Dietary Reference Intakes: Vitamins Nutrient Function Life Stage Group RDA/AI* UL a Selected Food Sources Adverse effects of excessive consumption Special Considerations Biotin Coenzyme in synthesis of fat, glycogen, and amino acids Infants 0−6 mo 7−12 mo Children 1−3 y 4−8 y Males 9−13 y 14−18 y 19−30 y 31-50 y 50-70 y > 70 y Females 9−13 y 14−18 y 19−30 y 31-50 y 50-70 y > 70 y Pregnancy ≤ 18 y 19-30y 31-50 y Lactation ≤ 18 y 19-30y 31−50 y (μg/d) 5* 6* 8* 12* 20* 25* 30* 30* 30* 30* 20* 25* 30* 30* 30* 30* 30* 30* 30* 35* 35* 35* ND b ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Liver and smaller amounts in fruits and meats No adverse effects of biotin in humans or animals were found. This does not mean that there is no potential for adverse effects resulting from high intakes. Because data on the adverse effects of biotin are limited, caution may be warranted. None Choline Precursor for acetylcholine, phospholipids and betaine Infants 0−6 mo 7−12 mo Children 1−3 y 4−8 y Males 9−13 y 14−18 y 19−30 y 31-50 y 50-70 y > 70 y Females 9−13 y 14−18 y 19−30 y 31-50 y 50-70 y > 70 y Pregnancy ≤ 18 y 19-30y 31-50 y Lactation ≤ 18 y 19-30y 31−50 y (mg/d) 125* 150* 200* 250* 375* 550* 550* 550* 550* 550* 375* 400* 425* 425* 425* 425* 450* 450* 450* 550* 550* 550* (mg/d) ND ND 1000 1000 2000 3000 3500 3500 3500 3500 2000 3000 3500 3500 3500 3500 3000 3500 3500 3000 3500 3500 Milk, liver, eggs, peanuts Fishy body odor, sweating, salivation, hypotension, hepatotoxicity Individuals with trimethylaminuria, renal disease, liver disease, depression and Parkinson’s disease, may be at risk of adverse effects with choline intakes at the UL. Although AIs have been set for choline, there are few data to assess whether a dietary supply of choline is needed at all stages of the life cycle, and it may be that the choline requirement can be met by endogenous synthesis at some of these stages. NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) a . RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake. a UL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, and supplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B 12 , pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs, extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes. b ND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake. SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001). These reports may be accessed via www.nap.edu. Copyright 2001 by The National Academies. All rights reserved.
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Dietary Reference Intakes: Vitamins
Nutrient Function Life StageGroup
RDA/AI* ULa Selected FoodSources
Adverse effects ofexcessive consumption
SpecialConsiderations
Biotin Coenzyme insynthesis of fat,glycogen, andamino acids
Infants0−6 mo7−12 mo
Children1−3 y4−8 y
Males9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y
Females9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y
Pregnancy≤ 18 y19-30y31-50 y
Lactation≤ 18 y19-30y31−50 y
(μg/d)5*6*
8*12*
20*25*30*30*30*30*
20*25*30*30*30*30*
30*30*30*
35*35*35*
NDb
ND
NDND
NDNDNDNDNDND
NDNDNDNDNDND
NDNDND
NDNDND
Liver and smalleramounts in fruits andmeats
No adverse effects of biotin inhumans or animals werefound. This does not meanthat there is no potential foradverse effects resulting fromhigh intakes. Because dataon the adverse effects ofbiotin are limited, caution maybe warranted.
Fishy body odor, sweating,salivation, hypotension,hepatotoxicity
Individuals withtrimethylaminuria, renaldisease, liver disease,depression andParkinson’s disease,may be at risk of adverseeffects with cholineintakes at the UL.
Although AIs have beenset for choline, there arefew data to assesswhether a dietary supplyof choline is needed at allstages of the life cycle,and it may be that thecholine requirement canbe met by endogenoussynthesis at some ofthese stages.
NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary typefollowed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a. RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
aUL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, andsupplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs,extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.
bND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be fromfood only to prevent high levels of intake.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6,Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); and Dietary ReferenceIntakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001). These reports may beaccessed via www.nap.edu. Copyright 2001 by The National Academies. All rights reserved.
Dietary Reference Intakes: VitaminsNutrient Function Life Stage
GroupRDA/AI* ULa Selected Food
SourcesAdverse effects ofexcessive consumption
Special Considerations
Folate
Also known as:Folic acidFolacinPteroylpolyglutamates
Note: Given as dietaryfolate equivalents (DFE).1 DFE = 1 µg food folate= 0.6 µg of folate fromfortified food or as asupplement consumedwith food = 0.5 µg of asupplement taken on anempty stomach.
Coenzyme in themetabolism ofnucleic and aminoacids; preventsmegaloblasticanemia
Infants0−6 mo7−12 mo
Children1−3 y4−8 y
Males9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y
Females9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y
Pregnancy≤ 18 y19-30y31-50 y
Lactation≤ 18 y19-30y31−50 y
(μg/d)65*80*
150200
300400400400400400
300400400400400400
600600600
500500500
(μg/d) NDb
ND
300400
600800
1,0001,0001,0001,000
600800
1,0001,0001,0001,000
8001,0001,000
8001,0001,000
Enriched cerealgrains, dark leafyvegetables, enrichedand whole-grainbreads and breadproducts, fortifiedready-to-eat cereals
Masks neurologicalcomplication in people withvitamin B12 deficiency.
No adverse effectsassociated with folate fromfood or supplements havebeen reported. This does notmean that there is nopotential for adverse effectsresulting from high intakes.Because data on the adverseeffects of folate are limited,caution may be warranted.
The UL for folate applies tosynthetic forms obtained fromsupplements and/or fortifiedfoods.
In view of evidence linkingfolate intake with neuraltube defects in the fetus, itis recommended that allwomen capable ofbecoming pregnantconsume 400 µg fromsupplements or fortifiedfoods in addition to intakeof food folate from avaried diet.
It is assumed that womenwill continue consuming400 µg from supplementsor fortified food until theirpregnancy is confirmedand they enter prenatalcare, which ordinarilyoccurs after the end of thepericonceptional period—the critical time forformation of the neuraltube.
Niacin
Includes nicotinic acidamide, nicotinic acid(pyridine-3-carboxylicacid), and derivativesthat exhibit the biologicalactivity of nicotinamide.
Note: Given as niacinequivalents (NE). 1 mgof niacin = 60 mg oftryptophan; 0–6 months= preformed niacin (notNE).
Coenzyme orcosubstrate inmany biologicalreduction andoxidationreactions—thusrequired for energymetabolism
Infants0−6 mo7−12 mo
Children1−3 y4−8 y
Males9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y
Females9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y
Pregnancy≤ 18 y19-30y31-50 y
Lactation≤ 18 y19-30y31−50 y
(mg/d)2*4*
68
121616161616
121414141414
181818
171717
(mg/d)NDND
1015
203035353535
203035353535
303535
303535
Meat, fish, poultry,enriched and whole-grain breads andbread products,fortified ready-to-eatcereals
There is no evidence ofadverse effects from theconsumption of naturallyoccurring niacin in foods.
Adverse effects from niacincontaining supplements mayinclude flushing andgastrointestinal distress.
The UL for niacin applies tosynthetic forms obtained fromsupplements, fortified foods,or a combination of the two.
Extra niacin may berequired by personstreated with hemodialysisor peritoneal dialysis, orthose with malabsorptionsyndrome.
NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary typefollowed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a. RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
aUL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, andsupplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs,extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.
bND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be fromfood only to prevent high levels of intake.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6,Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); and Dietary ReferenceIntakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001). These reports may beaccessed via www.nap.edu. Copyright 2001 by The National Academdies. All rights reserved.
