DIALOGUES OF PLATO

THE

DIALOGUES OF PLATO

jo WE TT

VOL.rrL

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THE

DIALOGUES OF PLATOTRANSLATED INTO ENGLISH

WITH ANAL YSES AND INTRODUCTION.S"

BY

B. JOWETT, M.A.I,|ASTER. OF BALLIOL COLL,I_.;E

REGII_I PROF_._SOR OF G[_F,.EK IN |'HE UHIVEKSITV OF OXFORD

DO_OR IN rH]R_|.OGY OF THE U_|VI_RS|TV OF LEYDEN

IA r _II.'E VOZ UMES

VOL. III

THIRD EDITION

REVI.SED AND CORRgC'I'.ED THROUGHOIJ'I,; WITH blARGIArAL A.VAL}"..$'ES

AND AN INDEX OF SUBfECTS A.VD PROPER .VAMES

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESSLONDON: HUMPHREY MILFORD

FirstEdiliou i87xSecondEdition x875Third Edilion I892Impressionof 1931

TheRepublichasbeenfffintedin Englandfrom tlworiginal2Matesat tkeOXFORDUNIVERSITYPXSSS

77_ Timaeusamf Critias_ _ l_rOduced_lwto_fa_icallyfroms_eetsof the TAirdEdition,and luroebeen2hrintedin GreatBritainfor the MUSTONCOMPANY,4 B_L YARD,TEMPLEBAR,W.C. 2,by

LOWE_ BRYDONE,LONDON

CONTENTS

REPUBLIC:--PAGi

INTRODUCTIONANDANALYSIS iBOOKI I

,, II 36,, III 68,, IV xo7,, V 140,, VI I8o,, VII 214,, VIII 247,, IX , 28o,, X 3o7

TIMAEUS 3,59

CRITIAS . 517

THE REPUBLIC.

INTRODUCTION AND ANALYSIS.

THE Republic of Plato is the longest of his works with the Republic.exception of the Laws, and is certainly the greatest of them. INrao,uc.TION.

There are nearer approaches to modern metaphysics in thePhilebus and in the Sophist; the Politicusor Statesmanis moreideal; the form and institutionsof the State are more clearlydrawn outin the Laws ; as works of art, the Symposiumand theProtagoras are of higher excellence. But no other DialogueofPlatohas the same largeness ofviewand the same perfectionofstyle; no other showsan equal knowledgeof the world,or con-tains more of those thoughtswhich are new as well as old,andnot of one age only but of all. Nowherein Plato is there adeeperirony or a greater wealth of humour or imagery,or moredramaticpower. Nor in any other of his writings is theattemptmade to interweavelife and speculation,or to connect politicswith philosophy. The Republicis the centre aroundwhich theother Dialoguesmay be grouped; here philosophy reaches thehighestpoint (cp.especiallyin BooksV, VI, VII)towhichancientthinkers ever attained. Plato among the Greeks, like Baconamong the moderns,was the first who conceiveda method ofknowledge,althoughneither of them always distinguishedthebare outlineor form from the substance of truth; and both ofthem had to be content withan abstractionof sciencewhich wasnotyet realized. He was the greatestmetaphysicalgeniuswhomthe world has seen; and in him,more than in any otherancientthinker, the germs of future knowledgeare contained. Thesciencesof logic and psychology,which have suppliedso manyinstrumentsof thoughtto after-ages,are based upon the analysesof Socrates and Plato. The principlesof definition,the law ofcontradiction,the fallacy of arguing in a circle, the distinctionbetween the essenceand accidentsof a thing or notion,betweenmeansand ends, betweencausesand conditions; also thedivisionofthe mind intothe rational,concupiscent,and irascibleelements,or ofpleasures and desiresintonecessaryand unnecessary--these

b

ii Thegreatnessof Plato.Republic.and other great formsof thoughtare all ofthemto be foundin theINT_ODUC-T_OS.Republic,andwere probablyfirst inventedby Plato. Thegreatest

of all logicaltruths, and the one of which writers on philosophyare mostapt to losesight,the differencebetweenwordsand things,has been most strenuouslyinsisted on by him (ep.Rep. 454A ;Polit. "26xE; Cratyl. 435,436ft.), althoughhe has not alwaysavoided the confusionof them in his own writings (e.g. Rep.463 E). But he does not bind up truth in logical formulae,-logic is still veiled in metaphysics; and the sciencewhich heimagines to 'contemplate all truth and all existence' is veryunlike the doctrine of the syllogismwhich Aristotle claims tohave discovered (Soph.Elenchi,33. I8).

Neither mustwe tbrget that the Republicis but the third partof a still larger design whichwas tohave includedan idealhistoryof Athens, as well as a politicaland physical philosophy. Thefragmentof the Critiashas given birth to a world-famousfiction,second onlyin importanceto the tale of Troy and the legend ofArthur; and is said as a fact to have inspired some of the earlynavigators of the sixteenth century. This mythical tale, ofwhich the subject was a history of the wars of the Atheniansagainst the island of Atlantis, is supposed to be founded uponan unfinished poem of Solon, to which it would have stoodin the same relation as the writingsof the logographers to thepoems of Homer. It would have told of a struggle for Liberty(cp.Tim.25C), intended to represent the conflictof Persia andHellas. We may judge from the noble commencementof theTimaeus,fromthe fragmentofthe Critiasitself,and fromthe thirdbook of the Laws, m what manner Plato would have treatedthis high argument. We can only guess why the great designwas abandoned; perhaps becausePlatobecamesensible of someincongruity in a fictitioushistory, or because he had lost hisinterest in it, or becauseadvancingyears forbadethe completionof it ; and we mayplease ourselveswith the fancy that had thisimaginary narrative ever been finished,we should have foundPlato himself sympathisingwith the struggle for Hellenic in-dependence (cp. Laws, iii. 698 ft.), singing a hymn of triumphover Marathon and Salamis,perhaps making the reflectionofHerodotus (v. 78) where he contemplates the growth of theAthenian empire--' How brave a thing is freedom of speech,

The greatnessof Plalo. iii

which has made the Atheniansso far exceedevery other state of Republic.INTRODUC-Hellas in greatness]' or, moreprobably,attributingthe victor_to a_o,_.

the ancientgoodorder ofAthens and to the favourof ApolloandAthene (cp.Introd.to Critias).

Again, Plato may be regarded as the 'captain' (g_pX_,b_)orleaderof a goodlybandof followers; forin the Repubficis to befoundthe originalof"Cicero'sDe Republica,of St.Augustine'sCityof God,of the Utopiaof Sir Thomas More,and of the numerousother imaginaryStates whichare framedupon the same model.The extent to which Aristotle or the Aristotelianschool wereindebted to him in the Politicshas been little recognised,andthe recognitionis the more necessarybecauseit is not madebyAristotlehimself. The twophilosophershadmore incommonthanthey were consciousof; and probably some elements of Platoremain still undetected in Aristotle. In Englishphilosophytoo,many affinitiesmay be traced,not onlyin the worksof the Cam-bridge Platonists,but in great originalwriters like Berkeley orColeridge,to Platoand his ideas. That there is a truthhigherthanexperience,ofwhichthe mindbears witnesstoherself,is aconvictionwhichinourowngenerationhas beenenthusiasticallyasserted,andis perhaps gaining ground. Of the Greek authors who at theRenaissancebrought a new lifeinto the world Plato has had thegreatestinfluence. The Republicof Platois also the first treatiseupon education,of which the writings of Milton and Locke,Rousseau,Jean Paul,and Goetheare the legitimatedescendants.Like Dante or Bunyan, he has a revelationof another life; likeBacon,he is profoundlyimpressedwith the unityof knowledge;in the early Church he exerciseda real influence on theology,and at the Revival of Literatureon politics. Even the fragmentsof his words when 'repeated at second-hand'(Symp.2I5D) havein all ages ravishedthe hearts of men, who have seen reflectedin themtheir own highernature. He is the father ofidealisminphilosophy, in polities, in literature. And many of the latestconceptionsof modern thinkers and statesmen,such as the unityof knowledge, the reign of law, and the equality of the sexes,havebeenanticipatedina dreambyhim.

The argument of the Republic is the search after Justice,thenature ofwhich is first hintedat by Cephalus,the just and blame-

b2

iv T_ argumentof the Republic.Republic.Jessold man--then discussedon the basisof proverbialmoralityINr_OD_C-T,O_.bySocratesandPolemarehus--thencaricaturedbyThrasymaehus

andpartiallyexplainedby Socrates--reducedto an abstractionbyGlaueonand Adeimantus,and having become invisiblein theindividualreappears at length in the ideal State which is con-structed by Socrates. The first careof the rulers is to be educa-tion,of which an outlineis drawn after the old Hellenicmodel,providingonly for an improvedreligion and morality,and moresimplicityin music and g-ymnastie,amanlierstrainofpoetry,andgreater harmonyof the individualand the State. We are thusled on to the conceptionof a higherState,in which 'no mancallsanything his own,'and in which there is neither 'marrying norgiving in marriage,'and 'kings are philosophers' and 'philoso-phers are kings;' and there is another and higher education,in-tellectualas well as moraland religious,of scienceaswell as ofart, andnotof youthonlybut of the whole of life. Such a Stateis hardly to be realized in this world and quicklydegenerates.To the perfect _dealsucceedsthe governmentof the soldierandthe loverof honour,this againdeclininginto democracy,and de-mocracyinto tyranny,in an imaginarybut regular order havingnot much resemblanceto the actual facts. When 'the wheelhascome full circle' we do not begin again with a new period ofhumanlife; but we have passed from the best to the worst, andthere we end. The subjectis then changedand the oldquarrelofpoetry and philosophywhich had been more lightly treated inthe earlier booksof the Republicis now resumedand foughtoutto a conclusion. Poetry is discoveredto be an imitationthriceremoved from the truth, and Homer, as well as the dramaticpoets, havingbeen condemnedas an imitator,is sent intobanish-ment alongwith them. And the idea ofthe Stateis supplementedby the revelationofa future life.

The divisioninto books, like all similar divisions1,is probablylater than the age of Plato. The natural divisions are five innumber;--(i) BookI and the first half of BookII down top. 368,whichis introductory; the first bookcontaininga refutationof thepopular and sophistiealnotions of justice, and concluding,likesome of the earlier Dialogues,without arriving at any definiteresult. To thisis appendeda restatementof the natureof justice

1Cp.SirG.C.LewisintheClassicalMuseum,vol.ii.p.L

The divisions, v

accordingto commonopinion,and an answer is demandedto the ReImbllc.question--Whatis justice,stripped of appearances? The second IwrRoDuc.TION.

division(2)includestheremainderof the secondand thewholeofthe thirdand fourthbooks,whichare mainlyoccupiedwiththeconstructionof the first State and the first education. The thirddivision(3)consistsof the fifth,sixth,and seventhbooks,inwhichphilosophyrather than justice is the subject of enquiry, and thesecondState is constructedonprinciplesof communismand ruledbyphilosophers,and the contemplationof the idea of good takesthe place of the social and politicalvirtues. In the eighthandninthbooks(4)the perversionsof Statesand ofthe individualswhocorrespondto themare reviewedinsuccession; and the nature ofpleasureand the principleof tyranny are further analysedin theindividualman. The tenth book (5) is the conclusion of thewhole,in which the relations of philosophyto poetry are finallydetermined,and the happinessof the citizensin this life,whichhasnow))eenassured, is crownedby the visionof another.

Or a more generaldivisioninto two parts may be adopted; thefirst (BooksI-IV) containing the description of a State framedgenerally in accordance with Hellenic notions of religionandmorality,while in the second(BooksV-X) the Hellenic State istransformedinto an ideal kingdom of philosophy, of which allother governmentsarethe perversions. These twopointsofvieware reallyopposed,and the oppositionis onlyveiledby the geniusof Plato. The Republic,like the Phaedrus (see IntroductiontoPhaedrus),is an imperfectwhole; the higher lightof philosophybreaks throughthe regularityof the Hellenictemple,whichat lastfades awayintothe heavens(592B). Whether this imperfectionofstructurearises froman enlargementof the plan ; or fromthe im-perfectreconcilementin the writer's own mind of the strugglingelements of thought which are now first brought together byhim; or,perhaps, from the compositionof the work at differenttimes--are questions, like the similar question about the Iliada,;d the Odyssey,which are worth asking,butwhichcannot havea distinctanswer. In the ageof Plato therewas no regular modeof publication,and an author would have the less scruple inaltering or adding to a work which was known only to a fewofhis friends. There is no absurdityin supposingthat he may havelaid his labours aside for a time, or turned from one work to

vi The secondlib&.

ldel_ubl¢c,another; and such interruptions would be more likely to occur1_r_oot.c.T_o._.in the case of a longthan of a short writing. In all attempts to

determine the chronologicalorder of the Platonic writings oninternalevidence,this uncertaintyaboutany singleDialoguebeingcomposedat one time is a disturbing element,which must beadmitted to affect longer works, such as the Republic and theLaws, more than shorter ones. But, on the other hand, theseemingdiscrepanciesof the Republic may onlyarise out of thediscordantelementswhichthe philosopherhas attempted to unitein a singlewhole,perhaps withoutbeinghimselfable torecognisethe inconsistencywhichis obviousto us. For there is a judgmentof after ages which few great writers have ever been able toanticipate for themselves. They do not perceive tl_ want ofconnexionin their own writings, or the gaps in their systemswhichare visibleenough to those who come after them. In thebeginningsof literature and philosophy,amid the first efforts ofthoughtand language,more inconsistenciesoccurthan now, whenthe paths of speculationare wellworn and the meaningof wordsprecisely defined. For consistency,too,is the growth of time;and some of the greatestcreationsof the human mind havebeenwanting in unity. Tried by this test, several of the PlatonicDialogues,accordingto our modernideas,appear to be defective,but the deficiencyis noproofthat they were composedat differenttimes or by differenthands. And the supposition that the Re-publicwas written uninterruptedlyand by a continuouseffort isin somedegree confirmedby the numerous references from onepart of the workto another.

The secondtitle,' ConcerningJustice,'is not the one bywhichthe Republicisquoted,either byAristotleor generallyinantiquity,and, like the other secondtitles of the PlatonicDialogues,maytherefore be assumedtobe oflater date. Morgensternand othershaveaskedwhether the definitionofjustice,whichis the professedaim,or the constructionof the State is the principal argumentofthe work. The answeris, that the twoblend inone, and are twofaces of the same truth ; forjusticeis the order of the State,andthe State is the visibleembodimentofjustice under the conditionsof human society. The one is the souland the otheris the body,and the Greekidealof the State, as ofthe individual,isa fairmindin a fairbody. In HegelianphraseologT the state is the reality of

Is thereoneargumentor more? viiwhichjustice is the idea. Or,describedin Christianlanguage,the Republic.

INTRODUC-kingdomof Godis within,and yet developesinto a Churchor ex- T_ON.ternal kingdom; 'the house not made with hands, eternal in theheavens,'is reducedto the proportionsofan earthly building. Or,to usea Platonicimage,justiceand the Stateare the warp and thewoofwhich run through the whole texture. And when the con-stitutionof the State is completed,the conceptionofjustice is notdismissed, but reappears under the same or different namesthroughoutthe work,both as the inner law of the individualsoul,and finallyasthe principleofrewards and punishmentsinanotherlife. The virtuesare based on justice,of whichcommonhonestyin buyingand selling is the shadow,and justice is based on theideaofgood,which is the harmonyof the world, and is reflectedbothin the institutionsof states and in motions of the heavenlybodies(cp.Tim.47). The Timaeus,which takes up the politicalrather than the ethicalside of the Republic,and is chieflyoccu-pied with hypothesesconcerningthe outwardworld, yet containsmany indicationsthat the same law is supposedto reignover theState, overnature, and overman.

Too much, however, has been made of this question both inancientand moderntimes. There is a stageof criticismin whichall works, whether of nature or of art, are referred to design.Nowin ancient writings,and indeed in literature generally,thereremainsoftena large elementwhichwasnot comprehendedin theoriginal design. For the plan grows under the author's hand;new thoughts occur to him in the act of writing; he has notworked outthe argumenttothe end beforehe begins. The readerwho seeksto find some one idea under which the whole may beconceived,must necessarilyseize on the vaguestand mostgeneral.ThusStallbaum,who is dissatisfiedwiththe ordinaryexplanationsof the argument of the Republic,imagineshimself to havefoundthe true argument 'in the representation of human lifein a Stateperfected by justice, and governed accordingto the ideaof good.'There maybe someuse in such generaldescriptions,butthey canhardly be said to express the design of the writer. The truth is,that we may as well speak of many designsas of one ; nor needanythingbe excludedfromthe plan of a great work to whichthemindis naturallyled by the associationof ideas,and whichdoesnot interferewith the general purpose. What kindor degree of

viii TAeleadingtkoughts.Red_ublic.unityis to be soughtafter in a building,in the plasticarts,inI_,oD_C.no_.poetry,in prose,isa problemwhichhasto be determinedrela-

tivelyto thesubject-matter.ToPlatohimself,theenquiry' whatwasthe intentionofthewriter,'or ' whatwastheprincipalargu-mentof the Republic'wouldhavebeenhardlyintelligible,andthereforehadbetterbeatoncedismissed(cp.the IntroductiontothePhaedrus,vol.i.).

IsnottheRepublicthevehicleofthreeorfourgreattruthswhich,toPlato'sownmind,aremostnaturallyrepresentedintheformoftheState? Justas in theJewishprophetsthereignofMessiah,or' thedayoftheLord,'orthesufferingServantorpeopleofGod,orthe_Sunofrighteousnesswithhealinginhiswings' onlyconvey,tousat least,theirgreatspiritualideals,sothroughtheGreekStatePlatorevealstoushisownthoughtsaboutdivineperfection,whichis theideaofgood--likethesunin thevisibleworld;--abouthumanperfection,whichis justice--abouteducationbeginningin youthandcontinuinginlateryears--aboutpoetsandsophistsandtyrantswhoarethefalseteachersandevilrulersof mankind--about' theworld'whichistheembodimentofthem--abouta kingdomwhichexistsnowhereupon earth but is laidup in heavento be thepatternandruleofhumanlife. Nosuchinspiredcreationis atunitywithitself,anymorethanthecloudsofheavenwhenthesunpiercesthroughthem. Everyshadeoflightanddark,oftruth,andoffictionwhichis theveiloftruth,isallowableina workofphilo-sophicalimagination.It is not allon the sameplane;iteasilypassesfi'omideasto mythsandfancies,fromfactsto figuresofspeech. It isnotprosebutpoetry,atleastagreatpartofit,andoughtnot tobe judgedby the rulesof logicor theprobabilitiesofhistory.Thewriteris not fashioninghisideasintoanartisticwhole; they takepossessionofhimandare toomuchforhim.We havenoneed thereforeto discusswhethera StatesuchasPlatohasconceivedispracticableor not,orwhethertheoutwardformor theinwardlit_camefirstintothemindofthewriter.Forthepracticabilityofhis ideashasnothingto dowith theirtruth(v.47uD);and thehighestthoughtstowhichhe attainsmaybetrulysaidto bear the greatest'marksofdesign'--justicemorethantheexternalframe-workoftheState,theideaofgoodmorethanjustice. Thegreatscienceofdialecticor theorganisationofideashas no real content;butis onlya typeof themethodor

Tke imaginary dale. ix

spirit in which the higher knowledge is to be pursued by the Republic.spectator ofall time and all existence. It is in the fifth,sixth,and INT_O_C-TION.

seventh books that Plato reachesthe ' summitof speculation,'andthese,although they fail to satisfy the requirementsof a modernthinker,may therefore be regarded as the mostimportant,as theyare alsothe most original,portionsof the work.

It is notnecessary todiscussat length a minor questionwhichhas been raisedby Boeekh,respectingthe imaginarydateat whichthe conversationwas held (the year 4i_ B.c.whichis proposedbyhim will do as well as any other); for a writer of fiction,andespecially a writer who, like Plato, is notoriouslycareless ofchronology(ep.Rep. i.336,Symp.193A,etc.),onlyaimsat generalprobability. Whether all the personsmentionedin the Republiccould ever have met at any one time is not a difficultywhichwouldhaveoccurredto an Athenianreading the work fortyyearslater,or toPlato himselfat the time of writing(anymore than toShakespeare respecting one of his own dramas); and need notgreatly trouble us now. Yet this may be a question having noanswer'whichis stillworth asking,'becausetheinvestigationshowsthatwecannotarguehistoricallyfromthe datesinPlato; itwouldbeuselessthereforeto wastetime ininventingfar-fetchedreconcile-mentsofthemin order toavoidchronologicaldifficulties,such, forexample,as the conjectureof C. F. Hermann, that GlauconandAdeimantusare notthe brothersbut the unclesof Plato(cp.Apol.34.A),or the fancyof Stallbaumthat Plato intentionallyleft ana-chronisms indicating the dates at which some of his Dialogueswere written.

The principal characters in the Republic are Cephalus,Pole-marchus, Thrasymachus, Socrates, Glaucon, and Adeimantus.Cephalusappears in the introductiononly,Polemarchusdrops atthe end of the first argument,and Thrasymachus is reduced tosilence at the close of the first book. The main discussioniscarried on by Socrates,Glaucon,and Adeimantus. Among thecompanyare Lysias (the orator) and Euthydemus, the sons ofCephalusand brothers of Polemarchus,an unknownCharmantides--these are mute auditors; also there is Cleitophon,who onceinterrupts (34o A), where, as in the Dialoguewhich bears hisname,he appearsas the friendand allyof Thrasymachus.

x The characgers : Ce_halus and Polemarchus :

ReHtbllc. Cephalus,the patriarch of the house, has been appropriatelyI_T_ODuC-T_ON.engagedin offeringa sacrifice. He is the pattern of an old man

who has almostdone with life,and is at peacewith himselfandwith all mankind. He feels that he is drawing nearer to theworldbelow,and seemstolinger aroundthe memoryof the past.He is eager that Socratesshould come to visit him,fond of thepoetry of the last generation, happy in the consciousnessof awell-spentlife,glad at havingescapedfrom the tyranny of youth-ful lusts. His love of conversation,his affection,his indifferenceto riches, even his garrulity, are interesting traits of character.He is not one of those who have nothing to say, becausetheirwholemindhas beenabsorbedin makingmoney. Yetheacknow-ledges that riches have the advantageof placing men abovethetemptationto dishonestyor falsehood. The respectfulattentionshown to him by Socrates,whose love of conversation,no lessthan the missionimposedupon him by the Oracle, leads him toask questionsof allmen,youngand old alike(cp. i.328A), shouldalso be noted. Whobetter suited to raise the questionof justicethan Cephalus, whose life might seem to be the expression ofit? The moderationwith which old age is picturedby Cephalusas a very tolerable portion of existence is characteristic,not onlyof him, but of Greek feeling generally, and contrasts with theexaggerationof Cicero in the De Senectute. The evening oflife is described by Plato in the most expressive manner, yetwith the fewest possible touches. As Cicero remarks (Ep.adAttic.iv. i6), the agedCephaluswouldhave been out of place inthe discussionwhich follows,and which he could neither haveunderstood nor taken part in without a violation of dramaticpropriety(cp.Lysimaehusin the Laches,89).

His 'son and heir' Polemarehushas the frankness and im-petuousnessof youth; he is for detainingSocratesby forcein theopeningscene,and willnot ' let him off'(v.449B)on the subjectofwomenand children. Like Cephalus,he is limitedin his point ofview,and represents the proverbial stage of moralitywhichhasrules oflife rather than principles; and he quotes Simonides(cp.Aristoph.Clouds,I35,5IT.)as hisfatherhadquotedPindar. Butafterthis he has no more to say; the answers which he makes areonly elicitedfrom him by the dialecticof Socrates. He has notyet experienced the influenceof the Sophists like Glauconand

Thrasymachus : xi

Adeimantus,norishe sensibleofthe necessityof refutingthem; he Republic.belongsto the pre-Socratieor pre-dialecticalage. He is incapable 1Nr_oDUC-T_o_.of arguing,and is bewilderedby Socrates to sucha degreethat hedoes not know what he is saying. He is made to admit thatjustice isa thief,and that the virtuesfollowthe analogyof the arts(i.333 E). From his brother Lysias (eontra Eratosth.p. 121)welearn that he fell a victimtothe ThirtyTyrants, but noallusionishere madeto his fate,nor to the circumstancethat Cephalusandhis family were of Syracusan origin, and had migrated fromThurii to Athens.

The ' Chalcedonian giant,' Thrasymachus, of whom we havealready heard in the Phaedrus (267D), is the personificationofthe Sophists,accordingto Plato'sconceptionof them, in some oftheir worst characteristics. He is vainand blustering,refusingtodiscourseunlesshe is paid,fondof makingan oration,and hopingthereby to escape the inevital_leSocrates; but a mere child inargument,and unableto foresee that the next 'move' (to use aPlatonicexpression)will' shut himup' (vi.487BJ. He has reachedthe stage of framing general notions,and in this respect is inadvance of Cephalus and Polemarchus. But he is incapableofdefendingthemin a discussion,and vainly tries to cover his con-fusionwithbanter and insolence. Whether such doctrinesas areattributed to him by Plato were really held either byhim or byany other Sophist is uncertain; in the infancy of philosophyserious errors about morality might easily grow up--they arecertainly put into the mouthsof speakers in Thucydides; butweare concernedat present with Plato's descriptionof him,and notwith the historical reality. The inequalityof the contest addsgreatly to the humour of the scene. The pompousand emptySophist is utterly helpless in the hands of the great master ofdialectic,who knows how to touch all the springs of vanityandweaknessin him. He is greatlyirritated by the irony ofSocrates,but his noisy and imbecilerage only lays him more and moreopen to the thrusts of his assailant. His determinationto cramdowntheir throats,or put 'bodily intotheir souls' his own words,elicitsa cry of horror from Socrates. The state of his temperis quite as worthy of remark as the process of the argument.Nothingis more amusingthan hiscompletesubmissionwhenhehas been once thoroughlybeaten. At first he seemsto continue

..... 77 !"

xii Glauconand Addmanlus.

