Dissertation

CONTENTS

Page

SUMMARY OF TABLES 1

ABSTRACT 5

DECLARATION 7

COPYRIGHT STATEMENT 8

PREFACE 9

CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION 10

1.1 Network Rail – the organisation 10

1.2 The Author – Subject of Reflection 12

1.3 The Role and Responsibilities of an NR Project Manager 14

1.4 Guide to Railway Investment Projects (GRIP) 16

1.5 The Vital FDM Project 191.5.1 Introduction 191.5.2 Why Commission the Project? 201.5.3 Project Objectives 211.5.4 Key Stakeholders 22

1.6 Reflective Practice Dissertation – Personal Learning Objective and Structure 24

CHAPTER 2 – RELEVANT THEORY (CHANGE) 26

2.1 Introduction to Change Management 26

2.2 The Process of Change Management 282.2.1 The APM Change Process 282.2.2 The Network Rail Change Process 29

2.3 Change Management Concepts and Models 322.3.1 Formula for Change 332.3.2 ADKAR 342.3.3 Kotter’s Eight Steps 352.3.4 Six Change Approach 37

2.4 Personal skills, tools & techniques 39

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CHAPTER 3 – RELEVANT THEORY (CONFLICT) 412.1 Introduction to Conflict Management 41

2.2 Conflict Management Concepts and Models 442.2.1 Theory of the Cause of Conflict 442.2.2 Levels of Conflict 452.2.3 Conflict Management the APM Way 472.2.4 3-Step Turnbull Process 512.3.5 McSwain & Treadwell 5 Styles of Conflict Management 52

2.4 Personal skills, tools & techniques 54

CHAPTER 4 – METHODOLOGY 554.1 Reflective Practice – A Quick Introduction 55

4.2 Reflective Practice Theory 564.2.1 Fish and Coles (1998) 584.2.2 Schon (1983) 614.2.3 Kolb (1984) 62

4.3 Key Principles of the Methodology 64

CHAPTER 5 – PRACTICE EXPERIENCE 675.1 GRIP Stage 1-3: Output Definition, Pre-Feasibility, Option Selection 675.2 GRIP Stage 4 and 5: Single Option Development and Detailed Design 695.3 GRIP Stage 6: Construction, Testing and Commissioning 73

5.4 Grip Stage 7-8: Scheme Handback and Project Close Out 77

CHAPTER 6 – RESULTS ACHIEVED AND NEXT STEPS 786.1 Summary of where the project has got to 78

6.2 Way Forward for the Project and its Management 79

CHAPTER 7 – CRITICAL REFLECTION 827.1 Project Management Theory into Practice 827.1.1 Change Management 827.1.2 Conflict Management 84

7.2 Personal skills, tools & techniques 897.2.1 Change Management 897.2.2 Conflict Management 91

7.3 The Process of Reflection and Learning 93

7.4 Concluding Reflections 96

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CHAPTER 8 – BIBLIOGRAPHY 99

CHAPTER 9 - APPENDICES

Appendix 1 – Network Rail Project Manager Job Description 102

Appendix 2 – Examples of GRIP Products 105

Appendix 3 – Network Rail Change Management Manual 109

Appendix 4 – Learning Log Template (Change) 153

Appendix 5 – Learning Log Template (Conflict) 154

Final Word Count: 20,521

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SUMMARY OF TABLES

Page

Figure 1. Summary of Authors Experience to Date 12

Figure 2. Project Management Framework 14

Figure 3. GRIP 16

Figure 4. Plan-Do-Review 17

Figure 5. The Project Control Cycle 30

Figure 6. Formula for Change 33

Figure 7. Views on Conflict 41

Figure 8. Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument 50

Figure 9. Two Contrasting Views of Professional Practice 58

Figure 10. Improvised Change Management Model

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ABSTRACT

A Project Manager to hone his skills must learn from and grow with each

experience in his daily duties. How is this learning to take place?

The Author is a Senior Commercial Manager in Network Rail undertaking

a complex and high risk new technology project. The responsibility

undertaken by the Author includes the commercial management of the

project for successful delivery as well as assisting the Project Manager as

‘right hand man’ undertaking his duties when required.

Change and conflict management is an essential technique in the Project

Management profession due to the ever increasing complex nature of

projects in an ever competitive market.

Therefore this dissertation will by means of reflective practice examine

change and conflict management practices within a new technology

project. Change and conflict management techniques are reflected upon

due to their intrinsic link to one another. This is a bold statement however

the Author seeks to establish whether any issues can arise from change

that does not in one way or another involve a form or level of conflict,

either constructive or destructive. There are various change and conflict

management processes and theoretical concepts and models available to

project managers but which one do you choose and would they be

effective?

Key change issues and resulting conflicts within a new technology project

are identified and the process is documented via the use of learning logs

throughout the project lifecycle for critical evaluation against theoretical

concepts and models that are reviewed and discussed.

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Can any new effective and efficient improvements be made? If so how?

Conclusions and recommendations and a new improvised model for

change are made to support how more effective changes can be made.

Conclusions and recommendations are made from the reflective learning

outcomes and how.

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DECLARATION

No portion of the work referred to in the dissertation has been submitted in

support of an application for another degree or qualification of this or any other

university of other institute of learning.

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COPYRIGHT STATEMENT

Copyright in text of this dissertation rests with the author. Copies (by any

process) either in full, or of extracts, may be made only in accordance with

instructions given by the author. Details may be obtained from the appropriate

Graduate Office. This page must form part of any such copies made. Further

copies (by any process) of copies made in accordance with such instructions may

not be made without the permission (in writing) of the author.

The ownership of any intellectual property rights which may be described in this

dissertation is vested in the University of Manchester, subject to any prior

agreement to the contrary, and may not be made available for use by third parties

without the written permission of the University, which will prescribe the terms

and conditions of any such agreement.

Further information on the conditions under which disclosures and exploitation

may take place is available from the Head of the School of Mechanical,

Aerospace and Civil Engineering.

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PREFACE

The Author is currently working as a Senior Commercial Manger for Network Rail.

Having previously undertaken a BSc (Hons) degree with the submission of a

research project, this dissertation is the first reflective practice dissertation

completed.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Network Rail – the organisation

Network Rail is a private engineering company formed to revitalise

Britain's railway. Network Rail was formed on 25th March 2002 created

specifically to acquire Railtrack PLC to provide a safe, reliable and efficient

rail infrastructure.

Network Rail is a company limited by guarantee. It has no shareholders

but instead is accountable to members drawn from the rail industry and the

general public who do not have any financial or economic interest in the

company that means that they do not receive dividends, share capital or

any other form of payment from Network Rail.

It operates, maintains and improves every aspect of the railway

infrastructure including:

90 Traincare depots, many of which are leased to train operators

All signalling and electrical control equipment needed to operate the

track

40,000 bridges, tunnels and viaducts

9,000 level crossings

Over 1,100 signal boxes

Connections to over 1,000 freight terminals

Property including railway arches

2,500 stations mainly leased to train operators

20,000 miles of track

The author believes NR to be a ‘tall’ organisation that promotes matrix

project teams. It is an organisation with many hierarchical layers and

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relatively small spans of control. Such an organisation has the advantage

of being able to closely monitor and control performance as long as

communication lines are well maintained. However such an organisation

also creates a dependency on managers who may fail to delegate

effectively, and decisions being slow and problematic due to the many

management levels.

NR’s organisation is also one of a strong existing role culture. All the

management teams have clear job descriptions, and co-ordination and

decisions are made at the top of the organisation. Performance above role

is not an active feature within the existing culture. The author believes NR

is in the very early stages of promoting a transition from a transactional

organisation to transformational organisation.

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1.2 The Author – Subject of Reflection

The railway industry is an ‘old-fashioned’ industry that has existed under a

mindset that has changed little in the past 50 years. The history behind the

railways has been built from the Second World War where authorative

leadership came from military organisations that maintained and renewed

the railways.

The Author has worked in the railway industry since 2002 employed by

both AMEC SPIE Rail UK Ltd (ASRUK) and Network Rail Ltd (NR). He has

spent his professional career to date undertaking both Project and

Commercial Management on various track and signals maintenance and

renewal projects for the London Underground and mainline infrastructure

(refer to details in Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Summary of authors experience to date

2005-Present

NR

Project Commercial Manager and Project Manager (PM) for various NR framework and interlocking projects including:

National SICA Surveys (£2m) VITAL FDM Implementation (£8m) Sheerness signal system renewals (£26m) IECC Signal Software Upgrade (£2) Various Minor Signalling Projects (£10m per annum)

2004ASRUK

Project Manager for District Line track circuit renewals (£1m)

2002-2005ASRUK

Quantity Surveyor and Project Manager for Jubilee, East London and District Line Track Maintenance (£34)

2002-2005ASRUK

Quantity Surveyor and Project Manager for Baker Street & Gloucester Road diamond crossing renewal (£2m)

The Author undertakes the project management of the full life cycle of

railway projects in accordance to the Guide for Railway Investment

Projects (GRIP) as detailed:

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Stage 1 – Output definition

Stage 2 – Pre-feasibility

Stage 3 – Option selection

Stage 4 – Single option development

Stage 5 – Detailed design

Stage 6 – Construction, testing and commissioning

Stage 7 – Scheme handback

Stage 8 – Project close out

Whilst undertaking the above roles the Author has experienced on most

projects the implementation of both change control and conflict

management and its impact to the success of a project, so therefore has a

good understanding of the risks and opportunities faced by the Project

Manager during change, and the effects of conflict and its management to

deliver successful projects.

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1.3 The Role and Responsibilities of an NR Project Manager

The role of the Project Manager at Network Rail is to lead the safe delivery

of projects to achieve cost, time and quality objectives within corporate

guidelines and develop appropriate delivery and supply strategies and

plans for specific projects.

Specific corporate guidelines refers to the following:

Guide to Railway Investment Projects

Network Rail company and Railway Group Standards

Network Rail Corporate Governance rules in a timely manner

Specific legislation including construction design management

(CDM) Regulations

The key Project Manager deliverables can be broken down into Process,

Systems and People described as the Project Management Framework

(refer to Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Project Management Framework

PR

OJE

CT

MA

NA

GE

ME

NT

F

RA

ME

WO

RK

PROCESS

GRIP

Project Control Cycle

SYSTEMS Investment Management Systems (IMS)

PEOPLE

Basic skills and systems training

Development of capability

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An overview of key tasks delivered by the Project Manager are as follows:

Participate in the development of supply strategies and framework

contracts.

Manage change and risks within the project life cycle.

Identify training needs in safety, technical and management areas

for the personnel reporting to the post holder and contribute to their

personal development.

Support the Programme and project teams in monitoring for

breaches of corporate governance –compliance with Network Rail

Corporate Governance rules in a timely manner.

Manage the production and maintenance of project plans.

Establish and manage collaborative cross-functional virtual teams

to deliver change projects, where appropriate.

Manage project budgets within agreed targets.

Promote and monitor the use of efficiency improvement methods.

A full job description for a Project Manager in Network Rail can be found in

Appendix 1.

Of the above deliverables this dissertation will focus primarily on Change

Management. Project Managers are responsible, with the support of the,

to deliver and manage all change, both internal and external, in

accordance to Network Rail change control systems. This dissertation will

also examine the effects of conflict, and how this can be managed utilising

Project Management techniques.

For all projects delivered by Network Rail, the key corporate guideline that

must be abided by is the Guide to Railway Investment Projects that will be

described in the next section.

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1.4 Guide to Railway Investment Projects (GRIP)

A Network Rail Project Manager must deliver all projects in accordance to

GRIP. GRIP was introduced in 2003 to describe how Network Rail should

manage projects that enhance or renew the national rail network. GRIP

covers the project lifecycle from inception through to the realisation of post

implementation benefits. It is designed and intended to minimise and

mitigate the risks associated with delivering investment projects on an

operational railway.

There are eight stages of a project life cycle as defined by Network Rail for

all projects that reflect how far a project has progressed towards

completion as shown in Figure 3 below.