No adverse effectsassociated with pantothenicacid from food orsupplements have beenreported. This does not meanthat there is no potential foradverse effects resulting fromhigh intakes. Because dataon the adverse effects ofpantothenic acid are limited,caution may be warranted.
None
Riboflavin
Also known as:Vitamin B2
Coenzyme innumerous redoxreactions
Infants0−6 mo7−12 mo
Children1−3 y4−8 y
Males9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y
Females9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y
Pregnancy≤ 18 y19-30y31-50 y
Lactation≤ 18 y19-30y31−50 y
(mg/d)0.3*0.4*
0.50.6
0.91.31.31.31.31.3
0.91.01.11.11.11.1
1.41.41.4
1.61.61.6
(mg/d)NDND
NDND
NDNDNDNDNDND
NDNDNDNDNDND
NDNDND
NDNDND
Organ meats, milk,bread products andfortified cereals
No adverse effectsassociated with riboflavinconsumption from food orsupplements have beenreported. This does not meanthat there is no potential foradverse effects resulting fromhigh intakes. Because dataon the adverse effects ofriboflavin are limited, cautionmay be warranted.
None
NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary typefollowed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a. RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
aUL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, andsupplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs,extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.
bND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be fromfood only to prevent high levels of intake.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6,Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); and Dietary ReferenceIntakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001). These reports may beaccessed via www.nap.edu. Copyright 2001 by The National Academies. All rights reserved.
No adverse effectsassociated with thiamin fromfood or supplements havebeen reported. This does notmean that there is nopotential for adverse effectsresulting from high intakes.Because data on the adverseeffects of thiamin are limited,caution may be warranted.
Persons who may haveincreased needs forthiamin include thosebeing treated withhemodialysis orperitoneal dialysis, orindividuals withmalabsorption syndrome.
Vitamin A
Includes provitamin Acarotenoids that aredietary precursors ofretinol.
Note: Given as retinolactivity equivalents(RAEs). 1 RAE = 1 µgretinol, 12 µg β-carotene,24 µg α-carotene, or 24µg β-cryptoxanthin. Tocalculate RAEs from REsof provitamin Acarotenoids in foods,divide the REs by 2. Forpreformed vitamin A infoods or supplementsand for provitamin Acarotenoids insupplements, 1 RE = 1RAE.
Required fornormal vision,gene expression,reproduction, vegetablesembryonicdevelopment andimmune function
Infants0−6 mo7−12 mo
Children1−3 y4−8 y
Males9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y
Females9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y
Pregnancy≤ 18 y19-30y31-50 y
Lactation≤ 18 y19-30y31−50 y
(μg/d)400*500*
300400
600900900900900900
600700700700700700
750770770
1,2001,3001,300
(μg/d)600600 fruits and leafy
600900
1,7002,8003,0003,0003,0003,000
1,7002,8003,0003,0003,0003,000
2,8003,0003,000
2,8003,0003,000
Liver, dairy products,fish, darkly colored
Teratological effects, livertoxicity
Note: From preformedVitamin A only.
Individuals with highalcohol intake, pre-existing liver disease,hyperlipidemia or severeprotein malnutrition maybe distinctly susceptibleto the adverse effects ofexcess preformedvitamin A intake.
!-carotene supplementsare advised only to serveas a provitamin A sourcefor individuals at risk ofvitamin A deficiency.
NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary typefollowed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a. RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
aUL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, andsupplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs,extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.
bND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be fromfood only to prevent high levels of intake.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6,Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); and Dietary ReferenceIntakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001). These reports may beaccessed via www.nap.edu. Copyright 2001 by The National Academies. All rights reserved.
No adverse effectsassociated with Vitamin B6from food have beenreported. This does not meanthat there is no potential foradverse effects resulting fromhigh intakes. Because dataon the adverse effects ofVitamin B6 are limited,caution may be warranted.
