakoff, et al.,
1990). They stimulate followers’ value congruence by identifying mutual
aspirations and acknowledging followers’ expertise, experience, and education
(Jung and Avolio, 2000). Transactional leadership behaviors generate followers’
trust in and value congruence with the leader in relation to the nature of the
organization, the task and outcomes required for efficient organizational operation,
and the attendant contingent rewards. Jung and Avolio referred to such trust and
value congruence as being “conditional” because they are established “through a
reliable execution of contracts and exchanges” (p. 952). The trust and value
congruence inspired in followers by a leader’s exercise of transactional leadership
behaviors suffices to ensure a cooperative working relationship and the successful
completion of the necessary tasks. It does not necessarily “change followers’
personal values” nor “develop a deep sense of trust and commitment to the leader”
(Jung and Avolio, 2000, p. 951). The practice of transactional leadership behaviors
by senior pastors is likely to establish and maintain volunteers’ trust in the
competence and fairness of the senior pastor and volunteers’ value congruence with
the practices and desired outcomes of the senior pastor. This trust and value
congruence is likely to mediate the impact of the senior pastor’s transactional
leadership behaviors on volunteers’ extrinsic motivation.
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 10
Transformational leaders increase followers’ trust levels by developing their skills
and confidence to perform tasks and assume responsibility, by providing support
and encouragement when necessary in the face of obstacles, difficulties, and
fatigue, and through their own role modeling of desirable behavior and willingness
to engage in sacrifice in order to achieve the organizational vision (Bass and
Avolio, 1990; Yukl, 2006). They influence followers to adopt and internalize the
leader’s values and vision by providing and communicating a desirable vision and
by raising followers’ level of awareness about the importance and value of desired
outcomes (Avolio and Bass, 1988; Jung and Avolio, 2000). Jung and Avolio (2000)
point out that “value congruence achieved through a value internalization process
and demonstrated trust in the leader,” are core mediating aspects of
transformational leadership (p. 950). The practice of transformational leadership
behaviors by senior pastors is likely to increase volunteers’ trust in the character
and competence of the senior pastor and to produce change in volunteers’ values
and to increase their value congruence with the senior pastor. This increased trust
and value congruence is likely to mediate the impact of the senior pastor’s
transformational leadership behaviors on volunteer intrinsic motivation.
Study Model
The model presented in Figure 1 is based on self-determination theory (Deci and
Ryan, 2000, 2008) and transactional and transformational leadership theory (Avolio
and Bass, 2004; Avolio et al., 1999; Bass, 1985, 1998) and incorporates the
mediating variables of volunteer trust (Bennis and Nanus, 1985; Jung and Avolio,
2000; Onnen, 1987; Podsakoff et al., 1990) and value congruence (Burns, 1978;
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 11
Jung and Avolio, 2000). The model emphasizes the relationship between the
transactional and transformational leadership behaviors of senior pastors and the
extrinsic and intrinsic motivation of church volunteers. The independent variable is
the transactional and transformational leadership behaviors of senior pastors, and
the dependent variable is volunteer motivation. The relationship between the
independent variable and the dependent variable can be direct or mediated by
volunteer trust in and/or value congruence with the senior pastor.
Figure 1: A model of the relationships between senior pastor transactional and transformational leadership behaviors and volunteer motivation, with volunteer trust in and value congruence with the senior pastor as mediating variables.
Transactional Leadership Behaviors and Volunteer Extrinsic Motivation
Leaders of churches and nonprofit organizations who practice transactional
leadership behaviors are likely to inspire volunteers to be satisfied with their
Senior pastor transactional leadership
behaviors
Volunteer extrinsic motivation
Volunteer trust in senior pastor
Volunteer value congruence with
senior pastor
Senior pastor transformational
leadership behaviors
Volunteer intrinsic motivation
Volunteer trust in senior pastor
Volunteer value congruence with
senior pastor
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 12
leadership (Druskat, 1994) and to rate them as effective leaders (Butler and
Herman, 1999). Transactional leadership behaviors can motivate volunteers
towards the achievement of desired organizational outcomes (Son, 2003). In the
context of a church congregation, the practice by senior pastors of transactional
leadership behaviors is likely to result in volunteers clearly understanding their task
descriptions and the desired outcomes for the church that result from the
performance of these tasks. Volunteers will perform their tasks so as to achieve the
expressed expectations of the senior pastor and to receive the associated contingent
rewards including personal recognition and standing within the church. Therefore,
the practice of transactional leadership behaviors by senior pastors is likely to
reinforce the extrinsic motivation of volunteers. Thus:
H1: The transactional leadership behaviors of senior pastors will be more strongly
related to volunteer extrinsic motivation than will transformational leadership
behaviors.
