DIREKTORAT JENDERAL HUKUM DAN PERJANJIAN INTERNASIONAL KEMENTERIAN LUAR NEGERI REPUBLIK INDONESIA Volume 14 September—Desember 2013 ARTIKEL Treaty Making Power in ASEAN: Legal Analysis on ASEAN Practices Damos Dumoli Agusman The Legal Implication of the Volcanic Ash Cloud Contingency Plan Adrianus Adityo Vito Ramon Global Governance in a Globalizing World: Do Globalization and Global Governance Erode National Sovereignty? Frassminggi Kamasa Teinver v. Argentina: The Most Favored Nations Principle in a Multiple Bilateral Investment Treaties Era Nenda Inasa Fadhilah RESENSI BUKU Refleksi dan Kompleksitas Hukum Humaniter Ratih Wulandari ISTILAH HUKUM
140
Embed
DIREKTORAT JENDERAL HUKUM DAN PERJANJIAN INTERNASIONAL ...pustakahpi.kemlu.go.id/dir_dok/OPINIO_JURIS_vol_14.pdf · (Purn) dan Istilah Hukum yang secara umum mendeskripsikan berbagai
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
i
DIREKTORAT JENDERAL HUKUM DAN PERJANJIAN INTERNASIONAL
KEMENTERIAN LUAR NEGERI REPUBLIK INDONESIA
Volume 14 September—Desember 2013
ARTIKEL Treaty Making Power in ASEAN: Legal Analysis on ASEAN Practices Damos Dumoli Agusman The Legal Implication of the Volcanic Ash Cloud Contingency Plan Adrianus Adityo Vito Ramon Global Governance in a Globalizing World: Do Globalization and Global Governance Erode National Sovereignty? Frassminggi Kamasa Teinver v. Argentina: The Most Favored Nations Principle in a Multiple Bilateral Investment Treaties Era Nenda Inasa Fadhilah RESENSI BUKU Refleksi dan Kompleksitas Hukum Humaniter Ratih Wulandari ISTILAH HUKUM
Jurnal Hukum dan Perjanjian Internasional
OPINIO JURIS
Volume 14 September—Desember 2013
DIREKTORAT JENDERAL HUKUM DAN PERJANJIAN INTERNASIONAL
KEMENTERIAN LUAR NEGERI REPUBLIK INDONESIA 2013
Jurnal Hukum dan Perjanjian Internasional
OPINIO JURIS Volume 14 September—Desember 2013
Diterbitkan oleh Direktorat Jenderal Hukum dan Perjanjian Internasional Kementerian Luar Negeri Sejak Oktober 2009
Penanggung Jawab
Linggawaty Hakim, SH., LL.M Raudin Anwar, SH., LL.M Redaktur Yoshi Iskandar, SH.; Kemal Haripurwanto, SH., LL.M; Amrih Jinangkung, SH., LL.M; Elmar Iwan Lubis, SH.; Drs.Sukarsono; Sudarsono, SH., MM; Rofita, SH; Zainul Idris Yunus, SE; Hendrar Pramudyo, SH. Editor Nenda Inasa Fadhilah, SH., LL.M.; Santa Marelda Saragih,SH., MH.; Ratih Wulandari, SIP.; Vina Novianti, S.Hum.; Rike Octaviany, SH., LL.M.; M. Ferdien, SH. Disain Grafis Abdul Hayyi Sekretariat Uki Subki, S.Sos, M.Si.; Anisa Husna, S.Hum; Tasunah; Maisaroh, S.Sos. Alamat Redaksi: Sekretariat Direktorat Jenderal Hukum dan Perjanjian Internasional Kementerian Luar Negeri Jl. Taman Pejambon No. 6 Jakarta Pusat Telp. +62 21 3846633 Fax. +62 21 3858044; Email: [email protected] Jurnal Opinio Juris versi digital dapat diunduh di website http://pustakahpi.kemlu.go.id/
Tulisan yang dimuat dalam Jurnal Opinio Juris adalah pendapat dan
analisis pribadi dari para penulis dan tidak mewakili pandangan/posisi
Kementerian Luar Negeri dan/atau Pemerintah Republik Indonesia.
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
v
DAFTAR ISI
Daftar Isi .......................................................................................................... v Daftar Gambar .............................................................................................. vi Pengantar Redaksi ...................................................................................... vii Treaty Making Power in Asean: Legal Analysis on Asean Practices ... 9 Damos Dumoli Agusman The Legal Implication of the Volcanic Ash Cloud Contingency Plan .......................................................................................................................... 37 Adrianus Adityo Vito Ramon Global Governance in a Globalizing World: Do Globalization and Global Governance Erode National Sovereignty? ................................. 68
Frassminggi Kamasa
Teinver v. Argentina: The Most Favored Nations Principle in a Multiple Bilateral Investment Treaties Era ........................................... 102
Nenda Inasa Fadhilah
RESENSI BUKU ......................................................................................... 131 Ratih Wulandari
ISTILAH HUKUM ..................................................................................... 135 TENTANG PENULIS ................................................................................ 138
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
vi
DAFTAR GAMBAR
Figure 1: The location of world volcanoes – in red ...................................... 43 Figure 2: Eruption column and umbrella ...................................................... 45 Figure 3: The damages on aircraft engine due to volcanic ash cloud ........ 48 Figure 4: The flow of information in ICAO IAVW ....................................... 52 Figure 5: Regional VAAC ................................................................................. 53
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
vii
PENGANTAR REDAKSI
Di tahun ke-5 Volume 14 penerbitan Jurnal Opinio Juris tetap eksis
mempertahankan ciri khasnya sebagai Jurnal yang mengkhususkan diri
pada kajian dan tulisan dibidang hukum internasional. Redaksi Jurnal
Opinio Juris tidak saja berupaya mempertahankan dan meningkatkan
kualitas tulisan yang ada, namun juga menyajikan tulisan yang aktual
sesuai dengan perkembangan isu hukum internasional.
Jurnal Opinio Juris Volume 14 tahun 2013 dan volume sebelumnya
dapat pula dibaca dalam bentuk e-journal melalui website
http://pustakahpi.kemlu.go.id. Hal ini dimaksudkan agar para pembaca
yang tidak memperoleh hard copy-nya dapat mengakses dan terbuka luas
untuk publik.
Pada Volume 14 tahun 2013 ini, redaksi memuat empat tulisan
mengenai yaitu: ―Treaty Making Power ASEAN Legal Analysis on ASEAN
Pratices” oleh Damos Dumoli Agusman, ―The Legal Implication of the
Volcanic Ash Cloud Contingency Plan” oleh Adrianus Adityo Vito Ramon,
―Global Governance In A Globalizing World: Do Globalization And Global
Governance Erode National Sovereignty?” oleh Frassminggi Kamasa dan
―Teinver V. Argentina: The Most Favored Nations Principle In A Multiple
Bilateral Investment Treaties Era” oleh Nenda Inasa Fadhilah. Dalam
penyajian tulisan tersebut di atas, tergambar beberapa topik bahasan dari
Hukum Organisasi Internasional, Hukum Udara, Hukum Investasi dan
hubungan antara kedaulatan negara dan globalisasi yang semuanya
bernuansa Hukum Internasional.
Untuk mempertahankan ciri khas Jurnal Opinio Juris, kami
menampilkan Resensi Buku Refleksi dan Kompleksitas Hukum
Humaniter yang dikarang oleh Prof. KGPH. Haryomataram, SH., Brigjen
Akhir kata, Redaksi Opinio Juris berharap semoga jurnal ini dapat
menjadi sarana dalam menyebarluaskan berbagai informasi, wacana dan
wadah sumbangsih pemikiran di bidang hukum dan perjanjian
internasional yang berkaitan dengan pelaksanaan hubungan luar negeri.