Fig. 3. GRIPGRIP

STAGETITLE DESCRIPTION

1 Output Definition

Establishes the scope of the investment in terms of the incremental network capability required by the investment’s “client”. This is described in terms such as journey time, capacity, loading gauge etc. It may also require the scoping of asset renewal.

2 Pre-feasibility Ensures that asset condition, safety or standards requirements are identified and included in the scope of the investment.

Ensures that investment is aligned with organisational strategy and contributes to targets.

Identifies the constraints on the network that prevent the delivery of the client’s outputs and defines the incremental capability that must be delivered by the investment.Provides confirmation that the outputs can be economically delivered by addressing the identified constraints.

3 Option Selection

Develops options for addressing the identified constraints and delivering the required incremental network capability.

Assesses the options and selects the most appropriate one, together with confirmation that the outputs can be economically delivered.

4 Single Option Development

Develops the selected single option to the point of engineering scope freeze and in sufficient detail to allow finalisation of the business case and scheduling of implementation resources.

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5 Detailed Design Produces a complete and robust engineering design that allows risks, costs, timescales, resources and benefits to be fully understood prior to commitment to implementation.

6 Construction, Test and

Commissioning

Delivers the asset change / renewal to the appropriate specification and provides confirmation that the asset and system work in accordance with their design and that they deliver the incremental network capability.

7 Scheme Handback

Introduces the asset into operational use and obtains acceptance of the Works. The key product from Scheme Handback is acceptance of the Project Works.

8 Project Close Out

Ensures that the project is closed out in an orderly manner with updated asset management information, capitalised assets, settled contractual accounts and any contingencies and warranties are put in place. Logging up and other funding arrangements finalised and assumed business benefits are captured in the Business Plan.

At each stage of the project lifecycle, GRIP defines the outputs required. In

GRIP terminology an output is a ‘product’. An example of this can be found

in Appendix 2.

GRIP is a flexible tool allowing the Project Manager to determine which

products are necessary to deliver a project. For example, it would be

unnecessary to produce the same products for a 6 week £25k track project

as a 5 year £20million project.

Within each stage of the investment lifecycle a ‘plan–do–review’ approach

is adopted which is shown in Figure 4 below.

Fig. 4. Plan-Do-Review

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At the end of each stage a Stage Gate Review (SGR) is held that is a

progress meeting between the Client and Project Manager whereupon the

health of a project is checked before progressing on to the next stage

within the project lifecycle or requesting additional investment

authorisation. Stage gate reviews are crucial to the progress of a project

and therefore must be planned at the project outset and included in the

project management plan and programme.

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1.5 The Vital FDM Project

1.5.1 Introduction

The project to be reflected upon in this dissertation is a new technology

project titled BBC160 – The Vital FDM Project. The project value is

£10.1m starting October 2004 and due for completion July 2007.

Network Rail has a number of signalling installations that utilise remote

control and indication systems consisting of Type RR4000 Frequency

Division Multiplex (FDM) systems. These FDM systems date from

between the mid 1960s and the late 1980s. These types of FDM systems

are now obsolete and are no longer supported by the manufacturer

(Alstom Signalling Ltd) although National Railway Supplies provides

limited system support under licence.

The objective of the project is to replace safety critical Vital Reed FDM

systems with new frequency immune transmission equipment transmitting

data between the trackside units and the controlling interlocking. The

proposed system could also be used in other applications such a level

crossing control, where transmission rates with older style equipment is

poor.

The feasibility study on the project lead to Network rail adopting the

proposal for the introduction of 1421 SHDSL Modem and AA48 HD Link.

The replacement system is a new product to the Railway, and required

formal acceptance prior to the implementation works. A full Safety case

was developed as part of the project along with a Hazard log for this

particular application.

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1.5.2 Why commission the Project?

Network Rail commissioned the project due to the following three reasons:

1. The introduction of trains with three phase traction drives raised

concerns over the safety integrity of existing FDM systems during

certain predicted failure modes of the traction and/or signalling

systems.

2. There exists a problem regarding the “Woodpecker” affect, where the

mechanical action of undoing terminal nuts on Line Amplifiers induces

electrical noise on the existing FDM transmission line which has

caused receivers to erroneously energise causing unprotected wrong-

side failures (e.g., false signal clearance or points moving under a

train).

3. The current FDM systems are life expired and spares are not readily

available. This contributes to poor reliability of the overall signalling

systems within the prescribed areas. The current systems are

considered to be in the top ten catastrophic signalling risks to Network

Rail nationally.

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1.5.3 Project Objectives

The original objectives of this project were as follows:

To place an RT24 Cost Reimbursable Design and Build Contract

To gain Safety Case acceptance of the Westinghouse HD Link and

product approval of the HD Communicator modem equipment.

To manage the detailed design process.

To deliver the renewal of all the Vital Reed FDM systems in the

Wessex, Sussex and Kent Areas and recovery works to the agreed

cost and timescales

Ensuring full compliance with Network Rail’s Health and Safety

Systems Manual requirements. This covers the arrangements for

production and endorsement of the project safety strategy.

Ensuring that the novel technology to be introduced to the

operational railway infrastructure is approved by the Professional

Head of Signalling or Safety Review Panel.

To close out the project on time to cost and provide a certificate of

completion to HSE(RI).

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1.5.4 Key Stakeholders

There are 5 key stakeholder organisations identified as crucial to the

success of the project identified below:

Network Rail Ltd – Commission and ensure delivery of the project.

Internal Client is the Head of Signal Engineering (asset owner) and

Principle Signal Engineer (product acceptance authority).

Westinghouse Rail Systems Ltd (WRSL) – Primary contractor to

Network Rail to manage, design, install, test, and commission the

Vital FDM with HD Link and HD Communicator modem. WRSL

specialise in all aspects of railway control and signalling products

and systems, from research and design to manufacture, installation,

testing, commissioning, maintenance and full support and have

over 140 years experience in the UK, Europe and the Far East.

Part of Invensys PLC.

Safetran Systems Ltd – subcontractor to Westinghouse Rail

Systems Ltd responsible for the manufacture of HD Link. Safetrans

Systems Ltd is an American railroad signalling company that have

been designing, manufacturing, installing railroad equipment and

systems for over 80 years. In addition to being the market leader in

the United States and Canada, Safetran has installations

worldwide, including Israel, Mexico, Thailand and Australia.

Kenton Research Ltd – subcontractor to Westinghouse Rail

Systems Ltd responsible for the manufacturer of the HD

Communicator. Kenton Research Ltd is a British data

communications company that includes the production of

telecommunications equipment and systems for numerous clients

and are widely considered to lead their field.

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Train and Freight Operating Companies – customers to Network

Rail who lease the use of routes on the railway infrastructure and

require an efficient and reliable railway.

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1.6 Reflective Practice Dissertation – Personal Learning

Objectives and Structure

Increasingly the rail industry operates in a competitive market in which

time, cost and quality are the principal drivers within the project

management environment. The management of change within these

drivers are critical to ensuring the success of the projects objectives.

The primary objective of this dissertation is to apply reflective practice to

the management of change within a specific new technology project as

described in Section 1.5. The principle of conflict management shall also

be examined, as it is widely recognised that conflict is associated as a by-

product of change.

For the Author to become a more effective Project Manager he must learn

from and grow with each experience in his daily duties. In order for this

learning to take place, the Author needs to create an environment of

critical openness and fairness in his reflection. It is particularly important

that fairness is built into the reflective practice and that less successful

application of core skills are recognised and analysed.

A review of the process and theoretical concepts and models will be

undertaken to identify the key issues that affect the successful

implementation of change and conflict management practices. These

issues will be critically examined against the current practice undertaken

by the Project Manager to identify if the current management of change

and conflict is best practice, and if any real fundamental improvements

could be made to ensure maximum value during the delivery of a project.

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A review of the theoretical concept and application of reflective practice

will also be undertaken to effectively review and record the current

practices of the Project Manager.

This dissertation will critically reflect upon and focus on the different stages

of the change and conflict management process undertaken on the Vital

FDM project from the initial understanding of why the change and conflict

originated and how it has been managed and controlled, to how new

processes and methods of change control and conflict management can

be implemented.

The dissertation will conclude with conclusions and recommendations to

support how more effective change and conflict management techniques

can be applied by the Project Manager.

A summary of the objectives are as follows:

1. Review process and theoretical concepts and models in regards to

the management of change and conflict.

2. Review the theoretical principles and application of reflective

practice.

3. Critically review by means of reflective practice the current

application of change and conflict management process and

techniques to the Vital FDM Project.

4. Conclude and suggest recommendations to support how more

effective change and conflict techniques can be applied by the

Project Manger.

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CHAPTER 2 RELEVANT THEORY (CHANGE)

2.1 Introduction to Change Management

“Change management is a structured approach to change in individuals, teams, organizations and societies that enables the transition from a current state to a desired future state”

Wilkopedia (2007)

Change to projects is inevitable and must be managed effectively. To

ensure that projects are delivered on time, to cost and specification, it is

vital that all changes are embodied in a controlled, documented and timely

manner. As a minimum change control must be applied whereby proposed

changes are logged, evaluated and approved.

The above steps should be undertaken through workflow processes.

Change arises through change of scope, contract variation, occurrence of

risk, identification of a cost-effective risk treatment or by the realisation of a

saving. The source of the change and its value will determine the change

management techniques applied.

The scope of any project is defined in terms of the outputs required to

deliver the required product. Change occurs throughout any project

lifecycle. Change control by means of application of change management

techniques ensures that decisions about changes are made in an informed

way. All the implications of a proposed change are required to be

understood before deciding to proceed with the change.

Changes to projects may often be considered to be a primary cause of delays

and additional costs. The control and management of these changes and their

initiators and deliverers are crucial to a projects successful outcome. There are

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an infinite amount of resources available relating to the process, concepts and

models of change management.

This section on change management theory will be split into two sections. The

first will be the physical process of change management that will focus on

industry guidelines. The second is the project management techniques in the

form of concepts and models that could be applied to manage change from

educational resources.

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2.2 The Process of Change Management

2.2.1 The APM Change Process

The Association for Project Managers (2006) describes change control as

“the process that ensures that all changes made to a project’s baselined

scope, time, cost and quality objectives or agreed benefits are identified,

evaluated, approved, rejected or deferred”.

The 5th Edition of the APM Body of Knowledge (APMBOK) prescribes that

a project must have an effective change control process in place and be

familiar with its operation and that it is the Project Managers responsibility

to ensure this is the case.

Their process recommends the following processes are in place:

1. Change Request. The identification of a change and its registration

into a change log.

2. Initial Evaluation. A review to determine whether the change is

required to be implemented or rectified on the concept that change

consumes resources which in itself is a change due to deviation

from the project plan.

3. Detailed Evaluation. A review to consider impact on the project.

4. Recommendation. A recommendation should be made as to

whether the change should be approved, rejected or deferred.

5. Update Plans. If a change is approved, project plans should be

changed to reflect the change.

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6. Implement. Action to implement change.

The APMBOK is used as the primary source for Project Management

techniques by the Author. Although the recommendations and process

described in the chapter regarding change management is informative it

does not cover in detail the effects of unidentified change and the process

to combat this in a real project environment differs from that or a pre-

identified change.

2.2.2 The Network Rail Change Process

As a process, Network Rail recommends the Project Manager to utilise the

‘Project Control Cycle’ (PCC). It defines how to plan measure and control

projects and describes the relationships between the various control

elements. The PCC is a cyclic process and structures the change process

around seven elements.

The first process is to ‘Establish Baselines’ and has three elements. The

first element is to ‘prepare and organise’ which is to determine what the

work is and who will do it. The second element is to ‘plan, schedule and

cost’ which is to determine when the work will be done and with what

resource. The third element is to actually ‘authorise’ the baseline work.

This element is designed to set a baseline to identify change.

The second process is to ‘Manage and Control Work’ and has two

elements. The first element is ‘Work Management’ which is to determine

how work is being done. The second element is ‘Review and Control’

which is to determine whether the work is on time and how much it is

costing. This element is designed to mitigate change by continuous

evaluation of the project progress against the baseline.

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The third process is to ‘Manage Change’ and has a single element which

is the actual change management itself. This element is to determine how

the change will be controlled.