Republic.the discussionwith reluctance,but soonwith apparent good-will,I_T_ODuC-and he even testifies his interest at a later stage by one or twoTION,

occasional remarks (v. 45° A, B). When attacked by Glaucon(vi.498C, D)he is humorouslyprotectedby Socrates'as one whohas never been his enemy and is nowhis friend.' FromCiceroand Quintilianand fromAristotle'sRhetoric (iii.I. 7 ; ii. 23.29)welearn that the Sophistwhom Plato has made so ridiculouswas aman of notewhosewritings were preserved in later ages. Theplay onhis namewhichwas madeby hiscontemporaryHerodicus(Aris. Rhet. ii. 23, 29), ' thouwastever bold in battle,'seems toshow that thedescriptionof him is notdevoidof verisimilitude.

When Thrasymachushas been silenced,the twoprincipal re-spondents,Glauconand Adeimantus,appear on the scene : here,as in Greek tragedy (ep. Introd.to Phaedo),three actors are in-troduced. At first sight the two sons of Ariston may seem towear a familylikeness,like thetwofriendsSimmiasand CebesinthePhaedo. Buton a nearer examinationof them the similarityvanishes,and theyare seen to be distinctcharacters. Glauconistheimpetuousyouthwho can 'just never haveenoughof fechting'(cp.thecharacterofhim inXen. Mere.iii.6); the man ofpleasurewho is acquaintedwith the mysteries of love (v. 474 D); the'juvenis qui gaudet canibus,'and who improves the breed ofanimals(v.459A) ; the lover of art and music (iii.398D, E) whohas all the experiences of youthfullife. He is full of quicknessand penetration,piercing easily below the clumsy platitudesofThrasymachusto the real difficulty;he turns out to the light theseamyside of human life,and yet does not lose faithin the justand true. It is Glaueonwho seizes what may be termed theludicrousrelationof thephilosopherto theworld,to whoma stateof simplicityis 'a cityof pigs,'who is alwaysprepared with a jest(iii.398C,407A ; v.45o,451,468C ; vi.5o9C ; ix. 586)when theargumentoffers him an opportunity,and who is ever readytosecondthe humourof Socratesand to appreciatethe ridiculous,whether in the connoisseursof music(vii.53I A), orin the loversof theatricals(v.475D),orin the fantasticbehaviourofthe citizensof democracy(viii.5-57foil.). His weaknessesare several timesalludedto by Socrates(iii.4o_E ; v.474D, 475E),who, however,will not allow him to be attackedby his brother Adeimantus(viii.548D, E). He is a soldier,and, likeAdeimantus,has been

Thedifferencebetweenthem. xiiidistinguishedat the battle of Megara(368A, anno456?)... The )?el_ublic.characterofAdeimantusis deeperand graver,and the profounder I_TRODUC-T_ON.

objectionsare commonlyput into his mouth. Glauconis moredemonstrative,and generally opens the game; Adeimantus pur-sues the argument further. Glauconhas more of the livelinessand quicksympathy ofyouth; Adeimantushas the maturerjudg-mentof a grown-upman of the world. In the secondbook,whenGlauconinsists that justice and injusticeshallbe consideredwith-out regard to their consequences,Adeimantusremarks that theyare regarded by mankind in general only for the sake of theirconsequences; and in a similarvein of reflectionhe urges at thebeginningof the fourth book that Socrates fails in makinghiscitizenshappy, and is answeredthat happinessis notthe first butthe secondthing,not the direct aim but the indirect consequenceof the goodgovernmentof a State. In the discussionabout re-ligionand mythology,Adeimantusis the respondent (iii.376-398),but at p.398C, Glauconbreaks in witha slightjest, and carriesonthe conversationin a lighter tone about musicand gymnastictothe end of the book. It is Adeimantusagainwhovolunteersthecriticismof commonsense on the Socratic methodof argument(vi.487B),andwhorefusestoletSocratespasslightlyovertheques-tionofwomenand children(v.449). It isAdeimantuswhois the re-spondent in the moreargumentative,as Glauconin the lighterandmoreimaginativeportionsof the Dialogue. For example,through-out the greater part ofthe sixthbook,the causes ofthe corruptionof philosophyand the conceptionof the ideaof goodare discussedwith Adeimantus. At p. 5o6C, Glauconresumes his place ofprincipalrespondent ; but he has a difficultyin apprehendingthehigher educationof Socrates,and makes some falsehits in thecourse of the discussion(526D,527D). Once more Adeimantusreturns(viii.548)withthe allusionto his brotherGlauconwhomhecomparesto the contentiousState ; in the next book(ix.576)he isagainsuperseded,and Glauconcontinuesto the end (x. 62i B).

Thus in a successionof characters Plato representsthe succes-sive stagesof morality,beginningwith the Atheniangentlemanofthe olden time,who is followedby the practicalman of that dayregulatinghis life by proverbs and saws; to him succeedsthewild generalizationof the Sophists,and lastly come the youngdisciplesof the great teacher,who knowthe sophisticalarguments

xiv The real and tke Platonlc Socrates.

Republic.but will not be convincedby them,and desire to go deeper intoI_T_oDuc-the nature of things. These too, like Cephalus, Polemarchus,TION.

Thrasymachus, are clearly distinguished from one another.Neither in the Republic,nor in any other Dialogueof Plato_isa singlecharacterrepeated.

The delineationof Socratesin the Republic is notwhollycon-sistent. In the firstbookwe havemore of the real Socrates,suchas be is depicted in the Memorabiliaof Xenophon,in the earliestDialoguesof Plato,and in the Apology. He is ironical,provoking,questioning,the old enemy of the Sophists,ready to put on themask of Silenus as well as to argue seriously. But in the sixthbookhis enmity towards the Sophistsabates; he acknowledgesthat theyare the representativesrather than the corruptersof theworld (vi.492A). He also becomesmore dogmaticand construc-tive,passingbeyondthe range either of the politicalor the specu-lativeideasof the real Socrates. In one passage(vi.5o6C)Platohimselfseemsto intimatethat the time hadnowcomeforSocrates,who had passed his whole life in philosophy,to give his ownopinionand notto be alwaysrepeatingthe notionsof other men.There is no evidencethat either the ideaof goodor the conceptionof a perfect state were comprehendedin the Socraticteaching,though he certainlydwelt on the nature of the universaland offinal causes (cp.Xen.Mem.i. 4 ; Phaedo97); and a deep thinkerlike him, in his thirty or forty years of public teaching, couldhardly have failedto touch on the nature of familyrelations,forwhich there is also some positive evidence in the Memorabilia(Mem.i.2,5i loll.). The Socraticmethod is nominallyretained;and every inferenceiseither put intothe mouthof the respondentor represented as the commondiscoveryof him and Socrates.Butany onecan seethat this is a mere form,of which the affec-tation grows wearisomeas the work advances. The method ofenquiryhas passedinto a methodof teachinginwhichby the helpofinterlocutorsthe same thesis is lookedat fromvariouspoints ofview. The nature ofthe processis trulycharacterizedbyGlaucon,when he describes himselfas a companionwho is not good formuch in an investigation,butcan seewhat he is shown (iv.432C),and may, perhaps, give the answer to a questionmore fluentlythan another (v. 474A ; cp. 389A).

Neither can we be absolutely certain that Socrates himself

Socr_[e$. xv

taughtthe immortalityof the soul,whichis unknownto hisdisciple l_'e_ublic.Glauconin the Republic(x. 608D ; cp. vi.498D, E ; Apol.4o,41); INrROV_C-TION.

nor isthere any reason to suppose that he used myths or reve-lationsof another world as a vehicle of instruction,or that hewould have banished poetry or have denounced the Greekmythology. Hisfavouriteoath is retained,and a slightmentionismade of the daemonium,or internal sign,which is alludedto bySocratesas a phenomenonpeculiarto himself (vi.496C). A realelement of Socraticteaching, which is more prominent in theRepublicthan in anyof the other Dialoguesof Plato,is the use ofexampleand illustration (r&dpoprtxaa_r__rpo_(p_po_r_,iv.442E) :' Let us apply the test of common instances.' 'You,' says Adei-mantus, ironically,in the sixth book, 'are so unaccustomedtospeak in images.' And this use of examplesor images,thoughtruly Socraticin origin,is enlargedby the geniusof Platointo theform of an allegoryor parable,which embodiesin the concretewhat has been already described,or is about to be described,inthe abstract. Thus the figure of the cave in BookVII is a re-capitulation of the divisions of knowledge in Book VI. Thecompositeanimal in Book IX is an allegoryof the parts of thesoul. Thenoblecaptainand the shipand the true pilotinBookVIare a figureof the relationof the peopleto the philosophersin theStatewhichhas been described. Other figures,such as the dog(ii.375A, D ; iii.404A, 416A ; v. 451D),or the marriage of theportionlessmaiden (vi.495,496),or the drones and wasps in theeighth and ninth books, also form links of connexionin longpassages,or are usedto recallpreviousdiscussions.

Plato is most true to the character of his master when hedescribeshim as ' not ofthis world.' And withthis representationof himthe ideal state and the other paradoxesof the Republicarequite in accordance,though they cannot be shown to have beenspeculationsof Socrates. To him,as to other great teachersbothphilosophicaland religious,when they looked upward, the worldseemed tobethe embodimentoferror andevil. The commonsenseofmankindhas revoltedagainstthisview,or has onlypartiallyad-mitted it. And even in Socrateshimself the sterner judgementof the multitudeat times passesintoa sort of ironicalpityor love.Menin general are incapable of philosophy,and are thereforeatenmity withthe philosopher; but their misunderstandingof him

xvi Analysis327.R¢ibubl£c.is unavoidable(vi.494 foil.; ix.589D): for theyhavenever seenI_ROD_C-T,o_.him as he truly is in his own image; they are only acquainted

with artificialsystemspossessingno native force of truth--wordswhichadmitof many applications. Their leaders have nothingtomeasure with,and are therefore ignorant of their own stature.Butthey are to be pitiedor laughed at, not to be quarrelledwith;they meanwell with their nostrums,if they could onlylearn thatthey are cuttingoff a Hydra's head (iv.426D, E). Thismodera-tion towards those who are in error is one of the most charac-teristic features of Socrates in the Republic(vi.499-502). In allthe differentrepresentationsof Socrates,whether of XenophonorPlato,and amid the differencesof the earlier or later Dialogues,he alwaysretainsthe characterof the unweariedand disinterestedseeker after truth, without which he wouldhave ceased to beSocrates.

Leavingthe characterswemay now analyse the contentsof theRepublic,and then proceedtoconsider (i) The general aspectsofthis Hellenicidealof the State, (_)The modernlightsin whichthethoughtsof Platomay be read.

/_Lvs_s. BOOK I. The Republic opens with a truly Greek scene--afestival in honour of the goddess Bendis which is held in thePiraeus; to this is addedthe promise of an equestriantorch-racein the evening. The whole work is supposed to be recited bySocrateson the dayafter the festivaltoa smallparty,consistingofCritias,Timaeus,Hermocrates,and another; this we learn fromthe first wordsof the Timaeus.

Whenthe rhetoricaladvantageof recitingthe Dialoguehas beengained,the attention is notdistracted by any referenceto the au-dience; nor is the reader further remindedof the extraordinarylength of the narrative. Of the numerous company, three onlytake any serious part in the discussion; nor are we informedwhether in the evening they went to the torch-race,or talked,asin the Symposium,throughthe night. The manner in which theconversationhas arisen is describedas follows:- Socratesandhis Steph.companionGlauconare about to leave the festivalwhen they are 327detained bya messagefrom Polemarchus,who speedilyappearsaccompaniedby Adeimantus,the brother of Glaucon,and withplayfulviolencecompelsthemto remain,promisingthemnotonly

Analysis 328-33I. xvii328the torch-race,but the pleasure of conversationwith the young, RepublicI.

whichto Socrates is a far greater attraction. They return to the A_ALYSIS.

house of Cephalus,Polemarchus'lather,now in extreme old age,whois foundsittingupona cushionedseatcrownedfor a sacrifice.' You shouldcome to me oftener,Socrates, forI am toooldto gotoyou ; and at my timeof life,having lost other pleasures,I carethe more forconversation.' Socratesasks him what he thinks of

329age,to whichthe oldman replies, that the sorrowsand discontentsofage are to beattributed to the tempersof men, and that age is atime of peace in which the tyranny of the passions is no longerfelt. Yes,replies Socrates,but the world willsay, Cephalus,thatyou are happy in old age becauseyouare rich. ' And there issomethingin what they say, Socrates,but not so much as they

33° imagine--asThemistoclesreplied to the Seriphian," Neither you,if you had been an Athenian,nor I, if I had been a Seriphian,wouldever have been famous,"I might in like manner reply toyou,Neithera goodpoor man can be happy in age,nor yet a badrich man.' Socrates remarks that Cephalusappears not to careabout riches,a qualitywhich he ascribesto his having inherited,not acquiredthem,and would like to know what he considerstobe the chief advantageof them. Cephalus answers that whenyou are old the beliefin the world below grows upon you,and

331then to havedone justice and never to have been compelledtodo injustice through poverty, and never to have deceivedanyone, are felt to be unspeakable blessings. Socrates, who isevidently preparing for an argument, next asks, What is themeaning of the word justice ? To tell the truth and pay yourdebts? No more than this? Or must we admit exceptions?Ought I, for example, to put backinto the hands of my friend,who has gonemad,the swordwhich I borrowedof him whenhewasin his rightmind? ' There must be exceptions.' 'And yet,'says Polemarchus,' the definitionwhich has been given has theauthorityof Simonides.' Here Cephalus retires to lookafter thesacrifices,and bequeaths, as Socrates facetiouslyremarks, thepossessionof the argumentto his heir,Polemarchus......

The descriptionof old age is finished,and Plato,as his manner IN,Opec-TION,is, has touchedthe key-note of the whole work in asking for thedefinitionof justice,first suggestingthe questionwhich Glauconafterwardspursues respecting external goods,and preparing for

c

xviii Analysis 332-335.Re2kubllcthe concludingmythusof the world belowin the slightallusionofI.l_raoDuc-Cephalus. The portrait of thejust man is anaturalfrontispieceor

T,ON.introductionto thelongdiscoursewhichfollows,andmay perhapsimply that in all our perplexityaboutthe nature of justice,thereis no difficultyin discerning' who is a just man.' The first ex-planationhas beensupported bya sayingof Simonides; and nowSocrateshas a mind to showthatthe resolutionof justiceintotwounconnectedprecepts, which have no commonprinciple,fails tosatisfy the demandsofdialectic.

ANALYSIS. •.... He proceeds: What didSimonidesmeanby this sayingof 332his? Didhe meanthat I wastogivebackarms to a madman? ' No,not in that case,not if the partiesare friends,and evilwouldresult.He meant that youwere to do what was proper, good to friendsand harm to enemies.' Everyact does somethingto somebody;and followingthis analogy,Socratesasks, What is this due andproper thing whichjustice does,and to whom? He is answeredthat justice does good to friends and harm to enemies. But inwhatway goodor harm? ' In makingallianceswith the one,andgoingto war with the other.' Then in timeof peace what is thegoodofjustice? The answeris that justice is of use in contracts,333and contracts are money partnerships. Yes; but how in suchpartnerships is the just man of more use than any other man?' When youwant tohavemoneysafelykept and not used.' Thenjusticewillbe usefulwhenmoneyis useless. Andthere is anotherdifficulty: justice, like the art of war or any otherart, mustbe ofopposites,goodat attackas well as at defence,at stealingas well 334as at guarding. But then justice is a thief,thougha heronotwith-standing,like Autolycus,the Homeric hero,who was 'excellentaboveallmen in theft and perjury '--to sucha pass haveyouandHomerand Simonidesbroughtus ; thoughI donot forgetthat thethievingmustbe for the goodoffriendsand the harmof enemies.And still there arises another question: Are friends to be in-terpreted as real or seeming; enemiesas real or seeming? And335are our friends to be only the good,and our enemies to be theevil? The answer is, that we must dogood to our seemingandreal goodfriends,and evilto our seemingand real evil enemies--goodto thegood,evilto the evil. But oughtwe to render evilforevil at all,when to do so will onlymake men more evil? Canjustice produceinjusticeany more than the art of horsemanship

The earlystagesof morality, xlxcan makebad horsemen,or heat produce eold? The final con- Ret_Micclusionis, thatno sageor poet ever said that the just return evil /"A_vsm,forevil;thiswasamaximofsomerichandmightyman,Peri-

336ander,Perdiccas,orIsmeniastheTheban(aboutB.C.398-381).....

Thus the first stage of aphoristicor unconsciousmorality is INT*ODVC-TION.

shown to be inadequate tothe wants of the age; the authorityof the poets is set aside, and through the winding mazes ofdialecticwe make an approach to the Christianprecept of for-giveness of injuries. Similar words are applied by the Persianmystic poet to the Divine being when the questioningspirit isstirred within him:--' If because I do evil,Thou punishestmebyevil,what is the differencebetween Thee and me ?' In thisbothPlatoand Khbyamrise abovethe levelof many Christian(?)theologians. The first definitionofjustice easily passes into thesecond;forthe simplewords'to speakthe truthandpayyourdebtsIis substitutedthe more abstract'to do goodto your friendsandharmtoyourenemies.'Eitheroftheseexplanationsgivesasufficientrule of life forplainmen,but they both fall shortof the precisionofphilosophy. We may notein passing the antiquityof casuistry,whichnot only arises outof the conflictof establishedprinciplesin particular cases,but also out of the effort to attain them,andis prior as well as posterior to our fundamental notions ofmorality. The 'interrogation' of moral ideas; the appeal tothe authority of Homer; the conclusionthat the maxim, 'Dogood to your friendsand harmtoyour enemies,'being erroneous,couldnot havebeenthe wordof any great man (cp.ii. 38oA, B),are all ofthemvery characteristicof the PlatonicSocrates.

• . . Here Thrasymachus,who has made several attempts to AsALrs_s.interrupt, but has hitherto been kept in order by the company,takes advantageof a pauseand rushes intothe arena,beginning,like a savage animal,with a roar. 'Socrates,' he says, 'whatfolly is this?--Why do you agree to be vanquished by oneanother in a pretended argument?' He then prohibits all the

337ordinary definitionsof justiee; to which Socrates replies thathe eannot tell how many twelve is, if he is forbiddento sayz x6,or 3x4,or 6×2,or 4x3- At first Thrasymaehusis reluctant

338toargue; butat length,witha promiseof payment on the part of¢2

xx Analysis 338-343.

Republicthe companyand of praise fromSocrates,he is inducedto open/.the game. ' Listen,'he says ; ' my answer isthat might is right,AtC,_LYSIS.

justice the interest of the stronger: now praise me.' Let meunderstand you first. Do youmeanthat becausePolydamasthewrestler, who is stronger than we are, finds the eating of beeffor his interest,the eatingof beef is also for our interest,whoare not sostrong? Thrasymachusis indignantat the illustration,and in pompouswords,apparentlyintended to restore dignitytothe argument,he explainshis meaningto be that the rulers makelaws fortheir own interests. Butsuppose,says Socrates,that the 339ruler or stronger makes a mistake--then the interest of thestronger is not his interest. Thrasymachus is saved fromthisspeedy downfallby his discipleCleitophon,who introducesthe 34oword ' thinks; '--not the actual interest of the ruler,but what hethinks or what seems to be his interest, is justice. The contra-dictionis escapedby the unmeaningevasion: for thoughhis realand apparent interests may differ,what the ruler thinkstobe hisinterest willalwaysremainwhathe thinksto be his interest.

Of course this was not the original assertion, nor is the newinterpretation accepted by Thrasymachushimself: ButSocratesis not disposed to quarrel about words, if, as he significantlyinsinuates,his adversaryhas changed hismind. In what followsThrasymadhusdoes in fact withdrawhis admissionthat the rulermay make a mistake,for he affirmsthat the ruler as a ruler isinfallible. Socrates is quite ready to accept the new position,34Iwhich he equally turns against Thrasymachus by the help ofthe analogyof the arts. Everyart or sciencehas an interest,but 342this interest is to be distinguishedfrom the accidentalinterestof the artist, and is onlyconcernedwiththe goodof the thingsorpersonswhichcome under the art. And justice has an interestwhich is the interest not of the ruler or judge, but of thosewho comeunder hissway.

Thrasymachus is on the brink of the inevitable conclusion,when he makes a bold diversion. ' Tell me, Socrates,'he says, 343'have you a nurse ?' What a question! Why do you ask?' Because,if you have, she neglectsyou and lets you go aboutdrivelling,and has not even taught you to know the shepherdfrom the sheep. For you fancythat shepherds and rulers neverthink of their own interest, but only of their sheep or subjects,

Analysis343-347. xxiwhereasthe truth is that they fattenthem fortheir use, sheepand RepublicI.subjects alike. And experience proves that in every relation ANALYsis.of life the just man is the loser and the unjust the gainer,

344especially where injustice is on the grand scale, which is quiteanother thing from the petty rogueriesof swindlersand burglarsand robbers of temples. The languageof men proves this-our'gracious' and 'blessed' tyrant and the like--all whichtends toshow (i) that justice is the interest of the stronger; and (2)thatinjusticeis more profitableand also stronger thanjustice.'

Thrasymachus, who is better at a speech than at a closeargument,having delugedthe companywith words, has a mind

345toescape. But the others willnot let him go, and Socratesaddsa humblebut earnest request that he will not desert them atsuch a crisis of their fate. ' And what can I do more for you?'he says; 'would you have me put the words bodily into yoursouls?' God forbid! replies Socrates; but we want you tobe consistent in the use of terms, and not to employ' physician'in an exact sense,and then again 'shepherd' or 'ruler' in aninexact,--if the words are strictly taken, the ruler and theshepherd look only to the good of their people or flocksandnot to their own: whereas you insist that rulers are solelyactuated by love of office. ' No doubt about it,' replies Thrasy-

346machus. Thenwhy are they paid? Is not the reason, that theirinterest is not comprehendedin their art, and is therefore theconcern of another art, the art of pay, which is commonto thearts in general,and therefore not identicalwith any one ofthem?

347Nor wouldany man be a ruler unless he were induced by thehope ofreward or the fear ofpunishment;--the reward is moneyor honour,the punishment is the necessityof being ruled by aman worse than himself. And if a State [orChurch]were com-posed entirely of good men, they wouldbe affected by the lastmotiveonly; and there wouldbe as much 'nolo episcopari' asthere is at presentof the opposite....

The satire onexistinggovernmentsis heightenedby the simple ISrRODUC-TION.

and apparently incidental manner in which the last remark isintroduced. There is a similar irony in the argument that thegovernorsof mankinddo not like being in office,and that there-forethey demandpay.

..... Enoughof this : the otherassertionof Thrasymachusis far ANALYSIS.

xxii Analysis 348-35_.

Republicmoreimportant--thatthe unjust lifeis more gainfulthanthe just./" Now,as youand I, Glaucon,are not convincedby him,we must 348ANALYSIS,

reply to him; but if we try to compare their respective gainswe shallwant a judge to decidefor us ; we had better thereforeproceedby makingmutualadmissionsof thetruth to one another.

Thrasymachus had asserted that perfect injustice was moregainfulthan perfect justice, and after a little hesitation he isinduced by Socrates to admit the still greater paradox that in- 349justice is virtue and justice vice. Socrates praiseshis frankness,and assumesthe attitudeof onewhose onlywish is to understandthe meaning of his opponents. At the same time he is weavinga net inwhich Thrasymachusis finallyenclosed. The admissionis elicitedfrom himthat the just man seeks togain an advantageover the unjust only, but not over the just, while the unjustwouldgain an advantageover either. Socrates,in order to testthis statement, employsonce more the favouriteanalogyof thearts. The musician,doctor, skilledartist of any sort, does not 350seek to gain more than the skilled, but only more than theunskilled(that is to say, he works up to a rule, standard, law,and does not exceed it), whereas the unskilled makes randomeffortsat excess. Thus the skilledfalls on the side of the good,and the unskilledon the side ofthe evil,and the just is the skilled,and the unjustis the unskilled.

There was great difficultyin bringing Thrasymachus to thepoint; the day was hotand he was streamingwith perspiration,and for the first time in hislife he was seen to blush. But hisother thesis that injusticewas stronger than justice has not yetbeen refuted,and Socrates now proceedsto the considerationofthis, which, with the assistance of Thrasymachus,he hopes toclear up ; the latter is at first churlish,but in the judicioushandsof Socratesis soonrestored togood-humour: Is there nothonour 35iamong thieves? Is not the strength of injusticeonlya remnantof justice? Is not absolute injustice absolute weakness also ?A housethat is divided againstitself cannotstand ; twomen who 352quarrel detract from one another's strength, and he who is atwar with himself is the enemy of himself and the gods. Notwickednesstherefore,but semi-wickednessflourishesin states,--a remnant of good is needed in order to make union in actionpossible,--thereis nokingdomofevil inthis world.

The threeargumentsrespectingjustice, xxiiiAnother questionhas not been answered: Is the just or the Re/ublic

353unjust the happier ? To this we reply, that every art has an /"ANALYSL_.

end and an excellenceor virtue bywhichthe end is accomplished.And is not the end of the soul happiness, and justice the ex-cellenceof the soul by which happiness is attained? Justice

354and happinessbeing thus shown to be inseparable,the questionwhether the just or the unjust is the happier has disappeared.