Terima kasih dan selamat membaca!
Redaksi Opinio Juris
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
9
TREATY MAKING POWER IN ASEAN: LEGAL
ANALYSIS ON ASEAN PRACTICES Damos Dumoli Agusman
Abstrak
Dengan berlakunya Piagam ASEAN, ASEAN telah menjadi sebuah organisasi internasional yang berdasarkan atas ketentuan hukum dan memiliki kapasitas untuk melakukan tindakan hukum, salah satunya untuk membuat perjanjian internasional. Akan tetapi, beberapa pertanyaan muncul terkait hal tersebut, misalnya apakah Sekretaris Jenderal ASEAN dapat membuat perjanjian internasional atas nama negara-negara anggota, apa sajakah jenis perjanjian internasional yang dapat dibuat dan bagaimanakah implikasi hukum penandatanganan suatu perjanjian internasional oleh ASEAN atas keterikatan negara-negara anggotanya terhadap perjanjian tersebut. Tulisan ini akan menganalisis praktik-praktik pembuatan perjanjian internasional oleh ASEAN sebelum dan sesudah berlakunya Piagam ASEAN serta hal-hal yang perlu dibenahi oleh ASEAN dalam upaya memperkuat sistem hukumnya, khususnya dalam hal pembuatan perjanjian internasional. Keywords: ASEAN Charter, international law, treaty making power, international organization, representation
Abstract
As the ASEAN Charter has entered into force, ASEAN has become an international organization with legal basis and has a capacity to do any legal conduct. One of them is the power to make an international treaty. Furthermore, some questions arise regarding such power, for instance, can the Secretary General of the ASEAN make an international treaty on behalf of the ASEAN’s member countries, what kind of international treaty that can be made, and how does the legal implication for ASEAN’s member countries upon an international treaty signed by the ASEAN. This paper will analyze practices of international treaty making by the ASEAN before and after the ASEAN Charter entered into force, and will suggest matters that need to be solved by the ASEAN in its effort to strengthen its legal system, particularly in making international treaty.
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
10
Keywords: ASEAN Charter, international law, treaty making power, international organization, representation
Since the entry into force of the ASEAN Charter in 2008, it is widely
said that ASEAN has moved from a loose organization to a rule-based
one. It implies that the activities of ASEAN shall be on the basis of law
applicable to the organization. ASEAN Charter as a treaty known to
international law will serve as a legal basis to all activities conducted by
ASEAN, both for internal and external objectives.
Unfortunately, ASEAN as an international organization for the
purpose of international law has not received much attention from
international legal scholars. Albeit its growing structure as a mature
international organization, it is hardly approached from international law
perspective. On the other hand, as commonly experienced by many
organizations alike, some legal questions may arise with regard to
ASEAN. Is ASEAN an international organization having legal capacity to
enter into a treaty? If yes, how does it exercise its treaty making power?
In order to answer these questions, it is worth exploring the defined
concept of ASEAN as subject of international law and what elements are
required to constitute an international organization for having quality as a
subject of international law. This paper attempts to discuss the practical
problem arising from its practices before the entry into force of ASEAN
Charter and explore the remaining potential conflict that might be
encountered in the future. This paper will demonstrate that the legal
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
11
problems facing ASEAN treaty making power are those that have
encountered the International Law Commission when it dealt with the
problematic question of treaties concluded by international organizations.
The first is the question on the status of its members when ASEAN
concluded a treaty and the second is on the representation, in the sense of
whether ASEAN could conclude a treaty on behalf of its members. The
paper will explore the issue that needs to be addressed by ASEAN with a
view to strengthening its rule-based system as an organization,
particularly in treaty making regime.
A. ASEAN as an International Organization
ASEAN Charter endorses in Article 3 its legal personality by
providing that ASEAN, as an intergovernmental organization, is hereby-
conferred legal personality. The formulation is carefully drafted in a way
that the Charter is only confirming the legal fact that ASEAN is, and was
before, an intergovernmental organization having legal personality. It
must be held, that the personality under international law has been
already enjoyed by ASEAN before the Charter. Chesterman1 puts it
correctly when arguing that the fact that ASEAN now claims international
legal personality in the Charter does not mean it lacked it previously, nor
that it now possesses it in any meaningful way.
1 Chesterman, Simon, Does Asean Exist? The Association Of Southeast Asian Nations as
An International Legal Person, (2008) 12 SYBIL 199-211, at 199.
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
12
From the legal writings and the jurisprudence it might be concluded
that the question as to whether international organizations are subject of
international law as well as the question on their legal capacity to enter
into treaties has been completely resolved either in theoretical or practical
level. 2 However, preconditions established by international law (objective
criteria) shall be met before an organization is recognized as international
organization for that purpose. 3 It is widely agreed that there are at least
two constituent elements required to form an international organization
status, i.e. a treaty establishing the organization and a permanent independent
organ detached from that of the founders. The ILC in its present works on the
responsibility of international organizations defines international
organization as:
2 The ICJ in the most important case on this matter, i.e. Reparation for Injuries Suffered
in the Service of the United Nations Case, 1949, has affirmed that the United Nations is a
subject of international law and capable of possessing international rights and duties,
and that it has capacity to maintain its rights by bringing international claim, ICJ
Reports, 1949, pp.178-179. This established view was reaffirmed in ICJ Advisory
Opinion in Interpretation of the Agreement of 25 March 1951 between the WHO and
Egypt,2 1980, which is held that: International Organizations are subjects of international
law, as such, are bound by any obligations incumbent upon them under general rules of
international law, under their constitutions or under international agreements to which
they are parties. 3 Schermers, Henry G,, International Institutional Law, Leiden, Stijthoff & Noordhoff,
1980, p. 277, Reuter, Paul, International Institutions, London, George Allen & Unwin
Ltd, 1958, p. 21, Brownlie, I, Principles of Public International Law, Oxford, Fourth Ed.,
1990, pp. 681-682, Rama-Montaldo, 'International Legal Personality and Implied Powers
of International Organizations', (1970) XLIV BYIL 111, pp. 144-145, Arangio-Ruiz,
Gaetano, 'the Concept of International Law and the Theory of International Organization',
(1972) III RdC 419, pp. 676-677.
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
13
“International organization” means an organization established
by a treaty or other instrument governed by international law
and possessing its own international legal personality.
International organizations may include as members, in addition
to States, other entities;4
When the two criteria apply to ASEAN, it appears that since its
inception through Bangkok Declaration in 1967 until 1976 ASEAN lacked
its legal personality. It was not a proper international organization in the
sense of international law since, although established by a treaty, it was
lacking the organ detached from its founders. It was merely a joint organ,
which acted on behalf of its members. The establishment of the ASEAN
Secretariat in 19765, gives effect to its legal status because the second
precondition, i.e. an organ detached from its founder has then been fulfilled.
Since then, ASEAN could be qualified an international organization for
the purpose of international law in the sense that it is a distinct entity
subject of international law.
4 Draft articles on the responsibility of international organizations, adopted by the
International Law Commission at its sixty-third session, in 2011, Article 2 (a). 5Agreement on the Establishment of the ASEAN Secretariat, Bali, 24 February 1976,
http://www.asean.org/1265.htm.
