DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC MARKETING As we have seen in the previous sections, there are many factors within the international environment which substantially increase the challenge of international marketing. These can be summarised as follows: 1 Culture: often diverse and multicultural markets 2 Markets: widespread and sometimes fragmented 3 Data: difficult to obtain and often expensive 4 Politics: regimes vary in stability – political risk becomes an important variable 5 Governments: can be a strong influence in regulating importers and foreign business ventures 6 Economies: varying levels of development and varying and sometimes unstable currencies 7 Finance: many differing finance systems and regulatory bodies 8 Stakeholders: commercial, home country and host country 9 Business: diverse rules, culturally influenced 10 Control: difficult to control and coordinate across markets. International Monetary System International monetary systems are sets of internationally agreed rules, conventions and supporting institutions, that facilitate international trade, cross border investment and generally the reallocation of capital between nation states. They provide means of payment acceptable between buyers and sellers of different nationality, including deferred payment. To operate successfully, they need to inspire confidence, to provide sufficient liquidity for fluctuating levels of trade and to provide means by which global imbalances can be corrected. The systems can grow organically as the collective result of numerous individual agreements between international economic factors spread over several decades. Alternatively, they can arise from a single architectural vision as happened at Bretton Woods in 1944. Role of International Monetary System The international monetary system (IMS) is analogous to the domestic monetary system. It caries out similar functions. In the domestic monetary system the functions that must be carried out include: 1) providing for the transfer of the purchasing power, that is, money payments to cover transactions, 2) providing a stable unit of value, and 3) providing a standard for deferred payments.
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INTERNATIONALAND DOMESTIC MARKETINGAs we have seen in the previous sections, there are many factors within theinternational environment which substantially increase the challenge of internationalmarketing. These can be summarised as follows:1 Culture: often diverse and multicultural markets2 Markets: widespread and sometimes fragmented3 Data: difficult to obtain and often expensive4 Politics: regimes vary in stability – political risk becomes an importantvariable5 Governments: can be a strong influence in regulating importers and foreignbusiness ventures6 Economies: varying levels of development and varying and sometimesunstable currencies7 Finance: many differing finance systems and regulatory bodies8 Stakeholders: commercial, home country and host country9 Business: diverse rules, culturally influenced10 Control: difficult to control and coordinate across markets.
International Monetary System
International monetary systems are sets of internationally agreed rules, conventions and supporting institutions, that facilitate international trade, cross border investment and generally the reallocation of capital between nation states.
They provide means of payment acceptable between buyers and sellers of different nationality, including deferred payment.
To operate successfully, they need to inspire confidence, to provide sufficient liquidity for fluctuating levels of trade and to provide means by which global imbalances can be corrected.
The systems can grow organically as the collective result of numerous individual agreements between international economic factors spread over several decades.
Alternatively, they can arise from a single architectural vision as happened at Bretton Woods in 1944.
Role of International Monetary System
The international monetary system (IMS) is analogous to the domestic monetary system. It caries out similar functions. In the domestic monetary system the functions that must be carried out include:1) providing for the transfer of the purchasing power, that is, money payments to cover transactions,2) providing a stable unit of value, and3) providing a standard for deferred payments.
The IMS operates in a manner analogous to the domestic system. The same basic functions must be served by the IMS, namely, making payments to cover transactions, providing a stable unit of account, and providing a standard of deferred payments. The major difference in the IMS is that cross-border payments generally involve a foreign currency transaction for at least one of the parties involved in the transaction.
Key Performance Characteristics
For the IMS to operate effectively, key performance characteristics are required. These characteristics are as follows:
1. Provision of adequate liquidity
This provision takes the form of adequate units of official reserves held by governments of countries involved in foreign trade. It also requires incentives for commercial banks operating as foreign exchange dealers to hold sufficient foreign exchange reserves to satisfy the requirements of the private sector.
2. Operation of a smooth adjustment mechanismThis objective requires that individual nations carry out economic and financial policies conducive to maintaining reasonable well balanced international payment systems, or that financial mechanisms operate to provide payments adjustment, or that governments act to preserve equilibrium in the foreign exchange markets.