Thrasymachus replies: ' Let this be your entertainment,.Socrates, at the festival of Bendis.' Yes; and a very goodentertainment with which your kindnesshas suppliedme, nowthatyou haveleft offscolding. And yet nota goodentertainment--but thatwas myown fault,forI tasted oftoo manythings. Firstof all the nature of justice was the subjectof our enquiry, andthen whetherjustice isvirtue and wisdom,or evil and folly; andthen the comparativeadvantagesof just and unjust: and the sumof all is that I know not what justice is ; howthen shall I knowwhetherthe just is happy or not?...

Thus the sophisticalfabric has been demolished,chiefly by I_rRoDvc.TION,

appealing to the analogy of the arts. 'Justice is like the arts(I) in having noexternal interest, and (2)in notaimingat excess,and (3)justice is to happiness what the implementof the work-manis to hiswork.' At this the modernreader is apt to stumble,because he forgets that Plato is writing in an age when the artsand the virtues, like the moraland intellectualfaculties,were stillundistinguished. Among early enquirers into the nature ofhuman actionthe arts helped to fill up the void of speculation;and at first the comparisonof the arts and the virtues was notperceivedby them to be fallacious. They onlysawthe pointsofagreementin themand not the points of difference. Virtue,likeart, must take means to an end; goodmanners are bothan artand a virtue; character is naturally describedunder the imageofa statue (ii.36I D; vii.54° C); and there are manyother figuresof speechwhichare readilytransferred from art to morals. Thenext generationclearedup theseperplexities; orat least suppliedafter ages with a further analysis of them. The contemporariesof Plato were in a state of transition, and had not yet fullyrealized the common-sensedistinctionof Aristotle, that 'virtueis concernedwith action, art with production' (Nie.Eth. vi.4),or that 'virtue implies intention and constancy of purpose,'

xxiv Thejust is of the natureof thefinite.Republicwhereas ' art requires knowledgeonly' (Nie.Eth. ii.3). And yet

Z. in the absurdities which follow from some uses of the analogyINTRODUC-

•,o_. (cp. i. 333E, 334B), there seemsto be anintimationconveyedthatvirtue is more than art. This is implied in the reductioad ab-surdum that 'justice is a thief,'and in the dissatisfactionwhichSocratesexpresses at the finalresult.

The expression ' an art of pay' (i.346B) whichis describedas'commonto all the arts' isnot in accordancewiththe ordinaryuseof language. Noris it employedelsewhere either byPlato or byany other Greek writer. It is suggested by the argument,andseems to extend the conceptionof art to doingas wellas making.Anotherflawor inaccuracyof languagemaybe noted in the words(i. 335C) 'men who are injured are made more unjust.' Forthose who are injured are not necessarilymadeworse,but onlyharmed or ill-treated, t

The second of the three arguments, 'that the just does notaim at excess,' has a real meaning, though wrapped up in an ienigmaticalform. That the good is of the nature ,of the finiteis a peculiarly Hellenicsentiment,which may be comparedwiththe language of those modern writers who speak of virtue as Ifitness, and of freedom as obedienceto law. The mathematicalor logical notion of limit easily passes into an ethical one, and Ieven findsa mythologicalexpressionin the conceptionof envy(_b06,o,).Ideas ofmeasure,equality,order, unity,proportion,stilllinger in the writingsof moralists; and the true spiritof the finearts is better conveyedby suchterms than by superlatives.

' Whenworkmenstriveto dobetterthanwell,Theydoconfoundtheirskillincovetousness.'

(KingJohn,Activ.Sc.2.)The harmonyof the soulandbody(iii.4o2D),andofthe partsof thesoulwith one another (iv.44zC), a harmony ' fairer than that ofmusicalnotes,' is the true Hellenicmode of conceivingthe per-fectionof human nature.

In what may be called the epilogue of the discussionwithThrasymachus, Plato argues that evil is not a principle ofstrength, butof discordand dissolution,just touchingthe questionwhich has been often treated in modern times by theologiansand philosophers,of the negativenature of evil (cp.on the otherhand x. 61o). In the last argumentwe trace the germ of the

A nalysis 357-359. xxv

Aristoteliandoctrineof an end and a virtuedirected towards the i_e_ublicend, which again is suggested by the arts. The final recon- /"INTRODUC-

cilementofjustice and happinessand the identityof the individual x_os.and the Stateare also intimated. Socratesreassumesthecharacterof a 'know-nothing;' at the same time he appears to be notwhollysatisfied with the manner in which the argument hasbeen conducted. Noth!ng"is concluded; butthe tendencyof thedialecticalprocess,here as always, isto enlarge our conceptionofideas,and towiden their applicationto humanlife.

Steph. BOOKII. Thrasymachusispacified,but the intrepid Glaucon ANALYSIS.357 insists on continuingthe argument. He is notsatisfiedwith the

indirect manner in which, at the end of the last book,Socrateshad disposedof the question 'Whether the just or the unjustis the happier.' He begins by dividinggoods intothree classes:--first, goodsdesirable in themselves; secondly,goodsdesirablein themselvesand for their results; thirdly, goodsdesirable fortheir results only. He then asks Socrates in which of the three

358classes he would place justice. In the second class, repliesSocrates,among goodsdesirable for themselvesand also fortheirresults. 'Then the world in general are of another mind, forthey say that justice belongs to the troublesomeclass of goodswhichare desirabletbr their results only. Socratesanswers thatthis is the doctrineof Thrasymachuswhich he rejects. Glauconthinks that Thrasymachuswas too ready to fisten to the voiceof the charmer, and proposes to consider the nature of justiceand injusticein themselvesand apart fromthe results and rewardsof them whichthe world is alwaysdinning in his ears. He willfirst of all speak of the nature and originof justice ; secondly,of the manner in which men view justice as a necessity andnot a good; and thirdly, he will prove the reasonableness ofthis view.

' To do injusticeis said to be a good; tosufferinjusticean evil.As the evil is discoveredby experience to be greater than the

359good,the sufferers, who cannot also be doers, makea compactthat they will have neither,and this compactor mean is calledjustice,but is reallythe impossibilityof doing injustice. No onewould observe such a compact if he were not obliged. Let ussupposethatthejust and unjusthave tworings, likethat of Gyges

xxvi Analysis 360-363.

Republicin the well-knownstory, which make them invisible,and then 36o11. no differencewill appear in them, for every one will do evil ifANALYSIS.

he can. And be who abstainswill be regardedby the worldas a fool for his pains. Men may praise him in publicoutof fearfor themselves,but theywill laughat him in theirhearts.(Cp.Gorffhs,483]3.)

' And now let usframe an idealofthe just and unjust. Imaginethe unjust man to be master of his craft,seldommakingmistakesand easily correcting them; having gifts of money, speech,36Istrength--the greatest villain bearing the highestcharacter: andat his side let us place the just in his noblenessand simplicity--being, not seeming--without name or reward--clothed in hisjustice only--the best of men who is thought to be the worst,and let him die as he has lived. I might add (but I wouldratherput the rest into the mouthof the panegyrists of injustice--theywill tell you) that the just man will be scourged,racked,bound,will have his eyes put out,and will at last be crucified[literallyimpaled]--andall this becauseheoughtto havepreferred seemingto being. How differentis the case of the unjust who clings362to appearanceas the true reality! His highcharacter makeshima ruler ; he can marry where he likes, trade where he likes,helphis friendsand hurt his enemies; havinggot rich by dishonestyhe canworship the godsbetter,and will thereforebe morelovedby themthan the just.'

I was thinkingwhat to answer,when Adeimantusjoined in thealready unequalfray. He considered that the most importantpoint of all had been omitted:--' Men are taught to be just forthe sakeof rewards; parents and guardiansmake reputationthe 363incentiveto virtue. And other advantagesare promised by themof a moresolid kind,such as wealthymarriages and highoffices.There are the pictures in Homer and Hesiod of fat sheep andheavyfleeces,rich corn-fieldsand trees topplingwith fruit,whichthe godsprovide in this life for the just. And the Orphicpoetsadd a similarpicture of another. The heroes of MusaeusandEumolpus lie on couchesat a festival,with garlands on theirheads, enjoying as the meed of virtue a paradise of immortaldraankenness.Somegofurther,and speakofa fairposterityinthethird and fourthgeneration. Butthe wickedthey bury ina sloughand make them carry water in a sieve: and in this life they

Analysis 364-366. xxviiattribute to them the infamywhich Glauconwas assumingto be Republicthe lot ofthe just whoare supposedto be unjust. II.ANALYSIS.

364 ' Take another kindof argumentwhich is found both in poetryandprose :--" Virtue,"as Hesiodsays, "is honourablebutdifficult,vice is easy and profitable." You may often see the wicked ingreat prosperity and the righteousafflictedby the will of heaven.And mendicantprophets knockat rich men's doors,promisingtoatoneforthe sins ofthemselvesor their fathers inan easyfashionwithsacrificesand festivegames,or with charmsand invocationstoget rid of an enemygoodor bad by divinehelp and at a smallcharge;--they appeal to books professing to be written byMusaeus and Orpheus, and carry away the minds of wholecities, and promise to "get souls out of purgatory;" and if we

365refuse to listen to them,no one knows what will happen to us.'When a lively-mindedingenuousyouth hears all this, what

will be his conclusion? "Will he," in the language of Pindar,"make justice his high tower, or fortifyhimselfwith crookeddeceit?" Justice, he reflects,without the appearance ofjustice,is misery and ruin; injusticehas the promise of a gloriouslife.Appearanceis master oftruth and lord of happiness. To appear-ance then I will turn,--I will put on the show of virtue and trailbehind me the fox of Archilochus. I hear some one sayingthat

wickednessis noteasilyconcealed,"towhichI replythat "nothinggreat is easy." Unionand forceand rhetoricwill do much; andif men say that they cannot prevail over the gods,still how dowe knowthat there are gods? Onlyfrom the poets,who acknow-

366ledge that they may be appeasedby sacrifices. Then why notsin and pay for indulgencesoutof your sin? For if the righteousare only unpunished, still they have no further reward, whilethe wickedmay be unpunishedand have the pleasureof sinningtoo. But what of the world below? Nay, says the argument,there are atoning powerswho will set that matter right, as thepoets, who arethe sons of the gods, tellus ; and this is confirmedby the authorityof the State.

' How canwe resist suchargumentsin favourofinjustice? Addgoodmanners,and,as the wise tell us, weshall makethe best ofbothworlds. Who that isnot a miserablecaitiffwillrefrainfromsmilingat the praises ofjustice? Evenif a man knowsthe betterpart he will not be angry with others; for he knows also that

xxviii False3asesof morality.Republicmore than humanvirtue is neededto savea man,and that he onlyILANALYSIS.praisesjusticewho is incapableofinjustice.

'The origin of the evil is that all men from the beginning,heroes, poets, instructors of youth, have always asserted "thetemporal dispensation,"the honours and profits of justice. Hadwe been taught in early youth the power of justice and injustice367inherent in the soul,and unseenbyany humanor divine eye,weshouldnot haveneeded othersto be our guardians,but every onewouldhavebeen the guardianof himself. This is what I wantyou to show,Socrates ;--other men use arguments which rathertend to strengthen the positionof Thrasymachusthat "might isright;" but from you I expect better things. And please, asGlaucon said, to exclude reputation; let the just be thoughtunjust and the unjust just, and do you still prove to us thesuperiority of justice.'...

INxRoDuc-The thesis,whichforthe sakeof argumenthas beenmaintainedTION.

byGlaucon,is the converseof that of Thrasymachus--notright isthe interest of the stronger, but right is the necessity of theweaker. Startingfromthe samepremiseshe carries the analysisofsocietya step further back;--might is still right,but the mightis the weaknessof the many combinedagainstthe strength of thefew.

Therehavebeen theories in modernas wellas in ancient timeswhichhavea familylikenessto the speculationsof Glaucon; e.g.that power is the foundationof right; or that a monarch has adivineright togovernwell or ill; or that virtue is self-loveor thelove of power; or that war is the natural state of man ; or thatprivatevicesare publicbenefits. Allsuchtheorieshavea kindofplausibilityfrom their partial agreementwith experience. Forhuman nature oscillatesbetweengoodand evil,and the motivesofactionsand the originof institutionsmay be explainedtoa certainextent oneither hypothesisaccordingto the characteror point ofview of a particular thinker. The obligation of maintainingauthority under all circumstances and sometimes by ratherquestionablemeans is felt strongly and has become a sort ofinstinct amongcivilizedmen. The divineright of kings,or moregenerally of governments, is one of the forms under which thisnatural feelingis expressed. Nor again is there any evilwhichhas not some accompanimentof goodor pleasure; nor any good

yusticeand happiness, xxixwhichis freefrom some alloyof evil; nor any nobleor generous RepubZicI/.thoughtwhich may notbe attendedbya shadowor the ghostofa l_Rol_,c.shadowofself-interestor of self-love. We know that all human Ttos,actionsare imperfect; butwe do not therefore attribute them t0Jthe worse rather than to the better motiveor principle. Suchaphilosophyisboth foolishand false,like that opinionof the cleverrogue who assumes all other men to be likehimself (iii.4o9C).And theoriesof this sort do not represent the real nature of theState, which is based on a vague sense of right graduallycor-rected and enlarged by custom and law (althoughcapable alsoof perversion),any more than they describethe originof society,whichis to be soughtin the familyand in the socialand religiousfeelingsof man. Nordo they represent the averagecharacterofindividuals,whichcannotbe explainedsimplyon a theory of evil,but has always a counteractingelement of good. And as menbecomebetter such theoriesappear more and moreuntruthful tothem,becausethey are more consciousoftheir own disinterested-ness. A little experiencemay makea man a cynic; a great dealwill bring him back to a truer and kindlier view of the mixednature of himselfand hisfellowmen.

The twobrothersask Socrates to proveto themthat the just ishappywhen they have takenfrom himall that inwhichhappinessis ordinarily supposed to consist. Not that there is (i) anyabsurdityin the attempt to frame a notionof justice apart fromcircumstances. For the ideal must alwaysbe a paradox whencompared with the ordinaryconditionsof human life. Neitherthe Stoicalidealnor the Christianideal is true as a fact,but theymay serve as a basisof education,and may exercisean ennoblinginfluence. An ideal is none the worse because'some one hasmadethe discovery' thatno such idealwas ever realized. (Cp.v.472D.) And in a few exceptionalindividualswho are raisedabovethe ordinary level of humanity,the ideal of happinessmaybe realizedin death and misery. This may be the state whichthe reason deliberately approves, and which the utilitarianaswell as every other moralist may be bound in certain cases to

:: prefer.Nor again, (2) must we forget that Plato, though he agrees

generally with the view implied in the argument of the twobrothers, is not expressing his own final conclusion,but rather

_4

xxx yusliceand theappearanceof justice.Republicseeking to dramatizeone of the aspectsof ethicaltruth. He is

II. developinghis ideagraduallyin a seriesof positionsor situations.INTRODUC-

T,o_. He is exhibiting Socrates for the first time undergoing theSocraticinterrogation. Lastly, (3)the word 'happiness' involvessome degree of confusionbecause associatedin the language ofmodern philosophywith consciouspleasure or satisfaction,whichwas not equallypresent tohis mind.

Glaueonhas been drawing a picture of the miseryof the justand the happinessof the unjust,to whichthe misery of the tyrantin BookIX is the answer and parallel. And still the unjust mustappear just ; that is ' the homagewhichvicepays to virtue.' Butnow Adeimantus,takingup the hintwhich had beenalreadygivenby Glaueon(ii.358C), proceedsto show that in the opinionofmankind justice is regarded only for the sake of rewards andreputation,and points out the advantagewhich is given to suchargumentsas those of Thrasymaehusand Glauconby the conven-tional morality of mankind. He seems to feel the diffieultyof'justifying the ways of God to man.' Both the brothers touchupon the question,whether the moralityof actionsis determinedby their consequences(cp. iv. 42o foll.); and both of them gobeyondthe positionofSocrates,that justice belongsto the classofgoodsnot desirablefor themselvesonly,but desirablefor them-selves and for their results,to which he recalls them. In theirattempt to view justice as an internal principle, and in theircondemnationof the poets, they anticipatehim. The commonlifeof Greeceis notenoughforthem; they mustpenetratedeeperintothe nature of things.

It has been objected that justice is honesty in the sense ofGlaueonand Adeimantus,but is taken by Socrates to mean allvirtue. Maywe not moretruly say that the old-fashionednotionof justice is enlarged by Socrates, and becomes equivalenttouniversal order or well-being,first in the State, and secondlyin theindividual? He has founda new answer to his old ques-tion (Protag.329),' whether the virtues are oneor many,'viz.thatone is the ordering principle of the three others. In seekingto establish the purely internal nature of justice,he is met bythe fact that man is a social being, and he tries to harmonisethe two opposite theses as well as he can. There is no moreinconsistencyin this than was inevitablein his ageand country;

)eustigein the stale, xxxi

there is no use in turning upon him the cross lights of modern Republicphilosophy,which,from some other point of view,wouldappear II.INTRODUC-

equally inconsistent. Plato does not give the final solution of T_o_.philosophicalquestionsfor us ; nor can he be judged of by ourstandard.

The remainderof the Republicisdevelopedoutof the questionof the sons of Ariston. Three points are deserving of remarkin what immediatelyfollows:-- First,that the answerof Socratesis altogetherindirect, tie does not saythat happiness consistsinthe contemplationof the idea of justice, and still less will hebe temptedto affirmthe Stoicalparadox that the just man canbehappy on the rack. But first he dwells on the difficultyof theproblem and insistson restoring man to his natural condition,before he will answer the questionat all. He too will framean ideal, but his ideal comprehends not only abstract justice,butthe wholerelationsof man. Under the fancifulillustrationofthe large letters he implies that he will only lookfor justice insociety,and that from the State he wiUproceedto the individual.His answer in substanceamounts to this,--that under favourableconditions,i.e. in the perfect State, justice and happiness willcoincide,and that when justice has been once found,happinessmay be left totake care of itself. That he fallsinto somedegreeof inconsistency,whenin the tenth book(612A) he claimstohavegot rid of the rewards and honoursof justice, may be admitted;for he has left those which exist in the peri_ct State. Andthe philosopher' who retires underthe shelter of a wall' (vi.496)canhardly havebeen esteemedhappy byhim,at least not in thisworld. Still he maintains the true attitude of moral action.Let a man do his duty first,without asking whether he will behappy or not, and happiness will be the inseparable accidentwhich attends him. ' Seek ye first the kingdomof God and hisrighteousness,and all these things shallbe addeduntoyou.'

Secondly,it may be remarked that Platopreservesthe genuinecharacter of Greek thought in beginning with the State andin going on to the individual. First ethics,then politics--thisisthe order ofideas tous; the reverse isthe order ofhistory. Onlyafter many struggles of thought does the individualassert hisright as a moral being. In early ages he is not one, but oneof many, the citizen of a State which is prior to him; and he

xxxii Collective and individual action.

Ret_ublichas no notionof goodor evil apart fromthe law of his country orI/. the creedof his church. And tothis type he is constantlytendingINTRODUC-

•io_. to revert, whenever the influenceof custom,or of party spirit,orthe recollectionofthe past becomestoostrong forhim.

Thirdly,we may observe the confusionor identificationof theindividualand the State, of ethics and politics,which pervadesearly Greek speculation,and even in modern times retains acertain degree of influence. The subtle differencebetween thecollectiveand individualactionof mankindseemsto haveescapedearly thinkers, and we too are sometimes in danger of for-gettingthe conditionsof unitedhumanaction,wheneverweeitherelevatepoliticsintoethics,orlowerethicsto the standardofpolitics.The goodman and the goodcitizenonlycoincidein the perfectState ; and this perfectioncannotbe attainedby legislationactingupon them from without,but, if at all, by educationfashioningthem fromwithin.

ANALVS_S.... Socratespraisesthe sons of Ariston, ' inspired offspringof 368the renowned hero,' as the elegiacpoet terms them; but he doesnot understand how they can argue so eloquentlyon behalf ofinjusticewhile their charactershows that they are uninfluencedby their own arguments. He knows not how to answer them,although he is afraidof deserting justice in the hour of need.He therefore makesa condition,that having weak eyes he shallbe allowedto read the large letters first and then go on tothe smaller, that is, he must look for justice in the State first,and will then proceedto the individual. Accordinglyhe begins 369to constructthe State.

Societyarisesout of the wants of man. His first want is food;his seconda house; his third a coat. The sense of these needsand the possibility of satisfying them by exchange, draw in-dividualstogether on the same spot; and this is the beginningof a State,which we take the liberty to invent, althoughneces-sity is the real inventor. There must be first a husbandman,secondly a builder, thirdly a weaver, to which may be addeda cobbler. Four or five citizens at least are required to makea city. Nowmen havedifferentnatures,and one man willdoone 37othing better than many; and businesswaits for noman. Hencethere mustbe adivisionof labourintodifferentemployments; intowholesaleandretailtrade ; intoworkers,and makersofworkmen's

Analysis 370-375. xxxiii

tools; into shepherdsand husbandmen. A citywhichincludesall RepublicI£this will havefar exceededthe limitoffour or five,and yet not be ANALYSIS.

37xvery large. But then again imports will be required, and im-ports necessitateexports, and this impliesvariety of produce inorder to attract the taste of purchasers; also merchants andships. In the city too we must have a market and money andretail trades ; otherwisebuyers and sellerswill never meet,andthe valuable timeof the producerswill be wasted in vain effortsat exchange. If we add hired servants the State will be com-plete. And we may guess that somewherein the intercourseof

372the citizenswith one another justiceand injusticewillappear.Here followsa rustic pictureof their way of life. They spend

their days in houseswhich they havebuilt for themselves; theymake their own clothes and produce their own corn and wine.Their principal food is meal and flour, and they drink inmoderation. They liveon the best of terms witheach other,andtake care not to have too many children. 'But,' said Glaucon,interposing, 'are they not to have a relish?' Certainly; theywill have salt and olives and cheese, vegetables and fruits,and chestnuts to roast at the fire. ' 'Tis a cityof pigs,Socrates.'Why, I replied,what do youwant more ? 'Only the comfortsoflife,--sofasand tables,also sauces and sweets.' I see; youwantnotonly a State,but a luxuriousState ; and possiblyin the morecomplexframewe may sooner find justice and injustice. Then

373the fine arts must go to work--every conceivableinstrument andornament of luxury will be wanted. There will be dancers,painters,sculptors,musicians,cooks,barbers, tire-women,nurses,artists; swineherds and neatherds too for the animals, andphysiciansto cure the disordersof whichluxuryis the source. Tofeed all these superfluousmouths we shall need a part of ourneighbours' land, and they will want a part of ours. And thisis the origin of war, which may be traced to the same causes

374as other political evils. Our city wilt now require the slightadditionofa camp,and the citizenwillbe convertedinto a soldier.But then againour old doctrineof the divisionof labourmustnotbe forgotten. The art of war cannot be learned in a day, andthere must be a natural aptitude for militaryduties. There will

375be some warlike natures who have this aptitude--dogskeenofscent,swift of foot to pursue,and strong of limb to fight. And

d

xxxiv Analysis 375-379-Republicas spirit is the foundationof courage,such natures,whether of

I/. men or animals,will be fullof spirit. But these spiritednaturesANALYSIS.

are apt to bite and devouroneanother ; the unionofgentlenesstofriends and fierceness against enemies appears to be an im-possibility,and the guardian of a State requires both qualities.Who then can be a guardian? The imageof the dog suggestsan answer. For dogsare gentletofriendsand fierceto strangers.376Your dog is a philosopherwho judges by the rule of knowingor not knowing; and philosophy,whether in man or beast, isthe parent of gentleness. The humanwatchdogsmust be philo-sophers or loversof learningwhichwillmake them gentle. Andhow are they tobe learned withouteducation?

Butwhat shall their educationbe ? Is any better than the old-fashionedsort which is comprehendedunder the name of musicand gymnastic? Musicincludesliterature,and literatureis of two377kinds, true and false. ' What do you mean?' he said. I meanthat children hear stories before they learn gymnastics,and thatthe storiesare either untrue,or have at most one or twograinsof truth in a bushel of falsehood. Now early life is very im-pressible, and children ought not to learn what they will haveto unlearnwhenthey grow up ; wemust thereforehavea censor-ship of nursery tales,banishingsome and keepingothers. Someof themare very improper,as we may see in the great instancesof Homerand Hesiod,who notonlytell lies but bad lies ; storiesabout Uranus and Saturn, which are immoralas well as false,378and which should never be spoken of to young persons, orindeed at all; or, if at all, then in a mystery,after the sacrifice,not ofan Eleusinianpig,but of some unprocurableanimal. Shallour youth be encouragedto beat their fathers by the exampleof Zeus, or our citizensbe incited to quarrelbyhearing orseeingrepresentations of strife among the gods? Shall they listen tothe narrative of Hephaestus binding his mother, and of Zeussending him flyingfor helpingher when she wasbeaten? Suchtales may possiblyhave a mystical interpretation,but the youngare incapableof understandingallegory. If any one asks whattalesare tobe allowed,we willanswer that we are legislatorsand 379not book-makers; we only lay down the principles accordingto which booksare to be written; to write them is the duty ofothers.

M nalysis 379-38 3- xxxv

And our first principle is,that God must be representedas he Re2_ublicis; not as the author of all things,but of good only. We will ILANALYSIS.

not suffer the poets to say that he is the steward of goodandevil, or that he has two casks full of destinies;--or that Atheneand Zeus incited Pandarus to break the treaty; or that God

380caused the sufferingsof Niobe,or of Pelops, or the Trojan war ;or that he makes men sin when he wishes to destroy them.Either these were not the actionsof the gods,or God was just,and men were the better for being punished. But that the deedwas evil,and God the author, is a wicked,suicidal fictionwhichwe will allow no one, old or young, to utter. This is our firstand great principle--Godis the author ofgoodonly.