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
14
B. ASEAN Treaty Making Power
Since 1976 and before ASEAN Charter, ASEAN has exercised its
treaty making power. However, the rules of ASEAN prior to the ASEAN
Charter did not as yet contain any clear rules for regulating the conclusion
of treaties with other subjects of international law on its behalf, but the
principles have been laid down that the capacity to make treaties resides
in its plenary organ, i.e. ASEAN Ministerial Meeting. ASEAN external
relations will be the primary responsibility of the ASEAN Ministerial
Meeting, which will formulate, when appropriate in consultation with
relevant Ministers, guidelines for establishment of the machinery for the
formalization, supervision, suspension or termination of negotiations
with other governments and international organizations. According to
Bangkok Declaration 1967, external relations between ASEAN and third
countries and international organizations should have the approval of the
Foreign Ministers. The Chairman of the ASEAN Standing Committee will
be authorized to sign all agreements reached between ASEAN and third
parties.
The ASEAN Charter has provided general rules on ASEAN external
relation and under Article 41 (7) prescribes that ASEAN may conclude
agreements with countries or sub-regional, regional and international
organizations and institutions. The procedures for concluding such agreements
shall be prescribed by the ASEAN Coordinating Council in consultation with the
ASEAN Community Councils. Such procedures are still in intensive labour.
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
15
i. Relation between Members and Treaties Concluded by ASEAN
At initial stage, and even until recently, confusion has come to fore
with regard to status of treaties6 concluded by the so-called ASEAN. In
this regard, one must be cautious in dealing with the term ASEAN. The
term of ASEAN in legal terms as a distinct entity detached from its
members is always confused with ASEAN as a merely collective noun for
all the members, which is frequently used in many ASEAN documents
and writings. The practices of ASEAN in concluding treaties with other
subjects of international law shows that the term ASEAN tends to be
interpreted as a collective noun of all the members instead of a distinct
entity. It could be seen for instance in the Cooperation Agreement
between the Member Countries of ASEAN and the EEC, 7 March 1980.
The agreement was signed by all foreign ministers of ASEAN member
states on one part and by President in office of the Council of the EC on
the other part. Thus, it is not a bilateral agreement between ASEAN as an
organization,- which has been incorrectly claimed as the first agreement
that it has signed as an international entity,- but merely a multilateral
between individual members of ASEAN and the EEC.
6 The term treaties in this paper will cover all formal instruments concluded by ASEAN,
such as agreements, MOUs, Arrangements, Exchange of Notes, and other designations
without making any distinction whether they are properly regarded as treaties for the
purpose of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
16
Another example could also be found in the exchange of letters
constituting an agreement establishing the Sectoral Dialogue between
ASEAN and the Republic of Korea. On one part this agreement was
signed by Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Korea and on the
other part by Minister for Foreign Affairs of Indonesia as Chairman of the
ASEAN Standing Committee. Looking at this participation clause alone,
one might assume that this agreement is concluded by ASEAN as a
proper distinct entity in pursuant to the rules of ASEAN. However, from
the terms of the agreement, it reveals that ASEAN in this case is merely a
collective noun of all the members since the word ASEAN refers to
ASEAN member countries. The Chairman of ASEAN Standing Committee
signed the letter on behalf of ASEAN member countries instead of
ASEAN. In this instance ASEAN is not a party and no legal effects
devolve upon it. One may be questioning whether ASEAN as a distinct
entity could conclude that particular treaty. The answer is obviously
negative. A dialogue between ASEAN and a third country is not a
bilateral relation between ASEAN as a distinct entity and the country
concerned, but a kind of multilateral relations in which the member states
of ASEAN individually involve. Thus, ASEAN as a distinct entity was
lacking capacity to deal with such a relation on its own behalf.
The term ASEAN as is envisaged in the Charter may pose an already
long confusion and appeared to be so when it was being discussed in the
various discussions in the High Legal Expert Group for the
implementation of Article 41 (7) of the Charter. This Article only states
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
17
that ASEAN may conclude agreements with countries or sub-regional, regional
and international organizations and institutions. However, it does not define
the notion of ASEAN in terms of whether it is a distinct organization or
simply a joint collective of Member States.
From the legal perspective, ASEAN external relations under Article 47
(1) shall be distinguished into two different legal characters:
a. The relations between ASEAN member countries and a third
party where the status of each member country is as an
independent subject of international law. In this regard, the
term ASEAN is only used to refer to each member country as
collective members.
b. The relations between ASEAN as a subject of international
law, as a distinct subject separated from its members with a
third party. In this regard, member countries of ASEAN are in
the position as components of the ASEAN‘s organs (Standing
Committee, Committee, etc.).
On the first category, with regard to the relations between ASEAN as
collective members with a third party, it is often stated that ―ASEAN has
made numerous international agreements with other countries or
international organizations‖. However, when such agreements use the
term ASEAN, it will refer to each member country separately and forming
as a collective group without necessarily relinquishing its independent
status. This is reflected in the participation clause of such agreements
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
18
where all members are, individually, required to put their respective
signatures in the agreement. For example, in the Cooperation Agreement
between the Member Countries of ASEAN and the EEC, 7 March 1980, all
members of ASEAN individually signed the agreement and for the EEC,
on the other hand, it was signed by its authorized representative, i.e.
President of the Council. In this agreement, each individual member
country entered into contractual agreement with EEC as an international
organization. In this case, ASEAN is not an organization as a distinct
subject independently from its members. It is a logical consequence of the
fact where the scope of the agreement is not within ASEAN‘s competence
as an independent international organization, but rests on the authorities
of the member countries.
On the second category, ASEAN has made numerous agreements in
its capacity as a distinct subject separated from its members, in which the
term ASEAN Secretariat is commonly used. The agreements made by
ASEAN as an international organization and on its own behalf are, among
others, as follows:
a. The Agreement relating to the Privileges and Immunities of the
ASEAN Secretariat, 20 January 1979, between ASEAN Secretariat and
Indonesia.
b. Agreement of Cooperation between the Association of Southeast
Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Jakarta 12th
September 1998.
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
19
c. The Agreement on the Use and Maintenance of the Premises of the
ASEAN Secretariat, 15th March 1996, between ASEAN Secretariat and
Indonesia.
d. Memorandum of Understanding between the Secretariat of the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the
Secretariat of the United Nations Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP Secretariat).
e. Arrangement between the ASEAN Secretariat and the United
States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) on Cooperation
in the Field of Intellectual Rights, 19th April 2005.
f. Memorandum of Understanding between the Secretariat of the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the
Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), 21st April 2005.
g. Memorandum of Understanding for Administrative
Arrangements, this memorandum of understanding (MoU)
will form the basis of Cooperation between the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations Secretariat and Asian Development
Bank (24th August 2006).
In the aforementioned agreements, ASEAN Secretariat acted on its
own behalf as an independent legal subject, separated from its member
countries. The Secretary General of ASEAN signed the agreements. This
position is a logical consequence to the fact that the substance of the
agreements is within the scope the ASEAN Secretariat competence.
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
20
Therefore, from the execution of such agreements shall not arise any
obligation to its member countries, as they are not parties to the
agreements.
Two agreements that have been concluded by ASEAN on its behalf
are worth noting, i.e. the Agreement relating to the Privileges and
Immunities of the ASEAN Secretariat, 20 January 1979 and the Agreement
on the Use and Maintenance of the Premises of the ASEAN Secretariat, 25
November 1981. The parties to the respective agreements are on one part
ASEAN as a distinct entity detached from its members and, on the other
part, Indonesia. Although Indonesia is a member, its status vis a vis
ASEAN in this agreement is a distinct subject separated from the
personality of ASEAN. The participation clause of the agreements clearly
indicates that Secretary General ASEAN who signed the agreements
represents ASEAN per se not that of member states.
With regard to those agreements, ASEAN has a capacity to perform
all rights and obligations without necessarily being supported by its
member states. The matters covered by the agreements are concerning
administrative and diplomatic matters which are exclusively under
competence of ASEAN as a distinct entity. They are inter alia juridical
capacity of the Secretariat within Indonesian territory and the enjoyment
of privileges and immunities by the Secretary General and the staff
including the premises of the Secretariat.