The fourth and final process is to ‘Manage Risk’ and has a single element

also which is risk management. This element is to understand uncertainty

and how it will be provided for. This element is designed to mitigate

change by proactive project management.

The PCC process and how its elements interact are shown in Figure 5

below.

Fig. 5. The Project Control Cycle

The PCC is managed by the identification of two key factors; key roles and

responsibilities and the Change Management process.

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Network Rail procedures dictate that to manage change effectively, the

first step is to determine the roles and responsibilities of the key players in

the change. It is the Project Managers responsibility to identity the roles

that have responsibilities for change management during the project

lifecycle and give an outline of what is expected of individuals appointed to

these roles. This is done by the use of a RACI Matrix which is an

organisational tool used to understand and define how individual job roles

are involved in, and contributes to the change process by labelling each

role as either Responsible, Accountable, Consult, and Inform.

The Change Management process is the mechanism by which changes to

baselined deliverables are controlled, requiring requests for change to be

raised and assessed before the change is accepted and implemented.

The process follows the following steps in descending order:

1. Submission of Change Request. This is the first step and requires

the identification and submission of change.

2. Log and Distribute Change. The change must be logged into a

change control system and distributed to those individuals identified

as specialist/experts in the change area.

3. Evaluation/Recommendation. An evaluation of the change

request is undertaken by the Project Manager, experts/specialists

and other disciplines that may be affected by the proposed change

to assess the type of change being proposed, its impact on the

project and others and its priority.

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4. Approve/Reject Change. Following the evaluation the Project

Manager (or the appropriate delegated Authority) rejects, approves,

or requests re-evaluation.

5. Change Request Planning and Implementation. The Change

Request is passed back to the project who are responsible for

planning and implementing the change.

The Network Rail recommended change control process is highly

prescriptive and follows the same recommend process as the APMBOK. A

full copy of the Network Rail Change Management Manual can be found in

Appendix 3.

2.3 Change Management Concepts and Models

There are many well documented change management theories with their

respective applications, potential merits, and disadvantages. This section

will focus on 3 different theoretical models to change management:

ADKAR

Kotter’s Eight Steps

Six Change Approach

This section will however proceed with a look at the ‘Formula for Change’

otherwise known as the ‘Gleicher’s Formula’.

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2.3.1 Formula for Change

The formula was created by Richard Beckhard and David Gleicher. The

formula provides a model to assess the relative strengths affecting the

likely success or otherwise of change.

Fig. 6. Formula for Change

D x V x F > R

The formula is based on the principle that three factors must be present for

effective change to take place. The factors as shown in Figure 6 above

are:

D = Dissatisfaction with how things are now.

V = Vision of what is possible.

F = First, concrete steps that can be taken towards the vision.

The theory states that if the product of the three factors is greater than R

(Resistance) then change is possible. Due to the multiplication of D, V and

F, if any one factor is absent or low then the end product will be low and

therefore may not be capable of overcoming the resistance.

This theory suggests that to ensure a successful change it is necessary to

firstly recognize and accept dissatisfaction that exists, use influence and

strategic thinking in order to create vision and identify early steps towards

it.

The formula suggests that it is designed more for reactive change as

dissatisfaction is the first factor of the formula. Whether this formula could

ILGI KIM 33

be applied to neutral change is debatable however this also raises the

question as to whether change can ever be neutral in the first instance.

The formula would be good to apply as a change management model

where circumstances require a change to facilitate recovery.

2.3.2 ADKAR

Hiatt (2006) describes the ADKAR model as being designed to focus

teams on specific activities that will impact results. The model focuses on

evaluating employee resistance, helping employees transition through the

process, creating employee specific action plans, and developing a

change management plan with employees.

The model is based on the principle that change occurs on two

dimensions: the business dimension and the people dimension, and that

successful change occurs when both dimensions occur at the same time.

It suggests that the business dimension will occur regardless and therefore

the dimension that can be influenced is the people dimension. Therefore it

can be concluded that employees are the processors of change and

therefore key to success. The ADKAR model therefore identifies five key

goals to the effective management of the people dimension:

Awareness of the need to change

Desire to participate and support the change

Knowledge of how to change (and what the change looks like)

Ability to implement the change on a day-to-day basis

Reinforcement to keep the change in place

The five key goals defined by ADKAR are sequential and cumulative. The

process of change management must obtain each element in sequence in

order for a change to be implemented and managed successfully.

ILGI KIM 34

The ADKAR model suggests it can be very effective as it focuses on a

single sequential dependency to change, people, and therefore is task

specific which can be easier to measure, evaluate and manage. Therefore

when applying the model, the identification of gaps in the applied change

management process could be readily identified and remedial action put in

place.

A disadvantage of this model can be however that larger companies may

have difficulty implementing the model as such companies may not have

the sufficient structure, resources or time to focus on their employees that

such a model would require. This scenario has been clearly evident in the

past experience of the Author.  

2.3.3 Kotter’s Eight Steps

This model for change management is described by Kottor (1995) as

having eight stages to implement effective change management. Each

stage identifies a key principle relating to peoples response and approach

to change that Kottor (1995) describes as being when people ‘see’, ‘feel’

and then ‘change’.

The eight stages of the model are as follows:

1. Increase urgency - Inspire people to move, make objectives real

and relevant.

2. Build the guiding team - Get the right people in place with the

right emotional commitment, and the right mix of skills and levels.

3. Get the vision right - get the team to establish a simple vision and

strategy, focus on emotional and creative aspects necessary to

drive service and efficiency.

ILGI KIM 35

4. Communicate for buy-in - Involve as many people as possible,

communicate the essentials, simply, and to appeal and respond to

people's needs. De-clutter communications - make technology work

for you rather than against.

5. Empower action - Remove obstacles, enable constructive

feedback and lots of support from leaders - reward and recognise

progress and achievements.

6. Create short-term wins - Set aims that are easy to achieve - in

bite-size chunks. Manageable numbers of initiatives. Finish current

stages before starting new ones.

7. Don't let up - Foster and encourage determination and persistence

- ongoing change - encourage ongoing progress reporting -

highlight achieved and future milestones.

8. Make change stick - Reinforce the value of successful change via

recruitment, promotion, new change leaders. Weave change into

culture.

The Author believes this model would be very effective if implemented. It is

clear and prescriptive in its recommendations to manage change with

clear differentiation in stages that appear manageable. However it appears

to assume that people will respond to each stage and that the drivers will

be effective for everybody.

2.3.4 Six Change Approach

ILGI KIM 36

The Six Change Approach was developed by Kotter and Schlesinger

(1979) designed to prevent or minimize employee resistance to change.

The six approaches react to four pre-identified people resistance factors

which are:

Self-interest – The concept that some people are concerned with

the implication of the change for themselves and how it may effect

their own interests, rather than considering the effects for the

success of the project or business.

Misunderstanding – The problem of communicating change with

adequate information.

Low tolerance for change – The concept that some people are

very keen on security and stability.

Employee disagreement with reasoning – The concept that

some employees may disagree on the reasons for the change and

on the advantages and disadvantages of the change process.

The six approaches therefore to counteract the pre-identified people

resistance factors above are:

1. Education and Communication – Implement up-front

communication and education to help people see the logic in the

change.

2. Participation and Involvement – The principle that when people

are involved in the change effort they are more likely to buy into

change rather than resist it.

3. Facilitation and Support – The principle that managerial support

helps people deal with fear and anxiety during a transition period.

4. Negotiation and Agreement – Suggests that Managers can

combat resistance by offering incentives to employees to not resist

change.

ILGI KIM 37

5. Manipulation and Co-option – Co-option as a patronizing gesture

to bring a person into a change management group for the sake of

appearances rather than their substantive contribution.

6. Explicit and Implicit Coercion – The act of a Manager explicitly or

implicitly forcing people into accepting change by making clear that

resisting to change can lead to personal negative change.

This model tackles an issue that is not covered in the previous two models

which is the concept of employee resistance to change. The Author

believes this to be an important factor in the successful implementation of

change management. It addresses and classifies the resistance factors

found in people albeit it is a generalisation as it must be stressed that

there is, and should be, no textbook answers or solution to understand the

mentality of people as it would be dependent on each unique circumstance

and mentality of a person.

ILGI KIM 38

2.4 Personal skills, tools & technique

The change management process in regards to procedure is almost

identical for both the APM and Network Rail. It will be investigated later in

Chapter 6 whether the process identified is effective for throughout a

project life cycle of a new technology project.

The Formula for Change and each of the three models reviewed in Section

2.2 have their respective advantages and disadvantages. The principle of

the Formula for Change is evident in each of the three models however

they focus and theorise on different schools of thought in how to best

implement successful change management. This does not however

discount certain similarities between the theories, for instance the need to

focus on employees.

The Author in past experience has never sought to theorise his own

personal change management techniques. It is applied using the principle

of four main divisions to what is believed to be the most effective change

management practice available to be utilised in the lack of mainstream

theoretical knowledge. The four divisions are described below.

Organisation/Organisation – the Author believes in clearly

defining roles and accountabilities to reduce conflict and provide

clear expectations of what is required. The involvement of both

internal and external stakeholders and project ‘players’ is strongly

promoted. The principle that if the project is successful then the

person will become successful is also promoted and enforced upon

people. In principle pragmatic formation of the change team is

desired however very rarely achievable.

ILGI KIM 39

Processes – the Author believes that documentation of strategy

and plans for programme management is vital. This mitigates the

possible eventually of change. The management of change is kept

to a simple and stringent process that is implemented only when

definitely required. The philosophy of prevention not cure is heavily

promoted.

As described above, the current techniques utilised by the Author is vague

and unstructured. The application of change management is done in

practice with no inception of theoretical models. This will be expanded

upon in Chapter 6.

ILGI KIM 40

CHAPTER 3 RELEVANT THEORY (CONFLICT)

3.1 Introduction to Conflict Management

“Conflict management is the process of identifying and addressing differences that if unmanaged would affect project objectives. Effective conflict management prevents differences becoming destructive elements in a project”

Association for Project Managers (2006)

Conflict in project management is inevitable. The cause of conflict in

projects can be related to many factors including differences in values,

attitudes, needs, expectations, perceptions, resources, and personalities.

With the correct skills it can be deemed that being able to deal with conflict

can assist project managers and other organisation members to handle

and effectively resolves conflicts which can lead to a more productive

organisation as a whole, and therefore assist the successful delivery of

projects. Figure 7 below shows both a traditional and contemporary view

of conflict.

Fig. 7. Views on conflict

Traditional View Contemporary View

Caused by trouble makers

Bad

Should be avoided

Must be suppressed

Inevitable between humans

Often beneficial

Natural result of change

Can and should be managed

ILGI KIM 41

Ohlendorf (2001) states that managers spend 42% of their time on

reaching agreement with others when conflict occurs. Conflict may arise

among many different parties both internal and external including:

Individuals

Teams

Stakeholders

Organisations

Therefore the ability of a project manager to solve problems, set goals,

compromise, settle personality differences, and resolve conflicts is key as

is the skill of being able to recognise when a conflict may have a critical

impact on a project.

Unmanaged conflict may often be considered to be a significant factor in the

case of delays and additional costs. The control and management of conflict

and their initiators and players are crucial to a projects successful outcome.

Problems that may arise from conflict include:

Lower productivity

Lower morale

Causes more and continued conflicts

Causes inappropriate behaviours

There are an infinite amount of resources available relating to the process,

concepts and models of conflict management. It must however be noted that

conflict is not always a negative factor, but can be used as a constructive tool.

Managed conflict brings concerns into the open, raises otherwise suppressed

viewpoints and can clear up misunderstandings and uncertainty all of which can

enable a positive working relationship to develop. Therefore it can be assumed

ILGI KIM 42

that conflict is almost a requirement in a successful project. Other benefits

include:

Helps to raise and address problems

Focuses work on the most appropriate issues

Increases participation

Allows workforce to learn how to recogniser and benefit fro their

difference

This dissertation will not touch on the topic of conflict prevention, but

management of conflict only. We shall assume that prevention of conflict will

occur with the appropriate application of all other project management

techniques to ensure an environment for conflict does not materialise.