And the secondprincipleis likeuntoit :--With God isno vari-ablenessor change of form. Reason teaches us this ; for if wesupposea change in God,he must be changedeither byanotheror by himself. By another?--but the best works of nature and

381art and the noblestqualitiesof mindare least liabletohe changedby anyexternal force. Byhimself?--buthe cannotchange forthebetter; he will hardly change for the worse. He remains forever fairestand best in his own image. Thereforewe refuse tolistento the poets who tell us of Here beggingin the likenessofa priestess or of other deities who prowl about at night instrange disguises; all that blasphemous nonsense with whichmothers fool the manhood out of their children must be sup-

382pressed. But some one will say that God, who is himselfun-changeable,may take a form in relationto us. Why shouldhe ?For gods as well as men hate the lie in the soul,or principleoffalsehood; and as for any other form of lying which is usedfora purpose and is regarded as innocentin certain exceptionalcases--what need have the gods of this ? For they are notignorantof antiquity like the poets, nor are they afraid of their

383enemies,nor is any madman a friend of theirs. God then istrue, he is absolutelytrue; he changes not, he deceives not,by day or night, by word or sign. This is our second greatprinciple-God is true. Away with the lying dream of Aga-memnon in Homer,and the accusationof Thetis againstApolloin Aeschylus....

In order to give clearnessto his conceptionof the State, Plato INT*oDUC-TION*

proceeds to trace the first principles of mutual need and ofd2

xxxvi PoliticalEconomyin Plato.Republicdivisionof labour in an imaginary communityof four or five t

IZ citizens. Gradually this communityincreases; the division of IiISa-RODI_C-

T_oN.labour extends to countries; imports necessitate exports; a Imediumof exchangeis required,and retailers sit in the market-place to save the time of the producers. These are the stepsbywhich Platoconstructsthe first or primitiveState, introducingthe elements of politicaleconomyby the way. As he is goingto frame a second or civilizedState, the simple naturallycomesbefore the complex. He indulges,likeRousseau,in a picture ofprimitivelife--an ideawhichhas indeedoften had a powerfulin-fluenceon the imaginationof mankind,but he does not seriouslymean to say that one is better than the other (cp. Politicus,p. 272); nor can any inference be drawn from the descriptionof the first state taken apart from the second,such as Aristotleappears to draw in the Politics,iv.4, i2 (cp.againPolitieus,272).We should not interpret a Platonie dialogueany more than apoem or a parable in too literal or matter-of-facta style. Onthe other hand,when we compare the livelyfancyof Plato withthe dried-up abstractionsof modern treatises on philosophy,weare compelledto say with Protagoras, that the'mythus is moreinteresting' (Protag.32oD).

Severalinteresting remarkswhichin moderntimeswouldhavea place in a treatise on Political Economyare scattered up anddownthewritingsofPlato: cp.especiallyLaws,v.74o,Population;viii.847, Free Trade; xi. 916-7, Adulteration; 923-4,Wills andBequests; 93o, Begging; Eryxias,(thoughnot Plato's),ValueandDemand; Republic,ii.369ft.,Divisionof Labour. The last subject,and also the origin of Retail Trade, is treated with admirablelucidityin the secondbookofthe Republic. But Platonever com-binedhis economicideas intoa system,and never seems to haverecognizedthat Trade is one of the great motivepowers of theStateand of the world. He wouldmake retail traders onlyof theinferiorsort ofcitizens(Rep.ii. 371; ep.Laws,viii.847),thoughheremarks, quaintlyenough (Laws,ix. 918D),that ' if onlythe bestmen and the best women everywherewere compelledto keeptavernsfor a time or tocarry on retail trade, etc., then we shouldknowhow pleasantand agreeableall these thingsare.'

The disappointmentof Glauconat the 'city of pigs,'the ludi-crous descriptionof the ministersof luxury in the more refined

Useof .flcbian. xxxviiState,and the afterthoughtof the necessityof doctors,the illus- Republictration of the nature of the guardian taken from the dog, the ILINTRODLC-

desirablenessofofferingsomealmostunprocurablevictimwhen T_oN.impuremysteriesaretobecelebrated,thebehaviourofZeustohisfatherandofHephaestustohismother,aretouchesofhumourwhichhavealsoa seriousmeaning.InspeakingofeducationPlatoratherstartlesusbyaffirmingthata childmustbetrainedinfalsehoodfirstandintruthafterwards.Yetthis

isnotverydifferentfromsayingthatchildrenmustbetaughtthroughthemediumofimaginationaswellasreason;thattheirmindscanonlydcvclopegradually,andthatthereismuchwhichtheymustlearnwithoutunderstanding(cp.iii.4o2A).ThisisalsothesubstanceofPlato'sview,thoughhemustbcacknow-ledgedtohavedrawnthelinesomewhatdifferentlyfrommodernethicalwriters,respectingtruthandfalsehood.Tous,economiesoraccommodationswouldnotbeallowableunlesstheywererequiredbythehumanfacultiesornecessaryforthecommuni-cationofknowledgetothesimpleandignorant.Wc shouldinsist that the wordwas inseparablefrom the intention,and thatwe must not be ' falselytrue,' i.e. speak or act falselyin supportof what was right or true. But Plato would limit the use offictionsonly by requiring that they should have a good moraleffect,and that such a dangerousweapon as falsehoodshouldbeemployedby the rulersaloneand for great objects.

A Greek in the age of Plato attached no importance to thequestionwhether his religion was an historical fact. He wasjust beginningto be consciousthat the past had a history; buthe couldsee nothing beyondHomer and Hesiod. Whether theirnarrativeswere true or falsedid not seriouslyaffect the politicalor social life of Hellas. Men only began to suspect that theywere fictionswhen they recognised them to be immoral. Andsoin all religions: the considerationof their moralitycomesfirst,afterwards the truth of the documents in which they are re-corded, or of the events natural or supernatural which are toldof them. But in modern times,and in Protestant countriesper-haps more than in CathoLic,we have been too much inclinedto

• identify the historicalwith the moral; and some have refusedto believe in religionat all,unless a superhumanaccuracywasdiscernibleineverypartoftherecord.Thefactsofanancient

xxxviii 3lyt]_and allegory.RepUblicor religioushistoryare amongst the most importantof all facts;

II. but they are frequently uncertain, and we only learn the trueII_TRO_JUC.

•_oN. lessonwhich is to be gathered from them when we place our-selves above them. These reflectionstend to show that thedifferencebetween Plato and ourselves,thoughnot unimportant,is not so great as might at first sight appear. For we shouldagree with him in placing the moral before the historicaltruthof religion; and, generally,in disregarding those errors or mis-statements of factwhich necessarily occur in the early stages ofall religions. We know also that changes in the traditions of acountrycannot be made in a day; and are therefore tolerant ofmany thingswhichscienceand criticismwouldcondemn.

We note inpassing that the allegoricalinterpretationof mytho-logy, said to have been first introduced as early as the sixthcentury beforeChrist byTheagenes of Rhegium,was well estab-lished in the age of Plato,and here, as in the Phaedrus (z_O--3o),though for a differentreason, was rejected by him. That ana-chronisms whether of religionor law, when men have reachedanother stage of civilization,should be got rid of by fictionsis inaccordancewith universalexperience. Great is the art of inter-pretation; and by a naturalprocess,whichwhenoncediscoveredwas always going on, what could not be altered was explainedaway. And so without any palpable inconsistencythere existedside by side two forms of religion, the tradition inherited orinvented by the poets and the customaryworship of the temple;on the other hand,there was the religionof the philosopher,whowas dwellingin the heaven of ideas,but did not therefore refuseto offer a cock to ._Esculapius,or to be seen saying his prayersat the rising of the sun. At length the antagonismbetween thepopular and philosophicalreligion, never so great among theGreeksas in our own age,disappeared,and wasonly felt likethedifferencebetween the religion of the educated and uneducatedamong ourselves. The Zeus of Homer and Hesiod easilypassedinto the ' royal mind' of Plato (Philebus,28); the giant Heraclesbecamethe knight-errantand benefactorof mankind. These andstill morewonderful transformationswere readilyeffectedby theingenuityofStoicsand neo-Platonistsin the twoor three centuriesbeforeand after Christ. The Greek and Roman religionsweregraduallypermeatedby the spiritof philosophy; havinglosttheir

Tkeliein tkesouL xxxixancient meaning,they were resolvedinto poetry and morality; Republicand probablywere never purer than at the time of their decay, II.INTRODUC"

whentheir influenceovertheworld waswaning. _ios.A singular conceptionwhich occurs towards the end of the

book is the lie in the soul; this is connectedwith the Platonicand Socratic doctrinethat involuntary ignorance is worse thanvoluntary. The lie in the soul is a true lie, the corruptionof the highest truth, the deception of the highest part of thesoul,fromwhich he who is deceivedhas no power of deliveringhimself. For example,to represent God as false or immoral,or,accordingto Plato, as deludingmen with appearancesor as theauthor of evil; or again, to affirm with Protagoras that _know-ledge is sensation,'or that 'being is becoming,'or with Thrasy-machus'that might is right,'wouldhave been regarded by Platoas a lieof thishatefulsort. The greatestunconsciousnessof thegreatest untruth,e.g. if, in the language of the Gospels(John iv.4I), ' hewhowas blind'were to say ' I see,'is anotheraspectof thestateof mindwhich Plato is describing. The lie in the soulmaybe further comparedwith the sin against the Holy Ghost (Lukexii.Io),allowing for the differencebetween Greek and Christianmodes of speaking. To this is opposed the lie in words, whichis only such a deception as may occur in a play or poem, orallegoryor figure of speech,or in any sort of accommodation,-whichthoughuseless to the gods may be usefulto menin certaincases. Socrates is here answering the questionwhich he hadhimself raised (i.331C) about the propriety of deceivinga mad-man; and he is also contrastingthenature of Godand man. ForGodis Truth, but mankindcan onlybe true by appearing some-times to be partial, or false. Reserving for another place thegreater questionsof religion or education,we may note further,(I) the approvalof the oldtraditionaleducationofGreece; (2)thepreparationwhichPlato is making for the attack on Homer andthe poets ; (3)the preparationwhich he is alsomaking forthe useof economiesin the State; (4) the contemptuousand at thesame time euphemisticmanner in which here as below(iii.39o)he alludesto the ChroniqueScandaleuseof thegods.

St_h. BOOK III. There is another motive in purifying religion, A,_A_.vsts.

386 which is to banish fear; for no man can be courageouswho is

xl Analysis 386-389.Republicafraid of death, or who believesthe tales which are repeated byIli.

the poets concerning the world below. They must be gentlyANALYSIS,

requested not to abuse hell; they may be reminded that theirstories are both untrue and discouraging. Nor must they beangryif we expunge obnoxiouspassages, such as the depressingwords of Achilles--'I would rather be a serving-manthan ruleover all the dead;' and the verses which tell of the squalidmansions,the senseless shadows,the flittingsoul mourningoverlost strength and youth,the soulwith a gibbergoingbeneath the 387earth like smoke,or the soulsofthe suitorswhichflutteraboutlikebats. The terrors and horrors of Cocytusand Styx, ghosts andsaplessshades,and the rest of theirTartarean nomenclature,mustvanish. Such tales may have their use; but they are not theproper foodfor soldiers. As little can we admitthe sorrows andsympathiesof the Homeric heroes:--Achilles,the son of Thetis,in tears, throwing ashes on his head,or pacing upand down thesea-shore in distraction; or Priam, the cousin of the gods,cryingaloud,rollingin the mire. A good man is not prostrated at theloss of childrenor fortune. Neither is deathterrible tohim ; andtherefore lamentationsover the dead shouldnot be practisedbymen of note; they shouldbe the concern of inferiorpersonsonly,388whether women or men. Still worse is the attribution of suchweakness to the gods; as when the goddesses say, 'Alas! mytravail!' and worst of all, when the king of heaven himselflaments his inabilityto save Hector, or sorrows over the im-pending doomof his dear Sarpedon. Sucha characterof God,ifnot ridiculedbyour youngmen, is likelyto be imitatedby them.Nor should our citizens be given to excess of laughter--' Suchviolentdelights' are followedby a violentre-action. The descrip-389tion in the Iliad of the gods shaking their sidesat the clumsinessof Hephaestuswillnot be admittedbyus. ' Certainlynot.'

Truth shouldhavea highplace amongthe virtues,for falsehood,as we were saying, isuseless to the gods,and onlyuseful tomenas a medicine. But this employmentof falsehoodmust remainaprivilegeofstate ; the commonman mustnot in returntell a lie tothe ruler; any more than the patient would tell a lie to hisphysician,or the sailorto hiscaptain.

In the next place our youthmustbe temperate,and temperanceconsists in self-controland obedienceto authority. That is a

Analysis389-392. xlilesson which Homer teaches in some places: ' The Achaeans Republicmarchedon breathingprowess,in silent awe of their leaders ;'-- III.

_.NALYSIS.

buta verydifferentone in other places: ' O heavywithwine,who39° hast the eyes of a dog,butthe heart of a stag.' Language of the

latter kind will not impress self-controlon the minds of youth.The same may be said about his praises of eatingand drinkingand hisdread of starvation; alsoabout theverses inwhichhe tellsof the rapturous loves of Zeus and Here,or of how HephaestusoncedetainedAres and Aphrodite in a net ona similaroccasion.There is a nobler strain heard in the words:--' Endure,my soul,thou hast endured worse.' Nor must we allow our citizenstoreceivebribes,or to say, ' Giftspersuade the gods,gifts reverendkings;' or to applaud the ignobleadvice of Phoenixto Achilleskhathe shouldget money out of the Greeks before he assistedthem; or the meannessof Achilleshimself in takinggifts from

391Agamemnon; or his requiring a ransomfor the bodyof Hector;or his cursing of Apollo; or his insolence to the river-godScamander; or his dedicationto the dead Patroclusof his ownhair which had been already dedicated to the other river-godSpercheius; or his crueltyin draggingthe bodyof Hector roundthe walls,and slayingthe captives at the pyre : such a combina-tion of meanness and crueltyin Cheiron'spupil is inconceivable.The amatory exploits of Peirithous and Theseus are equallyunworthy. Either theseso-calledsons of godswere not the sonsof gods, or they were not such as the poets imaginethem, anymorethan the godsthemselvesare the authorsof evil. The youthwho believesthat such things are done by those who have the

392blood of heaven flowing in their veins will be too ready toimitatetheir example.

Enough of gods and heroes;--what shall we say about men?What the poets and story-tellerssay--that the wickedprosperand the righteousare afflicted,or that justice is another's gain?Such misrepresentationscannotbe allowedby us. But in thiswe are anticipating the definitionof justice, and had thereforebetterdeferthe enquiry.

The subjects of poetry have been sufficientlytreated; nextfollowsstyle. Now all poetry is a narrative of events past,present,or to come; and narrative is of three kinds,the simple,the imitative,and a compositionof the two. An instancewill

xlii Analys£s393-398.RetOubllcmake mymeaning clear. The first scene in Homeris of the last 393IIZ

or mixedkind,beingpartly descriptionand partly dialogue. ButANALYSIS.

if you throw the dialogueinto the ' oratio obliqua,'the passagewill run thus: The priest came and prayed Apollo that the 394Achaeansmighttake Troyand have a safe return if Agamemnonwouldonly give him back his daughter; and the other Greeksassented,but Agamemnonwaswroth,and soon--The wholethenbecomesdescriptive,and the poet is the only speaker left; or, ifyou omit the narrative,the whole becomesdialogue. These arethe three styles--whichof themis to be admitted into our State?'Do you ask whether tragedy and comedyare to be admitted?'Yes, but also somethingmore--Is it not doubtfulwhether ourguardiansare tobe imitatorsat all ? Or rather, has not the ques-tion been already answered,for we have decidedthat one mancannotin his lifeplay many parts, any more than he canact both395tragedyand comedy,or be rhapsodistand actor at once? Humannatureis coinedintovery smallpieces, and as our guardianshavetheir ownbusinessalready,whichis the careof freedom,they willhaveenoughto dowithoutimitating. If they imitate they shouldimitate,not any meanness or baseness, but the good only; forthe mask which the actor wears is apt to become his face.We cannot allow men to play the parts of women,quarrelling,weeping,scolding,or boastingagainstthe gods,--leastof all whenmaking love or in labour. They must not represent slaves, orbullies,or cowards,or drunkards,or madmen,or blacksmiths,or 396neighing horses, or bellowingbulls, or sounding rivers, or aragingsea. A goodor wise man willbe willingto performgoodandwise actions,but he willbe ashamed to play an inferior partwhich he has never practised; and he willprefer to employthedescriptivestyle with as little imitationas possible. The man397whohas noself-respect,on the contrary,willimitateanybodyandanything; soundsof nature and criesof animalsalike; hiswholeperformancewill be imitationof gesture and voice. Now in thedescriptivestyle there are few changes,butin the dranmticthereare a great many. Poetsand musiciansuse either,or a compoundof beth,and this compoundis very attractiveto youth and theirteachersas wellas to thevulgar. But our State inwhichone manplays one part onlyis not adapted for complexity. And when 398one ofthese polyphonouspantomimicgentlemenoffersto exhibit

Ana/yNs398-4ox. xliiihimselfand his poetry we will show him every observanceof Republicrespect,butat the sametimetellhim that there is no roomforhis IILA_ALYSIS,

kindin our State ; we prefer the rough,honest poet,and willnotdepart fromour originalmodels(ii.379foll.; ep. Laws,vii.817).

Next as to the music. A song or ode has three parts,--thesubject,the harmony,and the rhythm; of which the two lastaredependentupon the first. As webanishedstrains of lamentation,so we maynow banish the mixed Lydian harmonies,which arethe harmonies of lamentation; and as our citizens are to betemperate,we may also banish convivialharmonies,such as the

399Ionianand pure Lydian. Two remain--theDorianand Phrygian,the first for war, the second for peace; the one expressive ofcourage,the other of obedienceor instructionor religiousfeeling.And as we reject varieties of harmony, we shall also reject themany-stringed,variously-shapedinstrumentswhichgiveutteranceto them,and in particularthe flute,which is more complexthanany of them. The lyre and the harp may be permitted in thetown,and the Pan's-pipe in the fields. Thus we have made apurgationof music,and will now make a purgation of metres.

4ooThese should be like the harmonies,simple and suitableto theoccasion. There are four notes of the tetrachord, and thereare three ratios of metre, a, 6, {, which have all their charac-teristics,and the feet havedifferentcharacteristicsas well as therhythms. But about this you and I must ask Damon,the greatmusician,who speaks,if I rememberrightly,ofa martialmeasureas well as of dactylic,trochaic, and iambic rhythms, which hearrangessoas to equalizethe syllableswith one another,assigningto each the proper quantity. We only venture to affirm thegeneralprinciplethat the style is toconformto the subjectand themetre to the style; and that the simplicityand harmony of thesoulshould be reflected in them all. This principleof simplicityhas to be learnt byevery one in the days of hisyouth,and may

4ol be gatheredanywhere,fromthe creative and constructivearts, aswellas fromthe formsofplants and animals.

Otherartists as well as poets shouldbe warned againstmean-ness or unseemliness. Sculptureand paintingequallywith musicmustconformtothe law of simplicity. He who violatesit cannotbe allowedto work in our city, and to corrupt the taste of ourcitizens. For our guardians must grow up, not amid images of

xliv Analysis4oi-4o5.Re_ublicdeformity which will gradually poisonand corrupt their souls,

III. but in a land of health and beautywherethey will drink in fromANALYSIS.

every objectsweetand harmoniousinfluences. And of all theseinfluences the greatest is the educationgiven by music,whichfindsa way intothe innermost souland imparts to it the senseof 4o2beautyand of deformity. At first the effectis unconscious; butwhen reasonarrives,then he whohas been thus trainedwelcomesher as the friendwhomhe alwaysknew. As in learningtoread,first we acquirethe elementsor letters separately,and afterwardstheircombinations,and cannotrecognizereflectionsof themuntilwe know the letters themselves;--in like manner we must firstattain the elements or essential forms of the virtues, and thentrace theircombinationsinlife and experience. There is a musicof the soulwhichanswersto the harmonyof the world; and thefairest object of a musical soul is the fair mind in the fair body.Some defectin the latter may be excused,but not in the former.True love is the daughter of temperance, and temperance is 4o3utterly opposedto the madness of bodilypleasure. Enough hasbeen said ofmusic,whichmakesa fairending withlove.

Next we pass on to gymnastics; aboutwhichI would remark,that the soul is related to the bodyas a cause to an effect,andtherefore if we educate the mind we mayleave the educationofthe body in her charge, and need only give a general outlineof the course tobe pursued. In the first placethe guardiansmustabstainfrom strong drink, for they shouldbe the lastpersons tolosetheir wits. Whether the habits of the palaestra are suitable4o4to them is more doubtful,forthe ordinarygymnasticis a sleepysort of thing, and if left offsuddenly is apt to endangerhealth.But our warrior athletes must be wide-awakedogs, and mustalso be inured to all changes of food and climate. Hence theywill require a simpler kind of gymnastic, akin to their simplemusic; and for their diet a rule may be found in Homer,whofeeds his heroes on roast meat only, and gives them no fishalthough they are living at the sea-side,nor boiledmeats whichinvolvean apparatus of potsand pans; and,if I am not mistaken,he nowhere mentions sweet sauces. Siciliancookeryand Atticconfections and Corinthiancourtezans,which are to gymnasticwhat Lydian and Ionianmelodiesare to music,mustbe forbidden.Where gluttony and intemperanceprevail the town quickly fills4o5

Analysis4o5-4o8. xlvwithdoctorsand pleaders; and lawand medicinegivethemselves Republicairs as soon as the freemenof a State take an interestin them. III.

ANALYSIS.

But what can show a more disgracefulstate of educationthanto have to go abroad for justice becauseyou have none of yourownat home? And yet there isa worsestageof the samedisease--when men havelearnedto takea pleasureandpride inthe twistsand turns of the law; not consideringhow much better it wouldbe forthem soto order their livesas to havenoneedof a noddingjustice. And there is a like disgrace in employinga physician,not for the cure of wounds or epidemicdisorders,but becausea man has by lazinessand luxury contracteddiseaseswhichwereunknown in the days ofAsclepius. Howsimple is the Homericpractice of medicine. Eurypylus after he has been wounded

4o6drinksa possetof Pramnianwine,which is of a heating nature ;and yet the sonsof Asclepiusblameneitherthe damselwhogiveshimthe drink, nor Patrocluswho is attending on him. The truthis that this modern system of nursing diseaseswas introducedby Herodicus the trainer; who, being of a sickly constitution,bya compoundof training and medicinetortured first himselfandthen a good many other people,and lived a great deal longerthanhe had any right. ButAsclepiuswouldnot practisethis art,because he knew that the citizens of a well-ordered State haveno leisure to be ill, and therefore he adoptedthe ' kill or cure'method,whichartisans and labourersemploy. ' They must be attheir business,'they say, 'and have no time forcoddling: if they

407recover,well ; if they don't,there is an end of them.' Whereasthe richman is supposed to be a gentlemanwho can afford tobeill. Do you know a maxim of Phocylides--that ' when a manbegins tobe rich' (or,perhaps, a little sooner)' he shouldpractisevirtue'? But how can excessivecare of health be inconsistentwithan ordinaryoccupation,and yet consistentwith that practiceof virtuewhich Phocylidesinculcates? When a student imaginesthat philosophygives him a headache,he never does anything;he is alwaysunwell. Thiswas the reason why Asclepiusand hissons practised nosuch art. They were actingin the interestofthe public,and did not wish to preserve useless lives,or raiseupa punyoffspringtowretchedsires. Honestdiseasestheyhonestly

4o8cured; and if a man was wounded, they applied the properremedies, and then let him eat and drink what he liked. But

xlvi Analysis4o8-4II.Refoublicthey declined to treat intemperate and worthless subjects,even

_Ill. though they mighthave made large fortunesoutof them. As toANALYSIS.

the storyof Pindar, thatAsclepiuswas slain by a thunderboltforrestoringa rich manto life,that is a lie--followingour old rule wemust say either that he didnottake bribes,or that he was nottheson ofa god.

Glauconthen asks Socrateswhether the best physiciansandthebest judgeswill not be those who havehad severallythe greatestexperienceof diseasesand ofcrimes. Socratesdrawsa distinctionbetween the two professions. The physician shouldhave hadexperienceof disease in hisown body,for he cures with his mindand not with his body. But the judge controls mind by mind;4o9and thereforehis mindshouldnot be corruptedbycrime. Wherethen is he to gain experience? How is he to be wise and alsoinnocent? When young a good man is apt to be deceivedbyevil-doers,because he has no pattern of evil in himself; andtherefore the judge should be of a certain age; his youthshouldhave been innocent,and he should have acquired insightinto evil not by the practice of it, but by the observationof it inothers. This isthe idealofa judge ; the criminalturneddetectiveis wonderfullysuspicious,but when in companywith goodmenwho have experience, he is at fault, for he foolishlyimaginesthat every one isas badas himself. Vicemay be knownofvirtue,but cannotknow virtue. This is the sort of medicineand this thesortof lawwhichwill prevail in our State ; they will be healingarts to betternatures ; but the evil bodywill be left todie by the 41oone, and the evil soulwill be put to death by the other. And theneed of either will be greatly diminishedby good musicwhichwillgive harmonyto the soul,and goodgymnasticwhichwill givehealth to the body. Not that this divisionof musicand gymnastiereally correspondsto soul and body; for they are both equallyconcernedwiththe soul,which is tamed by the one and arousedand sustainedby the other. Thetwo togethersupplyour guardianswiththeir twofoldnature. The passionatedispositionwhenit hastoo much gymnastic is hardened and brutalized, the genre orphilosophictemperwhichhas toomuch musicbecomesenervated.While a man is allowingmusic to pour like water through the 411funnelof his ears, the edgeof his soulgraduallywears away,andthe passionateor spiritedelementis melted outof him. Too little

Mnalysis4I1-414. xlviispirit is easily exhausted; toomuch quicklypasses into nervous Rel_cblicIII.irritability. So, again, the athlete by feeding and training has ANALYSIS.

his courage doubled,but he soon grows stupid; he is likea wildbeast, ready to do everythingby blowsand nothing by counselor policy. There are twoprinciplesin man, reason and passion,

41_and to these, not to the soul and body, the two arts of musicand gymnasticcorrespond. He who minglesthemin harmoniousconcordis the true musician,--heshallbe the presiding genius ofour State.

