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Digestive System 5
Lecture 15
Pathology and Clinical
Science 1 (BIOC211)
Department of BioscienceText Reference:
Grossman, S.C. & Porth, C.M. (2014). Porth’s Pathophysiology: concepts of
altered health states, (9th ed.). Philadelphia, U.S.A. Walters Kluwer Health -
Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.
© endeavour.edu.au
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SESSION LEARNING OBJECTIVES
This session aims to:
o Understand the use of various diagnostic tests and
procedures for liver and biliary disorders
o Comprehend how and why the symptoms and signs of
liver disorder appear
o Describe the aetiology, pathology and principles of
treatment for common and important disorder of the liver
and biliary tract
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DISEASES OF THE LIVER AND
BILIARY TRACTo Investigation of liver disease
o Clinical features and presentations of liver disease
o Liver diseases
• Chronic liver disease
• Viral hepatitis
• Alcoholic liver disease
• Hepatocellular carcinoma
o The gall bladder and biliary system
• Gall stones
• Cholecystitis
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THE LIVER AND BILIARY TRACT
From Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. (12th ed.,p. 943), by Tortora G & Derrickson B. 2009.
Hoboken, NJ. John Wiley and Sons.
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THE LIVER - HISTOLOGY
From Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. (12th ed.,p. 943), by Tortora G & Derrickson B. 2009.
Hoboken, NJ. John Wiley and Sons.
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THE LIVER AND BILIARY TRACT
From Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. (12th ed.,p. 943), by Tortora G & Derrickson
B. 2009. Hoboken, NJ. John Wiley and Sons.
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INVESTIGATION OF LIVER
DISEASEo Liver function tests used to assess liver disease
• Bilirubin
• Aminotransferases ( Alanine Aminotransferase [ALT],
Aspartate Aminotransferase [AST])
• Alkaline phosphatase
• Gamma glutamyl transferase ( GGT )
• Albumin
o Tests to determine severity and activity of liver disease
• Biochemical tests ( Liver Function Tests [LFTs] )
• Coagulation tests
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INVESTIGATION OF LIVER
DISEASE
o Imaging
• Ultrasound
• CT Scan
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
• Endoscopic Retrograde
Cholangiopancreatography (ERCP)
o Liver biopsy
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PRIMARY LIVER CANCER
http://brighamrad.harvard.edu/Cases/bwh/images/335/ct2.jpg
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CLINICAL FEATURES &
PRESENTATIONS OF LIVER
DISEASE• Asymptomatic abnormal liver function tests
• Jaundice
• Gastrointestinal bleeding
• Ascites
• Hepatic encephalopathy
• Haematologic disorders
• Endocrine / Neurological disorders
• Skin disorders
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JAUNDICEo Definition
• Yellow appearance of skin, sclerae and mucous membranes
produced by increased bilirubin in body fluids
• Clinically detected when bilirubin >50μmol/L
o Classification
• Pre-hepatic - Haemolytic
• Intra-hepatic - Hepatocellular
• Post-hepatic - Cholestatic
• Neonatal hyperbilirubinaemia
o Pathophysiology
• varied
o Causes
• Depend on types
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TYPES OF JAUNDICE
From Pathophysiology for Health Professions. (2nd ed), by Gould B. 2002. Philadelphia. W B
Saunders Company
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CAUSES & EFFECTS OF LIVER INJURY
Liver Cell Injury
Viruses Chemicals
Alcohol Drugs
Cell necrosis
Mixed cell reactions
Fatty changes
Jenny Yeeles
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ACUTE LIVER FAILUREo Definition
• Hepatic encephalopathy results from a sudden
severe impairment of hepatic function
o Aetiology
• Any cause of liver damage
• Due to acute viral hepatitis most common
o Epidemiology
• Uncommon
o Pathophysiology:
• Necrosis of substantial part of liver
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CHRONIC LIVER FAILURE
o Functional capacity of the liver can no longer
maintain normal physiological condition
o The most common cause is cirrhosis
o Clinical Features
• Worsening liver function
• Jaundice
• Portal hypertension
• Hepatic encephalopathy
• Ascites
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LIVER FAILURE
From Porth’s Pathophysiology: concepts of altered health states, (9th ed., p. 1232)
by Grossman, S.C. & Porth, C.M. (2014). Philadelphia, U.S.A. Walters Kluwer
Health - Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.