Trust and Value Congruence
Follower trust in and value congruence with a leader are likely to have a mediating
effect on the impact of transactional leadership behaviors on their performance
(Jung and Avolio, 2000). The leader’s clear specification of tasks, performance
expectations, and contingent rewards builds follower trust in the leader (Bass,
1985; Jung and Avolio, 2000) and value congruence with the leader (Jung and
Avolio, 2000). The practice of transactional leadership behaviors by senior pastors
is likely to establish and maintain volunteer trust in the competence and fairness of
the senior pastor and volunteer value congruence with the practices and desired
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 13
outcomes of the senior pastor. This trust and value congruence is likely to mediate
the impact of the senior pastor’s transactional leadership behaviors on volunteer
extrinsic motivation. Thus:
H2: Volunteer trust in and value congruence with senior pastors will mediate the
impact of the transactional leadership behaviors of senior pastors on
volunteer extrinsic motivation.
Transformational Leadership Behaviors and Volunteer Intrinsic Motivation
Leaders of churches and nonprofit organizations who practice transformational
leadership behaviors are also likely to inspire volunteers to be satisfied with their
leadership (Druskat, 1994; Onnen, 1987; Rowold, 2008) and to rate them as
effective leaders (Onnen, 1987; Butler and Herman, 1999). Transformational
leadership behaviors can motivate volunteers towards the achievement of desired
organizational outcomes (Bae, 2001; Onnen, 1987; Son, 2003) and congregational
satisfaction (Bae, 2001; Rowold, 2008). They are also likely to produce increased
volunteer morale and participation (Larsson and Ronnmark, 1996), volunteer job
satisfaction (Choi, 2006; Rowold, 2008), and volunteer extra effort and
effectiveness in task performance (Rowold, 2008; Rowold and Rohmann, 2009).
Transformational leadership behaviors are also likely to enhance positive emotions
including joy, pride, admiration, and enthusiasm among volunteers, and to augment
the impact of transactional leadership behaviors on volunteer satisfaction, extra
effort, and rating of leaders’ effectiveness (Rowold and Rohmann, 2009).
In the context of a church congregation, the practice by senior pastors of
transformational leadership behaviors is likely to result in volunteers understanding
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 14
and identifying with the importance of the tasks they are undertaking as
contributions to the mission of the church. Volunteers will perform their tasks to a
degree beyond the expressed expectations of the senior pastor because they are
motivated by the vision and values of the church, the personal meaningfulness of
their involvement, and the sense of goal attainment and positive feelings that they
experience. Therefore, the practice of transformational leadership behaviors by
senior pastors is likely to reinforce the intrinsic motivation of volunteers. Thus:
H3: The transformational leadership behaviors of senior pastors will be more
strongly related to volunteer intrinsic motivation than will transactional
leadership behaviors.
Trust and Value Congruence
Follower trust in and value congruence with a leader have been demonstrated to
have a mediating effect on the impact of transformational leadership behaviors on
their performance (Jung and Avolio, 2000; Podsakoff et al., 1990; Shamir, et al.,
1993). The leader’s clear, attractive, and attainable vision for the organization and
demonstrated commitment to the organization and vision inspires follower trust in
and value congruence with the leader and motivates them to do more than they
originally expected to do (Bennis and Nanus, 1985; Avolio and Bass, 1995; Yukl,
2006). The practice of transformational leadership behaviors by senior pastors is
likely to increase volunteer trust in the character and competence of the senior
pastor and to produce change in volunteer values and to increase their value
congruence with the senior pastor. This increased trust and value congruence is
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 15
likely to mediate the impact of the senior pastor’s transformational leadership
behaviors on volunteer intrinsic motivation. Thus:
H4: Volunteer trust in and value congruence with senior pastors will mediate the
impact of the transformational leadership behaviors of senior pastors on
volunteer intrinsic motivation.