The next question is, Who are to be our rulers? First, theelder must rule the younger; and the best of the elders willbe the best guardians. Nowthey will be the best wholove theirsubjects most,and think that they have a commoninterestwiththem in the welfare of the state. These we must select; butthey must be watched at every epoch of life to see whetherthey haveretained the same opinionsand held out againstforce

413and enchantment. For time and persuasion and the love ofpleasure may enchant a man into a change of purpose,and theforce of grief and pain may compel him. And therefore ourguardians must be men who have been tried by many tests,likegold in the refiner's fire,and have been passed first throughdanger, then through pleasure, and at every age have comeout of such trials victoriousand without stain, in full commandof themselves and their principles; having all their facultiesin harmonious exercise for their country's good. These shall

414receive the highest honours both in life and death. (It wouldperhaps be better to confine the term 'guardians' to this selectclass: the youngermen may be called' auxiliaries.')

And nowforone magnificentlie, in the beliefof which,Oh thatwe couldtrain our rulers!--at any rate let us make the attemptwith the rest of the world. What I am going to tell is only aanother version of the legend of Cadmus; but our unbelievinggenerationwill be slow to accept such a story. The tale mustbe imparted, first to the rulers, then to the soldiers, lastly tothe people. We will informthem that their youthwas a dream,and that during the time when they seemed to be undergoingtheir education they were really being fashionedin the earth,who sent them up when they were ready; and that they mustprotect and cherish her whose children they are, and regard

xlviii .4nalysis414-417.Republiceach other as brothers and sisters. 'I do not wonder at your

llI. being ashamed to propound such a fiction.' There is moreANALYSIS.behind. These brothersand sisters have different natures, and415some of them God framed to rule, whom he fashionedof gold;others he made of silver, to be auxiliaries; others again to behusbandmenand craftsmen,and these were formed by him ofbrassand iron. But as they are all sprung froma commonstock,a goldenparent may havea silverson,or a silverparent a goldenson, and then there must be a change of rank; the son of therich must descend,and the childof the artisan rise, in the socialscale; for an oracle says 'that the State will come to an end ifgoverned by a man of brass or iron.' Will our citizens everbelieveall this? ' Not in the present generation,butin the next,perhaps, Yes.'

Now let the earthborn men go forth under the commandoftheir rulers,and look about and pitch their camp in a highplace,which will be safe against enemies from without, and likewiseagainst insurrectionsfrom within. There let them sacrificeandset up their tents; for soldiers they are to be and not shop-416keepers,the watchdogsand guardiansof the sheep; and luxuryand avaricewillturn them intowolves and tyrants. Theirhabitsand their dwellingsshould correspondto their education. Theyshould have no property; their pay should only meet theirexpenses; and they should have commonmeals. Gold andsilverwe willtell them that they have fromGod,and this divinegift in their souls they must not alloy with that earthly dross 417whichpasses under the name of gold. They onlyof the citizensmay not touch it, or be under the same roof with it, or drinkfrom it; it is the accursed thing. Should they ever acquirehouses or lands or money of their own, they will becomehouse-holdersand tradesmen instead of guardians,enemiesand tyrantsinstead of helpers,and the hour of ruin, both to themselvesandthe rest of the State,will be at hand.

INTROOUC-The religiousand ethicalaspect of Plato's educationwill here-TION.

after be considered under a separate head. Some lesser pointsmay be more convenientlynoticedin this place.

I. The constantappeal to the authorityofHomer,whom,withgrave irony, Plato, after the manner of his age, summonsas a

Plato'semploymentof Homer. xlixwitnessabout ethics and psychology,as well as about diet and RejOublicmedicine; attemptingto distinguishthe better lesson from the II[.

INTRODUC-

worse (39o),sometimesaltering the text from design (388,and, Txo_.perhaps, 389); more than once quoting or alluding to Homerinaccurately(39I, 4o6),after the manner of the early logographersturning the Iliad into prose (393),and delighting to draw far-fetched inferencesfrom his words, or to make ludicrousappli-cationsof them. He doesnot,likeHeracleitus,get intoa ragewithHomerand Archilochus(Heracl.Frag.ii9, ed. Bywatert,butusestheir words and expressionsas vehiclesof a highertruth ; not ona system like Theagenesof Rhegiumor Metrodorus,or in latertimesthe Stoics,but as fancymay dictate. And the conclusionsdrawn from themare sound,although the premisesare fictitious.These fancifulappeals to Homer add a charm to Plato's style,and at the same time they have the effect of a satire on thefolliesof Homeric interpretation. To us (and probably to him-self),although they take the form of arguments,they are reallyfiguresof speech. They may be comparedwithmoderncitationsfrom Scripture,which have often a great rhetorical power evenwhen the originalmeaning of the words is entirelylost sight of.The real, like the PlatonicSocrates,as we gather from the Me-morabiliaof Xenophon,was fondof makingsimilaradaptations(i.2, 58; ii.6, ii). Great in all ages and countries,in religionaswell as in lawand literature, has beenthe art of interpretation.

2. ' Thestyle is to conformto the subjectand the metreto thestyle.' Notwithstandingthe fascinationwhich the word 'classical'exercises over us, we can hardly maintain that this rule isobservedin all the Greek poetry which has come down to us.We cannot deny that the thought often exceeds the power oflucidexpressionin 2Eschylusand Pindar ; or that rhetoric getsthe better of the thoughtin the Sophist-poetEuripides. Onlyperhaps in Sophoclesis there a perfect harmony of the two;in himalonedowe find a grace of language like the beautyof aGreekstatue,in which there is nothingto add or to take away;at least this is true of single plays or of large portionsof them.The connectioninthe TragicChorusesand inthe Greeklyricpoetsis notunfrequentlya tangled thread whichinan agebeforelogicthe poet was unable to draw out. Manythoughtsand feelingsmingled in his mind, and he had no power of disengagingor

e

1 Style and subjecl in Poetry.

Rel_ublicarranging them. For there is a subtle influenceof logicwhichIII. requires tobe transferredfromprose to poetry,just as the musicINTRODUC-

tiON. and perfectionof language are infused by poetryinto prose. Inall ages the poet has been a bad judge of his own meaning(Apol.22B); for he does not see that the word which is fullofassociationsto his own mind is difficultand unmeaning to thatof another; or that the sequence which is clear to himself ispuzzlingto others. There are many passages in some of ourgreatest modernpoets which are far too obscure; in which thereis no proportionbetween style and subject; in which any half-expressed figure, any harsh construction,any distorted collo-cationof words,any remote sequenceof ideas is admitted; andthere is novoice 'coming sweetlyfrom nature,'or music addingthe expressionof feelingto thought. As if there couldbe poetrywithout beauty, or beauty without ease and clearness. Theobscuritiesof early Greekpoets arose necessarilyout of the stateof languageand logicwhich existed in their age. They are notexamples to be followedby us; for the use of language oughtill every generationto becomeclearer and clearer. Like Shake-spere, they were great in spite, not in consequence,of theirimperfectionsof expression. Butthere is no reason for returningto the necessary obscurity which prevailed in the infancy ofliterature. The English poets of the last centurywere certainlynot obscure; and we have no excuse for losing what they hadgained,or for goingback to the earlier or transitionalage whichpreceded them. The thought of our own times has not out-stripped language; a want of Plato's 'art of measuring' is thereal causeofthe disproportionbetweenthem.

3. In the thirdbookof the Republica nearer approachismadeto a theory of art than anywhere else in Plato. Hisviews maybe summedup as follows:--True art is not fancifuland imitative,but simple and ideal,--the expression of the highest moralenergy, whether in action or repose. To live among works ofplastic art which are of this noble and simple character, or tolisten to such strains, is the best of influences,rathetrue Greekatmosphere,in which youth shouldbe brought up. That is theway to create in them a natural good taste, which will have afeeling of truth and beauty in all things. For thoughthe poetsare to be expelled, still art is recognizedas another aspect of

Plato's tkeory of M rL Ii

reason--like love in the Symposium,extending over the same _e)Oublicsphere, but confined to the preliminary education,and acting III.I_TRODUC"

through the power of habit (vii.5_ A); and this conceptionof T_oN.art is not limited to strains of musicor the forms of plastic art,but pervadesall nature and has a wide kindredin the world. TheRepublic of Plato, like the Athens of Pericles,has an artistic aswellas a politicalside.

There is hardlyany mentionin Plato of the creativearts ; onlyin two or three passages does he even allude to them (cp.Rep. iv. 42o; Soph. 236A). He is not lost in rapture at thegreat works of Phidias, the Parthenon, the Propylea, thestatues of Zeus or Athene. He would probably have regardedany abstract truth of number or figure (529E) as higher thanthe greatest of them. Yet it is hard to suppose that some in-fluence,such as he hopes to inspire in youth, did not pass intohis own mind from the works of art which he saw around him.We are living upon the fragments of them, and find in a fewbroken stones the standard of truth and beauty. But in Platothis feelinghas no expression; he nowhere says that beautyisthe object of art; he seems to deny that wisdomcan take anexternal form (Phaedrus, 25oE); he does not distinguish thefinefromthe mechanicalarts. Whether or no, like somewriters,he felt more than he expressed, it is at any rate remarkablethat the greatest perfection of the fine arts should coincidewith an almostentire silenceabout them. In one very strikingpassage (iv.42o)he tells us that a work of art, like the State, isa whole; and this conceptionof a whole and the love of thenewly-born mathematical sciences may be regarded, if not asthe inspiring, at any rate as the regulating principlesof Greekart (cp.Xen. Mere.iii. io.6 ; and Sophist,235,236).

4. Plato makes the true and subtle remark that the physicianhadbetter notbe in robusthealth ; and shouldhaveknownwhatillnessis in hisown person. But the judge oughtto havehad nosimilarexperience of evil ; he is to be a goodman who, havingpassed his youth in innocence,became acquainted late in lifewith the vices of others. And therefore,according to Plato, ajudge should not be young,just as a young man accordingtoAristotle is not fit to be a hearer of moral philosophy. Thebad,on the other hand,have a knowledgeof vice,but no know-

e2

lii The trans)Oosilionof ranks.Rejoublicledge of virtue. It may be doubted,however,whether this train

III. of reflectionis well founded. In a remarkable passage of theINTRODUC-

T_o_ Laws (xii.95° B) it is acknowledgedthat the evil may form acorrect estimate of the good. The union of gentleness andcourage in Bookii. at first seemed to be a paradox,yet wasafterwardsascertained to be a truth. AndPlato might also havefound that the intuition of evil may be consistentwith theabhorrence of it (cp. infra, ix.582). There is a directnessof aimin virtue which gives an insight into vice. And the knowledgeof character is in some degree a natural sense independent ofany special experienceof goodor evil.

5. One of the most remarkable coriceptionsof Plato,becauseun-Greek and also very different from anything which existedat all in hisage ofthe world,is the transpositionof ranks. In theSpartan state there had been enfranchisementof Helots anddegradationof citizensunderspecialcircumstances. And in theancientGreekaristocracies,merit wascertainly recognizedas oneof the elementson which governmentwas based. The foundersof states were supposedtobe their benefactors,who were raisedby their great actionsabove the ordinary level of humanity; ata later period,the servicesof warriors and legislatorswere held toentitle them and their descendantsto the privilegesof citizenshipand to the first rank in the state. And although the existenceof an ideal aristocracy is slenderlyproven from the remainsofearly Greek history, and we have a difficultyin ascribingsucha character, however the idea may be defined,to any actualHellenicstate--or indeed to any state which has ever existedin the world--still the rule of the best was certainly the aspira-tion of philosophers, who probablyaccommodateda good dealtheir views of primitive history to their own notionsof goodgovernment. Plato further insistson applying to the guardiansof his state a series of tests by which all those who fell shortof a fixed standard were either removed from the governingbody,or not admittedto it; and this 'academic' disciplinedidto a certain extent prevail in Greek states, especially in Sparta.He also indicatesthat the system of caste, which existed in agreat part of the ancient, and is by no means extinct in themodernEuropeanworld,shouldbe set aside fromtime to time infavourof merit. He is aware how deeply the greater part of

The_owerof music, liiimankind resent any interferencewith the order of society,and Reikublictherefore he proposes his novel idea in the form of what he III.I_rRODUC-

himselfcalls a'monstrous fiction.' (Comparethe ceremonyof _o,.preparationfor the two ' greatwaves' in Bookv.) Twoprinciplesare indicated by him: first, that there is a distinctionof ranksdependent on circumstancesprior to the individual: second,thatthis distinctionis and ought to he brokenthrough by personalqualities. He adapts mythologylike the Homericpoems to thewants of the state, making ' the Phoeniciantale' the vehicleof his ideas. Every Greek state had a myth respectingits ownorigin; the Platonicrepublicmay also have a taleof earthbornmen. The gravityandverisimilitudewithwhich the tale is told,and the analogyof Greek tradition,are a sufficientverificationof the 'monstrous falsehood.' Ancient poetry had spoken of agold and silverand brassand iron age succeedingone another,but Plato supposes these differencesin the natures of men toexist together in a single state. Mythologysupplies a figureunder which the lesson may be taught (as Protagorassays,' the myth is more interesting'), and alsoenables Plato to touchlightly on new principleswithout going into details. In thispassage he shadowsforth a general truth, but he does not tellus by what steps the transposition of ranksis to be effected.Indeedthroughout the Republic he allows the lower ranks tofade into the distance. We do not know whether they are tocarry arms,and whether in the fifth book they are or are notincluded in the communistic regulations respecting propertyand marriage. Noris there any use in arguing strictly eitherfrom a few chance words, or from the silence of Plato, orin drawing inferences which were beyond his vision. Aris-totle, in his criticismon the positionof the lower classes,does

: not perceive that the poeticalcreation is ' like the air, invulner-able,'and cannot be penetrated by the shafts of his logic (Pol.2,5, z8foil.).

6. Two paradoxes which strike the modern reader as in thehighest degree fancifuland ideal, and which suggest to himmany reflections,are to be found in the third book of the Re-public: first, the great power of music, so much beyond anyinfluencewhich is experienced by us in modern times, whenthe art or science has been far more developed,and has found

liv Relalionof mi_tdand &ody.Republicthe secret of harmony, as well as of melody; secondly,the

IlL indefiniteand almostabsolutecontrolwhichthe soul is supposedINTRODUC-

TZON.to exerciseoverthe body.In the first we suspect some degree of exaggeration,such as

we may also observe among certain masters of the art, notunknown to us, at the present day. With this natural enthu-siasm, which is felt by a few only, there seems to mingle inPlatoa sort of Pythagoreanreverencefor numbersand numericalproportionto which Aristotle is a stranger. Intervals of soundand number are to him sacred thingswhich have a law of theirown,not dependent on the variationsof sense. They rise abovesense, and become a connecting link with the world of ideas.But it is evidentthat Plato is describingwhat to him appearsto be also a fact. The power of a simple and characteristicmelody on the impressible mind of the Greek is more thanwe can easily appreciate. The effectof national airs may bearsome comparisonwith it. And, besides all this, there is aconfusionbetween the harmony of musicalnotes and the har-monyofsouland body,whichis sopotentlyinspiredby them.

The second paradox leads up to some curious and in-teresting questions--How far can the mind control the body?Is the relation between them one of mutualantagonism or ofmutual harmony? Are they two or one, and is either of themthe cause of the other? Maywe not at timesdrop the oppositionbetween them, and the mode of describing them, which is sofamiliarto us,andyet hardlyconveysanyprecise meaning,andtryto viewthis compositecreature,man, in a more simple manner?Mustwe not at any rate admit that there is in human nature ahigherand a lowerprinciple,dividedby no distinctline,which attimes break asunder and take up arms against one another? Oragain,they are reconciledand movetogether,either uneonsciouslyin the ordinarywork oflife,or consciouslyin the pursuitof somenoble aim, to be attained not without an eflbrt,and for whichevery thought and nerve are strained. And then the body be-comes the good friend or ally, or servant or instrument of themind. And the mind has oftena wonderfuland almost super-human power of banishingdiseaseand weaknessand callingouta hidden strength. Reason and the desires,the intellectand thesenses are brought into harmonyand obedienceso as to form a

i_w " ....................................

The managementof kealth. Ivsinglehuman being. They are ever parting, ever meeting; and RepublicIII.the identity or diversityof their tendencies or operationsis for INTRODUC.

the mostpart unnoticedby us. When the mind touchesthe body TION.through the appetites,we acknowledgethe responsibilityof theone to the other. There is a tendencyin us which says ' Drink.'There is another which says, ' Do not drink ; it is not good foryou.' And we all of us knowwhichis the rightfulsuperior. Weare also responsiblefor our health,althoughintothissphere thereenter someelementsof necessitywhichmaybe beyondour control.Stillevenin the managementof health,careand thought,continuedover many years, may make us almostfree agents,if we do notexact too much of ourselves, and if we acknowledgethat allhumanfreedomis limitedby the laws ofnature and of mind.

We are disappointed to find that Plato,in the general con-demnationwhich he passes on the practiceofmedicineprevailingin his own day, depreciates the effectsof diet. He would liketo have diseasesof a definite character and capableof receivinga definite treatment. He is afraid of invalidisminterferingwiththe business of life. He does not recognize that time is thegreat healer both of mental and bodily disorders; and thatremedieswhich are gradual and proceed little by little are saferthan those which produce a sudden catastrophe. Neither doeshe see that there is no way in which the mind can moresurely influence the body than by the control of eating anddrinking; or any other action or occasion of human life onwhich the higher freedom of the will can be more simply ortruly asserted.

7. Lesser mattersof stylemay be remarked. (I) The affectedignorance of music, which is Plato's way of expressing thathe is passing lightlyoverthe subject. (2) The tentative mannerin which here, as in the second book,he proceeds with theconstructionof the State. (3)The descriptionof the State some-timesas a reality (389D; 416B),and then again as a work ofimaginationonly (cp.534C; 592B) ; these are the arts by whichhe sustains the reader's interest. (4) Connecting links (e.g.4o8C with 379),or the preparation (394D) for the entire ex-pulsion of the poets in Book x. (5) The companion picturesof the loverof litigationand the valetudinarian(4o5),the satiricaljest about the maximof Phoeylides(4o7),the manner in which

Ivi .Analysis419-422.Republlcthe image of the gold and silver citizensis taken up into the

III. subject(416E), and the argumentfrom the practiceof AsclepiusINTRODUC-

rzoN. (407),shouldnot escapenotice.

A_^LVSXS.BOOK IV. Adeimantus said: 'Suppose a person to argue,Stepl_Socrates, that you make your citizens miserable,and this by 419their own free-will; they are the lords of the city,and yet in-stead of having, like other men, lands and houses and moneyof their own,they live as mercenaries and are always mountingguard.' You may add, I replied, that they 1"eceiveno pay but 42oonly their tbod,and have nomoney to spend on a journey or amistress. ' Well,and what answer doyou give?' Myanswer is,that our guardiansmay or may not be the happiest of men,--Ishould not be surprised to find in the long-run that they were,--but this is not the aim of our constitution, which was de-signed for the goodof the whole and not of any one part. IfI went to a sculptor and blamed him for having painted theeye, which is the noblest feature of the face, not purple butblack, he would reply: 'The eye must be an eye, and youshould lookat the statue as a whole.' ' Now I can well imaginea fool's paradise, in which everybody is eating and drinking,clothed in purple and fine linen, and potters lie on sofas andhave their wheel at hand, that they may work a little whenthey please; and cobblersand all the other classes of a State 42Ilose their distinctivecharacter. And a State may get on with-out cobblers; but when the guardians degenerate into booncompanions, then the ruin is complete. Remember that weare not talking of peasants keeping holiday,but of a State inwhich every man is expected to do his own work. The hap-piness resides not in this or that class, but in the State as awhole. I have another remark to make :--A middle con-dition is best ibr artisans; they should have money enoughto buy tools, and not enough to be independent of business.And will not the same conditionbe best for our citizens? If 422they are poor, they will be mean; if rich, luxuriousand lazy;and in neither case contented. ' But then how will our poorcity be able to go to war against an enemy who has money?'There may be a difficultyin fightingagainstone enemy ; againsttwo there will be none. In the first place,the contest will be

Analysis422-425. lviicarried on by trained warriors against well-to-docitizens: and Republicis not a regular athlete an easy match for two stout opponents IV.ANALYSIS.at least? Suppose also, that before engaging we send ambas-sadors to one of the two cities, saying, ' Silver and gold wehave not; do you help us and take our share of the spoil; '-whowouldfightagainstthe lean,wiry dogs,whenthey mightjoinwiththemin preyingupon the fattedsheep? ' Butif many statesjoin their resources, shallwe not be in danger?' I am amusedto hear you use the word 'state' of any but our own State.

423They are ' states,'but not ' a state'--many in one. For in everystate there are two hostile nations, rich and poor, which youmay set oneagainst the other. But our State,while she remainstrue to her principles, will be in very deed the mightiest ofHellenicstates.

To the size of the state there is no limitbut the necessityofunity; it mustbe neither toolarge nor too smallto be one. Thisis a matter of secondaryimportance,like the principle of trans-positionwhichwas intimatedin the parable ofthe earthbornmen.The meaningthere impliedwas that every man should do thatfor whichhe was fitted,and be at one with himself,and then thewholecitywouldbe united. But all these things are secondary,

424if education,which is the great matter,be dulyregarded. Whenthe wheel has once been set in motion,the speed is alwaysin-creasing; and each generation improves upon the preceding,bothin physical and moral qualities. The care of the governorsshouldbe directed to preserve musicand gymnastic from inno-vation; alter the songs of a country,Damonsays, and you willsoonend by altering its laws. The change appears innocentatfirst, and begins in play; but the evil soon becomes serious,working secretly upon the characters of individuals,then uponsocial and commercialrelations,and lastly upon the institutions

425of a state; and there is ruin and confusioneverywhere. But ifeducation remains in the established form, there will be nodanger. A restorative process will be always going on; thespirit of law and order will raiseup what has fallendown. Norwillany regulationsbe neededfor the lesser mattersof life--rulesof deportment or fashions of dress. Like invites like for goodor for evil. Educationwill correct deficienciesand supply thepower of self-government. Far be it from us to enter into the

lviii Analysis425-427.Republicparticularsof legislation; let the guardianstake care ofeducation,

IV. and educationwilltake care ofall other things.A_ALYSIS.

Butwithouteducationthey maypatch and mendas theyplease ;they will make no progress,any more than a patient who thinksto cure himselfby some favouriteremedy and will not give uphisluxurious mode of living. If you tell such persons that they 426must first alter their habits, then they grow angry; they arecharming people. 'Charming,--nay, the very reverse.' Evi-dently these gentlemen are not in your good graces, nor thestate whichis like them. And such states there are which firstordain under penalty of death that no one shall alter the con-stitution, and then suffer themselves to be flattered into andoutofanything; and hewho indulgesthemand fawnsupon them,is their leader and saviour. 'Yes, the men are as bad as thestates.' But do you not admire their cleverness? 'Nay, someof them are stupid enough to believewhat the peopletell them.'And when all the world is telling a man that he is six feethigh,and he has nomeasure,how can he believeanything else?But don't get into a passion: to see our statesmen trying theirnostrums,and fancyingthat they can cut offat a blowthe Hydra- 427like rogueries of mankind, is as good as a play. Minuteenact-ments are superfluousin good states, and are useless in badones.

And now what remainsof the work of legislation? Nothingforus ; butto Apollothe godof Delphi we leave the orderingof thegreatest of all things--that is to say,religion. Onlyour ancestraldeity sittingupon the centreand navelof the earth willbe trustedby us if we haveany sense, in an affairof such magnitude. Noforeigngodshallbe supremein our realms....

INTrOD,'C-Here, as Socrateswouldsay, let us ' reflect on' (cr_tr_v) whatTION.

has preceded : thus far we have spoken notof the happiness ofthe citizens,butonly ofthe well-beingofthe State. They may bethe happiestof men, butour principalaim in foundingthe Statewas not to make them happy. They were to be guardians,notholiday-makers. In this pleasantmanner is presented to us thefamousquestionbothof ancientand modernphilosophy,touchingthe relationof duty tohappiness,of right toutility.