This chapter on conflict management theory will review concepts and models

that could be applied to manage conflict from educational resources.

ILGI KIM 43

3.2 Conflict Management Concepts and Models

The principle of conflict management covers a process that starts with a

cause, level and resolution of the conflict.

This chapter will focus on the concept and models of conflict resolution

however we shall firstly review the different causes and levels of conflict

that may arise.

3.2.1 Theory of the Cause of Conflict

There are numerous theories on the cause of conflict however in its basic

form, various studies refer back to a single theory, that of the Approach

Avoidance theory.

Dean & Eaton (1995) describes the two tendencies that causes conflict:

Approach – a tendency to do something or to move in a direction

that will be pleasurable and satisfying.

Avoidance – to resist doing something because it will perhaps not

be pleasurable or satisfying.

The above two tendencies cause’s three different types of conflict:

Approach–Approach Conflict – Conflict that arises from a pursuit

of a desirable but incompatible goal.

Approach–Avoidance Conflict – Conflict that arises from a desire

to both do something and not to do it.

Avoidance–Avoidance Conflict – Conflict that arises from two

alternatives both of which may be unpleasant or undesirable.

ILGI KIM 44

This theory is a very simplistic view of the causes of conflict but it can be

viewed that due to the vast nature of the topic, such a simplistic view

provides the foundations for further studies. The basic principle is that an

approach is required for an end goal with avoidance being the determining

factor for conflict. The single anomaly is the conflict that is created from

not having a defined end goal, or at least being unsure of it, that is

apparent in the Approach-Approach conflict theory. This principle shall be

applied as a basis of discussion throughout this dissertation.

3.2.2 Levels of Conflict

The skill of evaluating the level of conflict will assist a project manager in

determining the appropriate selection of responses to conflict resolution. It

however must always be taken into consideration that conflict may involve

various different levels of conflict. This section will review two differing

theories on the levels of conflict.

The first theory on the levels of conflict is described by Duffy (2001) who

prescribes four levels of conflict:

Level 1: Facts or Data. A level of conflict that occurs when two parties

simply have different information. This is the easiest kind of conflict to

resolve. To resolve this conflict, leaders simply ensure that both parties

have the same information.

Level 2: Processes or Methods. This level of conflict occurs when there

is a difference of opinion over how things should be done. The issue

generally revolves around the issue of how to reach a goal rather than

what is the goal. In such a scenario compromise is usually the realistic

option.

ILGI KIM 45

Level 3: Goals or Purpose. This level of conflict is where parties cannot

agree on a common goal. Negotiations at this level requires patience and

skill.

Level 4: Values. The highest level of conflict whereby the conflict itself is

due to values whereby the disagreement is about basic meaning.

This theory appears to focus on the concept of the final goal with

communication and agreement of that goal key in the management of the

conflict.

The second theory on the levels of conflict is described by Leas (1985)

who prescribes five levels of conflict:

Level 1: Problem to Solve. Conflict that arises from disagreement of

goals, values and needs but problem orientated rather than person

orientated. This level requires the problem to be solves with a unanimous

agreement utilizing a collaborative style. This level of conflict that can have

a win-win outcome.

Level 2: Disagreement. This level of conflict arises from a problem that

cannot be clearly identified due to missed personalities and issues. This

level requires a collaborative solution via consensus.

Level 3: Contest. This level of conflict arises from a resistance to peace

and a focus on the ‘enemy’ that causes factions to arise. This level

requires mediation, compromise and the ability to make decisions by a

third party. This level of conflict is most likely to have a win/lose outcome.

Level 4: Fight/Flight. This level of conflict arises from parties moving from

a want to resolve a problem to removing the problem and its facilitators.

ILGI KIM 46

Level 5: Intractable. The highest level of conflict arises from when

personalities have become the issue with no clear understanding of the

problem itself. Conflict may now be seen as being unmanageable. This

level of conflict requires the removal of the facilitators of a problem with

intervention form higher authorities most likely. It is deemed that at this

level no reconciliation is possible and the management technique shifts

from resolution to damage limitation causing a lose/lose outcome.

This theory focuses on the problem as a source of conflict with the addition

of people orientated factors playing an ever more increasing role in the

escalation of a conflict. In terms of real life experience this theory can be

deemed more appropriate to defining differing levels of conflict.

We now move onto the different concepts and models of conflict

resolution.

3.2.3 Conflict Management the APM Way

The 5th Edition of the APM Body of Knowledge describes a model that

focuses on the tension between relationships and goals in conflict. A

project manager when becoming engaged in conflict must deal with two

major concerns that are to achieve his goals and preserve relationships

that may affect his project. These two major concerns will determine how a

project manager acts ion a conflict situation. Therefore the Association of

Project Managers (2006) describes five methods of conflict management:

1. Confronting. A technique whereby goals and relationships are key.

Conflict is viewed as a problem that requires to be solved and

therefore seek a solution that achieves both their own goals and the

goals of the other person in the conflict. It is believed this form of

management allows conflict to improve relationships by reducing

ILGI KIM 47

tension between people. By seeking solutions that satisfy both

themselves and the other person they maintain the relationship.

The final outcome will be for a solution to be found that achieves

their own goals and the other person’s goals and they want all

tensions and negative feelings to be fully resolved.

It can be viewed that such a technique would require project

managers to gain such skills as active listening, being able to

quickly and effectively identify problems, and have the ability to

confront in a non-threatening manner.

2. Compromising. A technique whereby there is a moderate concern

with their own goals and about their relationships with other people.

A compromise therefore is sought. The compromise will generally

require part of their goals to be sacrificed in persuading the other

person in a conflict to give up part of their goals. The solution to the

conflict is where both sides gain something.

It can be viewed that such a technique would require project

managers to gain such skills as negotiation, finding acceptable

middle grounds based on value, and being able to make

concessions.

3. Accommodating. A technique whereby the relationship is of much

greater importance than their own goals. This is fuelled by a want of

being accepted and liked by other people; conflict avoided in favour

of harmony as the belief is that conflicts cannot be discussed

without damaging relationships. The fear that drives the resolution

of the conflict is that if a conflict continues someone will get hurt and

that would ruin the relationship which is done by sacrificing their

own goals to preserve the relationship. Therefore this technique

ILGI KIM 48

requires one to smooth over conflict in fear of harming the

relationship.

It can be viewed that such a technique would require project

managers to have maturity in moving aside personal desires and

goals, ability to yield his own powers of authority, and having the

selflessness to obey orders from those around you including project

staff, stakeholders, clients etc.

4. Competing. A technique whereby one seeks to overpower

opponents by forcing them to accept their solution to the conflict.

The goals are highly important but the relationship is of minor

importance. Goals must be achieved at all costs with little or no

concern with the needs of other people. Conflicts are settled by one

person winning and the other losing. This technique is generally

practised by those who believe winning provides them a sense of

pride and achievement, losing giving them a sense of weakness,

inadequacy, and failure. Conflict is resolved by attacking,

overpowering, overwhelming, and intimidating other people.

It can be viewed that such a technique would require project

managers to have strong skills in debate, assertiveness, being able

to communicate clearly and if required appropriately apply rank and

influence.

5. Avoidance. A technique whereby conflict is avoided in fear of

engaging further conflict via low assertiveness and low cooperation.

It is assumed such technique will allow for the conflict to pass away.

It can be viewed that such a technique would require project

managers to have the ability to analyse when to withdraw, sidestep,

ILGI KIM 49

and when issues can be left unresolved without effecting the goals

of the project. Of course such skills would also require to be

complemented with timing.

The Author believes that although all five techniques are valid, the

Avoidance/Withdrawal and Accommodating/Smoothing techniques would

require a period of time before the effects of the technique would become

apparent.

The model above is also reflected by the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode

Instrument as shown in Fig. 8 below.

Fig. 8. Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument

Co

op

era

tio

n

Accommodating Collaborating

Compromising

Avoiding Competing

Assertiveness

As highlighted in the previous chapter regarding change, the APMBOK is

used as the primary source for Project Management techniques by the

Author. Although the recommendations and process described in the

chapter regarding conflict management is informative, it is very brief and

does not go into detail how to assess when such techniques should or can

be applied.

Leas (1998) adds a sixth method to the above which is Supporting. This

technique is whereby one provides support to the person who is

ILGI KIM 50

experiencing conflict. It involves strengthening, encouraging or

empowering one party so they can handle their difficulties. The Author

believes this is a crucial sixth factor as it views conflict in the 3rd party that

the above perhaps does not. Conflict management does not need to be

resolved by a project manager, or a body of authority, and as such, a

softer approach to management such as supporting is a welcome and

important addition.

3.2.4 3-Step Turnbull Process

Turnbull (1967) suggests a three step process model for resolving conflict:

Step 1: Assess Potential Conflict. This step is broken down into four

factors. The first is to obtain as much information as possible as many

conflicts are the result of misinformation. The second factor is to buy as

much time as possible as delay means reducing the time for formulating a

strategy to act wisely. The third factor is to assess the individuals involved

in the conflict and identify their motives. The fourth and final factor is to

explore the emotional temperature of the conflict on the basis that humour

or distraction may lower anger levels.

Step 2: Diffuse Public Conflict. This step is broken down into four

factors. The first is to inform the whole group of the facts of the situation to

help with later decision making. The second factor is to find out and ask

about the history of the conflict from those concerned. The third factor is to

engage those in conflict with people who can help them reach a

constructive engagement. The fourth and final factor is to delay action until

there has been time to attempt to manage the conflict.

Step 3: Solve Conflict Problems. This step is broken down into five

factors. The first is to consider all the gathered facts, feelings and opinions

about the conflict. The second is to list options to the problem, considering

ILGI KIM 51

possible positive and negative consequences of each. The third is to list

the options in the order of priority. The fourth is to depersonalise the

options to avoid focus on the personalities of those involved. The fifth and

final step is to develop a consensus for the option that most resolves the

conflict, even if it involves compromise.

This model is very different to that of the previous model in that it

describes an actual process of activities to resolve conflict rather than

looking at the psychological aspects of a conflict. Although descriptive, it is

open to interpretation however whether such a model is suitable for

complex project conflict situations is open to debate.

3.2.5 McSwain & Treadwell 5 Styles of Conflict Management

Similar to the numerous resources on leadership styles, we review a

model of conflict management based on the style of approach given the

particular conflict situation. The model to be reviewed is based on five

different styles as presented by McSwain and Treadwell (1981).

Style 1: The Problem Solver. A style where one refuses to deny or flee

the conflict, presses for conversation and negotiation of the conflict until a

satisfactory conclusion is reached. The Author believes such a style would

be most effective with groups that share common goals and whose conflict

stems from miscommunication.

Style 2: The Super Helper. A style where one constantly works to help

others and give little thought to self. This is the ‘Messiah’ who is often

passive in their own conflicts but always assists others to solve their

conflicts. The Author believes such a style is similar to that of the

Accommodating/Smoothing technique discussed in the previous section.

ILGI KIM 52

Style 3: The Power Broker. A style whereby the solutions are more

important than relationships. Even if a person leaves the group or project,

as long as a solution was achieved, they are satisfied. It can be used when

substantive differences are so contradictory that mutually inclusive goals

are not possible.

Style 4: The Facilitator. A style employed to adapt to a variety of

situations in order to achieve a compromise between competing factions.

Such a style, the Author believes, would be effective for conflicts where

differences are attitudinal or emotional.

Style 5: The Fearful Loser. A style whereby one runs from conflict

probably because they are personally insecure. This tends to produce

hostility and a weakening of leadership. The Author believes such a style

is similar to that of the Avoidance/Withdraw technique discussed in the

previous section.

ILGI KIM 53

3.3 Personal skills, tools & technique

The different conflict management levels and techniques described in the

previous sections have their respective advantages and disadvantages.

The levels of conflict described by both Duffy (2001) and Leas (1985) are

both relevant however the Author believes there is no direct link between

the level of conflict and the technique or style to be adopted for resolution.

The 3-Step Turnbull process is too descriptive again to be guaranteed of

success although it lays good foundations for managing conflict. The

reason for this is that regardless of the level of conflict, the source and

environment that the conflict exists would be a culmination of infinite

different factors that would mean that different techniques would be

required at different levels based on the environment.