(Adjustment mechanisms: Processes in the economy that work to assure a nation's external economic equilibrium)
3. Confidence in the systemIf private sector business firms and investors believe that governments will follow policies conducive to a well-balances international payments system, they will have confidence in the system. International organizations such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) seek to promote such policies on the part of governments. In addition, governments undertake cooperative arrangements with one another to build confidence in the existing system.
Principal Components of the IMS
Composition of International Monetary System
1. International Monetary FundThe International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization that was created on July 22, 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference and came into existence on December 27, 1945 when 29 countries signed the Articles of Agreement. It originally had 45 members. The IMF's stated goal was to stabilize exchange rates and assist the reconstruction of the world’s international payment system post-
World War II. Countries contribute money to a pool through a quota system from which countries with payment imbalances can borrow funds temporarily. Through this activity and others such as surveillance of its members' economies and policies, the IMF works to improve the economies of its member countries. The IMF describes itself as “an organization of 188 countries, working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce
2. Foreign Exchange Market
The foreign exchange market is the framework for trading foreign currencies. Financial centers around the world function as anchors of trading between a wide range of different types of buyers and sellers around the clock, with the exception of weekends. EBS and Reuters' dealing 3000 are two main interbank FX trading platforms. The foreign exchange market determines the relative values of different currencies.
The foreign exchange market is unique because of the following characteristics:1. its huge trading volume representing the largest asset class in the world leading to high liquidity;2. its geographical dispersion;3. its continuous operation: 24 hours a day except weekends;4. the variety of factors that affect exchange rates;5. the low margins of relative profit compared with other markets of fixed income; and6. the use of leverage to enhance profit and loss margins and with respect to account size.
3. Official Reserves
Governments hold official reserves, international money in various forms. Official reserves only refer to foreign currency held by a country. These function like international money by their general acceptability. Official reserves consist of four separate and distinct components.
1.The first component is the IMF Reserve Positions. This represents quotes of IMF member countries freely available to them to supplement their liquid resources.
2. The smallest component is the special drawing rights (SDR), also referred to as paper gold. SDRs were created to supplement international liquidity at a time when it was thought official reserve growth would be inadequate to meet global needs. SDRs reflect bookkeeping entries within the IMF, which members in deficit can use to settle international payment at the official level (central bank of one country transferring SDRs to central bank of another country)
3. The largest component consists of foreign exchange held by governments and their central banks.
4. Finally, a part of official reserves is held in the form of monetary gold. A gold reserve is the gold held by a central bank or nation intended as a store of value and as a guarantee to redeem promises to pay depositors, note holders (e.g., paper money), or trading peers, or to secure a currency.
Governments hold official reserves for numerous reasons. Some governments are more concerned with the need to cover external debt payments, while others are more interested in being able to cover the cost of necessary imports such as food and fuel. Factors influencing governments to hold official reserves include:
1. to be able to carry out international transactions including imports without any delay in payments;2. to improve the international credit standing of the nation;3. to provide resources for foreign exchange market intervention, when needed; and4. to assure and facilitate external debt service payments.
4. Private Demand for Foreign Exchange
The private demand for foreign exchange refers to the foreign currency balances held by foreign exchange banks. The term private demand is used in contrast with official demand, where official reserves are held by the governments. Private demands result from the risk versus profit judgments of the private trading banks. When a large number of dealing banks become uncertain of the near future prospects for a currency in the market, they may shorten their deposit holdings
5. Intervention and Swap Network
A swap involves a standby credit arrangement between two (or more) countries. The swap is used to borrow or lend foreign currency in exchange for domestic currency with a commitment to reverse the exchange in three months. A foreign exchange swap is a sport purchase of a currency coupled with a forward sale. Central banks use swaps to provide foreign currency resources to one another, which are used to intervene in the foreign exchange market.ExampleTo see how the swap network operates, suppose that United States wants to sell 200 million deutsche marks to support the US dollar. What actually happens is the US Federal Reserve sells the Bundesbank (German Central Bank) US $100 million (assume the rate is DM 2.00 = $1.00) in exchange for DM 200 million with an agreed reversal in three months at a fixed rate. The Bundesbank's official reserves rise by US$100 million and those of the Federal Reserve rise by DM 200 million. The Federal Reserve can now sell the deutsche mark in the foreign exchange market, with the purpose of driving up the value of the US dollar.