First duty, then happiness, is the natural order of our moralideas. The utilitarian principle is valuable as a corrective of

Ha_iness and duty. lix

error,and showsto usa side ofethicswhichis apt to beneglected. Re2bubll¢It may be admitted further that rightand utilityare co-extensive, IV.INTRODUC-

and that he who makes the happiness of mankind his object T_oN.has one of the highestand noblestmotivesof human action. Bututility is not the historicalbasis of morality; nor the aspect inwhich moral and religious ideas commonlyoccur to the mind.The greatest happiness of all is, as we believe,the far-offresultof the divinegovernmentof the universe. The greatest happinessof the individualis certainly to be found in a life of virtue andgoodness. Butwe seemto be more assuredof a law of right thanwe can be of a divine purpose, that 'all mankind should besaved;' and we infer the one from the other. And the greatesthappiness of the individualmay be the reverse of the greatesthappiness inthe ordinarysenseof the term, and may be realisedin a life of pain, or in a voluntary death. Further, the word' happiness' has severalambiguities; it may meaneither pleasureor an ideal life,happinesssubjectiveor objective,in this worldorin another, of ourselvesonly or of our neighboursand ofall meneverywhere. By the modern founderof Utilitarianismthe self-regardingand disinterestedmotivesof actionare includedunderthe same term, although they are commonlyopposed by us asbenevolence and self-love. The word happiness has not thedefinitenessor the sacrednessof ' truth' and ' right' ; it does notequally appeal to our higher nature, and has not sunk into theconscienceof mankind. It is associatedtoo much with the com-forts andconveniencesoflife; toolittlewith 'the goodsofthe soulwhichwe desire for their own sake.' In a great trial,or danger,or temptation,or in any great and heroic action, it is scarcelythoughtof. For these reasons ' the greatest happiness' principleis not the true foundationof ethics. But though not the firstprinciple,it is the second,which is like unto it, and is often ofea3ier application. For the larger part of human actions areneither right nor wrong, except in so far as they tend to thehappiness ofmankind (cp.Introd. to Gorgiasand Philebus).

The same question reappears in politics,where the useful orexpedient seems to claim a larger sphere and to havea greaterauthority. For concerning politicalmeasures, we chieflyask:Howwillthey affectthe happinessof mankind? Yethere toowemay observe thatwhat we term expediencyis merelythe law of

lx Idealismin Politics.

Republicfight limitedby the conditionsof humansociety. Right and truthIV.I_oDuc. are the highestaimsof governmentas well as of individuals; and

no_. we ought not to lose sight of them becausewe cannot directlyenforce them. They appeal to the better mind of nations; andsometimesthey are too much for merely temporal interests toresist. They are the watchwordswhichallmen use in mattersofpublicpolicy, as well as in their private dealings; the peace ofEurope may be said to depend upon them. In the most com-mercialand utilitarianstatesofsocietythe powerof ideasremains.And all the higherclass ofstatesmen have in them somethingofthat idealismwhich Pericles is said to have gathered from theteachingof Anaxagoras. They recognisethat the true leader ofmen must be above the motivesof ambition,and that nationalcharacteris of greatervaluethan materialcomfortand prosperity.And this is the order of thought in Plato; first, he expectshis citizensto do their duty, and then under favourablecircum-stances, that is to say, in a well-ordered State, their happi-ness is assured. That he was far from excludingthe modernprinciple of utility in politicsis sufficientlyevident from otherpassages,inwhich ' the most beneficialis affirmedtobe the mosthonourable' (v.457B),and also ' the mostsacred' (v.458E).

We may note (i) The manner inwhich the objectionof Adei-mantushere, as in ii.357 foll.,363; vi.ad init. etc.,is designedtodraw out and deepen the argument of Socrates. (2) The con-ceptionof a whole as lyingat the foundationbothof politicsandof art, in the latter supplying the only principle of criticism,which,under the various namesof harmony,symmetry,measure,proportion,unity, the Greek seems to have applied to works ofart. (3) The requirement that the State should be limited insize, after the traditional model of a Greek state; as in thePoliticsof Aristotle(vii.4, etc.), the fact that the citiesof Hellaswere small is converted into a principle. (4) The humorouspicturesof the lean dogsand the fattedsheep,of the light activeboxer upsetting two stout gentlemen at least, of the 'charming'patientswho are alwaysmaking themselvesworse; or again, theplayful assumption that there is no State but our own; or thegraveironywithwhichthe statesmanis excusedwhobelievesthathe is six feet high becausehe is told so, and having nothing tomeasure with is to be pardoned for his ignorance--he is too

Mnalysis427-43o. lxiamusingforus to be seriouslyangry withhim. (5) Thelight and Republicsuperficialmanner in which religion is passed over when pro- IV.|NTRODUC-

visionhas beenmadefortwo great principles,--first,that religion r_oN.shall be based on the highestconceptionof the gods(ii.377foil.),secondly,that the true national or Hellenictype shall be main-tained.....

Socratesproceeds: But where amidall this is justice ? Sonof ANALYSZS.Ariston,tell mewhere. Lighta candleandsearchthe city,and getyour brotherand the rest ofour friendsto help in seekingforher.' That won'tdo,' repliedGlaucon,' you yourselfpromisedto makethe searchand talkedaboutthe impietyof desertingjustice.' Well,I said,I will lead the way,but do you tbllow. My notionis, thatour State being perfectwill contain all the fourvirtues--wisdom,

4_8courage,temperance,justice. If we eliminatethe three first, theunknownremainderwillbe justice.

First then, of wisdom: the State which we have called intobeing will be wise because politic. And policy is one amongmany kinds of skill,--not the skill of the carpenter, or of theworker in metal,or of the husbandman,butthe skill of him whoadvisesabout the interestsof the whole State. Of sucha kindis

4z9the skill of the guardians,who are a smallclass in number, farsmaller than the blacksmiths; but in them is concentrated thewisdomofthe State. And if this smallruling class havewisdom,then the whole Statewillbe wise.

Our secondvirtue is courage,which we have no difficultyinfinding in another class--that of soldiers. Courage may bedefined as a sort of salvation--the never-failingsalvationof theopinions which law and education have prescribed concerningdangers. You know the way in which dyers first prepare thewhite ground and then lay on the dye of purple or of any othercolour. Coloursdyed in this way becomefixed,and no soap or

43° lye willever wash them out. Nowthe ground is education,andthe laws are the colours; and if the ground is properly laid,neitherthe soap of pleasure nor the lye of painor fearwilleverwashthemout. Thispower whichpreservesright opinionaboutdanger I would ask you to call 'courage,' adding the epithet'political' or ' civilized'in orclerto distinguishit frommere animalcourage and from a higher courage which may hereafter bediscussed.

lxii _Inalysis431-434.Republic Two virtues remain ; temperance and justice. More than the

IV. preceding virtues temperance suggests the idea of harmony.43xANALYSL_

Somelightis thrown upon the nature ofthis virtueby the populardescriptionofa man as ' master of himself'--whichhas an absurdsound,becausethe master is also the servant. The expressionreally meansthat the better principlein a manmasters the worse.There are in cities whole classesmwomen,slaves and the like--who correspondto the worse,and a fewonly tothe better ; and inour State the former class are held under control by the latter.Nowtowhichof theseclassesdoestemperancebelong? ' To bothof them.' And our State if any willbe the abode of temperance;andwe were right in describingthis virtue as a harmony whichis diffusedthrough the whole,making the dwellers in the city to 432be of one mind,and attuning the upper and middle and lowerclasseslike the strings of an instrument,whether you supposethem to differ in wisdom,strength or wealth.

And nowwe are near the spot; let us draw in and surroundthecover and watch with all our eyes, lest justice should slip awayand escape. Tell me, if yousee the thicket movefirst. ' Nay,Iwouldhave you lead.' Well then, offer up a prayer and follow.The way is dark and difficult; but we must pushon. I begin tosee a track. ' Good news.' Why, Glaucon,our dulness of scentis quite ludicrous! While we are straining our eyes into thedistance,justice is tumbling out at our feet. We are as bad aspeoplelookingfora thingwhichthey have in their hands. Have 433youforgottenour oldprincipleofthe divisionoflabour,or of everyman doinghis own business,concerningwhich we spoke at thefoundationof the State--what but thiswas justice? Is there anyother virtue remaining which can compete with wisdom andtemperance and couragein the scale of political virtue? For' everyone havinghisown' is the great objectof government; andthe great objectof trade is that every man should do his own434business. Not that there is muchharm in a carpenter trying tobe a cobbler,or a cobbler transforminghimselfinto a carpenter;but great evil may arise from the cobbler leaving his last andturning into a guardian or legislator_or when a single individualis trainer, warrior,legislator,all in one. And this evil isinjustice,or every man doinganother's business. I do not say that as yetwe are in a conditionto arrive at a final conclusion. For the

Thedeflnigionofjuslice, lxiiidefinitionwhichwe believe to hold good in stateshasstill to be RepublicIV.tested by the individual. Having read the large letters we will A_Lvs,s.

435now come backto the small. From the two together a brilliantlightmay be struckout....

Socratesproceedsto discover the nature ofjusticeby a method Is_.oDuc.TION.

of residues. Eachof the first three virtues correspondstoone ofthe three parts of the soul and one of the three classes in theState,although the third, temperance,has mole ofthe nature ofaharmonythan the first two. If there be a fourthvirtue,that canonlybe soughtfor in the relationof the three parts in the soul orclassesin the State to oneanother. It is obviousand simple,andforthatvery reason has notbeen foundout. The modernlogicianwill be inclined to object that ideas cannot be separated likechemicalsubstances,but that they run into one another and maybe onlydifferentaspectsor namesof the samething,and such inthis instanceappearsto be the case. For the definitionhere givenofjustice is verballythe same as one of the definitionsof temper-ance givenby Socratesin the Charmides(i62 A),whichhoweveris onlyprovisional,and is afterwards rejected. And so far fromjusticeremaining overwhen the other virtues are eliminated,thejustice and temperance of the Republic can with difficultybedistinguished. Temperance appears to be the virtue of a partonly,and one of three, whereasjustice isa universalvirtue ofthewholesoul. Yet on the other hand temperance is alsodescribedas a sort ofharmony,and in this respect isakin tojustice. Justiceseems to differ from temperance in degree rather than in kind;whereas temperance is the harmony of discordant elements,justice is the perfect order by which all natures and classesdo their own business, the right man in the right place, thedivisionand co-operationof all the citizens. Justice, again, is amore abstract notionthan the other virtues, and therefore,fromPlato's point of view,the foundationof them, to which they arereferred and which in idea precedes them. The proposal toomit temperance is a mere trick of style intended to avoidmonotony(cp.vii.5z8).

There is a famous question discussed in one of the earlierDialoguesof Plato (Protagoras,329,33o; cp. Arist. Nic.Ethics,vi.13.6), 'Whether the virtues are one or many ?' This receivesananswerwhich is to the effect that there are four cardinalvirtues

lxiv Analysis435-437.Republic(now forthe first time broughttogetherin ethicalphilosophy),Iv.INTaODUc-and one supreme over the rest, which is not like Aristotle's

•,oN. conceptionof universaljustice,virtue relativeto others,but thewholeof virtuerelativetothe parts. Tothistaniversalconceptionofjusticeor order inthe first educationandin the moralnatureofman,the stillmoreuniversalconceptionof the goodin the secondeducationand in the sphere of speculativeknowledgeseems tosucceed. Both mightbe equallydescribedby the terms 'law,''order,' 'harmony;' but while the idea of good embraces'alltimeand all existence,'the conceptionof justice is not extendedbeyondman.

ANALVS_S.... Socrates is now going to identifythe individualand theState. But first he must provethat there are three partsof theindividualsoul. His argumentis as follows:--Quantitymakesnodifferencein quality. The word 'just,' whether appliedto theindividualorto the State, hasthe samemeaning. Andthe term'justice' impliedthatthe samethreeprinciplesinthe Stateandinthe individualweredoingtheirown business.Butare they reallythreeor one? Thequestionis difficult,andonewhichcanhardlybe solvedbythe methodswhichwe are nowusing; but the truerand longer way wouldtake up too much of our time. 'Theshorter will satisfy me.' Well then, you would admit that thequalities of states mean the qualities of the individualswhocompose them? The Scythians and Thracians are passionate,our own race intellectual,and the Egyptians and Phoenicians436covetous,becausethe individualmembers of each havesuch andsuch a character; the difficultyis to determine whether theseveral principles are one or three; whether, that is to say, wereason withone part of our nature, desirewith another,are angrywith another,or whether the whole soulcomesinto play in eachsort of action. This enquiry, however, requires a very exactdefinitionof terms. The same thing in the same relationcannotbe affectedin twooppositeways. But there is no impossibilityina man standing still, yet moving his arms, or in a top whichis fixed on one spot going round upon its axis. There is nonecessity to mention all the possible exceptions; let us pro-437visionally assume that opposites cannot do or be or sufferopposites in the same relation. And to the class of oppositesbelong assent and dissent,desire and avoidance. And oneform

Analysis 437-44I. Ixv

of desire is thirst and hunger: and here arises a new point-- Republicthirst is thirst of drink, hunger is hungerof food; not of warm IV.A_ALYSlS°

438drink or of a particular kind of food,with the single exceptionofcoursethat the very fact ofour desiringanything impliesthat it isgood. When relativeterms have no attributes,their correlativeshaveno attributes; when they have attributes,their correlativesalso have them. For example, the term 'greater' is simplyrelative to 'less,' and knowledgerefers to a subjectof knowledge.But on the other hand, a particular knowledgeis of a particularsubject. Again, every sciencehas a distinct character,which isdefined by an object; medicine,for example, is the science of

439health,althoughnotto beconfoundedwith health. Havingclearedour ideas thus far, let us return to the originalinstance of thirst,whichhas a definiteobject--drink. Nowthe thirsty soulmay feeltwodistinctimpulses; the animalonesaying' Drink; ' the rationalone,whichsays ' Do notdrink.' The two impulsesare contradic-tory ; and thereforewe may assumethat they spring fromdistinctprinciplesin the soul. But is passiona thirdprinciple,or akin todesire? There is a storyof a certain Leontiuswhich throws somelight on this question. He was comingup from the Piraeusoutside the north wall,and he passed a spot where there weredead bodies lyingby the executioner. He felt a longingdesire toseethemand also an abhorrenceof them; at first he turned away

44oand shut his eyes, then, suddenly tearing them open, he said,-' Take your fill,ye wretches, of the fair sight.' Now is therenot here a third principlewhich is often found to come to theassistance of reason against desire, but never of desire againstreason ? This is passion or spirit,of the separate existenceofwhichwe may further convinceourselvesby puttingthe followingcase:--When a man suffersjustly, if he be of a generous naturehe is not indignant at the hardships which he undergoes:hutwhen he suffers unjustly,his indignationishis great support ;hunger and thirst cannot tame him; the spirit within him mustdo or die, until the voice of the shepherd, that is, of reason,bidding his dog bark no more, is heard within. This shows

44Ithat passionis the allyof reason. Is passionthen the samewithreason? No, for the former exists in childrenand brutes ; andHomeraffordsa proofof the distinction between them when hesays, ' He smotehis breast,and thus rebukedhis soul.'

f

lxvi Analysis441-445.ge2bublic And now, at last,we havereachedfirm ground,and are ableto

Iv. infer that the virtues of the State and of the individualare theANALYSIS.

same. For wisdom and courage and justice in the State areseverallythe wisdom and courageand justice in the individualswho form the State. Each of the three classeswill do the workofits own classin the State,and each part in the individualsoul;reason, the superior,and passion,the inferior,willbe harmonized442by the influenceof musicand gymnastic. The counsellorand thewarrior,the head and the arm,will act together in the town ofMansoul,and keepthe desiresin proper subjection. The courageof the warrior is that quality which preserves a right opinionabout dangers in spite of pleasures and pains. The wisdomofthe counselloris that small part of the soulwhich has authorityand reason. The virtue of temperance is the friendship of theruling and the subject principles,both in the State and in theindividual. Of justice we have already spoken; and the notionalready given of it may be confirmed by common instances.Will the just state or the just individualsteal, lie,commitadultery,443or be guilty of impietyto gods and men ? ' No.' And is not thereason ofthis that the several principles,whether in the state orin the individual,do their own business? And justice is thequalitywhichmakesjust men andjust states. Moreover,our olddivisionof labour,which required that there shouldbe one manforone use, was a dream or anticipationof what was to follow;and thatdream has nowbeen realizedin justice,which beginsbybinding together the three chords of the soul, and then actsharmoniouslyin every relation of life. And injustice,whichis 444the insubordinationand disobedienceof the inferior elements inthe soul, is the opposite of justice, and is inharmoniousandunnatural,being tothe soulwhat diseaseis to the body ; forin thesoulas well as in the body,good or bad actions producegoodorbad habits. And virtue isthe healthand beautyand well-beingofthe soul,and viceis the disease and weakness and deformityofthe soul.

Againthe old question returns uponus : Is justice or injustice445the more profitable? The questionhas becomeridiculous. Forinjustice,likemortal disease,makes life notworth having. Comeup with me to the hill which overhangsthe cityand look downupon the single form of virtue, and the infinite forms of vice,

The lawsof contradiclion, lxviiamongwhich are four special ones, characteristicboth of states A'epublieand of individuals. And the state which corresponds to the /I,2ANALYSIS,

single form of virtue is that which we have been describing,wherein reason rules under one of two names--monarchy andaristocracy. Thus there are fiveformsin all,bothof states and ofsouls....

In attemptingto provethat the soulhas three separatefaculties, IX_RODUC-TION.

Platotakes occasiontodiscusswhat makes differenceof faculties.And the criterionwhich he proposesis differencein the workingof the faculties. The same faculty cannot produce contradic-tory effects. But the path of early reasoners is beset by thornyentanglements,and he will not proceed a step without firstclearing the ground. This leads him into a tiresomedigression,which is intended to explain the nature of contradiction. First,the contradictionmust be at the same time and in the samerelation. Secondly, no extraneous word must be introducedinto either of the terms in which the contradictorypropositionis expressed : for example,thirst is of drink,not of warm drink.He implies,what he does notsay, that if,by the adviceof reason,or by the impulseof anger, a man is restrained from drinking,thisproves that thirst,or desireunder whichthirst is included,is

_ distinct from anger and reason. But suppose that we allowthe term 'thirst'or ' desire' to be modified,and say an 'angrythirst,' or a 'revengeful desire,' then the two spheres of desireand anger overlap and become confused. This ease thereforehas to be excluded. And still there remains an exception tothe rule in the use of the term 'good,'which is always impliedin the object of desire. These are the discussionsof an agebefore logic; and any one who is wearied by them shouldre-member that they are necessary to the clearing up of ideas inthe first developmentofthe humanfaculties.

The psychology of Plato extends no further than the divisionof the soul intothe rational,irascible,and concupiscentelements,

_ which, as far as we know, was first made by him, and hasbeen retained by Aristotleand succeedingethicalwriters. The

r chief difficultyin this early analysis of the mind is to define;_ exactly the place of the irascible faculty(0uttd_),which may be

variouslydescribedunder the terms righteous indignation,spirit,passion. It is the foundationof courage,which includes in Plato

f2

lxviii Passionand desire.

Republicmoralcourage,the courageof enduring pain, and of surmountingIV. intellectual difficulties,as well as of meeting dangers in war.I_T_ODUC-

T_oN.Thoughirrational,it inclinesto side with the rational: it cannotbe aroused by punishmentwhen justly inflicted: it sometimestakes the formof an enthusiasmwhichsustainsa man in the per-formanceof great actions. It is the 'lion heart' withwhich thereason makes a treaty(ix.589B). On the other hand it is nega-tive rather than positive; it is indignantat wrongor falsehood,butdoesnot, likeLovein the Symposiumand Phaedrus,aspire to thevisionof Truth or Good. It is the peremptory military spiritwhichprevailsinthe governmentofhonour. It differsfromanger(Sp_), this latter term having no accessorynotion of righteousindignation. AlthoughAristotle has retained the word, yet wemay observe that 'passion' (Ov/_6_)has with him lost its affinityto the rational and has become indistinguishablefrom 'anger'(Sp),_).And to this vernacular use Plato himself in the Lawsseems to revert (ix. 836B), though not always (v. 731A). Bymodern philosophytoo,as well as in our ordinaryconversation,the words anger or passion are employed almost exclusivelyin a bad sense; there is no connotationof a just or reasonablecause by which they are aroused. The feelingof'righteous in-dignation' is toopartial and accidentaltoadmitof our regardingit as a separatevirtue or habit. We are tempted also to doubtwhether Plato is right in supposing that an offender,howeverjustly condemned,could be expected to acknowledgethe justiceofhis sentence; this is the spirit ofa philosopheror martyrratherthan of a criminal.

We may observe (p. 444D, E) how nearly Plato approachesAristotle'sfhmousthesis, that 'good actionsproduce good habits.'The words 'as healthypractices(g_Lrq_Ebbtara)produce health, sodo just practices produce justice,' have a sound very like theNicomacheanEthics. Butwe note also that an incidentalremarkin Plato has becomea far-reachingprinciplein Aristotle,and aninseparablepart ofa great Ethicalsystem.

There is a difficultyin understanding what Plato meant by' the longerway' (435D ; cp.infra,vi.504): he seems to intimatesome metaphysicof the futurewhich will not be satisfied witharguing from the principle of contradiction. In the sixth andseventh books (compareSophist and Parmenides)he has given

The longerway. lxixus a sketch of such a metaphysic; but when Glauconasks for RepublicIV.the final revelation of the idea of good,he is put offwith the Xw_oDuc.deelarationthat he has not yet studied the preliminarysciences, r,o_.How he would have filled up the sketch,or argued about suchquestionsfrom a higher point of view,we can only conjecture.Perhaps he hoped to find some a priori methodof developingthe parts out of the whole; or he might have asked which ofthe ideas containsthe other ideas,and possibly have stumbledon the Hegelian identity of the 'ego' and the 'universal.' Orhe may have imagined that ideas might be constructedin somemanner analogousto the construetionof figures and numbersin the mathematicalsciences. The most certain and necessarytruth was to Plato the universal; and to this he was alwaysseekingto refer all knowledgeor opinion,just as in moderntimeswe seek to rest them on the opposite pole of inductionand experience. The aspirationsof metaphysicianshave alwaystendedto pass beyondthe limitsof humanthoughtand language:they seem to have reached a height at which they are 'movingabout in worlds unrealized,' and their conceptions,althoughprofoundlyaffecting their own minds, become invisible or un-intelligibleto others. We are not therefore surprized to findthat Plato himself has nowhere clearly explained his doctrineof ideas; or that his school in a later generation,like his con-temporaries Glaueon and Adeimantus, were unable to followhim in this region of speculation. In the Sophist,where he isrefutingthe scepticismwhich maintainedeitherthat there wasnosuchthingas predication,or that allmightbe predieatedof all, hearrives at the conelusionthat some ideas combine with some,but notallwith all. But he makesonlyone or twosteps forwardon this path; he nowhere attains to any eonnected system ofideas,or even to a knowledgeof the most elementary relationsof the sciencesto one another (see infra).

Steph. BOOKV. I was going to enumerate the four forms of vice ANAtYS_s.449 or decline in states, when Potemarchus--hewas sitting a little

farther from me than Adeimantus--takinghim by the coat andleaning towards him, said somethingin an undertone,of whichI only caught the words, ' Shall we let him off?' 'Certainlynot,'said Adeimantus,raisinghis voice. Whom, I said, are you

lxx Analysis449-452.Republicnotgoingtolet off? ' You,'he said. W'hy ? ' Becausewe think

V. that you are not dealing fairly with us in omittingwomen and_.NALYSIS*

children,of whom you have slily disposed under the generalformula that friends have all things in common.' And was Inot right? 'Yes,' he replied, 'but there are many sorts ofcommunismor community,and we want to knowwhichof themis tight. The company, as you have just heard, are resolvedto have a further explanation.' Thrasymachus said, ' Do you45°think that we have comehither to dig for gold, or to hear youdiscourse?' Yes,I said ; butthe discourseshouldbe of a reason-ablelength. Glauconadded, 'Yes, Socrates,and there is reasonin spending the wholeof lifein suchdiscussions; but pray,with-out more ado, tell us how this communityis to be carried out,and how the interval between birth and education is to befilled up.' Well, I said, the subject has several difficulties--What is possible? is the first question. What is desirable? isthe second. ' Fear not,'he replied,' for you are speakingamongfriends.' That, I replied,is a sorry consolation; I shall destroymyfriends as well as myself. Not that I mind a little innocent45_laughter; but he whokills the truth is a murderer. ' Then,' saidGlaucon,laughing,'in case you shouldmurder us we will acquityou beforehand,and you shall be held free from the guilt ofdeceivingus.'

Socrates proceeds:--The guardians of our state are to bewatch-dogs,as we have alreadysaid. Now dogs are not dividedinto hes and shes--we do not take the masculinegender outto huntand leave the femalesat hometo lookafter their puppies.They have the same employments--the onlydifferencebetweenthem is that the one sex is stronger and the other weaker. Butif women are to have the same employmentsas men, theymust have the same education--they must be taught musicand gymnastics, and the art of war. I know that a great joke 452will be madeof their tiding onhorsebackand carryingweapons;the sightof the naked oldwrinkledwomen showingtheir agilityin the pal_estrawill certainly not be a visionof beauty,and mayhe expected to become a famous jest. But we must not mindthe wits; there was a time when they might have laughed atour present gymnastics. All is habit : people have at last foundout that the exposure is better than the concealmentof the

Analysis452-456. Ixxiperson,and now they laugh no more. Evil only should be the Republic/I.subjectof ridicule. A_AL_'S_S.

453 Thefirst questionis, whether womenare able eitherwhollyorpartially to share in the employmentsof men. And here wemay be chargedwithinconsistencyin making the proposal at all.For we started originallywith the divisionof labour; and thediversityof employmentswas basedon the differenceof natures.But is there no differencebetween men and women? Nay,are they notwhollydifferent? Therewas the difficulty,Glaucon,whichmademe unwillingto speakof familyrelations. However,whena man is outof his depth,whether in a poolor inan ocean,he canonly swimfor hislife ; and we must try to find a way ofescape,if we can.