These practices have shown that the relation between members and
treaties concluded by ASEAN as a distinct organization is merely ―third
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
21
party‖ in the sense that they are not automatically bound by it. This legal
construction is compatible with the principle enshrined in the 1986
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties concluded by International
Organizations. The ILC in preparing that Convention was encountered
with the question of effects of treaties concluded by an organization on its
member states, which should be relevant to be regulated under the
present Convention. The Commission came out with a proposal which
was then under the Draft Article became Article 36 bis:
Article 36 bis Obligations and rights arising for States members of an international organization from a treaty to which it is a party. Obligations and rights arise for States members of an international organization from the provisions of a treaty to which that organization is a party when the parties to the treaty intend those provisions to be the means of establishing such obligations and according such rights and have defined their conditions and effects in the treaty or have otherwise agreed thereon, and if: (a) the States members of the organization, by virtue of the constituent instrument of that organization or otherwise, have unanimously agreed to be bound by the said provisions of the treaty; and (b) the assent of the States members of the organization to be bound by the relevant provisions of the treaty has been duly brought to the knowledge of the negotiating States and negotiating organizations.
The proposed draft became a most difficult part during the
negotiation in the Diplomatic Conference and was finally being rejected.
The proposed article was widely claimed as compatible solely in the light
of the case of the European Economic Community. Most views were in
favor of a default rule that member states should be third parties vis a vis
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
22
treaties concluded by international organizations to which they are
members.7 Finally, the Conference provided only a saving-clause (Article
74, para. 3), which states that [t]he provisions of the present Convention shall
not prejudge any question that may arise in regard to the establishment of
obligations and rights for States members of an international organization under
a treaty to which that organization is a party. The formulation of this saving
clause received cautious reaction from many delegations by emphasizing
that it should not be understood as allowing any possibility of a treaty
concluded by an international organization producing any legal effects for
States members of the organization which were not parties to the treaty,
unless those States members expressly consented to accept the relevant
provisions of the treaty.8
During the drafting exercise on Vienna Convention on the Law of
Treaties by the ILC, an attempt had been made to enable a state or an
organ on behalf of one or more states to conclude a treaty to be binding
for those states concerned.9 Due to its complexity, the embryonic idea was
immediately aborted and did not even reach the drafting stage of the ILC.
The Commission left aside the question and considered it as a problem of
7 United Nations Conference on The Law of Treaties between States and International
Organizations or between International Organizations, Vienna, 18 February-21 March
1986, Official Records, Volume I, at 174. 8 United Nations Conference on The Law of Treaties between States and International
Organizations or between International Organizations, Vienna, 18 February-21 March
1986, Official Records, Volume I, at 19. 9 Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1964, Vol. II, at 16.
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
23
representation. The representation of one State by another State or by an
international organization or, more generally, of one subject of law by
another subject of law probably gives rise to complex problems of treaty
law.
However, when it dealt with the draft of the Vienna Convention on
the Law of Treaties concluded by International Organizations (the then
Vienna Convention of 1986) a similar question came out again. It was
expected that the Commission refrained, as did the United Nations
Conference on the Law of Treaties, from dealing with that question. If the
Vienna Convention of 1969 remained silent on the representation of the
corporate body by another corporate body, it is reasonable to adopt the
same position as regards treaties to which an international organization is
a party.10 It appeared however that it was not merely a question of
representation which it could easily set aside.
The delicate problem facing the conference has apparently posed the
similar confusion to the ASEAN practices. ASEAN practices have also
shown a ―peculiar‖ model, which is not compatible with the principle of
―third party‖ status of its members. There are several agreements which
were binding all members with a third party, concluded by the Secretary
General of ASEAN, such as the following:
10
Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1977, vol. II, Part One, at 122.
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
24
a. ASEAN – China Memorandum of Understanding on Cultural
Cooperation (Bangkok 3rd August 2005), signed by the Secretary
General of ASEAN;
b. Memorandum of Cooperation between the Department of Commerce
of the United States of America and the Association of Southeast
Asian Nations (ASEAN) Secretariat concerning Cooperation on Trade
Related Standards and Conformance Issues (5th April 2001), signed by
the Secretary General of ASEAN;
c. Memorandum of Understanding between the Governments of the
Member Countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) and the Ministry of Agriculture of the People‘s Republic of
China on Agricultural Cooperation (Phnom Penh, 2nd November
2002), signed by the Secretary General of ASEAN;
d. Memorandum of Understanding between the Governments of the
Member Countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) and the Government of the People‘s Republic of China on
Cooperation in the Field of Non-traditional Security Issues (Bangkok,
10th January 2004), signed by the Secretary General of ASEAN;
e. Memorandum of Understanding between the Governments of the
Member Countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) and the Government of the People‘s Republic of China on
Transport Cooperation (Vientiane, 27nd November 2004), signed by
the Secretary General of ASEAN;
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
25
f. Memorandum of Understanding between the Governments of the
Member Countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) and the Ministry of Agriculture of the People‘s Republic of
China on Agricultural Cooperation (Cebu, 14th January 2007), signed
by the Secretary General of ASEAN;
These agreements pose various legal questions and perhaps reflect
two legal scenarios. Could it be presumed that ASEAN as a distinct
organization is entitled to bind its members into a treaty concluded by it?
Are the scopes of cooperation contained in the agreements exclusively
under ASEAN competence as a distinct personality? Two scenarios might
be relevant, first that ASEAN in this regard is a distinct personality
performing competences that have been transferred to it, or secondly,
ASEAN is merely acting on behalf of its members for which ASEAN itself
as a distinct personality is not bound. The second scenario is a question of
representation, which will be discussed, in the next part.
Whatever scenario may apply, these agreements are not legally
compatible to what has been cautiously envisaged by the Vienna
Convention of 1986. Article 36 bis proposed at the Vienna Conference was
claimed as fitting to the supranational model such European Union,
where some sovereign competences have been transferred to the
organization. Even under the EU Law, the Union cannot conclude treaties
which competences are not exclusively under it. In the event where
competence is shared between the organization and its members, both can
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
26
become parties. Such an agreement is known, in the EC model, as a
―mixed agreement‖.11
In relation to ASEAN capacity to conclude treaties, a legal question
has been put forward to the 23rd ASEAN Standing Committee Meeting
1991, with respect to the possibility of ASEAN to accede to the 1987
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. The
meeting rightly holds that ASEAN did not possess sufficient legal
capacity to accede to that Protocol since ASEAN has no competence in
respect of matters governed by the Convention or its protocol. ASEAN
per se could not carry out general obligations as provided for within Art.
2 of the Convention since those matters fall into competence of respective
member states and such competence is never being transferred to
ASEAN.
Within the legal principle that was finally adopted under the current
law of treaties, one may consider that the listed agreements are peculiar
on some basic legal reasons. First, it is lacking procedural requirement for
the Vienna Convention 1969 principle of ―consent to be bound by a
treaty‖ since it is not the member itself establishing its consent but
another third party. It is worth taking into account that international law
does not recognize the practices where a state can delegate its treaty
11
Verwey, Delano, The European Community, the European Union and the International
Law of Treaties, Asser Press, 2004, p. 155-208 and Keefe, David and Schermers, Henry
G, Mixed Agreements, Netherlands, 1984.
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
27
making capacity to another subjects of international law to act for and on
behalf of that state to establish consent to be bound by an international
agreement notwithstanding the question of ―representation‖ which will
be discussed later. Second, the treaty making capacity is an integrated
part of state sovereignty and the exclusive domain of national authority.