The five techniques as described by the Association of Project Managers

(2006) is very similar to that of McSwain & Treadwell (1981) five styles.

For example the Power Broker is similar to that of Competing/Forcing and

the Fearful Loser similar to that of Avoidance and Withdrawal. Of the

numerous other literature studied for this dissertation, the theme remains

the same whereby principally the five factors are presented but in different

forms or guises with sometimes an additional factor, technique or style

such as the Supporting technique described nu Leas (1998).

The Author in past experience has never sought to theorise his own

personal conflict management techniques. The current techniques utilised

by the Author is vague and unstructured. The principle always applied

through experience has been to identify a goal, review the conflict, and

resolve on an ad hoc basis if required with little thought of future project

consequences. The application of conflict management is done in practice

with no inception of theoretical models. This will be expanded upon later in

this dissertation.

ILGI KIM 54

CHAPTER 4 METHODOLOGY

4.1 Reflective Practice – A Quick Introduction

Reflective practice means looking at what you do, thinking about why you

do it, and thinking about if it works - a process of self-observation and self-

evaluation. The learning process in reflective practice begins with the

examination of an individual's own actions and contrasting the actions to

the ideal of the practice. The process is intended to result in behavioural

changes that improve professional performance.

ILGI KIM 55

4.2 Reflective Practice Theory

The principle of reflective practice is the process of looking back in a

critical way at what has occurred and using the results of this process,

together with professional knowledge (with technical and ethical aspects),

to tackle new situations.

Moon (1999) describes the principle of ‘being reflective’ as a reflection that

is applied particularly in literature of professional practice. It is an

orientation to practice reflection of ones own work to add value to their

work. No particular form of reflection could be suggested but that reflection

should be an action of habit, as a learning style.

Moon (1999) describes nine different purposes or outcomes of reflection

as described below.

1. Learning or the production of further material for reflection. This is

described later under the model of Kolb (1984).

2. Action or other expression of learning. This involves reflection in

initial learning. In essence it is the action of reflection with the intention

to reprocess or reorganise such information gathered from the

reflection to possibly improve future performance.

3. Reflection on the process of learning. This is the reflection on the

actual process of learning.

4. Building of theory. This involves reflection as a means of building

theory as the different stages of learning evolve. This implies that

sophisticated theory is a reflection of continuous learning. This is

described later under the model of Schon (1993).

5. Self development. This involves reflection forming a process of self

development whereby the lessons learnt from reflection are applied in

ILGI KIM 56

practice to develop and improves one performance by both knowledge

and experience.

6. Decisions and resolutions of uncertainty. This implies that decision

making to reach resolutions is developed as the process and

application of reflective practice strengthens in one self.

7. Empowerment and emancipation. On the basis that emancipation is

a result of taking a critical overview of self, the principles of reflection is

no different. Therefore emancipation and empowerment cannot take

place without reflection.

8. Other outcomes that are unexpected. This involves the use of

reflective practice allowing the exploration of other outcomes to any

given situation become apparent if studied therefore assisting the

process of learning.

9. Emotion. This is an outcome whereby it can be considered that

reflection is due to the actual process of reflection. Could it be that we

are unable to reflect unless the principles of reflection are embedded in

ones personality. A question that may arise is to what level can

reflection be taught?

There are many theoretical models and concepts available ranging from

general to specific industries. This section will review three different

theoretical models.

ILGI KIM 57

4.2.1 Fish and Coles (1998)

Fish and Coles (1998) describe two contrasting images of professional

practice as shown below in Figure 9. The Author believes that the two

different views can be interpreted as two extremes of reflective practice.

Fig. 9. Two contrasting images of Professional Practice The Technical Rational (TR) View The Professional Artistry (PA) View

1 Follows rules, laws, and prescriptionsStarts where rules fade, sees patterns, frameworks

2 Uses diagnosis, analysis Uses interpretation/appreciation3 Wants efficient systems Wants creativity and room to be wrong

4Sees knowledge as graspable, permanent

Knowledge is temporary, dynamic, problematic

5 Theory is applied to practice Theory emerges from practice6 Visible performance is central There is more to it than surface features

7Setting out and testing for basic competency is vital

There is more to it than the sum of the parts

8 Technical expertise is all Professional judgement counts

9Sees professional activities as masterable

Sees mystery at the heart of professional activities

10 Emphasizes the known Embraces uncertaintySource: Fish and Coles (1998)

The Technical Rational (TR) view appears to be concerned with finding the

best way towards a predetermined end on the assumption that higher

quality processes lead to higher quality outputs – a scientific process. The

author believes that in terms of project change, the TR view represents the

key characteristics of a transactional organisation where practice is

structured and inflexible. The Author believes this view would be

inappropriate for conflict management as ‘soft’ management is more

appropriate, a management style that is not always scientific in nature.

Della and Coles (1998) explains that the TR approach is when

“professional activities are able to be pre-specified and susceptible to

being broken down into their component parts and that such parts are all

regarded as skills and are thus viewed as being able to be mastered”. This

view is a very simplistic approach to adopt in regards to project

management that the author believes, at its core, is a form of change

ILGI KIM 58

management. Currie & Golding (2002) states that “the nature of

management is complex, ambiguous, contradictory and uncertain; it is also

recognised as a social and political activity”. If this interpretation of

management is to be considered the author believes that the TR approach

can be deemed to be overoptimistic about the capabilities of an individual

to master the rules, laws, systems and skills due to the very inherent

nature of management. However the Author believes such interpretation

summarises the complexities of conflict and its underlying influence of

social and political activity.

The TR view states that theory is applied to practice, however, to imply

that problems can be solved by applying someone else’s knowledge to

ones own practice is simplistic and may devalue the art and skill of a

profession. It may be that there is no theory to apply, or applying theory to

practice does not solve a given problem. Theory in its direct interpretation

is a body of rules, idea, principles, and techniques that fundamentally is an

idea formed by speculation even though mostly it is supported by practical

evidence. Theory is applicable only in the context whereby the social,

political and environmental conditions that the theory is based upon and is

a guideline from a certain perspective.

Overall, the TR approach can be viewed as a negative approach to project

management as it does not promote professionals to question the rules

and values that underpin their practice and how it liberates and constrains

what they do.

However the TR view must not be immediately discounted. Ghaye and

Ghaye (1998) states that “some professionals argue that a certain set of

core values gives them their sense of identity, purpose and integrity. A

shared understanding and appreciations of a professions values and

ethical responsibilities are central to the profession”. Such personal drivers

ILGI KIM 59

and motivators to a professional are equally important to their practice, a

factor that cannot immediately be derived from the PA view.

The Professional Artistry (PA) view defines a perspective whereby

processes undertaken is critically and dynamically reassessed whilst

actually taking place and actual practice is the most important tool for

future professional advancement and maturity in being able to allow those

to deal with the unexpected aspects of real practice. Della and Coles

(1998) describes the PA view as “where only principles can be pre-

determined and practitioners may in practice, and for good reason, need to

choose to go beyond them”. The Author believes such a view underlines

the principles of conflict management. The models and concepts reviewed

in Chapter 3 are, although useful, very vague in that it does not provide

specific models to any given situation. Conflict is generally driven by

personal, social, and political factors of individuals that cannot be defined

in a scientific process. Due to the infinite possibilities that may effect

conflict, the Author believes that the PA view is the approach to be

adopted so that a project manager continuously draws on his own

experience, only supported by theoretical scientific knowledge, to reach

the required resolution.

A professional should be able to perform his function beyond merely doing

a particular job. A professional should reflect on the environment that

influenced their past performance and seek ways to not only understand

what they do and how they do it, but how they can improve their

performance. Therefore the TR and PA views should not be interpreted as

two poles in which to categorise professional practice. A good PM should

be able to learn, develop and apply positives from any professional

practice view to deliver a project within a structure that suits the

environment and one that will deliver the required deliverables.

ILGI KIM 60

4.2.2 Schon (1983)

Schon (1983) recommends reflective practice as a way for beginners in a

discipline to recognize consonance between their own individual practices

and those of successful practitioners. He suggests that reflective practice

involves thoughtfully considering one's own experiences in applying

knowledge to practice while being coached by professionals in the

discipline.

Schon (1983) describes three different types of reflective practice:

KiA (Knowing in Action) – professional knowledge we use in our

daily practice. We improve our professional practice by reflecting on

what we actually do to generate a detailed knowledge base derived

from practice.

RiA (Reflection in Action) – central to the art by which professionals

handle and resolve difficulties and concerns about practice by

reflecting on the adequacy of our KiA. A surprise usually triggers

this process when we realise that our existing stock of knowledge

that we are using is no longer adequate. It is based on the rapid

interpretation and action of a situation.

RoA (Reflection on Action) – a deliberate and conscious reflection

after an event to improve our future actions.

The challenge of the three different types of reflective practice appears to

be based around reflective practitioners fundamentally reconsidering the

role of technical knowledge versus artistry. This is very similar to that of

the differences in the Technical Rational view and Professional Artistry

view as described by Fish and Coles (1998) and discussed in the previous

ILGI KIM 61

section. The Author believes that KiA is describing similar principles to that

of the TR view and RiA to that of the Pa view. As explained in the previous

chapter, the Author believes that both change and conflict management is

more suited to that of the PA, and therefore, RiA. Although the reasoning

behind this has been already explained, Schon (1983) introduces a

different perspective that is the RoA approach. This approach does not

question or differentiate KiA or RiA but provides an all encompassing

approach of reflecting upon an event regardless whether it was

undertaken using a technical, artistry, or a mixture of both. The simple

principle that whatever we do, however we do it, can always be reflected

upon to improve our future actions. The Author believes this is the

fundamental principle of reflective practice and can be applied to any

management technique as well as any other aspect of life.

4.2.3 Kolb (1984)

Kolb (1984) identifies four distinct learning styles (or preferences), which

are based on a four-stage learning cycle. This section will focus on the

learning styles rather than the interaction it has with the learning cycle.

The four learning styles are as follows:

Diverging (feeling and watching) – The concept of being able to

view from different perspectives preferring to watch rather than do

tending to gather information and use imagination to solve

problems.

Assimilating (watching and thinking) – The concept of a learning

preference for a concise, logical approach whereby ideas and

concepts are more important than people.

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Converging (doing and thinking) – The concept steered towards

solving problems utilising their prior learning of ideas and theories

preferring technical perspectives rather than people perspectives.

Accommodating (doing and feeling) – The concept of being

hands on relying on intuition rather than logic. This style has a

preference to act on instinct rather than logical analysis.

As previously discussed the Author believes that both change and conflict

management is more akin to the PA and RiA view than the TR and KiA

view. The four learning styles described by Kolb (1984) immediately falls

into the two categories described before. The Diverging and

Accommodating styles describing the principles behind PA and RiA, and

Assimilating and Converging describing the principles behind the PA and

RiA.

These four styles like the model described by Fish and Coles (1998) does

not intimately specify the principles of RoA described by Schon (1983).

ILGI KIM 63

4.3 Key Principles of the Methodology

The basis of this dissertation will reflect the Professional Artistry (PA)

approach. This is due to the belief by the Author that in terms of change

and conflict management, the PA view represents the activities undertaken

where the Author is able to exercise innate creativity in solving problems.

Its view defines a perspective whereby processes undertaken is critically

and dynamically reassessed whilst actually taking place and actual

practice is the most important tool which is the methodology this

dissertation is based on.

This will support the learning style to be adopted from Kolb (1984) for this

dissertation which will be the Accommodating style. The Author believes

this is the best style as it allows for Schon’s view of reflective practice to

be utilised as the Author believes it is intended.

Schon’s RoA approach will be the underlying principle applied throughout

this dissertation.

Therefore a summary of the methodology will be as follows:

1. Observation and reflection of actual practice by the use of a

learning log for both change and conflict.

2. Review of theoretical process, concept and models in comparison

to the results of Stage 1.

3. Recommendation of improved processes, concepts and models

that could be applied.