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CIRRHOSISDefinition
o Necrosis of liver cells followed by fibrosis & nodule
formation causing abnormal liver architecture interfering
with normal liver blood flow & function
Causes
o World-wide, the most common causes are viral hepatitis
and prolonged excessive alcohol consumption
o Prolonged biliary damage or obstruction
Pathophysiology
o Chronic injury causing inflammation and fibrosis
o Loss of normal liver architecture
o Micronodular and Macronodular
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CIRRHOSIS
Gould B. Pathophysiology for Health Professions. 2nd edition 2002. W B Saunders Company
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CIRRHOSIS
http://images.paraorkut.com/img/health/images/c/cirrhosis-931.jpg
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CIRRHOSISClinical Features
• Hepatomegaly
• Jaundice
• Ascites
• Endocrine changes
• Circulatory changes
• Haemorrhagic tendency
• Portal hypertension
• Hepatic encephalopathy
Investigations
o Refer back to investigations of liver
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ASCITES
http://meded.ucsd.edu/clinicalimg/abdomen_ascites5.jp http://byebyedoctor.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/ascites.jpg
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CIRRHOSIS
Management
o Managing the complications
o Maintenance of nutrition
o Early detection of Hepatocellular Ca
o Avoid alcohol
o Liver transplant
Prognosis
o Overall poor, 5 year survival 50%
Differential Diagnosis
o Jaundice, causes as above
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CLINICAL FEATURES OF CIRRHOSIS
From Porth’s Pathophysiology: concepts of altered health states, (9th ed., p. 1228)
by Grossman, S.C. & Porth, C.M. (2014). Philadelphia, U.S.A. Walters Kluwer
Health - Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.
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PORTAL HYPERTENSION
Characterized by prolonged elevation of portal venous pressure
Aetiology
90% due to cirrhosis
Pathogenesis
Increased portal vascular resistance and development of collateral vessel formation particularly in the GIT
o Clinical features
• Splenomegaly (hypersplenism and thrombocytopenia)
• GIT bleeding from collateral vessels
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PORTAL HYPERTENSION
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PORTAL HYPERTENSION
From Porth’s Pathophysiology: concepts of altered health states, (9th ed., p. 1229)
by Grossman, S.C. & Porth, C.M. (2014). Philadelphia, U.S.A. Walters Kluwer
Health - Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.
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VIRAL HEPATITISCommon cause of jaundice
o Causes
• Common ( hepatitis A, B, C, E and D viruses )
• Less common ( cytomegalovirus, E-B virus )
o Epidemiology
• HAV = commonest, outbreaks, faeco-oral spread
• HBV = 300M carriers, spread by IV or close body
contact
• HCV = 240M infected, blood transfusion, IV spread
o Pathophysiology
• Necrosis of hepatocytes – degree depends on persons
immune response
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VIRAL HEPATITIS
o Clinical Features
• Non-specific prodromal symptoms
• Jaundice
• Vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal discomfort
• Dark urine and pale stools
o Investigations
• LFTs
• Specific markers
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VIRAL HEPATITIS
o Treatment
• Supportive
• Prevention (vaccine = HAV, HBV)
• Medical (interferon for HVB and HBC)
o Prognosis & Natural Progression:
• Depends on cause
• HAV = excellent, most recover, no Chronic Liver
Disease (CLD)
• HBV = most recover completely, 5- 10% CLD +
Hepatocellular Ca, asymptomatic carriers
• HCV = develop CLD, cirrhosis, hepatocellular Ca
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COURSE
OF
HEPATITIS B
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ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASEo Epidemiology
• 10% of alcoholics develop liver disease
o Pathophysiology
• Mechanism poorly understood
• Cirrhosis
o Clinical features
• Fatty liver
• Hepatitis
• Cirrhosis
o Investigations
• LFTs
o Management
• Abstinence and Management of complication
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STEATOSIS - FATTY LIVER
http://www.livercare.com.au/Image/fattyliv.jpg
http://topnews.in/health/files/liver-5.jpg
http://www.123rf.com/photo_6530607_fatty-liver.html
Fatty Liver – external view
Fatty Liver – cross section
Fatty Liver – Histology
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NON-ALCOHOLIC FATTY LIVER
DISEASEo Disease of affluent societies due to rise in obesity
o Most common cause of chronic liver disease after VH
and alcohol
o Epidemiology
• 3% of population in USA, prevalence higher in diabetes
and metabolic syndrome
o Pathophysiology
• First hit ( increased fat import ) → steatosis ( fatty liver )
• Second hit ( production of toxin ) → inflammation &
fibrosis
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NON-ALCOHOLIC FATTY LIVER
DISEASE
o Clinical features:
• Abnormal liver function tests
o Management:
• Reduce BMI and insulin resistance
o Prognosis
• Depends +/- cirrhosis
• 10% - 15% of people will progress to cirrhosis