Even the European Commission (EC) practices, which have become
supranational and integrated, it can only sign agreements in which its
members have transferred the competence to the EC Council.
It is obvious that in concluding such legally incompatible ASEAN
agreements as listed-above, the Secretary General of ASEAN and the
member states do not intend to perceive ASEAN a supranational model,
which can bind the members. It is highly presumed that such practices
could happen due to a lack of legal awareness with regard to the meaning
of ASEAN as a distinct personality and be exacerbated by the spirit of
―ASEAN Way‖, which tends to sacrifice the legal premises for political
consensus and ASEAN conveniences.
ii. The Problem of Representation
The problem of representation is a subject of debate under the Law of
Treaties. The question arises whether a subject of international law may
act on behalf of other subjects to conclude a treaty for the latter. The
question appears to be closely related, albeit distinguishable, to the
problem of the status of member states vis a vis treaties concluded by their
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
28
organization in a way that the organization may be construed as acting on
behalf of its members.
This question of representation had been discussed by the ILC in
drafting the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of 1969. The
Commission finally left aside the question and considered it as a problem
of representation rather than the Law of Treaties. The representation of
one State by another State or by an international organization or, more
generally, of one subject of law by another subject of law probably gives
rise to complex problems of treaty law.
The question of representation, by which one binds another states to a
treaty, becomes complex and untenable in the current globalization. The
question of representation is not only complex at international level but
also at national/constitutional level. Democratization at national level
under globalization is characterized by the increasing independent
powers invested with the various organs of a state, coupled with the
increasing role of individuals vis a vis their state, has affected the right of
legation and posed a problem of democratic accountability of any treaty
concluded by a state. The separation of powers, i.e. executive, legislative,
judicative has become strict so that it raises question as to whether the
executive can represent legislative and judicative interest with relations to
other states. Under these circumstances, treaty making power as
traditionally invested with executive branch is under intensive question
and states become cautious in defining and regulating the executive treaty
making exercises.
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
29
Indonesia under democratization and constitutional consolidation
would be encountered with constitutional difficulty with the question of
representation. The sovereignty principle on ―consent of state‖ would be
at stake when representation takes place. Indonesian Constitution 1945
and the Law No. 24 Year 2000 on Treaties have not paved the way for
another state or international organization to bind Indonesia to a treaty.
There is no precedent under Indonesian practices where government
submits to a parliament for ratification a treaty signed by another
sovereign power to be binding upon Indonesia. None even imagines that
it may happen in the current constitutional context.
An agreement signed by the Secretary General of ASEAN on behalf of
member countries, in principle, is not binding member countries on the
basis that the requirement of ―consent to be bound by a treaty‖ by
Indonesia in accordance with Article 11 of Vienna Convention 1969 on the
Law of Treaties and the Law of 24 Year 2000 has not been fulfilled. In this
case there is no expressed consent from its individual members to be
bound to the agreement. The very fact that its members are said to having
authorized the Secretary General of ASEAN to do so cannot be invoked as
legally sufficient for establishing consent to be bound by a treaty by the
member state, as required by the Vienna Convention.
Under Indonesian law, the problem of ―Full Power‖ for expressing the
consent of the State to be bound by a treaty arises. If an international
agreement signed by the Secretary General of ASEAN and assumed that it
is binding for Indonesia, it will be construed that the Secretary General
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
30
has obtained a full power from Indonesia. Full power is a constitutional
power and only presented to the national officials. Granting full power to
an international organization is not an accepted practice according to
Indonesian Law of Treaties.
Based on these principles, a country cannot ratify a legal act
conducted by another subject of international law. In this regard, for an
agreement, which is signed by the Secretary General of ASEAN or an
appointed official of a member country and requires ratification, the
members are not in a legal position to ratify the foresaid agreement. As
ratification means ―to confirm the conduct of its representative who is
signing an agreement‖, it would be peculiar if member states, through
their national mechanism, ratify the conduct of the foreign officials.
Further consequence is that a member state as a state party does not have
the direct competent authority to conduct a legal act in relation to the
agreement itself, such as invalidity; termination; suspension;
amendments; and modification. Such legal acts can only and have to be
conducted through and under the approval of the Secretary General as
the signatory party.
ASEAN has abundant practices concerning the problematic situation.
Adding to the agreements listed-above, one may look at the
Memorandum of Understanding between the Governments of the
Member Countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) and the Government of Australia on the ASEAN - Australia
Economic Cooperation Program (AAECP) Phase III (Bangkok, 27th July
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
31
1994). For ASEAN signed by H.E. Surin Pitsuwan, Deputy Minister of
Foreign Affairs, Acting Minister of Foreign Affairs of Thailand.
On the contrary, ASEAN has also experienced a situation where
member states assumed representation despite ASEAN as a distinct
personality not really requiring it. In 1985 ASEAN was authorized to
conclude agreements on cultural matters with UNDP on ASEAN Training
Course for Drug Rehabilitation Professionals and on ASEAN Law
Enforcement Training Course. In this case ASEAN is assigned to conclude
those agreements but again not on its behalf but on behalf of its members.
It only performs its task as coordinator and it is the members who
implement the training courses. If one looks at the project documents on
such ASEAN training courses, it might be agreed that, instead of its
members, ASEAN per se could be a party to the agreements. It is firstly
because the conclusion of those agreements are in accordance with the
objectives of ASEAN as specified within Bangkok Declaration, thus, it has
competence in respect of matters governed by the agreements, and
secondly, ASEAN as an entity could undertake the programs as covered
by the agreements without necessarily involving the personalities of its
members.
C. ASEAN Treaty Making Power under ASEAN Charter and its Rules
As indicated in the previous part, ASEAN Charter provides specific
rules on treaty making power. It is prescribed by Article 41 (7) that the
procedures for concluding such agreements shall be prescribed by the
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
32
ASEAN Coordinating Council in consultation with the ASEAN
Community Councils. The set of procedures is under negotiation by the
High Legal Experts Group, which consists of legal officials from member
states. From the Law of Treaties perspective, such procedures are
tantamount to the rules of the organization as referred to by the Vienna
Convention of 1986.
The procedures are expected to make a clear distinction on the
conclusion of agreements concluded by ASEAN as a distinct personality
and those that are concluded by all ASEAN member states collectively.
The critical issues worth exploring would be to what extent ASEAN may
be entitled to conclude treaties on its own behalf. This is the problem of
scope of competences to be conferred to ASEAN for it to be subject
matters of treaties it concludes. There must be a clear rule and principle
for ASEAN concerning the entitled subject matters, which are and not
within its competences. At least there must be a component organ under
ASEAN whose task is to determine whether or not a subject matter could
be contained in a treaty concluded by ASEAN. The rule is necessary in
order to ensure that ASEAN concludes a treaty containing matters within
its competences, otherwise, it requires collateral participation from its
members as envisaged by so called ―mixed agreements‖.
It should cover the matter as required by 1986 Vienna Convention to
be regulated by the rules of organization. The Convention emphasizes the
determining role of the ―rules of the organization‖ to govern the acts of
organization in concluding a treaty. The rules mean, in particular, the
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
33
constituent instruments, decisions and resolutions adopted in accordance
with them, and established practice of the organization. The Convention
makes references to the rules of the organizations in dealing with some
aspects of treaty making, which shall be provided by ASEAN rules,
among others:
1. The use of terms in the present Convention are without prejudice to
the use of those terms or to the meanings which may be given to them
in the internal law of any State or in the rules of any international
organization. The ASEAN Charter uses the term ―agreements‖ instead
of ―treaties‖ and therefore should not affect the validity of the
instruments under such different term.