Stage 1 will be conducted with the use of a learning log. The learning log

is to be used to conduct focused, concise and analytical reviews of current

ILGI KIM 64

practices and processes for specific activities based, in this dissertation,

around the concept of change and conflict management.

The learning log for change designed and utilised for this dissertation has

the following headings (a template can be found in Appendix 4):

What – What is the change.

Why – Why has the change occurred?

Goals – What are the goals in regards to the change?

Issues – What are the key issues surrounding the change

Reaction – How was the change managed?

Learned – What has been learned?

The learning log for conflict designed and utilised for this dissertation has

the following headings (a template can be found in Appendix 5):

Who – Who are in conflict.

Why – Why has the conflict occurred?

Goals – What are the goals in regards to the conflict?

Issues – What are the key issues surrounding the conflict

Reaction – How was the conflict managed?

Learned – What has been learned?

The results of Stage 1 will be elaborated in Chapter 4.

Stages 2 and 3 will be elaborated in Chapters 5 and 6 whereby the

theoretical models reviewed earlier will be compared against the results of

stage 1 resulting in conclusions of current practice in relation to theoretical

processes and models and recommendations made to improve current

practice. It must be remembered that the aim of reflective practice is that

the result of the reflection may provide an option to decide to do something

ILGI KIM 65

in a different way, or just reinforce that what is being done is the best way.

The Author believes this is what professional development by reflective

practice is all about.

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CHAPTER 5 PRACTICE EXPERIENCE

5.1 GRIP Stage 1-3: Output Definition, Pre-Feasibility, Option Selection

GRIP stages 1 to 3 is designed to establish the scope of the project

required by an internal client. It ensures that the project product can be

economically delivered by addressing the identified constraints and

develops options for addressing the identified constraints and delivering

the required capability. It concludes in Stage 3 where options are

assessed and the most appropriate selected.

The Vital FDM project was implemented as an emergency project to

introduce a new technology FDM system as it was identified that the

current systems were in the top ten catastrophic signalling risks nationally.

The Westinghouse HD Link and Communicator FDM system, already

implemented in North America and in successful operation, was identified

by the Client with no option selection taking place. This therefore

bypassed GRIP Stages 1 to 3 which set the project off immediately on a

bad footing. The core stage products required as the building blocks to a

successful project were bypassed.

On reflection the two key issues to arise during this stage was that no

option selection of technology took place, and that an assumption was

made that the technology utilised in North America would be immediately

compatible in the UK.

The consequence of no option selection taking place was that this caused

immediate conflict between the Client and Train and Freight operating

companies. This was due to the apprehension by the train and freight

operating companies of the new untested technology being utilised to

ILGI KIM 67

resolve an issue without any other option being reviewed. This can be

deemed as being a level 2 conflict as described by Duffy (2001) whereby

conflict has occurred due to a difference of opinion over how things should

be done. However the ultimate decision was to be made by the Network

Rail client and it was deemed that the project would continue under their

terms, therefore no selection of technology. This can be viewed as using

the forcing technique described by the Association of Project Managers

(2006). Such a position to resolve the conflict was taken by Network Rail

due to their position of authority and power of decision as the asset

owners of the railways.

The decision to utilise the technology could also be reviewed. It was

understood that the technology was successful in North America however

the change in environment for the technology was not considered to

perhaps the extent it should or could have. If such a change in

environment for the new technology was to be considered applying the

formula of change, all the elements of the formula are present excluding a

strong concrete step towards the vision (F). This may result in the

resistance of change being greater than the change required.

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5.2 GRIP Stage 4 and 5: Single Option Development and

Detailed Design

GRIP Stage 4 is designed to develop a single option to point of scope

freeze. Stage 5 is designed to produce a complete and robust engineering

design that allows risks, costs, timescales, resources and benefits to be

fully understood prior to commitment to implement.

The Vital FDM project was always considered high risk and complex due

to the new technology being introduced to the national railway

infrastructure. The timescales required to undertake the works due to its

emergency nature and its dependency on gaining a safety case and

product approval for the new technology meant that the principle of quality

management through all aspects of the project was a priority issue.

However the safety and product approval processes had a major impact

on the delivery of the project because:

Due to its complexity it used resource originally allocated to other

project delivery tasks.

Stakeholders were not able to cope with the resource requirements

of the onerous approval process.

Scheme plans and designs were always changing due to

requirements from the safety approvals.

There were adversarial relationships between stakeholders that

lead to minimal cooperation in the approval management process,

and preparation for the approval process.

The client approval standards and method of approval proved to be

a greater challenge than WRSL team had anticipated.

ILGI KIM 69

WRSL had been assured during their early meetings with the client

that a pragmatic approach would be taken during the approval

process that did not happen.

It is clear from the above that there was no ‘hands on’ ownership of the

safety and product approval process. Such a ‘champion’ identified with an

ability to RiA would have assisted in smoothing the quality management

and approval process, a process that in this particular situation was of an

extremely high priority and political nature. The ‘champion; mentioned

would on reflection be lead by the project manager, however also

practised by the project members, especially those considered to be the

‘mature’ experienced and senior members of the team.

Due to the lack of any other guide on managing relationships, the client

project team also used the contract to manage relationships that may have

affected the efficiency of the process. This was not conducive to an

effective project delivery environment as Johnson & Scholes (2002) states

that “a key aspect of an organisation’s configuration is the ability to

integrate the knowledge and activities of different parts of an organisation

and with other organisations”. It would have been expected for both

respective PM’s KiA to have been applied at this stage of the project yet it

was not evident. The change itself from the pragmatic approach assured

to the WRSL by Network Rail to a contractual approach would have been

a major contributor to the conflict that occurred – a clear example of an

approach-avoidance conflict.

Upon reflection a collaborative approach would have also assisted in

resolving the problems and ultimately conflict encountered in the approval

process. Morris & Pinto (2004) states that “problem solving becomes more

feasible as the perception of common ground increases as greater

common ground makes the likelihood of finding alternatives that satisfy the

ILGI KIM 70

interest of both parties seem more promising”. The common ground in any

project would be the requirement to deliver the project for a particular gain

amongst all stakeholders – and in this case would have been the

acceleration of the safety and product approval process to deliver the

project to programme. This form of conflict appears to have stemmed from

parties not understanding the common ground was ultimately the project

goals, a level of conflict that could be considered a Level 3 by Duffy

(2001).

Although not always technically feasible or expected, the contract should

outline the collaborative behaviours, the requirement for an integrated

project team and a support and education programme to focus on the

development of productive relationships. A question that could be raised,

but that will not be explored within this dissertation, is whether a contract is

capable of being able to contain clauses that could outline collaborative

behaviours – can soft management skills such as collaboration be

expressed in writing in a systematical manner?

The reaction to the requirement for a change was clearly identified by the

delays. The following actions were applied and recorded for future

learning:

Ensure management and approval issues are resolved from the

offset to mitigate continual impact on project programme.

Management and approval issues to be tackled collaboratively. This

was done with full cooperation as the need for Network Rail to

deliver the project and for WRSL to be paid as being on an activity

milestone payment contract facilitated the eventual collaboration.

In the event of quality or approval process issues a champion to

challenge such processes was nominated from the senior

ILGI KIM 71

management team, project team and support teams from both

Network Rail and WRSL.

Emergency meetings were set up with those responsible for

approvals and a joint presentation with senior management enabled

the concerns to be tabled, agreed in a positive manner, and

actioned. Regular meetings to take place to support more effective

communication and promote common understanding. This level of

conflict is at Level 3 as described by Leas (1985) whereby a third

party is being brought in to mediate the situation. The techniques

used by senior management were of a compromising and

accommodating nature.

Network Rail, at a senior corporate level, needs to communicate the

corporate strategy for the investment and ensure there is an

alignment between all stakeholders.

Roles to be defined clearly in terms of the Approval process. This is

the simplest of conflict management and, if applied early enough in

the project, prevention that should have been communicated.

ILGI KIM 72

5.3 GRIP Stage 6: Construction, Testing & Commissioning

GRIP Stage 6 delivers the product in accordance to the design and

specification with assurance it will deliver the incremental network

capability.

A fundamental issue was apparent at the start of GRIP Stage 6. As

preparatory works were beginning to commence onsite a weekly

committee meeting was held from the start of the phase and set up by

both respective project managers of Network Rail and WRSL. The

Network Rail Project Manager chaired the meeting and invited members of

the project team and other personnel where appropriate. The purpose of

the meetings was to cover the status of the project to ensure that everyone

knew what had been done and what was being planned, and a forum to

raise any project issues and instigate solutions.

However the weekly management committee was the only formal forum

available and enforced within the contract. This was maintained even

when the project programme slipped considerably and therefore costs

escalated. Also due to the political nature and complexity of the project,

the Network Rail Project Manager did not share his true feelings with the

project team and WRSL until he was in a very public forum. Upon

reflection this must have made it extremely difficult for the principle

contractor to manage the project. What was clearly missing was

communication at different levels and especially with the respective project

teams. Communication planning had not been taking place and

administrative processes were insufficient.

It can be argued that time should have been invested early in the project to

develop strong personal relationships at project level to reduce the impact

of any project problems and therefore potential conflict. Such productive

ILGI KIM 73

relationships would have encouraged key players to support each other

and work together for solutions. It was only after the project went into crisis

mode and senior players got involved did all the parties work closely

together with the sole aim of delivering the project. It can be considered

that perhaps the past working relationships between all stakeholders prior

to this project were not fully investigated to ensure that no inherent

conflicts were being imported to such a critical project.

Other issues that arose from the management of relationships and

supporting communication were:

After the first team development workshop early in the phase the

other proposed workshops were not implemented that would have

improved team building. This was changed immediately. Clear need

of the meeting was communicated to all relevant people although

attendance was enforced. This was enforced by the use of the

Network Rail change control process. This initially lead to

resistance however was negated once the benefits of the change

became apparent.

Plans to co-locate were not implemented early on and became a

source of tension later as to where the co-located venue should be.

The focus shifted totally to business activities and relationship

activities were not part of any Project Management strategy. The

issue was changed with the use of empowering project members so

therefore take responsibility and initiative to communicate.

It is thought that Network Rail undertook too much of a contractual

stance in terms of the meetings and communicating in contractual

tones. Again this was ended by change by explaining the effect it

was having on the delivery of the project to all members. This

relaxation of commercial relationship was agreed with senior

management. Such a accommodating and therefore cooperative

ILGI KIM 74

approach provides the opportunity for a facilitator approach to be

taken to manage conflict and allows also for conflicts to be at a level

whereby the Problem solver style as described by McSwain and

Treadwell (1981) to be practised.

It is clear that due to the nature of the project, the Project Manager did not

practice a PA approach but practised a TR view following rules as set out

in the contract for communication. It was felt that such a new technology

project required efficient systems, with the best technical expertise with

performance that was visible to the sponsors. Yet upon reflection, such a

large project should have given the freedom to the Project Manager to

apply creative thinking and allow the project members to exert more

sapient authority and increase communication amongst them.

To apply RoA and the lessons that can be learnt and applied in future

include:

Relationships impact on performance as positive or negative

relationships will determine to what extent conflict is allowed to

manifest and to what level. Therefore attention has to be given to

developing productive relationships at senior, middle and

operational levels between contractor and client. Change needs to

be implemented and maintained.

The contract and style of relationships need to compliment each

other. A change to relationship styling by education is required.

Conflict management approach also needs to be considered.

Network Rail has a history of applying a Competing/Forcing

technique to its contractors that may create further conflicts. Such a

complex and critical project should have been allocated a project

manager with the experience and skill to apply compromising and

ILGI KIM 75

accommodating conflict resolution techniques without ever losing

sight of the key goals of the project.

A good communication plan is essential. Communication is a key

skill that applies to both change and conflict management. The

Author believes from experience that good communication is the

basic foundation of any successful project.

Involve and promote active participation of key stakeholders in the

project during all stages. Such participation should hopefully not

allow any conflicts to progress beyond level 1 for both theories

described by Leas (1985) and Duffy (2001).

Pay attention to and address cultural differences be they corporate

or national. In regards to conflict management this is a critical

factor. Cultural differences are a strong factor in the manifestation in

levels of conflict. When cultural ideals, and therefore values and

personalities become involved, you immediately provide an

environment for the highest levels of conflict. Such levels of conflict

would require very strong conflict resolution skills.