454 The argumentis, that differentnatureshave differentuses,andthe naturesof men and womenare saidto differ. But thisis onlya verbal opposition. We do not consider that the differencemay be purely nominaland accidental; forexample,a bald manand a hairy man are opposed in a single point of view, butyou cannot infer that because a bald man is a cobblera hairyman oughtnot to be a cobbler. Now why is such an inferenceerroneous? Simply because the opposition between them ispartial only, like the differencebetween a male physician anda femalephysician,notrunning throughthe wholenature, likethedifference between a physician and a carpenter. And if thedifferenceof the sexes is only that the one beget and the otherbear children, this does not prove that they ought to have

455distinct educations. Admitting that women differ from men incapacity, do not men equally differ from one another ? Hasnot nature scattered all the qualitieswhich our citizens requireindifferentlyup and down among the two sexes? and even intheir peculiar pursuits, are not women often, though in somecases superior to men, ridiculouslyenough surpassed by them?Womenare the same in kindas men,and have the sameaptitude

456or want of aptitude for medicineor gymnastic or war, but in aless degree. Onewoman will be a goodguardian,another not ;and the good must be chosen to be the colleagues of ourguardians. If howevertheir natures are the same,the inferenceis that their educationmust also be the same; there is no longeranything unnatural or impossible in a woman learning music

lxxii Analysis456-46o.Republicand gymnastic. And the educationwhich we give them will

V. be the very best, far superior to that of cobblers,and wilt train,_NALVSIS.

up the verybest women,andnothingcan be moreadvantageoustothe State than this. Therefore let them strip,clothed in their 457chastity,and share inthe toils of war and in the defenceof theircountry; he who laughsat themis a foolforhis pains.

The first wave is past, and the argumentis compelledto admitthat men and women have commonduties and pursuits. Asecondand greater wave is rollingin--communityof wives andchildren; is this either expedientor possible? The expediencyI do not doubt; I am not so sure of the possibility. 'Nay, Ithink that a considerable doubt will be entertained on bothpoints.' I meant to have escaped the trouble of proving thefirst, but as you have detected the little stratagem I must evensubmit. Onlyallowme to feed my fancylike the solitaryin his 458walks,with a dream of what mightbe, and then I will return tothe questionofwhat can be.

In the first place our rulers willenforcethe laws and makenewones where they are wanted,and their allies or ministers willobey. You, as legislator,have already selected the men; andnow you shall select the women. After the selectionhas beenmade,they willdwellin commonhousesand have their meals incommon,and will be broughttogetherbya necessitymore certainthan that of mathematics. But they cannotbe allowedtolive inlicentiousness; that is an unholy thing, which the rulers aredeterminedto prevent. For the avoidanceof this,holymarriagefestivalswillbe instituted,and their holinesswill be in proportion459to their usefulness. And here, Glaucon,I shouldlike to ask (asI know that you are a breeder of birds and animals),Do younottake the greatest carein the mating? ' Certainly.' And thereis no reasonto supposethat less careis required in the marriageof humanbeings. Butthen our rulers must be skilful physiciansof the State, forthey willoften needa strongdose of falsehoodinorder to bring about desirable unions between their subjects.The good must be paired with the good,and the bad with thebad,and the offspringof the one must be reared, and of the otherdestroyed; in this way the flockwill be preserved in primecondition. Hymeneal festivalswill be celebratedat times fixed46owith an eye to population,and the brides and bridegroomswill

.4_l.ysls 46o-462. Ixxiiimeet at them; and byan ingenioussystem of lotsthe rulerswill Republic/I.contrivethat the brave and thefaircome together,and that those ,_'._ALYSlS.

of inferior breed are paired with inferiors--the latter willascribeto chancewhat is reallythe inventionof the rulers. And whenchildren are born, the offspring of the brave and fair will becarried to an enclosure in a certain part of the city, and thereattended by suitable nurses; the rest will be hurried away toplaces unknown. The mothers will be brought to the fold andwill suckle the children; care howevermustbe taken that noneof them recognisetheir own offspring; and if necessaryothernurses may also be hired. The trouble of watching and gettingup at nightwillbe transferred to attendants. _Then the wivesofour guardians will have a fine easy time when they are havingchildren.' And quite right too,I said,that they should.

The parents ought to be in the prime of life,which for a manmay be reckoned at thirty years--from twenty-five,when he

46I has 'passed the point at which the speed of life is greatest,'to fifty-five;and at twenty years for a woman--fromtwenty toforty. Any one above or below those ages who partakes inthe hymeneals shall be guilty of impiety; also every one whoforms a marriage connexionat other times without the consentof the rulers. This latter regulation applies to those who arewithinthe specified ages, after which they may range at will,providedthey avoidthe prohibiteddegreesofparentsand children,or of brothers and sisters,which last,however,are not absolutelyprohibited,if a dispensation be procured. ' But how shall weknow the degrees of affinity,when all things are common?'The answer is, that brothers and sisters are all suchas are bornsevenor nine months after the espousals,and their parents those

462who are then espoused,and every one will have many childrenand every childmany parents.

Socrates proceeds: I have now to prove that this scheme isadvantageousand also consistent with our entire polity. Thegreatest good of a State is unity; the greatest evil,discord anddistraction. And there will be unity where there are no privatepleasures or pains or interests--where if one member suffersall the members suffer, if one citizen is touchedall are quicklysensitive; and the least hurt to the little finger of the State runsthrough the whole body and vibratesto the soul. For the true

lxxiv A nalysis46_-466.ReikublicState, like an individual,is injured as a whole when any part

V. is affected. Every State has subjects and rulers, who in a 463ANALY_S.

democracyare calledrulers,and in other States masters: but inour State they are calledsavioursand allies; and the subjectswhoin other Statesare termed slaves,are by us termednurturersand paymasters, and those who are termed comrades andcolleaguesin otherplaces, are byus calledfathers and brothers.And whereas in other States members of the same governmentregard one of their colleagues as a friend and another as anenemy,in our State no man is a stranger to another; for everycitizen is connectedwith every other by ties of blood,and thesenames and this way of speaking will have a correspondingreality--brother, father, sister, mother, repeated from infancy inthe ears of children,will not be mere words. Then again the 464citizens will have all things in common,and having commonproperty they willhavecommonpleasuresand pains.

Can there be strife and contention among those who are ofone mind; or lawsuitsabout property when men have nothingbut their bodies which they call their own; or suits aboutviolence when every one is bound to defend himself.} Thepermission to strike when insulted will be an 'antidote' to 465the knife and will prevent disturbances in the State. Butno younger man will strike an elder; reverence will preventhim from laying hands on his kindred,and he will fear that therest of the familymay retaliate. Moreover,our citizenswill berid of the lesserevils of life; there will be no flatteryof the rich,no sordid householdcares, no borrowingand not paying. Com-pared with the citizens of other States, ours will be Olympicvictors,and crowned with blessingsgreater still--they and theirchildren havinga better maintenanceduring life,and after deathan honourable burial Nor has the happiness of the individual466been sacrificedto the happiness of the State (cp. iv.419E) ; ourOlympicvictor has not been turned into a cobbler,but he hasa happinessbeyondthatofany cobbler. At the same time,if anyconceited youth begins to dream of appropriating the State tohimself,he must be reminded that ' half is better than the whole.'' I shouldcertainlyadvisehimto stay wherehe is when he has thepromiseof sucha brave life.'

But is such a communitypossible.}--asamong the animals,so

Analysis466-469. lxxvalso among men ; and if possible,in what waypossible._ About Ref_ublicwar there is nodifficulty;the principleof communismisadapted V.ANALYSl_

to military service. Parents will take their children to look on467at a battle, just as potters' boys are trained to the business by

lookingon at the wheel. And to the parents themselves,as toother animals, the sight of their young ones will prove a greatincentiveto bravery. Youngwarriors must learn, but they mustnot run into danger, althougha certain degree of risk is worthincurringwhen the benefitis great. The young creatures shouldbe placedunder the care ofexperiencedveterans,and they shouldhave wings--that is to say, swift and tractable steeds on which

468they may fly away and escape. Oneof the first thingsto be doneis to teacha youthto ride.

Cowards and deserters shall be degraded to the class ofhusbandmen; gentlemen who allow themselves to be takenprisoners, may be presented to the enemy. But what shall bedone to the hero? First of all he shall be crowned by all theyouthsin the army; secondly,he shall receive the righthand offellowship; and thirdly,do you think that there is any harm inhis being kissed? We have already determined that he shallhavemore wivesthan others,in order that he may haveas manychildrenas possible. And at a feasthe shall have more to eat;we have the authority of Homer for honouring brave men with' longchines,'which is an appropriate compliment,because meatis a very strengtheningthing. Fill the bowl then, and give thebest seats and meats to the brave--may they do them good!And he who dies in battle will be at once declared to be of thegolden race, and will, as we believe,become one of Hesiod's

469guardian angels. He shall be worshipped after death in themanner prescribedby the oracle; and not onlyhe, but all otherbenefactors of the State who die in any other way, shall beadmittedto the same honours.

The next question is, How shallwe treat our enemies? ShallHellenes be enslaved? No; for there is too great a risk of thewhole racepassing under the yoke of the barbarians. Or shallthe deadbe despoiled? Certainlynot; forthat sort of thing is anexcuse for skulking, and has been the ruin of many an army.There is meanness and femininemalice in makingan enemyof the deadbody,when the soul whichwas the owner has fled--

lxxvi Analysis469-473.Republiclikea dogwhocannot reach his assailants,and quarrels with the/I.AsALvs_s.stones which are thrown at him instead. Again, the arms of

Hellenesshouldnotbe offeredup in the temples ofthe Gods; they 47oare a pollution,for they are taken frombrethren. And on similargrounds there should be a limit to the devastation of Hellenicterritory--the houses should not be burnt, nor more than theannual produce carried off. For war is of two kinds,civil andforeign; the first of whichis properly termed' discord,'and onlythe second 'war;' and war between Hellenes is in reality civilwar--a quarrel in a family, which is ever to be regarded asunpatrioticand unnatural,and oughtto be prosecutedwith a view47Ito reconciliationin a true phil-Hellenicspirit, as of those whowould chasten but not utterly enslave. The war is not againsta whole nationwho are a friendly multitudeof men, women,and children,but only against a few guiltypersons; when theyare punished peacewill be restored. That is the way in whichHellenes shouldwar againstone another--and againstbarbarians,as they war againstone another now.

'But, my dear Socrates,you are forgettingthe main question:Is such a State possible? I grant all and more than you sayabout the blessedness of being one family--fathers, brothers,mothers, daughters, going out to war together; but I want toascertain the possibilityof this ideal State.' You are too un-472merciful. The first wave and the second wave I have hardlyescaped,and now you will certainly drown me with the third.When you see the toweringcrest of the wave, I expect you totake pity. ' Not a whit.'

Well,then, we were led to formour ideal polityin the searchafterjustice, and the just man answered to thejust State. Is thisidealat all the worsefor being impracticable? Wouldthe pictureof a perfectly beautifulman be any the worse because no suchman ever lived? Can any realitycome up to the idea? Naturewill not allow words to be fullyrealized; but if I am to try and 473realize the ideal of the State in a measure, I think that anapproachmaybe madeto the perfectionof whichI dream by oneor two, I do not say slight, but possiblechanges in the presentconstitutionof States. I would reduce them to a singleone--thegreat wave, as I call it. Until,/hen, kings are philosophers,orphiloso#hersare idngs,citieswill neverceasefrom ill: no, nor t_

Analysis 473-477. lxxviihumanrace; norwillour ideall_olilyever comeinto being. I know Re2_ublicthat this is a hard saying,which few will be able to receive. V.

A_ALYSlS.

'Socrates,alltheworldwilltakeoffhiscoatandrushuponyou474withsticksandstones,andthereforeI wouldadviseyouto

prepareananswer.'Yougotme intothcscrape,Isaid.'AndIwasright,'hcreplied;'howcvcr,Iwillstandbyyouasasortofdo-nothing,well-meaningally.'Havingthehelpofsuchachampion,Iwilldomy besttomaintainmyposition.Andfirst,ImustexplainofwhomIspcakandwhatsortofnaturesthesearcwhoarctobcphilosophersandrulers.Asyouarcamanofpleasure,youwillnothaveforgottenhow indiscriminateloversareinthcirattachments;theyloveall,andturnblemishesintobcautics.Thesnub-nosedyouthissaidtohavea winninggrace;thebeakofanotherhasaroyallook;thefeaturelessarefaultless;thedarkarcmanly,thefairangels;thesicklyhavcanew termofendear-

475mcntinventedexpresslyforthem,whichis'honcy-palc.'Loversofwineandloversofambitionalsodesiretheobjectsoftheiraffectionincvcryform.Nowhcrccomesthepoint:--Thephilosophertooisaloverofknowlcdgcincvcryform;hchasaninsatiablecuriosity.'Butwillcuriositymakeaphilosopher? Aretheloversofsightsandsounds,wholetouttheirearstoeverychorusattheDionysiacfestivals,tobecalledphilosophers?'Theyarenottruephiloso-phers,butonlyanimitation.'Thenhowarcwc todescribethetrue?'

Youwouldacknowledgetheexistenceof abstractideas,suchas476justice,beauty,good,evil,whichare severallyone, yet in their

variouscombinationsappearto be many. Thosewho recognizethese realitiesare philosophers;whereas the other classhearsoundsandsee colours,and understandtheir use in the arts, butc_nnotattain to the true or wakingvisionof absolutejusticeorbeautyor truth; they have not the lightof knowledge,but ofopinion,and what they see is a dream only. Perhaps he ofwhom we say the last will be angrywith us; can we pacifyhim without revealing the disorder of his mind? Supposewe say that, if he has knowledgewe rejoiceto hear it, butknowledgemust be of somethingwhichis, as ignoranceis of

477somethingwhichis not; andthereis a thirdthing,whichbeth isandis not,andismatterof opiniononly. Opinionandknowledge,then,havingdistinctobjects,mustalso be distinctfaculties. And

lxxviii Analysis477-480.leepublicby facultiesI meanpowersunseenand distinguishableonlyby the

V. differencein their objects,as opinionand knowledgediffer,sinceANALYSIS.

the one is liable to err, but the other is unerring and is themightiestofall our faculties. If beingis the object of knowledge,and not-being of ignorance,and these are the extremes,opinion478must lie between them, and may be calleddarker than the oneand brighter than the other. This intermediate or contingentmatter is and is not at the same time, and partakes both ofexistence and of non-existence. Now I would ask my good479friend, who denies abstract beauty and justice, and affirmsamany beautifuland a many just, whether everything he seesis not in some point of view different--the beautifulugly, thepious impious,the just unjust? Is not the double also the half,and are not heavy and light relative terms which pass into oneanother? Everything is and is not, as in the old riddle--' A manand not a man shotand did not shoota bird and nota bird withastone and nota stone.' Themindcannotbe fixedon eitheralterna-tive; andthese ambiguous,intermediate,erring,half-lightedobjects,which have a disorderlymovementin the region between beingand not-being,are the proper matter of opinion,as the immutable480objectsare the proper matter of knowledge. And he who grovelsin the world of sense, and has only this uncertainperception ofthings,is not a philosopher,but a loverof opiniononly....

I_TRODVC-The fifth book is the new beginningof the Republic,in whichTION.

the communityof property and of family are first maintained,and the transition is made to the kingdom of philosophers.For both of these Plato,after his manner, has been preparing insome chancewords ofBookIV (424A),whichfall unperceivedonthe reader's mind, as they are supposed at first to havefallenonthe ear of Glauconand Adeimantus. The ' paradoxes,'as Morgen-stern terms them,ofthis bookof the Republicwillbe reservedforanother place; a few remarks on the style,and someexplanationsof difficulties,may be brieflyadded.

First, there is the imageof the waves,which serves for a sortofschemeor plan ofthe book. The first wave,the secondwave,thethirdand greatest wave comerollingin, and we hear the roar ofthem. All thatcanbe said ofthe extravaganceof Plato'sproposalsis anticipatedby himself. Nothingis more admirable than the

T_ ' lameof affinities.' lxxixhesitationwith which he proposes the solemntext, ' Untilkings Republicare philosophers,'&e.; or the reaction from the sublimeto the /7.INTRODUC*

ridiculous,when Glaucondescribesthemanner in whichthe new xzo_.truth willbe receivedby mankind.

Somedefectsand difficultiesmay be noted in the executionofthe communisticplan. Nothingis told us of the applicationofcommunismto the lowerclasses; nor is the table of prohibiteddegrees capableof being made out. It is quite possiblethat achildborn at one hymeneal festival may marry one of its ownbrothersor sisters,or evenone ofits parents, at another. Platoisafraidofincestuousunions,but at the sametimehe does notwishto bringbeforeus the factthat the citywouldbe dividedintofamiliesofthose born sevenand nine monthsafter each hymenealfestival.If it were worth while to argue seriouslyabout such fancies,wemight remark that while all the old affinitiesare abolished,thenewly prohibited affinity rests not on any natural or rationalprinciple,butonly uponthe accidentof childrenhavingbeenbornin the same monthand year. Nor does he explain how the lotscould be so manipulatedby the legislatureas to bring togetherthe fairest and best. The singular expression (46oE) which isemployedto describe the age of five-and-twentymay perhapsbe taken from some poet.

In the delineationof the philosopher, the illustrationsof thenature of philosophyderivedfrom love are more suited to theapprehensionof Glaucon,the Athenian man of pleasure,than tomodemtastesor feelings(cp.V.474,475).Theyare partlyfacetious,butalsocontaina germ of truth. That scienceis a whole,remainsa true principleof inductiveas wellas of metaphysicalphilosophy;and the love of universalknowledgeis still the characteristicofthe philosopherin modernas wellas in ancient times.

Atthe end of the fifthbookPlatointroducesthe figmentof con-tingentmatter,whichhas exercisedso great an influenceboth ontheEthicsand Theologyof the modern world,and which occurshere for the first time in the historyof philosophy. He did notremarkthat the degreesof knowledgein the subjecthave nothingcorrespondingto them in the object. With him a word mustanswerto an idea; and he couldnot conceiveof an opinionwhichwasan opinionabout nothing. The influenceof analogyled himto invent ' parall¢l_andconjugates'and to overlookfacts. To us

Ixxx Necessaryconfusionof ideasin Plato.Republicsomeof hisdifficultiesarepuzzlingonlyfromtheir simplicity: we

V. do not perceive that the answer to them ' is tumblingoutat ourINT_ODUC-

T,o_. feet.' To the mindof early thinkers,the conceptionof not-beingwas clarkand mysterious(Sophist,u54A); they did notsee thatthisterrible apparitionwhich threateneddestructionto allknow-ledgewas onlya logicaldetermination. Thecommonterm underwhich,throughthe accidentaluseof language,twoentirelydifferentideas were included was another source of confusion. Thusthrough the ambiguity of _oK_h,,¢lmb,era_,_o*Kcv,x.r.X.Plato, at-temptingto introduceorder into the first chaosofhumanthought,seems to have confused perception and opinion,and to havefailed to distinguish the contingent from the relative. In theTheaetetusthe first of these difficultiesbeginstoclear up ; in theSophist the second; and for this, as well as for other reasons,boththese dialoguesare probablyto be regardedas later than theRepublic.

a_vsts. BOOK_7I. Havingdeterminedthat the manyhavenoknow-Steph.ledgeoftrue being,and have no clear patterns in their mindsof 484justice,beauty,truth,and thatphilosophershavesuchpatterns,wehavenowto ask whether they or the manyshall be rulersin ourState. Butwho can doubtthat philosophersshouldbe chosen,ifthey have the other qualifieswhichare requiredin a ruler? For485they are lovers of the knowledgeof the eternaland of all truth ;they are hatersof falsehood; theirmeaner desiresare absorbedinthe interests of knowledge; they are spectatorsof all timeand allexistence; and in the magnificenceof their contemplationthe life486of man is as nothingtothem,nor is deathfearful. Alsothey areof a social,graciousdisposition,equallyfree from cowardiceandarrogance. They learn and remember easily; they have har-monious,well-regulatedminds; truth flows to them sweetlybynature. Can the godof Jealousyhimselffind any faultwith such 487an assemblageofgoodqualities?

Here Adeimantus interposes:--' No man can answer you,Socrates; but every man feels that this is owing to his owndeficiencyin argument. He is driven from one position toanother, until he has nothing more to say, just as an un-skilful player at draughts is reduced to his last move by amore skilledopponent. And yet all the time he may be right,

Analysis 487-49o. lxxxi

He may know, in this very instance_that those who make Republicphilosophythe businessoftheir lives,generallyturn out roguesif telA_M.YSls.they are bad men, and foolsif they are good. What doyou say?'I shouldsay that he is quite right. 'Then how is such an ad-mission reconcileablewith the doctrine that philosophers shouldbe kings?'

488 I shallanswer you in a parablewhichwill also letyou see howpoora hand I am at the inventionof allegories. The relation ofgoodmen to their governmentsis so peculiar, that in order todefendthemI musttake an illustrationfrom the world of fiction.Conceivethe captainofa ship,taller bya headand shouldersthanany ofthe crew,yet a little deaf,a littleblind,and rather ignorantof the seaman's art. The sailors want to steer, althoughtheyknow nothingof the art ; and they have a theory that it cannotbe learned. If the helm is refused them,they drug the captain'sposset,bindhim hand and foot,and take possessionof the ship.He whojoins in the mutinyis termeda good pilotand what not;they have no conception that the true pilot must observe thewindsand the stars, and must be their master,whether they likeit or not ;--such an one would be called by them fool, prater,

489star-gazer. This is myparable; which I will begyou to interpretfor me to those gentlemenwho ask why the philosopherhas suchan evilname,and to explaintothemthat nothe, butthosewhowillnotuse him,are to blame for his uselessness. The philosophershouldnot beg ofmankindto be putin authority overthem. Thewise manshouldnot seekthe rich, as the proverbbids,but everyman,whether richor poor,mustknockat the doorofthe physicianwhen he has needof him. Nowthe pilot is the philosopher--hewhomin the parablethey callstar-gazer,and the mutinoussailorsare the mobof politiciansby whomhe is rendered useless. Notthat these are the worst enemiesof philosophy,who is far moredishonouredby her own professingsonswhen they are corrupted

490by the world. NeedI recallthe originalimageof thephilosopher?Didwe not say of him just now, that he loved truth and hatedfalsehood,and that he couldnot rest in the multiplicityof pheno-mena, but was led by a sympathy in his own nature to thecontemplationof theabsolute? All the virtues as well as truth,whois the leader ofthem, tookup their abodein hissoul. But asyouwere observing,if we turn aside to viewthe reality, we see

g

lxxxii Analysis490-493.Re#ublicthatthe personswhowere thus described,withthe exceptionofa

VI. smalland uselessclass,are utter rogues.ANALYSIS.

The point which has to be considered,is the origin of thiscorruptionin nature. Everyonewilladmit that the philosopher,49Iin our descriptionof him,is a rare being. But what numberlesscauses tend to destroy these rare beings! There is no goodthing which may not be a cause of evil--health,wealth,strength,rank, and thevirtuesthemselves,when placedunderunfavourablecircumstances. For as in the animal or vegetable world thestrongestseedsmostneed the accompanimentof goodair and soil,so the best of humancharactersturn out the worst whentheyfalluponan unsuitablesoil; whereas weak natures hardly ever doany considerablegoodor harm; they are not the stuffoutof whicheithergreat criminalsor great heroes are made. The philosopher492followsthe sameanalogy: he is eitherthe best or the worst of allmen. Some personssay that the Sophistsare the corrupters ofyouth; but is not publicopinionthe real Sophistwho is every-where present--in those very persons, in the assembly,in thecourts,in the camp, in the applausesand hissesof the theatre re-echoedby the surroundinghills? Will not a youngman's heartleap amid these discordantsounds? and will any educationsavehim frombeingcarriedawayby the torrent? Noris this all. Forif he will notyield to opinion,there followsthe gentle compulsionof exile or death. What principleof rival Sophists or anybodyelse canovercomein such an unequalcontest: Characterstheremay be more than human,who are exceptions--Godmay savea 493man, but not his own strength. Further, I would have youconsider that the hireling Sophistonly gives backto the worldtheir own opinions; he is the keeperof the monster,who knowshow to flatter or anger him, and observes the meaning of hisinarticulate grunts. Good is what pleases him, evil what hedislikes; truth and beautyare determinedonlyby the tasteof thebrute. Such is the Sophist's wisdom,and such is the conditionof thosewho make publicopinionthe test of truth, whetherin artor in morals. The curse is laid upon them of being and doingwhat it approves, and when they attempt first principles thefailureis ludicrous. Thinkofall thisand ask yourselfwhether theworldis morelikelyto be a believerin theunityof the idea,or inthe multiplicityof phenomena. And the world if not a believer

,,4nalysis494-497. lxxxiii494in the idea cannot be a philosopher,and must therefore be a RepcMic

persecutor of philosophers. There is another evil:--the world VZA_vsls.doesnotliketolosethegiRednature,and sotheyflattertheyoung[Alcibiades]intoamagnificentopinionofhisowncapacity;thetall,properyouthbeginstoexpand,andisdreamingofkingdomsand empires. If at thisinstanta friendwhispersto him,'Now the gods lighten thee; thou art a great fool' and must beeducated--doyou think that he will listen? Or suppose a bettersort of man who is attracted towards philosophy,will they not

495make Herculean effortsto spoil and corrupt him? Are we notright in saying that the loveof knowledge,no less than riches,maydivert him?Men of this class [Critias]oftenbecomepofiticians--they are the authors of great mischiefin states, and sometimesalso of great good. And thus philosophy is deserted by hernaturalprotectors,and othersenter in and dishonourher. Vulgarlittle minds see the land open and rush from the prisons of thearts into her temple. A clever mechanichaving a soul coarseashis body,thinks that he will gain caste by becomingher suitor.Forphilosophy,evenin her fallenestate,has a dignityof her own--and he, likea baldlittle blacksmith'sapprenticeas he is,havingmade some money and got out of durance,washes and dresses

496himselfas a bridegroomand marries his master's daughter. Whatwill be the issue of such marriages? Will they not be vile andbastard,devoidof truth and nature ? ' They will.' Small,then, isthe remnant of genuinephilosophers; there may be a few whoare citizensof smallstates,inwhichpoliticsare not worththinkingof,or whohave beendetainedby Theages'bridle ofill health; formy own case of the oracular sign is almostunique,and too rareto be worth mentioning. And these few when they have tastedthe pleasuresof philosophy,and have taken a lookat that den ofthieves and place of wild beasts,which is human life, will standaside from the storm under the shelter of a wall, and try topreserve their own innocenceand to depart in peace. 'A greatwork,too,willhave beenaccomplishedby them.' Great,yes,butnot the greatest ; for man isa socialbeing,and canonlyattain hishighestdevelopmentin the societywhichis best suited tohim.