History of modern global monetary orders
Bimetallism: Before 1875
A “double standard” in the sense that both gold and silver were used as money.Some countries were on the gold standard, some on the silver standard, some on both.Both gold and silver were used as international means of payment and the exchange rates among currencies were determined by either their gold or silver contents. Gresham’s Law implied that it would be the least valuable metal that would tend to circulate.
Classical Gold Standard: 1875-1914
During this period in most major countries:1. Gold alone was assured of unrestricted coinage2. There was two-way convertibility between gold and national currencies at a stable ratio.3. Gold could be freely exported or imported.
The exchange rate between two country’s currencies would be determined by their relative gold contents.
For example, if the dollar is pegged to gold at U.S.$30 = 1 ounce of gold, and the British pound is pegged to gold at £6 = 1 ounce of gold, it must be the case that the exchange rate is determined by the relative gold contents:$30 = £6$5 = £1
Highly stable exchange rates under the classical gold standard provided an environment that was conducive to international trade and investment.Misalignment of exchange rates and international imbalances of payment were automatically corrected by the price-specie-flow mechanism.
There are shortcomings:1. The supply of newly minted gold is so restricted that the growth of world trade and investment can be hampered for the lack of sufficient monetary reserves.2. Even if the world returned to a gold standard, any national government could abandon the standard.
Interwar Period: 1915-1944
Exchange rates fluctuated as countries widely used “predatory” depreciations of their currencies as a means of gaining advantage in the world export market.Attempts were made to restore the gold standard, but participants lacked the political will to “follow the rules of the game”.The result for international trade and investment was profoundly detrimental.
Bretton Woods System: 1945-1971
Named for a 1944 meeting of 44 nations at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire.The purpose was to design a postwar international monetary system.The goal was exchange rate stability without the gold standard.The result was the creation of the IMF and the World Bank.Under the Bretton Woods system, the U.S. dollar was pegged to gold at $35 per ounce and other currencies were pegged to the U.S. dollar.Each country was responsible for maintaining its exchange rate within ±1% of the adopted par value by buying or selling foreign reserves as necessary.The Bretton Woods system was a dollar-based gold exchange standard.
The post Bretton Woods system: 1971 – present
An alternative name for the post Bretton Woods system is the Washington Consensus. While the name was coined in 1989, the associated economic system came into effect years earlier: according to economic historian Lord Skidelsky the Washington Consensus is generally seen as spanning 1980–2009 (the latter half of the 1970s being a transitional period). The transition away from Bretton Woods was marked by a switch from a state led to a market led system. The Bretton Wood system is considered by economic historians to have broken down in the 1970s: crucial events being Nixon suspending the dollar's convertibility into gold in 1971, the United states abandonment of Capital Controls in 1974, and Great Britain's ending of capital controls in 1979 which was swiftly copied by most other major economies.
In some parts of the developing world, liberalisation brought significant benefits for large sections of the population – most prominently with Deng Xiaoping's reforms in China since 1978 and the liberalisation
of India after her 1991 crisis. Generally the industrial nations experienced much slower growth and higher unemployment than in the previous era, and according to Professor Gordon Fletcher in retrospect the 1950s and 60s when the Bretton Woods system was operating came to be seen as a golden age. Financial crises have been more intense and have increased in frequency by about 300% – with the damaging effects prior to 2008 being chiefly felt in the emerging economies. On the positive side, at least until 2008 investors have frequently achieved very high rates of return, with salaries and bonuses in the financial sector reaching record levels.