Control Variables
In this study, it was likely that the age, gender, and length of tenure of participating
volunteers could influence their assessment of their own motivation and of the
senior pastor’s leadership. It was also possible that the length of tenure of the senior
pastor could influence his or her exercise of leadership behaviors. Also, links
between senior pastors’ leadership behaviors and congregational size have been
demonstrated (Bae, 2001; Onnen, 1987; Son, 2003). Therefore, the study
incorporated the control variables of age, gender, and length of tenure of the
volunteer participant, length of tenure of the senior pastor, and congregational size.
Sample and Procedure
Sample
The sample for this study was drawn from volunteers attending and participating in
28 different Australian Christian Churches (ACC) congregations in Australia. The
sample consisted of 790 subjects who served in a voluntary capacity within their
congregation and who rated the leadership behaviors of their senior pastor. The
selection of 28 different ACC congregations was designed to provide responses
from volunteers within each of five congregational size categories that ACC
recognizes. ACC, also known as the Assemblies of God in Australia, is a
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 16
fellowship of autonomous churches which had 1,087 registered churches
throughout Australia as of May 17, 2010 (ACC, 2010). The 28 congregations
represent 2.6% of the total number of ACC congregations. ACC conducts an
annual census of all congregations in May. The census collects data on various
church activities, including weekend attendance which is measured as the total
number of attendees at all services from Friday evening to Sunday evening on one
weekend in May each year. ACC categorizes congregational sizes into five
Knudsen, 2006; Larsson and Ronnmark, 1996; Onnen, 1987; Rowold, 2008;
Rowold and Rohmann, 2009; Son, 2003), and that trust and value congruence have
mediating effects on the impact of transformational leadership on follower
performance (Jung and Avolio, 2000; Podsakoff et al., 1990; Shamir et al., 1993).
The contribution of this study has been to identify positive relationships between
leadership behaviors and volunteer motivation, as well as mediating effects of trust
and value congruence.
Revised Study Model
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 40
A revised study model is presented in Figure 2. It emphasizes the relationship
between the transactional and transformational leadership behaviors of senior
pastors and the extrinsic and intrinsic motivation of church volunteers. The
relationship between transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation can be
direct or mediated by volunteer trust in and/or value congruence with the senior
pastor. The relationship between transactional leadership and extrinsic motivation
is direct and not mediated.
Figure 2: A revised model of the relationships between senior pastor transactional and transformational leadership behaviors and volunteer motivation, with volunteer trust in and value congruence with the senior pastor as mediating variables.
Theoretical Implications
This study contributed to the leadership and motivation literature by: (a) connecting
transactional and transformational leadership theory with self-determination theory
in order to examine the relationship between leadership behavior and volunteer
Senior pastor transactional leadership
behaviorsVolunteer extrinsic
motivation
Senior pastor transformational
leadership behaviors
Volunteer intrinsic motivation
Volunteer trust in senior pastor
Volunteer value congruence with
senior pastor
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 41
motivation in a nonprofit setting, and thereby demonstrating (b) positive
relationships between transactional leadership and extrinsic motivation and
transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation, and (c) mediation effects of
trust and value congruence on the relationship between transformational leadership
and intrinsic motivation.
No previous study had examined relationships between transactional and
transformational leadership and volunteer motivation in a nonprofit setting. Self-
determination theory had previously linked volunteer intrinsic motivation to
situational variables including social environment and work context (Deci et al.,
1994; Deci and Ryan, 2000, 2008). Environmental conditions that supported
satisfaction of volunteers’ needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness were
found to predict intrinsic motivation. Millette and Gagné (2008) suggested that
leadership behaviour was likely to be an important factor impacting on volunteer
motivation while noting that such research had not been conducted. This study
employed self-determination theory to conceptualize volunteer motivation, and
demonstrated that transactional leadership predicts extrinsic motivation and
transformational leadership predicts intrinsic motivation. This finding builds on and
adds to existing understanding that transactional and transformational leadership
have positive organizational outcomes in church congregations and nonprofit
organizations (Bae; 2001; Balswick and Wright, 1988; Butler and Herman, 1999;