2. The capacity of an international organization to conclude treaties. It
prescribes a regime that governs what subject matters that are within
and beyond the scope of ASEAN Treaty making power. This
particular issue is concerning power sharing between member states
and the organization, which will determine the scope of competence
of ASEAN in making treaties. Such competence is normally governed
by constitutional provisions of the organizations. It appears that
ASEAN Charter provides no provision on this competence and
therefore an implied power might be presumed in such manner in
accordance with the purposes and objectives of ASEAN.
3. Full powers.
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
34
4. Act of Organization to express its consent to be bound by a treaty in
the form of Signature, Act of Formal Confirmation (corresponding to
that of ratification by a State), Accession, Accession and Acceptance.
5. Acceptance to Treaties providing for rights and obligations for third
states or third organizations.
6. Amendments of a provision of a treaty.
7. Notifications with respect to invalidity, termination, withdrawal from
or suspension of the operation of a treaty.
8. The appointment of arbitrators or conciliators under dispute
settlement mechanism.
As ASEAN has grown into a mature rule-based organization on the
basis of its Charter and having in mind that its role is becoming expansive
at international level, it is inevitable that ASEAN as a subject of
international law should be an international law-abiding organization. It
this regard, international legal norms governing the relations between
and by international organization shall be respected. Therefore,
compatibility of ASEAN rules with the international norms becomes
necessary.
Daftar Pustaka
Bowett, D.W, The Law of International Institutions, Stevens, 1982.
Cf. Holloway, Kaye, Modern Trends in Treaty Law, London, Stevens & Sons, 1967,
Chesterman, Simon, Does Asean Exist? The Association Of Southeast Asian Nations as
An International Legal Person, (2008) 12 SYBIL 199-211,
Dale, W, 'Is the Commonwealth an International Organization?', (1982) 31 ICLQ 451
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
35
Elias, T.O., The Modern Law of Treaties, Leiden, A.W. Sijthoff, 1974,
Fifield, Russell H, National and Regional Interests in ASEAN, Singapore, ISEAS.
G. E. do Nascimento e Silva, “The 1986 Vienna Convention and the Treaty-Making
Power of International Organizations”, German Yearbook of International Law,
vol. 29, 1986,
G. Gaja, “A „New‟ Vienna Convention on Treaties Between States and International
Organizations or Between International Organizations: A Critical
Commentary”, British Yearbook of International Law, vol. 58, 1987,
Greig, D.W., International Law, London, Butterworth, 1970,
H. Isak & G. Loibl, “United Nations Conference on the Law of Treaties Between States
and International Organizations or Between International
Organizations”, Österreichische Zeitschrift für öffentliches Recht und
Völkerrecht, vol. 38, 1987,
Indorf, Hans H, Impediments to Regionalism in Southeast Asia, Singapore, ISEAS, 1984,
Indorf, Hans. H, ASEAN: Problems and Prospects, ISEAS, 1975, p. 9.
K. Zemanek (ed.), Agreements of International Organizations and the Vienna Convention
on the Law of Treaties, Vienna, Springer Verlag, 1971 (Österreichische
Zeitschrift für öffentliches Recht, Supplementum 1).
K. Zemanek, “Agreements Concluded by International Organizations and the Vienna
Convention on the Law of Treaties”, University of Toledo Law Review, vol. 89,
1971,
Keefe, David and Schermers, Henry G, Mixed Agreements, Netherlands, 1984
Mann, F.A., 'Reflection on a Commercial Law of Nations', (1957) XXXIII BYIL 20,
O'Connell, D.P.O, International Law, London, Stevens, Second Ed., 1970, pp. 199-200.
Okeke, Chris N, Controversial Subjects of Contemporary International Law, Rotterdam,
University Press, 1974,
Rama-Montaldo, 'International Legal Personality and Implied Powers of International
Organizations', (1970) BYIL, XLIV, 111,
Report of the ILC in (1967) 61 AJIL 248,
Report of the ILC' in (1967) 61 AJIL 248, p. 288.
Reuter, Paul, International Institutions, George Allen & Unwin Ltd, London, 1958,
Reuter, Paul, Introduction to the Law of Treaties, translated by Jose Mico and Peter
Haggenmacher, London, Pinter Publisher, 1989,
Schermers, Henry. G, International Institutional Law, Netherlands, Sijthoff &
Noordhoff, 1980,
Seyersted, Finn, 'Applicable Law in relations between Intergovernmental Organizations
and Private Parties', (1967) III RdC 122.
Simmonds, K.R., 'The Evolution of the External Relations Law of the European
Economic Community', (1979) ICLQ 28,
Sinclair, I, The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Manchester, University Press,
Second Ed.
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
36
Sukrasep, Vinita, ASEAN in International Relations, Bangkok, Institute of Security and
International Studies, 1989,
Thammes, A.J.P, 'Decision of International Organs as a Source of International Law',
(1958) II RdC 261,
Verwey, Delano, The European Community,the European Union and the International
Law of Treaties, Asser Press, 2004,
Von Glahn, Gerhard, Law among Nations, New York, MacMillan, Third Ed., 1976.
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
37
THE LEGAL IMPLICATION OF THE VOLCANIC ASH
CLOUD CONTINGENCY PLAN
Adrianus Adityo Vito Ramon
Abstrak Beberapa insiden penerbangan yang disebabkan oleh awan panas gunung berapi telah menimbulkan dampak negatif terhadap penerbangan internasional, misalnya dalam kasus letusan Gunung Galunggung, Gunung Redoubt, Gunung Pinatubo, dan Gunung Eyjafjallajökull. Sehubungan dengan hal tersebut, komunitas internasional telah mengambil langkah-langkah yang diperlukan dan menyusun berbagai contingency plan untuk menanggulangi insiden serupa serta untuk memastikan keselamatan penerbangan. Tulisan ini akan menganalisis implikasi hukum atas contingency plan menghadapi awan panas gunung berapi dalam kaitannya dengan hak dan kewajiban para pemangku kepentingan dalam industri penerbangan internasional. Selain itu, tulisan ini juga akan memberikan analisa umum mengenai contingency plan yang ada saat ini, dari tingkat multilateral, kawasan dan nasional, serta memberikan rekomendasi bagi penyusunan contingency plan yang lebih baik. Kata kunci: awan abu vulkanis, rencana tanggap darurat, ICAO, keselamatan penerbangan, tanggung jawab, Konvensi Chicago.
Abstract Several aviation incidents caused by hot cloud of volcanic ash has brought about negative effects on international aviation, such as the eruption of Mount Galunggung, Mount Redoubt, Mount Pinatubo, and Mount Eyjafjallajökull. Therefore, international community has taken necessary measures to set up various contingency plans to overcome such incidents and to assure the aviation safety. This paper will analyze legal implication on contingency plan in overcoming hot cloud of volcanic ash related to the rights and obligations of the stakeholders in international aviation industry. Moreover, this paper
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
38
will generally analyze prevailing contingency plan as well, at multilateral, regional, and national level; and will suggest recommendations on how to make a good contingency plan. Keywords: volcanic ash cloud, contingency plan, ICAO, aviation safety, liability, Chicago Convention
I. INTRODUCTION
On 24 June 1982, a British Airways flight BA009 was flying out from
London heading for New Zealand with a stopover in Kuala Lumpur and
Perth.12 The flight was a Boeing 747-200 (G-BDXH) aircraft13 piloted by
Captain Eric Moody14 who took-over the flight in Kuala Lumpur.15 The
flight brought 247 passengers and 15 crews.16 At approximately 240 miles
south-east of Jakarta,17 while cruising at an altitude of 37,000 feet, passing
the Indonesian island of Java, when suddenly the flight encountered the
St. Elmo fire18 which was resulted from ‗a discharge of static electricity.‘19
* The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author. 12
Zoe Brennan, The Story of BA flight 009 and the Words Every Passenger Dreads. (29
January 2007) Daily Mail <http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-431802/The-story-
Convention on International Civil Aviation, opened for signature 7 December 1944, 15
UNTS 295 (entered into force 4 April 1947)
Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules Relating to International Transportation
by Air, opened for signature 12 October 1929, 137 LNTS 11 (entered into force 13
February 1933).
Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules for International Carriage by Air, opened
for signature 28 May 1999, 2242 UNTS 350 (entered into force 4 November 2003)
Regulation (EC) 261/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council on of 11
February 2004 establishing common rules on compensation and assistance to
passengers in the event of denied boarding and of cancellation or long delay of
flights, and repealing Regulation (EEC) No 295/91 [2004] OJ L 46/1.
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
68
GLOBAL GOVERNANCE IN A GLOBALIZING
WORLD: DO GLOBALIZATION AND GLOBAL
GOVERNANCE ERODE NATIONAL SOVEREIGNTY?
Frassminggi Kamasa
Abstrak
Tulisan ini membahas mengenai hubungan antara globalisasi dan pemerintahan global dan efeknya terhadap kedaulatan bangsa dan negara. Secara khusus, tulisan ini akan mengkaji secara empiris proses globalisasi dan pemerintahan global yang telah mengakibatkan erosi terhadap kedaulatan negara yang bersumber dari ide Westphalia. Berbeda dengan kajian-kajan yang lain, tulisan ini mempertimbangkan apakah pemerintahan nasional yang lemah, berbagai tekanan dalam proses globalisasi, dan kompleksitas pemerintahan global dapat menjelaskan fenomena kedaulatan bangsa dan negara yang mulai terkikis. Perkembangan yang demikian akan mengurangi kapasitas negara dan konsolidasi nasional dalam mengatur urusan dalam dan luar negeri. Sebagai tambahan, akan dianalisa apakah proses dan interaksi globalisasi dan pemerintahan global bersifat otonom atau justru merupakan ekspresi dari hegemoni Barat. Dengan menggunakan analisis studi kasus tunggal mengenai globalisasi dan pemerintahan global yang terjadi di Indonesia dari tahun 1997—2007, ditemukan asosiasi antara globalisasi, pemerintahan global, dan kompleksitas pemerintahan global. Selanjutnya juga akan dibuktikan bahwa interaksi antara berbagai tekanan dalam proses globalisasi dan kompleksitas pemerintahan global menghambat kepentingan pemerintah untuk mengembangkan ketahanan nasional dan pembangunan bangsa dan negara. Kata kunci: kedaulatan bangsa dan negara, globalisasi, pemerintahan global, pembangunan.
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
69
Abstract
This paper discusses the relationship between globalization and global
governance and its effect on the nation’s sovereignty. Particularly, this paper
will empirically examine the process of globalization and global governance that
has resulted in the erosion of national sovereignty that comes from the idea of
Westphalia. In contrast to other studies, this paper considers whether the
national governments are weak, the pressures of globalization processes, and
the complexity of global governance may explain the dawn of the erosion of the
sovereignty of the nation and the state. Such developments will reduce the
capacity of the state and national consolidation in regulating domestic and
foreign affairs. In addition, it will be analyzed whether the process and the
interaction of globalization and global governance are autonomous or even an
expression of Western hegemony. By using a single case study analysis on
globalization and global governance that occurred in Indonesia from 1997-
2007, we found relationship between globalization, global governance, and the
complexity of global governance. Furthermore it will be proved that the
interaction between the various pressures in the process of globalization and
global governance complexity hamper the interests of the government to develop
a national security and nation building .
Keywords: state sovereignty, globalization, global governance, development.
Introduction
This study investigates Indonesia from 1997-2007. In this study I will
discuss the question about whether globalization and global governance
erodes Indonesia‘s national sovereignty. I will divide this essay into three
sections. The first section analyzes the cause-and-effect relationships
between a weak national government, globalization, and global
governance that erode national sovereignty. The second section
investigates how globalization pressure is likely to have the effect of
eroding national sovereignty. The third section examines how the global
governance complex explains the erosion of national sovereignty.
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
70
My research question is: ―Does globalization and global governance
erode national sovereignty?‖ The study‘s hypotheses may include the
following: (1) state being weakened by the process of globalization and
global governance. A weak national government will lead to an erosionin
national sovereignty. (2) globalization and global governance is less an
autonomous process, and more of an expression of United States
hegemony, this coupled with an economic downturn will lead to erode
national sovereignty.
My first hypothesis, as pointed out by Freiden (2006:471) and Griffiths
(2008:132), is that globalization and global governance weaken national
government and state capacity. In the complex multidimensional
processes of globalization and global governance, the state‘s capacity for
independent political action is weakened. My second hypothesis as
outlined by Gilpin (1987:45) and critical theorists, is that regimes, values,
and agenda setting in globalization and global governance are skewed.
Partisan processes of globalization and global governance have significant
effects on the erosion of state sovereignty.
The debates in International Relations (IR) about global governance
are extensive and voluminous. One of the debates on global governance is
focused on ―whether national sovereignty is being eroded.‖129
129
Quoted in Farrington, J. (2002, October). Sovereignty and Global Governance.
Retrieved July 27, 2012, from Department for International Development:
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
102
TEINVER V. ARGENTINA: THE MOST FAVORED
NATIONS PRINCIPLE IN A MULTIPLE BILATERAL
INVESTMENT TREATIES ERA
Nenda Inasa Fadhilah
Abstrak Investasi adalah salah satu saluran interaksi ekonomi diantara negara-negara disamping perdagangan di era globalisasi saat ini. Negara-negara bekerja-sama dengan membuat Perjanjian Investasi Bilateral (BIT) untuk menentukan tingkat perlakuan yang akan mereka berikan kepada investor dari negara mitra. Investor asing, baik dari negara-negara maju dan berkembang, mengharapkan negara tuan rumah memberikan perlakuan yang adil serta merata dan perlindungan penuh dan keamanan tanpa diskriminasi dalam rangka untuk mengamankan dan memastikan investasi mereka agar dapat memperoleh keuntungan yang diharapkan. Salah satu prinsip yang terkandung dalam BIT adalah Most Favored Nations (MFN) di mana negara berjanji bahwa mereka akan memperlakukan investor negara mitra itu perlakuan yang "tidak akan kurang" dari investor dari negara-negara lain (tidak ada diskriminasi antara investor asing dari negara yang berbeda). Prinsip MFN ini adalah salah satu sumber sengketa di ICSID terutama terkait dengan masalah yurisdiksi. Dalam tulisan ini, saya akan menganalisis apakah keputusan ICSID terbaru tentang yurisdiksi dalam kasus Teinver SA, Transportes de Cercanias SA & AUTOBUSES Urbanos del Sur SA v Argentina Republic (Kasus Teinver) akhirnya dapat mendefinisikan dan menyelesaikan masalah-masalah yang terkandung dalam prinsip MFN di hukum investasi internasional khususnya pada masalah yurisdiksi. Kata kunci: Investasi, ICSID, Most Favored Nations, Perjanjian Investasi Bilateral, Perjanjian Ekonomi
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
103
Abstract Investment is one of the channels of economic interaction between states beside trade in the current globalization era. States cooperate with each other by concluding Bilateral Investment Treaties (BIT) to define the treatment that they will give to their counterpart’s investors. Foreign investors, both from developed and developing states, expected the host state to give them fair and equitable treatment and full protection and security without discrimination in order to secure and ascertain their investment to acquire expected profit. One of the principles contained in the BITs is the Most Favored Nations (MFN) where a state promised that they will treat the counterpart’s investor the treatment that is “no less favorable” to investor from other states (no discrimination between foreign investors from different states). This MFN principle is one of the sources of dispute in ICSID especially related to the jurisdictional matter. In this paper, I will analyze whether the latest ICSID decision on jurisdiction in the case Teinver S.A., Transportes de Cercanías S.A. & Autobuses Urbanos del Sur S.A. v. Argentine Republic (Teinver Case) finally defined and settle the problems contained in the MFN principle in international investment law specifically on the jurisdictional matter. Keyword: Investment, ICSDI, Most Favored Nations, Bilateral Investment Treaty, Economic Agreement
I. The Most Favored Nations Principle
A. History of Most Favored Nations Principle
The MFN principle has been acknowledged in trade area for
centuries before the emergence of BITs. The earliest acknowledgment of
MFN principle is at eleventh century when French and Spanish cities
asked Arab princes of Western Africa to afford them treatments equal
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
104
with the Italian traders.170 The MFN principle become the preferred
treatment when they unable to gain monopoly.171
However, during and after the first world war occurred, the
effects of chilly relationship between warring states and the destruction of
economy caused the MFN clause to be not in favorable position172 despite
attempts made by the League of Nations in International Economic
Conference of 1927.173
After the World War Two, states realized that non-discriminatory
treatment is important in the advancement of international economic
relations. While the states failed to create International Trade
Organization, they successfully adopted General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT). One of the main principles of GATT is MFN.174
Since 1967, International Law Commission (ILC) started the study
on MFN Clause. It has successfully adopted Draft Articles on Most-
Favoured-Nation Clauses in 1978.175 Member States of UN however,
170
Endre Ustor, First Report on the Most-Favoured-Nation Clause, ¶10, U.N. Doc.