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INHERITED LIVER DISEASES
o Hemochromatosis
• Iron is deposited throughout the body
especially liver, pancreas, heart
• Autosomal recessive disorder
• Acquired
o Wilson’s disease ( hepatocellular
degeneration )
• Excess copper deposited causing damage to
several organs
• Autosomal recessive disorder
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http://www.pnas.org/content/97/23/12770/F2.expansion.html
A. Hyperplastic
nodule
B. Iron stain displays
iron granules
C. Nodules within
bridging fibrosis
D. Fibrosis and
inflammation
E. Intracellular
deposition of
copper
F. Hyperplastic
nodules
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HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA
o Epidemiology
• Most common primary liver tumour – 2.5-5/ 100,000
• Commoner in SE Asia – 40/ 100,000
o Aetiology
• Chronic hepatitis B infection
• Cirrhosis
• The risk is higher in men and rises with age
o Clinical features
• Asymptomatic
• Features of underlying chronic liver disease
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HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA
http://www.humpath.com/IMG/jpg_cirrhosis_alagille_hepatocellular_carcinoma_2801_2-3.jpg
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HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMAo Investigation
• Serum markers
• Ultrasound
• CT
• MRI
• Biopsy
o Management
• Surgery
• Transplant
• Chemo-embolization
• Largely palliative
o Prevention
• Prevention of hepatitis B
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GALLSTONES Most common disorder of biliary tree
o Classification
• Cholesterol stones
• Pigment stones
• Mixed stones
o Epidemiology
• Overall prevalence 11% ( 18- 65 years ),Increases with age. Females more prone than males
o Causes
• Increased cholesterol secretion
• Impaired gallbladder emptying
o Clinical Features
• Mostly asymptomatic
• Biliary Colic
• Acute / chronic cholecystitis
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GALLSTONES
http://medical-guides.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/01/gallstones.jpg
http://marilynbrooksonmedicine.com/wp-
content/uploads/2010/10/gallbladder.jpg
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GALLSTONES
From Porth’s Pathophysiology: concepts of altered health states, (9th ed., p. 1236) by
Grossman, S.C. & Porth, C.M. (2014). Philadelphia, U.S.A. Walters Kluwer Health -
Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.
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CHOLELITHIASIS – GALL STONES
http://www.ourwebdoctor.com/images/gallstn.jpg
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GALLSTONES o Investigations
• Plain X-ray
• Ultrasound
• Cholecystography
• CT
o Complications
• Mucocele, empyema, migration to common bile duct (CBD
Treatment
• Surgery (Cholecystectomy if symptomatic)
• Lithotripsy
• Oral bile acids
o Differential Diagnosis
• Acute pancreatitis
• Differential Diagnosis of RUQ pain
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CHOLECYSTITIS
Acute cholecystitis is almost always associated
with obstruction of gallbladder neck or cystic
duct by gallstone
o Clinical features
• Pain in RUQ/ epigastrium ( severe and
prolonged )
• Fever and leucocytosis
o Management
• Bed rest, pain relief, antibiotics
• Surgery
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Readings and ResourcesResources:
o Set Textbooks:
Colledge, N.R., Walker, B.R. & Ralston S.H. (2014). Davidson’s Principles and Practice of Medicine, (22nd ed.). Edinburgh.
Churchill Livingstone.
Grossman, S.C. & Porth, C.M. (2014). Porth’s Pathophysiology: concepts of altered health states, (9th ed.). Philadelphia,
U.S.A. Walters Kluwer Health - Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.
o Additional textbooks:
Davies, A. & Moores, C. (2010). The respiratory system: basic science and clinical conditions, (2nd ed.). Edinburgh. Churchill,
Livingstone, Elsevier.
Field, M., Pollock, C., Harris, D. (2010). Systems of the Body: The Renal System; Basic Science and Clinical Conditions. (2nd
ed.). United Kingdom: Churchill Livingstone.
Jamison, J.R. (2006) Differential Diagnosis for Primary Care: a handbook for health care practitioners. (2nd ed.). Edinburgh.
Churchill Livingstone.
Lee, G. & Bishop, P. (2013). Microbiology and Infection Control for Health Professionals, (5th ed.). Frenchs Forest, NSW.
Pearson Education.
McCance, K.L. & Huether, S.E. (2014). Pathophysiology: the biological basis for disease in adults and children, (7th ed.). St.
Louis, MO. Elsevier.
Murphy, K. (2011). Janeway’s immunobiology, (8th ed.). New York. Garland Science.
Noble, A., Johnson, R. & Bass, P. (2010). The cardiovascular system: basic science and clinical conditions, (2nd ed.).
Edinburgh. Churchill, Livingstone, Elsevier.
Pagana, K.D. & Pagana, T.J. (2013). Mosby’s diagnostic and laboratory test reference, (11th ed.). St. Louis, MO. Elsevier.
Smith, M.E. & Morton, D.G. (2010). The digestive system: basic science and clinical conditions, (2nd ed.). Edinburgh.
Churchill, Livingstone, Elsevier.
VanMeter, K.C. & Hubert, R. (2014). Gould’s pathophysiology for health professions, (5th ed.). St. Louis, MO. Elsevier.
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