Ensure sound project processes are in place and utilised. This also

applies to both change and contract management. Processes such

a the 3-Step Turnbull process for conflict management, and both

the Network Rail and Association of project manager processes for

change management could be briefed, or documented as a

template for promoting success.

Clarify expectations, roles and responsibilities at outset of project.

Promote Team Development opportunities.

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5.4 GRIP Stage 7-8: Scheme Handback and Project Close Out

This GRIP Stage is intended to introduce the asset into operational use

obtain acceptance of the Works and then ensure that the project is closed

out in an orderly manner with updated asset management information,

capitalised assets, settled contractual accounts and any contingencies and

warranties.

However due to the changes and consequential impact to time that

occurred during GRIP Stages 4 to 6 this project is yet to reach Stage 7 or

8.

ILGI KIM 77

CHAPTER 6 RESULTS ACHIEVED AND NEXT STEPS

6.1 Summary of where the project has got to

The key original objectives of the project were as follows:

To place an RT24 Cost Reimbursable Design and Build Contract

To gain Safety Case acceptance of the Westinghouse HD Link

and product approval of the HD Communicator modem

equipment.

To deliver the renewal of all the Vital Reed FDM systems in the

Wessex, Sussex and Kent Areas and recovery works to the

agreed cost and timescales

To close out the project on time to cost and provide a certificate

of completion to HSE(RI).

The RT24 Cost Reimbursable design and build contract was not

awarded. Instead an RT24 Lump sum design and build contract was

awarded. This was due to GRIP Stages 1-3 not being completed in full

which led to uncertainty of anticipated final price.

The safety case acceptance of the Westinghouse HD Link and product

approval of the HD Communicator modem equipment still remains

outstanding. The challenge to Network Rail Standards and passage

through the approval process has proved to be a greater obstacle than

either WRSL or Network Rail expected. Various undertakings to

Safetrans Systems Ltd and Kenton Research Ltd about a practical

approach to Safety Approval did not materialise. Another key factor is

that the stakeholders expectation that the technology’s history in North

America would speed approval was over optimistic.

The project still remains to be completed.

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6.2 Way forward for the Project and its Management

At the time of writing, this project, via methods of formal change control,

has had the completion date extended by a further year from July 2007

to July 2008. The outstanding objectives still remain applicable

however additional support for both the project team and senior

management team have now been drafted to ensure completion to the

revised project completion date.

It has been concluded by external parties that the key factor for the

project not being completed on time was due to the poor management

of relationships. Due to the high risk nature of the project and it’s

change in contracting strategy to a lump sum contract, the Network Rail

team focused on protecting their contractual position rather than

focusing on resolving problems through collaboration.

This can be explained in part by the railway industry being ‘old-

fashioned’. An industry that has existed under a mindset that has

changed little in the past 50 years. Procedures and work methods have

always been firmly established within the industry and, in particular to

engineers, an unofficial working code of practice has always been

evident.

The problem identified was further compounded by the following

indirect factors:

Network Rail and WRSL organisation changes that included

redundancies in other core business areas.

Relocation of workplace of Network Rail project team.

Blame culture – a trait very common in the rail industry. Internal

squabbling and conflict became apparent with an increase in

requirements due to acceleration of project programme to meet

original project completion date, yet member’s eager to blame

ILGI KIM 79

each other for non-delivery. This resulted in members avoiding

taking responsibility for objectives that deteriorated the situation.

Personality clashes between stakeholders.

Destructive communication patterns strongly associated with

conflict.

All these factors affected the performance and became subject to

increasing criticism from the client leading to a further deterioration of

relationships between stakeholders.

To combat the problems identified, three main approaches have now

been implemented:

The first is to educate, by means of internal training, all stakeholders

excluding the TOC/FOC’s to become effective leaders. The training

identified focuses on the following skills; conceptual, diplomacy skills,

communicational, organization and administration skills. This change is

also designed for the project teams to go from being self-motivated

projects to team-motivated. It is deemed that everyone can be inspired

to achieve in a team-motivated environment. A common goal requires

to be continuously presented with the request for team members to

support each other until success is achieved. The exchange of ideas

and information is being more actively encouraged to add to the

motivating force.

The second approach is by the senior management team who have

increased communication with all stakeholders to explore possible new

objectives.

The third approach to be implemented is the creation of a quality

management committee based around ISO 9004. The committee is

comprised of key stakeholders at project level. The committee has

been designed to promote quality, identification of problems, modern

ILGI KIM 80

methods, pride & loyalty, philosophy & culture, team build, education &

retraining.

To achieve the above the following goals have been set to be

discussed and implemented:

New Strategic Thinking, Know your Customers

Set True Customer Requirements

Concentrate on Prevention, Not Correction

Reduce Chronic Waste

Pursue a Continuous Improvement Strategy

Use Structured Methodology for Process Improvement

Reduce Variation

Use a Balanced Approach

Apply to All Functions

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CHAPTER 7 CRITICAL REFLECTION

7.1 Project Management Theory into Practice

7.1.1 Change Management

The Formula for Change does identify what seems are key principles

for managing change. Dissatisfaction is a common reason for change

regardless of the issue in question. Vision of what is possible is the

definition of the end product of change and the First steps is a process

that any change must go through at implementation. The effective

application of this theory however rests on whether the products of the

three principles are greater than Resistance.

The application of this formula solely depends on how the products are

measured along with the resistance. As a principle this formula states a

common sense approach to change management and should only be

used as a high level formula for those new to the technique of change

management. Therefore this formula will be used as a basis to

challenge change management concepts and models.

The ADKAR model applies the principles of awareness, desire,

knowledge, ability and reinforcement. The process as a model does

appear not prescriptive enough as although it does focus on activities

that are people dependent, it does not factor in the resistance that may

be encountered.

As a process, desire and reinforcement may not fit in to all types of

change. Change may be driven by need not desire and reinforcement

may not be required if the change is temporary or can be in turn

change to reflect the true needs of a project.

ILGI KIM 82

Kottor’s eight steps focus again on people management. Of the

available models the Author believes this to be the most effective. This

model would be effective if implemented as it is clear and prescriptive

in its recommendations to manage change with clear differentiation in

stages that appear manageable. However it appears to assume that

people will respond to each stage and that the drivers will be effective

for everybody. As a process there are doubts about the suitability of

increasing urgency and applying continual pressure by persistence.

The resistance of people may be affected dependent on the principle

that urgency, pressure and persistence may induce a negative

response to change and consolidate or worsen existing resistance.

The Six Change Approach takes a different concept in pre-identifying

types of resistance. It addresses and classifies the resistance factors

found in people albeit it is a generalisation as it must be stressed that

there is, and should be, no textbook answers or solution to understand

the mentality of people as it would be dependent on each unique

circumstance and mentality of a person. It does however provide what

appears to be 3 positives and 3 negative principles. Again, having

principles that may force people in to change is unique amongst the

models reviewed and mist be treated with caution. From reflective

practice, and in specific case to the change in contract strategy, tactics

such as coercion are negative to long tern relationships with which

further exasperation of change may depend. The principle of

negotiation and manipulation must also be treated with caution

although at first such practices may have benefits, if people become

aware of such practices it may again worsen the existing resistance.

In specific regard to a new technology project, more dynamic

processes may be required addressing actual processes, people,

systems and culture.

ILGI KIM 83

Specific concepts the Author believes needs to be applied to new

technology projects are as follows:

Plan long-term broadly focusing on strategy rather than plan

Establish sophisticated communication channels with complete

buy in from all stakeholders who understand the process.

Empower by delegation. Change cannot be micromanaged to

conform to a single path and so like a living organism should be

allowed to grow but within a controlled environment.

Remove as much red tape as possible and those who

invite/promote it.

Encourage, enable and develop capable people to be active in

other areas of the organization via 'virtual teams' and 'matrix

management'.

Scrutinise and optimise administrative support systems.

Hold regular reviews to check and inform of progress.

Adjust recruitment, training and development to accelerate the

development of people who contribute positively to a culture of

empowered dynamism.

7.1.2. Conflict Management

The two tendencies described by Dean & Eaton (1995) appears top be

the definitive approach upon further reading to the three different

generic types of conflict. The two basic tendencies of Approach and

Avoidance describes the two basic principles of moving towards a

given goal; the tendency to want out of pleasure or satisfaction and the

tendency to not want due to not wanting the end goal. The Author

believes that this principles to all aspects of every day life, not just that

of conflict management. Everyday people make choices and decisions

based on an individual’s needs and wants. The three generic types of

conflict are base don two extremes, that being the pursuit of a goal

despite it being incompatible (potentially win-win), and the conflict that

ILGI KIM 84

arises due to the end goal not being desirable to either conflicting

parties (potentially lose-lose). The third type is a conflict that arises

from a desire to both do and not do something. This conflict describes a

potential win-lose situation.

In the case of the Vital FDM project it is noted that the end goal is both

beneficial to Network Rail and WRSL as Network Rail has a contractor

who can install the new technology system and WRSL being the

contractor who can install at profit. The conflict arises from the

contractual approach adopted by Network Rail in contradiction of earlier

promises to ensure a pragmatic approach to the management of the

project.

The project evolves first to a Approach-Approach conflict whereby

although the end goal was always clear the path to completion was

blurred due to the continuous changes to project factors such as the

approval standards and methodology and the designs of the scheme

plans.

The project then moved to a Approach-Avoidance conflict scenario

whereby the continuous change in terms of the project such as the co-

location, contractual stance and strategy, and ambiguity of project

strategy meant that Network Rail were in a position whereby its own

Approach was clear however WRSL were becoming increasingly

frustrated and sceptical of the end goal and whether the consequences

of the changes would in fact lead to a loss of reputation and possible

loss of profit.

The project is yet to reach the Avoidance-Avoidance conflict scenario

as measures have now been put in place as described in Chapters 5

and 6.

The two theories on levels of conflict by Duffy (2001) and Leas (1985)

are similar in principle although Leas goes on to suggest that the final

ILGI KIM 85

additional step is whereby no reconciliation is possible and damage

limitation is the way forward. However the Author believes that both

theories are not static or conclusive in its categorisation of a conflict.

The Author believes that when levels are used to categorise conflict,

certain levels may merge with one another whereby overlaps of

characteristics of each level occurs. It also fails to describe the effect of

intensity of the conflict at each level and whether this would thus

change the order of levels. On reflection the general problems in whole

never went beyond that of Level 3 referring to the Leas (1985) theory

and Level 2 of the Duffy (2001) theory. This is demonstrated whereby

the pragmatic approach promised by Network Rail that never

materialised is in the Authors opinion a Level 2 conflict according to

Duffy (2001), and when the project was at GRIP stage 4 the existing

adversarial relationships between the stakeholders would be

categorised as a Level 3 conflict by Leas (1985).

The theories of the Association for Project Managers (2006) and

McSwain and Treadwell (1981) are again very similar in concept and

characterisation, as well as both having 5 different categorisations,

however one focuses on the techniques and other of styles, however

this differentiation in focus is unambiguous. The 5 different

categorisations of each theory can be matched as following:

Competing technique similar to that of the Power Broker style.

Confronting technique similar to that of the Problem Solver style.

Compromising technique similar to that of the Super Helper

style.

Avoiding technique similar to that of the Fearful Loser style.

Accommodating technique similar to that of the Facilitator style.

The Author believes the addition of a sixth category of Supporting by

Leas (1998) provides a name to a technique that can be considered to

be in its basic form ‘soft’ management.

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Upon reflection the project has moved from a Competing and Power

Broker technique and style of conflict management portrayed by

Network rail to what is now a Confronting and Problem Solving

technique and style. This Competing technique is most apparent when

the project strategy dictated that the project delivery focus would shift

totally to business activities ignoring relationship activities. The original

basis of the Competing style is upon reflection due to the immaturity of

the Network Rail project team whereby experience and skill sets were

lacking to manage conflict in any other way. In future such issues need

to be resolved by the allocation of an experienced project manager and

extensive targeted training to provide the knowledge to project team

members and also other stakeholders of the consequence of poor

conflict management.