A/CN.4/213 (April 18, 1969). 171
Id. ¶19. 172
Id. ¶30-34. 173
Id. ¶37. 174
World Trade Organization, Understanding the WTO: Basics: Principles of the Trading
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
137
kontrak itu. Dalam praktik, pada umumnya klausul force majeure tidak
membebaskan suatu pihak atas tidak dilaksanakannya kewajiban sesuai
kontrak secara keseluruhan, namun hanya untuk sementara menunda
pelaksanaan kewajiban itu selama adanya force majeure.
Law and order exist for the purpose of establishing justice and when they
fail in this purpose they become the dangerously structured dams that
block the flow of social progress.
- Martin Luther King, Jr.- ”
“
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
138
TENTANG PENULIS
Damos Dumoli Agusman, SH., MA,
Lulusan dari Fakultas Hukum Universitas Padjadjaran Bandung tahun
1987. Penulis menempuh pendidikan lanjutan di University of Hull,
Inggris dan memperoleh gelar Master of Arts di bidang Hukum
Internasional dan Politik pada tahun 1991. Penulis pernah mengikuti
program hukum internasional pada The Hague Academy of International
Law, Den Haag, Belanda. Penulis pernah menjabat sebagai Direktur
Perjanjian Ekonomi dan Sosial Budaya pada Kementerian Luar Negeri
tahun 2006-2010. Saat ini penulis bertugas sebagai Konsul Jenderal RI di
Frankfurt.
Adrianus Adityo Vito Ramon, SH., LL.M (Adv)
Kepala Seksi Hukum Udara, Subdit Perjanjian Kewilayahan, Direktorat
Perjanjian Politik, Keamanan dan Kewilayahan, Kemlu. Lulus dari
Fakultas Hukum Universitas Indonesia dengan program kekhususan
Hukum Internasional pada tahun 2007 serta Master of Laws (Advanced)
dari T. C. Beirne School of Law, the University of Queensland pada tahun
2012. Penulis memasuki Kementerian Luar Negeri pada tahun 2008 dan
mengikuti Sekolah Dinas Luar Negeri (Sekdilu) Angkatan XXXIII.
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
139
Frassminggi Kamasa
Frassminggi Kamasa menyelesaikan S1 Studi Rusia di Universitas
Indonesia, BSc Business Administration di University of the People dan S2
Hubungan Internasional di Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand.
Pernah mengikuti kursus Ekonomi-Politik Internasional di Yonsei
University. Saat ini bertugas di Direktorat Eropa Timur dan Tengah,
Direktorat Jenderal Amerika dan Eropa. Penulis memasuki Kementerian
Luar Negeri pada tahun 2009 dan mengikuti Sekolah Dinas Luar Negeri
(Sekdilu) Angkatan XXXIV.
Nenda Inasa Fadhilah, SH., LL.M
Staf Fungsional Diplomat Sekretariat Direktorat Jenderal Hukum dan
Perjanjian Internasional. Memiliki minat utama pada isu-isu Hukum
Internasional Publik dan Hukum Investasi Internasional. Lulus dari
Fakultas Hukum Universitas Pelita Harapan dengan program
kekhususan Hukum Internasional pada tahun 2009 serta Master of Laws
(International Legal Studies) dari Georgetown University Law Center di
Washington, DC pada tahun 2013. Penulis memasuki Kementerian Luar
Negeri pada tahun 2010 dan mengikuti Sekolah Dinas Luar Negeri
(Sekdilu) Angkatan XXXV.
JURNAL OPINIO JURIS Vol. 14 September-Desember 2013
140
Jurnal Hukum dan Perjanjian Internasional
OPINIO JURIS Jurnal Opinio Juris menerima tulisan dengan tema hukum internasional, perjanjian internasional, diplomasi, hubungan internasional, dan isu-isu dalam negeri yang memiliki dimensi hukum dan perjanjian internasional. Ketentuan Penulisan: 1. Panjang tulisan 10—20 halaman kertas A4 (termasuk abstraksi, isi,
catatan kaki, dan daftar pustaka), format MS Word, spasi satu setengah, font Times New Roman ukuran 11. Untuk catatan kaki, spasi satu dan font Times New Roman ukuran 10;
2. Tulisan dapat dibuat dalam bahasa Indonesia atau bahasa Inggris; 3. Setiap naskah harus disertai abstraksi maksimal 1 halaman A4. Untuk
tulisan dalam bahasa Indonesia, abstraksi dibuat dalam bahasa Inggris dan untuk tulisan dalam bahasa Inggris, abstraksi dibuat dalam bahasa Indonesia. Jumlah kata abstraksi sekitar 100 kata.
4. Rujukan dibuat dalam bentuk catatan kaki (footnote); 5. Tulisan harus asli dari penulis, belum pernah diterbitkan, dan tidak
sedang dikirimkan ke penerbit lain; 6. Untuk setiap naskah yang masuk, redaksi berhak mengedit dengan tidak
mengubah maksud dan isi tulisan; 7. Apabila diperlukan, redaksi akan memberikan masukan dan
rekomendasi kepada penulis tentang tulisan yang dikirim; 8. Setiap naskah yang dikirim harus disertai daftar riwayat hidup singkat
penulis (curriculum vitae) yang setidak-tidaknya terdiri dari pekerjaan, pendidikan, alamat, dan nomor telepon yang bisa dihubungi;
9. Setiap naskah yang disetujui untuk diterbitkan akan mendapatkan kompensasi finansial;
10. File naskah beserta kelengkapan lainnya dapat dikirim ke email Redaksi.
Sekretariat Direktorat Jenderal Hukum dan Perjanjian Interansional Kementerian Luar Negeri
Jalan Taman Pejambon No. 6 Jakarta Pusat Telp: +62 21 3846633 Fax: +62 21 3858044