Different Approaches for Data Collection/Data Analysis • Experiment • Survey • Quasi-Experiment • Secondary Data Analysis • Content Analysis • Historical Comparative Methods (Archival Analysis ) • Participant Observation • Ethnography • Individual Qualitative Interview • Textual Analysis • Focus Group Discussion • Del-Phi Method
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Different Approaches for Data Collection/Data Analysis Experiment Survey Quasi-Experiment Secondary Data Analysis Content Analysis Historical Comparative.
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Different Approaches for Data Collection/Data Analysis
Interview• Textual Analysis • Focus Group Discussion • Del-Phi Method
Secondary Data Analysis
Secondary Data Analysis• A type of research in which data collected by others are
reanalyzed. Primary Data Analysis• Original analysis of the data collected in a study. Meta-Analysis• “Analysis of analysis” • Quantitative procedure for summarizing or integrating the
findings obtained from a literature. • Uses the results of individual research projects on the same
topic as data points for a statistical study of the topic.
Secondary Data Analysis Advantage• Saves cost for data collection. • Saves time required for data collection. • May obtain data otherwise impossible.
Disadvantage• Data collected may not be suitable for the researcher’s purposes.
(Validity)• All necessary data may not be available in existing data. • Requires time to search for the data set. • Original data set may not be accurate. • Existing data sets may contain more variables than what the
researchers need. Need time to sort out the data.
Content Analysis
General usage of the term • Refers to any of several research techniques used to
analyze the content of written, spoken, or pictorial communication such as books, newspapers, television programs, or interview transcripts.
Specific usage of the term• Refers to a quantitative technique that attempts to
quantify the meaning of the content of the written, spoken or pictorial communication.
Content Analysis1. Determine “Unit of Analysis”2. Determine “Indicators”3. “Code” the data
ExampleResearch Question: What values and beliefs were expressed
by advocacy coalition about Social Security? Unit of Analysis: Congressional testimony on Social
Security reform from 1983 to 2004. Indicators: Values---Statement on what they like. Beliefs---Statement on what things should be.
Content Analysis
1. Issue of “Sampling” e.g. Randomly sample 20 congressional testimony each
month.
2. Issue of “Coding” • Coding Sheet • Intercoder Reliability
Interview• Textual Analysis • Focus Group Discussion • Del-Phi Method
Key features of Qualitative Research
1. Collection primarily of qualitative rather than quantitative data Qualitative methods emphasize observations about natural behavior and
artifacts that capture social life as it is experienced by the participants rather than the numerical representations of the categories predetermined by the researcher.
2. Exploratory research question. Qualitative researchers typically begin their projects seeking to discover
what people think and how they act, and why, in some social setting.
3. Inductive reasoning (Reasoning that moves from more specific kinds of statement to more general ones) Only after immersing themselves to many observations, do qualitative
researchers try to develop general principles to account their observations.
Key features of Qualitative Research
4. A focus on human subjectivity. Qualitative methods emphasize the meanings that participants attach to events and that people give to their lives.
5. Reflexive research design. In the qualitative methods, the research design may need to be reconsidered or modified in response to new developments, or to changes in some other component as research progresses.
6. Sensitivity to the subjective role of the researcher. Qualitative researchers should be sensitive to the role they play in the process of data collection. “Researcher as an instrument”
• A type of group interview.• Focuses on group interaction on a topic selected
by the researcher. • Ideally 4- 12 participants. • The interaction is directed by a moderator who
asks questions and keeps the discussion on the topic.
Reference: Dr. David Morgan (Institute on Aging, PSU) • “Focus groups as qualitative research”(1995). Sage. • Annual Review of Sociology 22, p. 129-153 (1996)
• Research that is designed to “sum-up” the effects of program, policy, or law in accomplishing the goal or intent of the program, policy or law.
4. Cost-Benefit Analysis • Research that compares a program’s costs to its benefits.
• A study designed to weigh all expenses of a program (its costs) against the monetary estimates of the program’s benefits (even putting dollar values on intangible benefits.)
Selecting a study design
Quasi-Experiment • An experiment design that is missing one or more
aspects of the classic controlled experiment.
Panel Study (Longitudinal Study)
A study design in which data are collected about one sample at least two times and all variables are measured, not controlled by the researcher.
Selecting a study design
Cross-sectional Study • A study design in which data are collected once
for all the variables of interest using one sample.• Case Study A research strategy that focuses on one case (an
individual, a group, an organization, and so on) with in its social context at one point in time, even if that one time spans months or years.