International monetary systems over two centuries
A summary of the international monetary systems over two centuries can be seen in this
The EuroThe euro (sign: €; code: EUR) is the currency used by the Institutions of the European Union and is the official currency of the eurozone, which consists of 17 of the 27 member states of the European Union: Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Spain. The currency is also used in a further five European countries and consequently used daily by some 332 million Europeans. Additionally, more than 175 million people worldwide—including 150 million people in Africa—use currencies pegged to the euro.
The euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar. As of September 2012, with more than €915 billion in circulation, the euro has the highest combined value of banknotes and coins in circulation in the world, having surpassed the US dollar. Based on International Monetary Fund estimates of 2008 GDP and purchasing power parity among the various currencies, the eurozone is the second largest economy in the world.
The name euro was officially adopted on 16 December 1995. The euro was introduced to world financial markets as an accounting currency on 1 January 1999, replacing the former European Currency Unit (ECU) at a ratio of 1:1 (US$1.1743). Euro coins and banknotes entered circulation on 1 January 2002. While the euro dropped subsequently to US$0.8252 within two years (26 October 2000), it has traded above the US dollar since the end of 2002, peaking at US$1.5990 on 15 July 2008. Since late 2009, the euro has been immersed in the European sovereign-debt crisis which has led to the creation of the European Financial Stability Facility as well as other reforms aimed at stabilizing the currency. In July 2012, the euro fell below US$1.21 for the first time in two years, following concerns raised over Greek debt and Spain's troubled banking sector.
Introduction of the Euro (History)The euro was established by the provisions in the 1992 Maastricht Treaty. To participate in the currency,
member states are meant to meet strict criteria, such as a budget deficit of less than three per cent of their GDP, a debt ratio of less than sixty per cent of GDP (both of which were ultimately widely flouted after introduction), low inflation, and interest rates close to the EU average. In the Maastricht Treaty, the United Kingdom and Denmark were granted exemptions per their request from moving to the stage of monetary union which would result in the introduction of the euro.Economists who helped create or contributed to the euro include Fred Arditti, Neil Dowling, Wim Duisenberg, Robert Mundell, Tommaso Padoa-Schioppa and Robert Tollison.The name "euro" was officially adopted in Madrid on 16 December 1995. Belgian Esperantist Germain Pirlot, a former teacher of French and history is credited with naming the new currency by sending a letter to then President of the European Commission, Jacques Santer, suggesting the name "euro" on 4 August 1995.Due to differences in national conventions for rounding and significant digits, all conversion between the national currencies had to be carried out using the process of triangulation via the euro. The definitive values of one euro in terms of the exchange rates at which the currency entered the euro are shown on the right.The rates were determined by the Council of the European Union, based on a recommendation from the European Commission based on the market rates on 31 December 1998. They were set so that one European Currency Unit (ECU) would equal one euro. The European Currency Unit was an accounting unit used by the EU, based on the currencies of the member states; it was not a currency in its own right. They could not be set earlier, because the ECU depended on the closing exchange rate of the non-euro currencies (principally the pound sterling) that day.The procedure used to fix the irrevocable conversion rate between the Greek drachma and the euro was different, since the euro by then was already two years old. While the conversion rates for the initial eleven currencies were determined only hours before the euro was introduced, the conversion rate for the Greek drachma was fixed several months beforehand.The currency was introduced in non-physical form (traveller's cheques, electronic transfers, banking, etc.) at midnight on 1 January 1999, when the national currencies of participating countries (the eurozone) ceased to exist independently. Their exchange rates were locked at fixed rates against each other. The euro thus became the successor to the European Currency Unit (ECU). The notes and coins for the old currencies, however, continued to be used as legal tender until new euro notes and coins were introduced on 1 January 2002.The changeover period during which the former currencies' notes and coins were exchanged for those of the euro lasted about two months, until 28 February 2002. The official date on which the national currencies ceased to be legal tender varied from member state to member state. The earliest date was in Germany, where the mark officially ceased to be legal tender on 31 December 2001, though the exchange period lasted for two months more. Even after the old currencies ceased to be legal tender, they continued to be accepted by national central banks for periods ranging from several years to forever (the latter in Austria, Germany, Ireland and Spain). The earliest coins to become non-convertible were the Portuguese escudos, which ceased to have monetary value after 31 December 2002, although banknotes remain exchangeable until 2022.