The 3-Step model described by Turnbull (1967) is interesting in that it

suggests a step process rather than trying to categorise and formulate

a technique or style for resolution. This provides a simplistic but easy to

use template for conflict identification and resolution, and therefore

management.

The principles of this theory is effective communication, timing,

prioritisation and people management, all key skills that should already

exist in a project managers skill base. Therefore the theory looks to

manage conflict utilising basic project management skills rather than

look at conflict management as a separate skill in its own right. The

three steps can be applied to the information contained in Chapter 5.

This model will be used later in Chapter 7.2.2 as a basis for an

improvised model for conflict management designed by the Author.

Specific concepts the Author believe needs to be applied to new

technology projects are as follows:

Define potentials for conflict prior to project start.

ILGI KIM 87

Leaders who are able to effectively communicate the negative

connotations associated with clearly identified conflict situations

to the ‘owners’ of the conflict.

Define the levels of conflict and ascertain the sources of conflict

as soon as possible so that manifestation of the conflict is

mitigated.

Predetermine and agree options for tackling conflict with project

stakeholders and communicate clearly.

Ensure help is available to all stakeholders to ascertain their

priorities and alternatives, and keep them on track – always

know and communicate the end goal.

Keep the process of conflict management in continuous

implementation. Conflict management should be an ongoing

process.

Avoid dealing with the central conflict point; instead tackle the

issues around it which will have the effect of chipping away at

the problem until it gradually erodes.

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7.2 Personal skills, tools & techniques

7.2.1 Change Management

From the application of the methodology and reflective practice

identified, the Author is able to suggest an improvised change

management model. It focuses on 8 factors split into three principles as

shown in Figure 10 below.

Fig. 10. Improvised Change Management Model

RE

SIS

TA

NC

E

PRESSURE FOR CHANGE

SE

NIO

R

MA

NA

GE

ME

NT

PR

OJE

CT

TE

AM

SU

PP

OR

T

SE

RV

ICE

S

CLEAR VISION

CAPACITY FOR CHANGE

ACTION

The model has 7 interdependent factors that must all have the same

levels of commitment to successfully manage change.

The factors are described below:

Pressure, or a driving force, for change must exist on the basis

there exist a valid and justifiable requirement. Firstly there must,

of course, be pressure for change – a driving force. If the need

for change has been identified, and the decision to proceed has

been taken, this needs to be communicated to those affected by

the change.

Clear vision is key. The views must be concise and shared with

no conflict. What is our goal? Change is a means to an end.

Vision should be a strategy not a plan. This must also be

communicated effectively.

ILGI KIM 89

Capacity for change is crucial. Change can only be implemented

successfully of all the tools and resources are available. A

readiness assessment should be undertaken by all groups.

Action. The Implementation of the Change Management Plan.

Change can never be left and so action is a compulsory

requisite.

For change to be effective, it needs to be implemented at all

levels; embedded in the culture of those affected by the change.

This includes senior management, the project team, and support

services. Without the commitment from all three groups the

implementation of the change may have an imbalance which

causes the change to evolve into a further unexpected change.

Resistance management is also a factor the Author believes

must remain. The concept of management is not the exclusion

but the retention of positive resistance to promote the

development of diverse solutions. If resistance is inevitable it

seems to be a waste of energy flow that could be used as a

positively.

Personal skills and techniques do not also have to be limited to

reflective practice and theoretical application. A third technique must

also be the utilisation of just talking and asking. Such a simple activity

provides a different spectrum for reflective learning as actual practices,

understandings and beliefs may be communicated that may expand

your current applicable skills by opening new doors.

ILGI KIM 90

7.2.2 Change Management

From the application of the methodology and reflective practice

identified, the Author is able to suggest an improvised conflict

management model. The model is a thought and behaviour process

one can follow when in conflict based on Specific, Measurable,

Achievable, Realistic, and Time (SMART) objectives. It focuses on 4

steps that are to be applied in a cyclical process as described below:

Step 1: Problem focus, not people focus. This step is whereby all

project stakeholders treat one another with respect, avoiding conflict

instigators by giving attention instead to the issues itself. Each side

should be encouraged and helped to understand the other’s fears,

perceptions, insecurities and desires. Parties should think of

themselves as partners in a side-by-side search for a fair agreement

which is advantageous to each side. This is in the belief that such a

method would not allow conflict to ever increase beyond that of level 2.

Step 2: Problem focus, not position focus. This step is to ensure

that after the previous step whereby the human element is removed

from potential conflict, the environment or position that individuals or

groups hold in terms of status, authority, power or influence are again

removed or negated to remove any cause for rigid defence of a

possible positions. This would remove a secondary factor after step

one that may cause conflict and allow it to manifest.

Step 3: Options to solve problem, not conflict. This step is not to

evaluate the options or to arrive at a single solution but for conflicting

sides to make suggestions. After a number of creative and perhaps

new alternatives have been proposed, each option can be evaluated.

Key options for ultimate agreement would be those that meet one or

more of the shared needs resulting from the focus on the problem itself

that caused the conflict. This step is based on the principle that once

you remove a further factor that may manifest conflict, which is the

principle of conflict itself, a common goal will always appear which are

ILGI KIM 91

the common goals that persuaded conflicting parties to engage in a

project.

Step 4: Insist on objective criteria. This step focuses on the principle

that conflict is less likely to occur if both sides agree beforehand on an

objective way to reach a single option to a solution. If both sides agree

to abide by the objective criteria’s, the solution may not be equally

satisfying to both parties but everybody agrees on the solution because

it was determined by objective, fair and mutually accepted methods.

Following step 4, step 1 is practised again to be reinforced and thus a

cyclic 4 step process is to continue until project completion or conflict

resolution.

This four step process does not prescribe an exact process to resolve a

conflict by means of finding a single resolution that must be agreed but

provides the stepping stones to action so that there is the best chance

of success in allowing a project to be successfully delivered despite

conflict. It must be noted however that this model is based on the

capable implementation of other key project management skills such as

maturity, communication and listening.

ILGI KIM 92

7.3 The Process of Reflection and Learning

In Section 4.3 it was advised that the basis of this dissertation would

reflect the Professional Artistry (PA) view as described by Fish and

Coles (1998) as that in terms of change and conflict management, the

PA view represents the activities undertaken where the Author is able

to exercise innate creativity in solving problems. On reflection, taking

such a singular approach to artistry has lead to many problems arising.

The view to be adopted for a new technology project should be based

on both the PA and TR view depending on the circumstances of a

given change or conflict. Broadly, the TR view would have been

appropriate when managing the early GRIP stages whereby the lack of

rules, scope and definition requires the PM to control and apply greater

technical expertise. The Author believes that such a view would have

ultimately led to less change and potentially less conflict.

The PA view was appropriate however for the later GRIP stages

whereby the problems and issues in being able to deliver the project

are more regular and therefore the use of creativity, trust in sapiential

authority, and ability to embrace uncertainty are key attributes.

The Author believes there to be a process in the different types of

reflective practice described by Schon (1983), a sequential process

from KiA, RiA and RoA. As a principle of reflective practice, the Author

believes that this is the best model for reflective practice. It allows a

personal style to be developed by professionals that should promote

individuality and a greater diversity in the application of professional

skills that may be lost if focus is towards theoretical learning.

Kolb (1984) suggested four different types of learning styles of which

Accommodating was utilised for this dissertation. For the purposes of

change and conflict management the Author does not believe Diverging

and Assimilating would be conducive as a reflective practice technique.

ILGI KIM 93

Both change and conflict are dynamic and without action, the primary

initiative to mitigate the extent of the change or conflict would be lost.

In Chapter 7.2.1 the Author offers an improvised change model as a

different way of thinking about change management. In contrast to the

models reviewed in this dissertation the improvised model recognizes

that change is typically an ongoing process made up of opportunities

and challenges which are not necessarily predictable at the start.

Crucially the Author believes the improvised model offers a holistic

approach with which to understand and therefore better manage the

changing impacts to the project and its people that a new technology

project exerts due to its unpredictable and fast changing nature.

In Chapter 7.2.2 the Author offers an improvised process model for

conflict management as a simpler but clear way of thinking about

conflict management. In contrast to the models reviewed in this

dissertation the improvised model seeks to encompass the different

levels, techniques and styles of conflict management. The improvised

model is also a cyclical process as so to prevent conflict as well as

manage.

Change management like any other crucial activity requires for

reflection and learning to promote better planning and execution. If

such a process does not occur, there is unlikely to be any improvement

in design or implementation of the management activity that would lead

to the increased need to do something and increases the chances of

failure and unplanned consequences. This in terms of change

management would most likely fuel further negative change.

This principle also applies to the management of conflict. Conflict

management as a required skill is no less important than that of change

management and therefore requires reflection and learning to promote

better understanding and therefore application of appropriate recourse.

ILGI KIM 94

Without such reflection the process of expanding and improving upon

ones experience would be affected in terms of speed and level.

ILGI KIM 95

7.4 Concluding Reflections

The aim of this dissertation was to evaluate existing change and

conflict management concepts and models to reflect against current

practice and suggest recommendations for improvement.

Objectives:

Review process and theoretical concepts and models in regards

to the management of change and conflict.

Review the theoretical principles and application of reflective

practice.

Critically review by means of reflective practice the current

application of change and conflict management process and

techniques to the Vital FDM Project.

Conclude and suggest recommendations to support how more

effective change and conflict techniques can be applied by the

Project Manger.

Having undertaken a reflective discussion above of the author’s

professional experience the key outcome identified was that no single

change or conflict management concept, model or process can be

adopted to combat universal change or conflict. Although the

requirement for change and conflict may follow trends, the

management of such change or conflict is complex with infinite factors

dependent including size, nature, political, social, emotional,

organisation etc etc.

An improvised model for a new change management model offered

previously recommends that there are four key factors for success

when implementing change within an organisation that takes into

account the reflective learning from the models reviewed in this

dissertation and lessons learnt from the reflective practice. It is not

ILGI KIM 96

designed to be descriptive but applies what were deduced as key

factors that are not required in any sequential order but require equal

commitment to ensure success.

Actual requirement for change, a shared vision, capacity, and action

are the four key factors of the improvised model that are targeted at

three separate groups: Senior Management, Project team, and support

services.

Strong resistance and therefore conflict to change will most likely

always exist as they are often rooted in deeply conditioned or

historically reinforced feelings. Patience and tolerance is required to

help people in these situations to see things differently. However partial

resistance and conflict may be beneficial to change as it offers different

perspectives for a solution to a problem.

Ultimately change in itself should be treated as a project in its own

right. All the rigours of project management should be applied to

change management to form the basis of a successful future. Badly

managed change will spawn further change.

An improvised model for a new conflict management model offered

previously recommends that there are four key steps in managing

conflict. It aims to encompass the theoretical models and concepts

discussed in Chapter 3 as well as the learning gained from the process

of reflective practice. The very nature of conflict management is too big

a concept to identify a ‘one model fits all’ due to the infinite personal,

social, or environmental combinations surrounding any given conflict

scenario. Therefore the proposed model is not designed to be

descriptive but applies what were deduced as key factors which in this

case is the removal of the very idea of conflict via means of focus on

common end goals. This is not however to discount or remove the very

notion of conflict from conflicting parties as the potential positives of

conflict must not be forgotten.

ILGI KIM 97

Conflict will always occur in every kind of relationships. Conflict arise

when interests or values are challenged and when needs are not being

met. It is therefore essential to provide the right conditions to ensure

conflict management never ‘snowballs’ and that conflicting parties are

allowed to seek win-win solutions, common goals, so that conflict can

be turned into opportunities to grow. In the case of this dissertation, the

successful delivery of the Vital FDM project.

In regards to project management it is crucial that a professional

understands what they are doing as they do it whilst noticing what is

habit and pattern and what is novel and accordingly adjusting his

practice to fit the situation drawing on experience. This is due to

personal principles and ethics being a crucial factor in evaluating and

developing a project during uncertainty such as a process of change or

period of conflict. Reflective practice should be the most important tool

for a successful project manager.

ILGI KIM 98

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