Sensory neuropathy hasoccurred from high intakes ofsupplemental forms.
No adverse effects havebeen associated with theconsumption of the amountsof vitamin B12 normally foundin foods or supplements. Thisdoes not mean that there isno potential for adverseeffects resulting from highintakes. Because data on theadverse effects of vitamin B12are limited, caution may bewarranted.
Because 10 to 30percent of older peoplemay malabsorb food-bound vitamin B12, it isadvisable for those olderthan 50 years to meettheir RDA mainly byconsuming foods fortifiedwith vitamin B12 or asupplement containingvitamin B12.
NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary typefollowed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a. RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
aUL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, andsupplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs,extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.
bND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be fromfood only to prevent high levels of intake.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6,Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); and Dietary ReferenceIntakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001). These reports may beaccessed via www.nap.edu. Copyright 2001 by The National Acadeies. All rights reserved.
Patients onglucocorticoid therapymay require additionalvitamin D.
NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary typefollowed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a. RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
aUL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, andsupplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs,extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.
bND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be fromfood only to prevent high levels of intake.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6,Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); and Dietary ReferenceIntakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001). These reports may beaccessed via www.nap.edu. Copyright 2001 by The National Academies. All rights reserved.
Dietary Reference Intakes: VitaminsNutrient Function Life Stage
GroupRDA/AI* ULa Selected Food
SourcesAdverse effects ofexcessive consumption
Special Considerations
Vitamin E
Also known as:"-tocopherol
Note: As α-tocopherol.α-Tocopherol includesRRR-α-tocopherol, theonly form of α-tocopherol that occursnaturally in foods, andthe 2R-stereoisomericforms of α-tocopherol(RRR-, RSR-, RRS-,and RSS-α-tocopherol)that occur in fortifiedfoods and supplements.It does not include the2S-stereoisomericforms of α-tocopherol(SRR-, SSR-, SRS-,and SSS-α-tocopherol),also found in fortifiedfoods and supplements.
A metabolicfunction has not yetbeen identified.Vitamin E’s majorfunction appears tobe as a non-specific chain-breakingantioxidant.
There is no evidence ofadverse effects from theconsumption of vitamin Enaturally occurring in foods.
Adverse effects fromvitamin E containingsupplements may includehemorrhagic toxicity.
The UL for vitamin E appliesto any form of "-tocopherolobtained from supplements,fortified foods, or acombination of the two.
Patients on anticoagulanttherapy should bemonitored when takingvitamin E supplements.
Vitamin K Coenzyme duringthe synthesis ofmany proteinsinvolved in bloodclotting and bonemetabolism
Infants0−6 mo7−12 mo
Children1−3 y4−8 y
Males9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y
Females9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y
Pregnancy≤ 18 y19-30y31-50 y
Lactation≤ 18 y19-30y31−50 y
(μg/d)2.0*2.5*
30*55*
60*75*
120*120*120*120*
60*75*90*90*90*90*
75*90*90*
75*90*90*
NDND
NDND
NDNDNDNDNDND
NDNDNDNDNDND
NDNDND
NDNDND
Green vegetables(collards, spinach,salad greens,broccoli), brusselsprouts, cabbage,plant oils andmargarine
No adverse effectsassociated with vitamin Kconsumption from food orsupplements have beenreported in humans oranimals. This does notmean that there is nopotential for adverse effectsresulting from high intakes.Because data on theadverse effects of vitamin Kare limited, caution may bewarranted.
Patients on anticoagulanttherapy should monitorvitamin K intake.
NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary typefollowed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a. RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
aUL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, andsupplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs,extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.
bND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be fromfood only to prevent high levels of intake.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6,Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); and Dietary ReferenceIntakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001). These reports may beaccessed via www.nap.edu. Copyright 2001 by The National Academies. All rights reserved.