About the IMFThe International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an organization of 188 countries, working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world.
Key IMF activitiesThe IMF supports its membership by providing policy advice to governments and central banks based on analysis of economic trends and cross-
country experiences;
research, statistics, forecasts, and analysis based on tracking of global, regional, and individual economies and markets;
loans to help countries overcome economic difficulties; concessional loans to help fight poverty in developing countries; and technical assistance and training to help countries improve the management of their economies.
The IMF's fundamental mission is to help ensure stability in the international system. It does so in three ways: keeping track of the global economy and the economies of member countries; lending to countries with balance of payments difficulties; and giving practical help to members.
Economic and Financial Surveillance Technical Assistance and Training IMF Lending Research and Data
The IMF’s main goal is to ensure the stability of the international monetary and financial system. It helps resolve crises, and works with its member countries to promote growth and alleviate poverty. It has three main tools at its disposal to carry out its mandate: surveillance, technical assistance and training, and lending. These functions are underpinned by the IMF’s research and statistics.SurveillanceThe IMF promotes economic stability and global growth by encouraging countries to adopt sound economic and financial policies. To do this, it regularly monitors global, regional, and national economic developments. It also seeks to assess the impact of the policies of individual countries on other economies.This process of monitoring and discussing countries’ economic and financial policies is known as bilateral surveillance. On a regular basis—usually once each year—the IMF conducts in depth appraisals of each member country’s economic situation. It discusses with the country’s authorities the policies that are most conducive to a stable and prosperous economy, drawing on experience across its membership. Member countries may agree to publish the IMF’s assessment of their economies, with the vast majority of countries opting to do so.The IMF also carries out extensive analysis of global and regional economic trends, known as multilateral surveillance. Its key outputs are three semiannual publications, the World Economic Outlook, the Global Financial Stability Report, and the Fiscal Monitor. The IMF also publishes a series of regional economic outlooks.The IMF recently agreed on a series of actions to enhance multilateral, financial, and bilateral surveillance, including to better integrate the three; improve our understanding of spillovers and the assessment of emerging and potential risks; and strengthen IMF policy advice.For more information on how the IMF monitors economies, go to Surveillance in the Our Worksection.Technical assistance and trainingIMF offers technical assistance and training to help member countries strengthen their capacity to design and implement effective policies. Technical assistance is offered in several areas, including fiscal policy, monetary and exchange rate policies, banking and financial system supervision and regulation, and statistics.The IMF provides technical assistance and training mainly in four areas: monetary and financial policies (monetary policy instruments, banking system supervision and
restructuring, foreign management and operations, clearing settlement systems for payments, and structural development of central banks);
fiscal policy and management (tax and customs policies and administration, budget formulation, expenditure management, design of social safety nets, and management of domestic and foreign debt);
compilation, management, dissemination, and improvement of statistical data; and economic and financial legislation.
For more on technical assistance, go to Technical Assistance in the Our Work section.LendingIMF financing provides member countries the breathing room they need to correct balance of payments problems. A policy program supported by financing is designed by the national authorities in close cooperation with the IMF. Continued financial support isconditional on the effective implementation of this program.In the most recent reforms, IMF lending instruments were improved further to provideflexible crisis prevention tools to a broad range of members with sound fundamentals, policies, and institutional policy frameworks.
In low-income countries, the IMF has doubled loan access limits and is boosting its lending to the world’s poorer countries, with loans at a concessional interest rate.For more on different types of IMF lending, go to Lending in the Our Work section.Research and dataSupporting all three of these activities is the IMF’s economic and financial research andstatistics. In recent years, the IMF has applied both its surveillance and technical assistance work to the development of standards and codes of good practice in its areas of responsibility, and to the strengthening of financial sectors. These are part of the IMF’s continuing efforts to strengthen national and global financial systems and improve its ability to prevent and resolve crises.
Where the IMF Gets Its Money
Most resources for IMF loans are provided by member countries, primarily through their payment of
quotas. Borrowing provides a temporary supplement to quota resources and has played a critical
role in enabling the Fund to meet members’ needs for financial support during the global economic
crisis. Concessional lending and debt relief for low-income countries are financed through separate
contribution-based trust funds.
The quota system
Each member of the IMF is assigned a quota, based broadly on its relative size in the world economy,
which determines its maximum contribution to the IMF’s financial resources. Upon joining the IMF, a
country normally pays up to one-quarter of its quota in the form of widely accepted foreign currencies
(such as the U.S. dollar, euro, yen, or pound sterling) or Special Drawing Rights (SDRs). The remaining
three-quarters are paid in the country’s own currency.
Quotas are reviewed at least every five years. Ad hoc quota increases of 1.8 percent were agreed in
2006 as the first step in a two-year program of quota and voice reforms. Further ad hoc quota
increases were approved by the Board of Governors in April 2008, resulting in an overall increase of
11.5 percent. The 2008 reform came into effect in March 2011 following ratification of the
amendment to the IMF’s Articles by 117 member countries, representing 85 percent of the IMF’s
voting power.
The Fourteenth General Review of Quotas was completed two years ahead of the original schedule in
December 2010, with a decision to double the IMF’s quota resources to SDR 476.8 billion.
Gold holdings
The IMF’s gold holdings amount to about 90.5 million troy ounces (2,814.1 metric tons), making the
IMF the third largest official holder of gold in the world. However, the IMF’s Articles of Agreement
strictly limit its use. If approved by an 85 percent majority of voting power of member countries, the
IMF may sell goldor may accept gold as payment by member countries but it is prohibited from
buying gold or engaging in other gold transactions.
In December 2010, the IMF concluded the limited sales program covering 403.3 metric tons of gold,
accounting for about one-eighth of its holdings, as approved by the Executive Board in
September 2009. Sales totaling 222 tons were made to official holders, including the Reserve Bank of
India (200 tons), the Bank of Mauritius (2 tons), the Central Bank of Sri Lanka (10 tons), and the
Bangladesh Bank (10 tons). The gold sale program was conducted under strong safeguards to avoid
market disruption and all gold sales were at market prices, including direct sales to official holders.
Profits of SDR 4.4 billion on the sale will fund an endowment as part of the IMF’s new income model,
agreed to put the institution’s finances on a sustainable footing. The Executive Board also agreed that
SDR 0.5–0.6 billion (end-2008 net present value terms) in resources linked to gold sales would be
used to subsidize financing for low-income countries and boost the IMF’s concessional lending for
2009-14.
In February 2012, the Executive Board approved the partial distribution of the Fund’s general reserve
to the membership of SDR 700 million from the windfall profits of the recent gold sales. The
distribution became effective in October, 2012 when members representing over 90 percent of the
distribution had provided satisfactory assurances that the resources would be made available for
the Poverty Reduction and Growth Trust (PRGT).
In September 2012 the Executive Board approved a second distribution of the Fund’s general
reserves attributed to the remaining gold sales profits as part of a strategy to make the PRGT
sustainable in the longer term.
On October 10, 2013 the Fund obtained the required pledges to allow profits from windfall gold sales
to be used to make concessional lending self-sustaining.
The IMF’s lending capacity
The IMF can use its quota-funded holdings of currencies of financially strong economies to
finance lending. The Executive Board selects these currencies every three months. Most are issued by
industrial countries, but the list also has included currencies of lower income countries such as
Botswana, China, and India. The IMF’s holdings of these currencies, together with its own SDR
holdings, make up its own usable resources. If needed, the IMF can temporarily supplement these
resources by borrowing (see below).
The amount the IMF has readily available for new (non-concessional) lending is indicated by
its forward commitment capacity (FCC). This is determined by its usable resources (including unused
amounts under loan and note purchase agreements and amounts available under the IMF’s two
standing multilateral borrowing arrangements (see below)), plus projected loan repayments over the
subsequent twelve months, less the resources that have already been committed under existing
lending arrangements, less a prudential balance.
Borrowing arrangements
The IMF maintains two standing multilateral borrowing arrangements—the expanded New
Arrangements to Borrow (NAB) and the General Arrangements to Borrow (GAB)—currently with a total
borrowing capacity of SDR 370.0 billion (about $559 billion). If the IMF believes that its quota
resources might fall short of the needs of its member countries—for example, in the event of a major
financial crisis—it can activate these arrangements.
Since the onset of the global crisis, the IMF has signed a number of bilateral loan and note purchase
agreements to supplement its quota resources. The first round of bilateral borrowing took place in
2009-2010 and these resources were used to finance commitments under IMF-supported
arrangements that were approved prior to the first NAB activation (pre-NAB commitments). The use of
2009-2010 bilateral borrowing has been discontinued since April 1, 2013 and the remaining undrawn
balances under pre-NAB commitments are financed with quota resources.
Against the background of worsening economic and financial conditions in the Euro Area, in 2011-12,
38 countries committed to increase IMF resources further by US$461 billion through bilateral
borrowing agreements. As of August 1st, agreements with 21 members are now effective for a total
amount of $378 billion. These resources will serve as a second line of defense to the Fund’s quota and
NAB resources.
IMF concessional lending and debt relief
The IMF provides two primary types of financial assistance to low-income countries: low-interest loans
under the Poverty Reduction and Growth Trust (PRGT), and debt relief under the Heavily Indebted
Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative, the Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative (MDRI), and Post-Catastrophe
Debt Relief (PCDR). These resources come from member contributions and the IMF itself, rather than
from the quota subscriptions. They are administered under the PRGT, the PRG-HIPC, MDRI-I and MDRI-
II Trusts, and the PCDR Trust, for which the IMF acts as Trustee.
The predecessor of the PRGT was established to provide lending to eligible low-income countries in
support of the related arrangements and to subsidize the market rate of interest down to 0.5 percent
per year. Loan resources of about $42 billion (SDR 25.8 billion) have been committed by
23 contributors to the PRGT and its predecessors, while a larger number of member countries have
made subsidy contributions.
The PCDR Trust was established in June 2010 to provide post-catastrophe debt relief. The Trust was
initially financed by SDR 280 million (equivalent to around $422 million) of the IMF’s own resources,
and is expected to be replenished through future donor contributions, as necessary.
In addition to the above, there is a separate administered account financed by a group of member
countries for interest subsidies on IMF emergency assistanceto PRGT-eligible countries in post-conflict
or natural disaster situations.
Duty Entitlement Pass Book
DEPB (Duty Entitlement Pass Book ) is an export incentive scheme of Indian Government provided to Exporters in India.[1]
Duty Entitlement Pass Book Scheme in short DEPB is an export incentive scheme. Notified on 1/4/1997, the DEPB Scheme consisted of (a) Post-export DEPB and (b) Pre-export DEPB. The pre-export DEPB scheme was abolished w.e.f. 1/4/2000. Under the post-export DEPB, which is issued after exports, the exporter is given a duty entitlement Pass Book Scheme at a pre-determined credit on the FOB value. The DEPB rates allows import of any items except the items which are otherwise restricted for imports. Items such as Gold Nibs, Gold Pen, Gold watches etc. though covered under the generic description of writing instruments, components of writing instruments and watches are thus not eligible for benefit under the DEPB scheme.
The DEPB Rates are applied on the basis of FOB value or value cap whichever is lower. For example, if the FOB value is Rs.700/- per piece, and the value cap is Rs.500/- per piece, the DEPB rate shall be applied on Rs.500/-. The DEPB rate and the value cap shall be applicable as existing on the date of exports as defined in paragraph 15.15 of Handbook (Vol.1).
DEPB Scheme is issued only on post-export basis and pre/export DEPB Scheme has been discontinued. The provisions of DEPB Scheme are mentioned in Para 4.3 and 4.3.1 to 4.3.5 of the Foreign Trade Policy or Exim Policy. One significant change in the new DEPB Scheme is that in terms of Para 4.3.5 of the Exim Policy even excise duty paid in cash on inputs used in the manufacture of export product shall be eligible for brand rate of duty drawback as per rules framed by Department of Revenue which was not mentioned in the earlier DEPB Scheme.
Benefits of DEPB Rates[edit]The benefit of DEPB schemes is available on the export products having extraneous material up to 5% by material up to 5% shall be ignored and the DEPB rate as notified for that export product is be allowed.
Review of DEPB Rates[edit]The Government of India review[2] the DEPB rates after getting the appropriate an export import data on FOB (shipping) value of exportsand Cost, Insurance and Freight (CIF) value of inputs used in the export product, as per SION. Such data and information is usually obtained from the concerned Export Promotion Councils.
Implementation of the DEPB Rates[edit]
Some additional facilities as listed below have been provided for better implementation of the DEPB Rates
DEPB rates rationalized to account for the changes in Customs duties. Caps fixed on certain items but there would be no verification of Present Market Value (PMV) on such items. A number of ports have been added for availing facilities under the Duty Exemption Scheme, including DEPB. The threshold limit of Rs. 200 million for fixing new DEPB rates removed.
Provisional DEPB Rate[edit]
The main objective behind the provisional DEPB rates is to encourage diversification and to promote export of new products. However, provisional DEPB rates would be valid for a limited period of time during which exporter would furnish data on export and import for regular fixation of rates.
Maintenance of Record[edit]
It is necessary for Custom House at ports to maintain a separate record of details of exports made under DEPB Schemes.
Port of Registration[edit]
The exports/imports made from the specified ports given shall be entitled for DEPB.
In respect of products where rate of credit entitlement under DEPB Scheme comes to 10% or more, amount of credit against each such export product shall not exceed 50% of Present Market Value (PMV) of export product. During export, exporter shall declare on shipping bill that benefit under DEPB Scheme would not exceed 50% of PMV of export product.
However PMV declaration shall not be applicable for products for which value cap exists irrespective of DEPB rate of product.
Utilization of DEPB credit[edit]
Credit given under DEPB Schemes is utilized for payment of Indian customs duty
Re-export of goods imported under DEPB Scheme[edit]
In case of return of any exported goods, which has been found defective or unfit for use may be again exported according to the exim guidelines as mentioned by the Department of Revenue.
In such cases 98% of the credit amount debited against DEPB for the export of such goods is generated by the concerned Commissioner of Customs in the form of a Certificate, containing the amount generated and the details of the original DEPB. On the basis of certificate, a fresh DEPB is issued by the concerned DGFT Regional Authority. It is important to note that the issued DEPB have the same port of registration and shall be valid for a period equivalent to the balance period available on the date of import of such defective/unfit goods.[3]
Duty Free Import Authorisation (DFIA) SchemeDFIA is issued to allow duty free import of inputs, fuel, oil, energy sources, catalyst which are required for
production of export product. DGFT, by means of Public Notice, may exclude any product(s) from purview
of DFIA.
Entitlement
(a) Provisions of paragraph 4.1.3 shall be applicable in case of DFIA. However, these Authorisations shall
be issued only for products for which Standard Input and Output Norms (SION) have been notified.
(b) DFIA shall be issued in accordance with Policy and procedure in force on date of issue of Authorisation.
(c) In case of post export DFIA, a merchant exporter shall be required to mention only name (s) and
address(s) of manufacturer(s) of the export product(s). Applicant is required to file application to
concerned RA before effecting exports under DFIA.
(d) Pre-export Authorisation shall be issued with actual user condition and shall be exempted from