497 Enough,then, of the causes why philosophyhas such an evilname. Another question is, Which of existing states is suitedto her? Notone ofthem; at present she is like someexoticseed

ga

lxxxiv Mnalysis497-499.Republicwhichdegeneratesin a strangesoil; onlyin her proper state will

VI. she be shown tobe of heavenlygrowth. ' And is her proper stateANALYS|S.

ours or some other ?' Ours in all points but one, whichwas leftundetermined. You may remember our saying that some living

• mind or witness of the legislatorwas needed in states. Butwewere afraid to enter upon a subject of such difficulty,and nowthe questionrecurs and has not growneasier:--How may philo-sophybe safelystudied? Let us bring her into the lightof day,and makean endof the inquiry.

In the first place,I say boldlythat nothing can be worse thanthe present mode of study. Persons usually pick up a little498philosophyin early youth,and in the intervalsof business,butthey never master the real difficulty,which is dialectic. Later,perhaps, they occasionallygo to a lecture on philosophy. Yearsadvance,and the sun of philosophy,unlike that of Heracleitus,sets never to rise again. This order of educationshouldhe re-versed; it should begin with gymnastics in youth, and as theman strengthens,he shouldincreasethe gymnasticsof his soul.Then,whenactivelifeis over, let him finallyreturn to philosophy.' You are in earnest, Socrates, but the world will be equallyearnest in withstandingyou--no one more than Thrasymachus.'Donot makea quarrelbetweenThrasymachusand me, whowerenever enemiesand are now goodfriendsenough. And I shalldomybest toconvincehimand allmankindofthe truth ofmywords,or at any rate to prepare for the futurewhen, in another life,wemay againtake part in similardiscussions. ' That will be a longtime hence.' Not longin comparisonwith eternity. The manywill probablyremain incredulous,for they have never seen thenatural unity of ideas, but only artificial juxtapositions; notfree and generous thoughts,but tricks of controversyand quipsof law;--a perfect man ruling in a perfectstate, even a single499one they have not known. And we foresawthat there was nochance of perfectioneither in states or individualsuntil a ne-cessity was laid upon philosophers--not the rogues, but thosewhom we called the useless class--of holding office; or untilthe sons of [tingswere inspiredwith a true love of philosophy.Whether in the infinity of past time there has been, or is insome distant land, or ever will be hereafter,an idealsuch as wehave described,we stoutlymaintainthat therehas been, is, and

Analysis 499-502. Ixxxv

will be such a state whenever the Muse of philosophy rules. Republic500Will you say that the world is of another mind_ O, my friend, VI.• ANALYSIS.

do not revile the world! They will soon change their opinionif they are gentlyentreated,and are taught the true nature of thephilosopher. Who can hate a manwho loveshim? or bejealousof one who has no jealousy? Consider,again, that the manyhate not the true but the false philosophers--thepretenders whoforce their way in withoutinvitation,and are always speakingof persons and not of principles,which is unlike the spirit ofphilosophy. For the true philosopherdespises earthly strife;his eye is fixed on the eternal order in accordancewith whichhe mouldshimself into the Divineimage (and not himselfonly,butother men),and is the creatorof the virtuesprivateas well aspublic. When mankindsee that the happiness of states is onlytobe foundin that image,willthey be angry with us forattempt-ingto delineateit ? ' Certainlynot. But what willbe the process

5oiof delineation?' The artist will do nothinguntil he has madea tabularasa; on this he willinscribe the constitutionof a state,glancingoftenat the divinetruth of nature,and fromthat derivingthe godlikeamong men,mingling the two elements,rubbing outand painting in, until there is a perfect harmony or fusionofthe divineand human. But perhaps the world will doubt theexistence of such an artist. What will they doubt? That thephilosopherisa loverof truth, havinga nature akinto the best?-and if they admit this will they still quarrel with us for makingphilosophersour kings? ' Theywill be lessdisposed to quarrel.'

502Let us assumethen that they are pacified. Still,a person mayhesitateabout the probabilityof the son of a king being a philo-sopher. And we do not deny that they are very liable to becorrupted; but yet surely in the course of ages there mightbeone exception--and one is enough. If one son of a king werea philosopher,and had obedientcitizens,he mightbring the idealpolity into being. Hence we conclude that our laws are notonlythe best,but that they are alsopossible, thoughnotfree fromdifficulty.

I gainednothing by evading the troublesomequestionswhicharose concerning women and children. I will be wiser nowand acknowledgethat we must go to the bottom of another

'- question: Whatis to be theeducationof ourguardians? It was

Ixxxvi Analysis5o3-5o6.Republitagreed that they were to be lovers of their country, and were 503

VL tobe testedin the refineffsfireof pleasuresand pains,and thoseANAL'a_IS.

who cameforth pure and remained fixedin their principlesweretohavehonours and rewards in life and after death. Butatthispoint, the argumentput on her veil and turned into anotherpath.Ihesitated to make the assertion whichI now hazard,--that ourguardiansmust be philosophers. You rememberall the contra-dictoryelements,which met in the philosopher--howdifficulttofind them all in a singleperson! Intelligenceand spirit are notoften combinedwith steadiness; the stolid, fearless,nature isaverseto intellectualtoil. And yet these oppositeelements areall necessary,and therefore, as we were saying before, theaspirant mustbe testedin pleasures and dangers; and also, aswe mustnowfurther add,in the highestbranchesof knowledge.5o4You will remember,that when we spoke of the virtues mentionwas made of a longer road, whichyou were satisfied to leaveunexplored. 'Enough seemed to have been said.' Enough, myfriend; but what is enough while anything remains wanting?Of all men the guardian mustnot faintin the searchafter truth ;he must be prepared to take the longer road, or he will neverreach that higher regionwhich is abovethe fourvirtues; and ofthe virtues too he mustnot only get an outline,but a clear anddistinct vision. (Strange that we should be so precise abouttrifles, so careless about the highest truths!) 'And what arethe highest?' You to pretend unconsciousness,when youhave 5o5so often heard me speak of the idea of good,about which weknow so little,and without whichthough a man gain the worldhe has no profit of itl Somepeople imaginethat the good iswisdom; butthis involvesa circle,--thegood,theysay,is wisdom,wisdomhas to dowith thegood. Accordingto othersthegoodispleasure; butthencomestheabsurditythat good is bad,for thereare bad pleasures as well as good. Again, the goodmust havereality; a man may desire the appearance of virtue,but he willnot desire the appearance of good. Ought our guardians thento be ignorantof this supreme principle,of which every man 5o6has a presentiment,and withoutwhich no man has any realknowledgeof anything? 'But, Socrates, what is this supremeprinciple, knowledgeor pleasure, or what? You may think metroublesome,but I say that you have no business to be always

Analysis506-509. lxxxviirepeatingthe doetrinesof others instead of giving usyour own.' ReaOubli¢Can I say what I do not know? ' You may offer an opinion.' vI.ANAL'_IS,And will the blindnessand crookednessof opinioncontent youwhenyou might have the light and certainty of science? ' I willonlyask you to give such an explanationof the goodas youhavegivenalreadyof temperanceand justice.' I wish that I could,butinmy presentmoodI cannotreach tothe heightofthe knowledge

5o7of the good. To the parent or principalI cannot introduceyon,but to the childbegottenin his image,whichI may compare withthe interest on the principal,I will. (Auditthe account,and donotlet megive youa falsestatementofthe debt.) Yourememberour old distinctionof the many beautifuland the one beautiful,the particular and the universal,the objects of sight and thoobjectsof thought? Did you ever consider that the objects ofsight imply a faculty of sight which is the most complex andcostlyof our senses,requiring not onlyobjectsof sense,but alsoa medium,whichis light; withoutwhichthe sightwillnot distin-

5o8guish between colours and all will be a blank? For light isthe noble bond between the perceivingfaculty and the thingperceived,and the god who gives us light is the sun, who isthe eye of the day, but is not to be confoundedwith the eyeof man. This eye of the day or sun is what I call the childof the good, standing in the same relationto the visibleworldas the good to the intellectual. When the sun shines the eyesees, and in the intellectualworld where truth is, there is sightand light. Now that which is the sun of intelligentnatures,is the idea of good, the cause of knowledgeand truth, yet

5o9other and fairer than they are, and standingin the same relationto them in which the sun stands to light. O inconceivableheight of beauty, which is above knowledgeand above truth!('You cannotsurely mean pleasure,' he said. Peace, I replied.)And this idea of good, like the sun, is also the cause of growth,and the author not of knowledgeonly,but of being, yet greaterfar than eitherin dignityand power. ' That isa reachof thoughtmore than human; but,pray, goonwith the image,for I suspectthatthereis morebehind.' Thereis, I said; andbearinginmindour two suns or principles,imagine further their correspondingworlds--oneof the visible,the other of the intelligible; youmayassist your fancy by figuring the distinctionunder the image

lxxxviii Analysis509-51I.Rep*blicof a linedividedinto twounequalparts,and mayagainsubdivide

1:/. eachpart into two lessersegments representativeof the stagesofANALYSIS.

knowledgein either sphere. The lowerportion of the lowerorvisible sphere will consist of shadows and reflections,and its 5toupper and smaller portionwill containreal objectsin the worldof nature or of art. The sphere of the intelligiblewill alsohave two divisions,--oneof mathematics,in which there is noascent but all is descent; no inquiringinto premises, but onlydrawing of inferences. In this divisionthe mind works withfigures and numbers, the images of which are taken not fromthe shadows,but from the objects_althoughthe truth of them isseenonlywith the mind's eye ; and they are used as hypotheseswithoutbeing analysed. Whereas in the other divisionreason 51xuses the hypothesesas stagesor steps in the ascent to the idea ofgood,to whichshe fastensthem,and thenagain descends,walkingfirmly in the region of ideas,and of ideas only, in her ascent aswell as descent, and finally resting in them. ' I partly under-stand,' he replied; 'you mean that the ideas of science aresuperiorto the hypothetical,metaphoricalconceptionsof geometryand the other arts or sciences,whicheveris to be the name ofthem; and the latter conceptionsyou refuseto make subjects ofpureintellect,becausethey have no firstprinciple,althoughwhenresting on a first principle,they pass into the higher sphere.'You understand me very well, I said. And now to those fourdivisions of knowledge you may assign four correspondingfaculties--pure intelligenceto the highest sphere; active intelli-gence to the second; to the third, faith; to the fourth, theperception of shadows--andthe clearnessof the severalfacultieswillbe in the sameratio as the truthof the objectsto whichtheyare related.....

I_T_ODUC-Like Socrates,we may recapitulate the virtues of the philo-TION,

sopher. In languagewhich seems to reach beyondthe horizonof that age and country,he is describedas _the spectator of alltime and all existence.' He has the noblestgifts of nature, andmakes the highest use of them. All his desires are absorbedin the love of wisdom,which is the love of truth. None of thegraces of a beautifulsoul are wanting in him; neither can hefear death, or think muchof human life. The ideal of modern

Portrait of the Philosopher. lxxxix

timeshardlyretains the simplicityof the antique; there is notthe Re_licsame originalityeither in truth or error whichcharacterizedthe VI.INTRODUC-

Greeks. The philosopheris no longer living in the unseen,nor T_oN.is he sent by an oraele to eonvineemankindof ignorance; nordoeshe regard knowledgeas a system of ideas leadingupwardsby regular stages to the idea of good. The eagerness of thepursuit has abated; there is more divisionof labour and lessofcomprehensivereflectionupon nature and human lifeas a whole;moreof exact observationand less of anticipationand inspiration.Still, in the altered conditionsof knowledge,the parallel is notwhollylost; and there may be a use in translatingthe conceptionof Plato into the language of our own age. The philosopherinmoderntimesis onewho fixes his mindon the lawsof nature intheir sequenceand connexion,not on fragments or pictures ofnature ; onhistory, not on controversy; on the truthswhich areacknowledgedby the few,not on the opinionsofthe many. He isaware of the importanceof'classifying accordingto nature,'andwill try to ' separatethe limbsof scieneewithout breakingthem'(Phaedr. a65 E). There is no part of truth, whether great orsmall,which he will dishonour; and in the least things he willdiscern the greatest (Parmen.i3oC). Like the ancient philoso-pher he sees the world pervaded by analogies,but he can alsotell 'why in some eases a single instance is sufficientfor aninduction' (Mill'sLogic,3, 3, 3), while in other eases a thousandexamples would prove nothing. He inquires into a portion ofknowledgeonly, because the whole has grown too vast to beembraeed by a single mind or life. He has a elearer eoneep-tion of the divisionsof scienceand of their relationto the mindof man than was possibleto the ancients. Like Plato, he has avisionof the unity of knowledge,not as the beginningof philo-sophy to be attained by a study of elementary mathematics,butas the far-off result of the working of many minds in many ages.He is aware that mathematicalstudies are preliminaryto almostevery other; at the same time,he will not reduceall varietiesofknowledgeto the type of mathematics. He too must have anobilityof character,without which genius loses the better halfofgreatness. Regardingthe world as a point in immensity,andeachindividualas a link in a never-endingchainof existence,hewillnot think muchof hisown life,or be greatlyafraidofdeath.

xc T_ Criticismof Ada'mantus.Republic Adeimantusobjectsfirst of all to the form of the SocraticVl.INT_ODUC-reasoning, thus showingthat Plato is aware of the imperfection

T,ON.of his own method. He brings the accusationagainsthimselfwhich might be broughtagainst him by a modern logician--thathe extracts the answer becausehe knows how to put the ques-tion. In a longargumentwords are apt to changetheirmeaningslightly,or premisesmay be assumedor conclusionsinferredwithrather too much certainty or universality; the variation at eachstep may be unobserved,and yet at last the divergencebecomesconsiderable. Hencethe failureof attemptsto apply arithmeticalor algebraicformulaeto logic. The imperfection,or rather thehigherand more elasticnature of language,does not allowwordsto have theprecisionof numbersor of symbols. And thisqualityin language impairs the force of an argument which has manysteps.

The objection,though fairlymet by Socrates in this particularinstance, may be regarded as implying a reflectionupon theSocratic mode of reasoning. And here, as at p. 5o6B, Platoseems to intimatethat the time had comewhen the negativeand interrogativemethodof Socrates must be superseded by apositive and constructiveone, of which examples are given insome of the later dialogues. Adeimantusfurther arguesthat theideal is wholly at variance with facts; for experience provesphilosophers to be either useless or rogues. Contrary to allexpectation(cp.p. 497 for a similar surprise) Socrates has nohesitationin admittingthe truth of this, and explainstheanomalyin an allegory,first characteristicallydepreciating his own in-ventive powers. In this allegory the people are distinguishedfrom the professionalpoliticians,and, as at pp. 499,5oo,arespoken of in a toneof pity rather than of censure under theimage of ' the noble captain who is not very quick in his per-ceptions.'

The uselessnessof philosophersis explained by the circum-stance that mankindwill not use them. The world in all ageshas been dividedbetweencontemptand fearof those whoemploythe power of ideasand know no otherweapons. Concerningthefalsephilosopher,Socratesargues that the best is most liable tocorruption; and that the finer nature is more likely to sufferfrom alien conditions. We tooobserve thatthere are somekinds

Tke paradoxical reply of Socrates. xci

of excellencewhich spring from a peculiar delicacy of consti- Repu$lieVI.tution; as is evidentlytrue of the poeticaland imaginativetem- INTlODUC-

perament, which often seems to depend on impressions, and non.hence can only breathe or live in a certain atmosphere. Theman of genius has greater pains and greater pleasures, greaterpowers and greater weaknesses, and often a greater play ofcharacter than is to be foundin ordinary men. He can assumethe disguiseof virtue or disinterestednesswithout having them,or veil personalenmityin the languageof patriotismand philo-sophy,--he cansay the wordwhich all men are thinking,he hasan insightwhich is terrible intothe folliesand weaknessesof hisfellow-men. An Alcibiades,a Mirabeau,or a Napoleon theFirst, are born either to be the authors of great evils in states,or 'of great good,whenthey are drawn in thatdirection.'

Yetthe thesis, ' corruptiooptimipessima,'cannotbe maintainedgenerally or withoutregard to the kind of excellencewhich iscorrupted. The alien conditions which are corrupting to onenature, may be the elements of cultureto another. In generala man can only receivehis highest developmentin a congenialstate or family,among friends or fellow-workers. But also hemay sometimesbe stirred by adverse circumstancesto such adegree that he rises up against them and reforms them. Andwhileweaker or coarsercharacterswill extract goodout of evil,say in a corrupt state of the church or of society,and live onhappily,allowingthe evil to remain, the fineror strongernaturesmay be crushed or spoiled by surroundinginfluences--maybe-come misanthrope and philanthrope by turns; or in a fewinstances, like the founders of the monastic orders, or the Re-formers,owing to some peculiarityin themselvesor intheir age,may break away entirely from the world and from the church,sometimesinto great good,sometimesinto great evil,sometimesinto both. And the same holds in the lessersphere of a convent,a school,a family.

Platowouldhave us considerhow easily the best natures areoverpoweredbypublicopinion,and what effortsthe rest of man-kind will make to get possession of them. The world, thechurch, their own profession,any politicalor party organization,are always carrying them off their legs and teaching them toapply highand holynamesto their ownprejudices and interests.

xcii The kellermindof themany.RepublicThe 'monster' corporation to which they belong judges fightVI.

and truth to be the pleasure of the community. The individual_NTRODUC-

_o_. becomes one with his order; or, if he resists, the world is toomuch for him, and will sooner or later be revenged on him.Thisis, perhaps, a one-sidedbut notwhollyuntruepicture of themaximsand practice of mankindwhen they 'sit down togetherat an assembly,'eitherin ancientor moderntimes.

When the higher natures are corrupted by politics,the lowertake possessionof the vacant place of philosophy. This is de-scribed inone of those continuousimagesin whichthe argument,to use a Platonicexpression,' veilsherself,'and whichis droppedand reappears at intervals. The question is asked,--Why arethe citizensof states so hostileto philosophy? The answer is,that they donot knowher. And yet there is also a better mindof the many; they would believe if they were taught. Buthitherto they have onlyknown a conventionalimitationof philo-sophy,words without thoughts,systems which have no life inthem; a [divine]person uttering the words of beauty and free-dom, the friend of man holding communionwith the Eternal,and seeking to frame the state in that image, they have neverknown. The same double feelingrespecting the mass of man.kind has alwaysexisted among men. The first thought is thatthe people are the enemiesof truth and right; the second,thatthis onlyarises out of an accidentalerror andconfusion,and thatthey do not really hate those who love them, if they could beeducatedto knowthem.

In the latter part of the sixth book,three questionshave to beconsidered: ist, the nature of the longer and more circuitousway, which is contrasted with the shorter and more imperfectmethod of BookIV; 2nd, the heavenly pattern or idea of thestate; 3rd, the relation of the divisions of knowledge to oneanother and tothe correspondingfacultiesofthe soul.

x.Of the higher methodof knowledgein Platowe haveonlyaglimpse. Neither here nor in the Phaedrus or Symposium,noryet in the Philebusor Sophist,doeshe giveany clear explanationof his meaning. He would probablyhave describedhis methodas proceedingby regular steps to a system of universal know-ledge, which inferred the parts fromthe whole rather than thewhole from the parts. This ideal logic is not practised by him

The keller and longer way. xciii

in the search after justice,or in the analysis of the parts of the Re_blicsoul; there, fikeAristotle in the NicomacheanEthics, he argues VI.IN'rRODUC-

fromexperienceandthecommonuseoflanguage.Butatthe _o_.end ofthesixthbookheconceivesanotherandmoreperfectmethod,inwhichallideasareonlystepsorgradesormomentsofthought,forminga connectedwholewhichisself-supporting,andinwhichconsistencyisthetestoftruth.He doesnotexplaintousinde.tailthenatureoftheprocess.Likemanyotherthinkersbothinancientandmoderntimeshismindseemstobefilledwithavacantformwhichheisunabletorealize.Hcsupposesthesciencestohavea naturalorderandconnexioninan agewhen they can hardly be said to exist. He is hasteningon to the 'end of the intellectualworld' without even makingabeginningofthem.

In modern times we hardly need to be reminded that theprocess of acquiring knowledgeis here confusedwith the con-templation of absolute knowledge. In all science a priori anda posterioritruths mingle in various proportions. The a prioripart is thatwhich is derived from the most universalexperienceof men, or is universallyaccepted by them; the a posterioriisthat which grows up around the more general principles andbecomes imperceptiblyone with them. But Plato erroneouslyimagines that the synthesisis separablefrom the analysis, andthat the methodofsciencecananticipatescience. In entertainingsuch a visionof a priori knowledgehe is sufficientlyjustified,or at least his meaning may be sufficientlyexplained by thesimilar attempts of Descartes,Kant, Hegel,and even of Baconhimself,in modern philosophy. Anticipationsor divinations,orpropheticglimpses of truths whether concerningman or nature,seem to stand in the same relation to ancient philosophywhich

: hypotheses bear to modern inductive science. These 'guessesat truth' were not madeat random; they arose froma superficialimpression of uniformitiesand first principles in nature whichthe geniusof the Greek,contemplatingthe expanse of heavenandearth, seemed to recognizein the distance. Nor can we denythat in ancient times knowledgemust have stood still, and thehuman mind been deprived of the very instruments of thought,if philosophy had been strictly confined to the results of ex-perience.

xciv Theconfi_sionof ideasand numbers.Republic z. Platosupposesthatwhenthe tablethas beenmade blank the

t_I. artist willfillin the lineamentsofthe idealstate. Is this a patternINTRODUC-TION. laid up in heaven, or mere vacancyonwhich he is supposed to

gaze with wonderingeye? The answer is, that such ideals areframed partly by the omissionof particulars,partly by imagina-tion perfectingthe formwhichexperience supplies(Phaedo,74).Plato represents these idealsin a figureas belongingto anotherworld; and in modern times the idea will sometimes seem toprecede,at other times to co-operatewith thehand of the artist.As in science,so alsoin creativeart, there is a syntheticalas wellas an analyticalmethod. One man will have the whole in hismind before he begins; to another the processes of mind andhandwill be simultaneous.

3. There is no difficultyin seeing that Plato's divisions ofknowledgeare based, first, on the fundamental antithesis ofsensible and intellectualwhich pervades the whole pre-Socraticphilosophy; in which is implied also the oppositionof the per-manent and transient,of the universal and particular. But theage of philosophyinwhich he lived seemed to require a furtherdistinction;--numbers and figures were beginning to separatefromideas. The world could no longer regard justice as a cube,and was learning to see, thoughimperfectly,that the abstractionsof sense were distinctfrom the abstractionsof mind. Betweenthe Eleatic being or essence and the shadowsof phenomena,the Pythagorean principle of number found a place, and was,as Aristotleremarks,a conductingmediumfromone to theother.Hence Plato is led to introduce a third term which had nothithertoentered into the scheme of his philosophy. He hadob-served the use of mathematicsin education;they were the bestpreparation for higher studies. The subjectiverelation betweenthem further suggestedan objectiveone; although the passagefrom one to the other is reallyimaginary(Metaph.x,6, 4). Formetaphysicaland moralphilosophyhas noconnexionwithmathe-matics; numberand figureare the abstractionsof timeand space,not the expressions of purely intellectualconceptions. "VVhendivested of metaphor, a straight line or a square has no moretodowith right and justice than a crookedline with vice. Thefigurativeassociationwas mistakenfor a real one; and thus thethree latter divisionsofthe Platonicproportionwere constructed.

The carrelatfonof thefaculEes, xcv

There is more difficultyin comprehendinghow he arrivedat RepublicV/.the first term of the series, which is nowhere else mentioned, INrRODVe.andhasno referenceto anyother part ofhis system. Norindeed T,os.doesthe relationof shadowstoobjectscorrespondto the relationof numbers to ideas. ProbablyPlato hasbeen led by the loveof analogy(ep.Timaeus,p.3u B) to make four terms instead ofthree, although the objects perceived in both divisions of thelower sphere are equallyobjects of sense. He is alsopreparingthe way,as hismanneris, forthe shadowsof imagesat the begin-ning of the seventh book,and the imitationof an imitationinthe tenth. The line may be regarded as reaching from unityto infinity,and is dividedinto two unequalparts,andsubdividedinto two more; each lower sphere is the multiplicationof thepreceding. Ofthe fourfaculties,faith in the lowerdivisionhasanintermediateposition (ep.for the use of the word faithor belief,_rlo'r**,Timaeus,u9C,37B), contrastingequallywiththe vaguenessof the perceptionof shadows(El_aaia)and the higher certaintyofunderstanding(3L_vo,a)and reason(vo_).

The differencebetween understanding and mind or reason(vo_,)is analogousto the differencebetween acquiringknow-ledge in the parts and the contemplationof the whole. Trueknowledgeis a whole,and is at rest ; consistencyanduniversalityare the tests of truth. To this self-evidencingknowledgeof thewholethe facultyof mind is supposed to correspond. But thereis a knowledgeof the understandingwhich is incomplete andinmotionalways,becauseunableto rest in the subordinateideas.Those ideas are called both images and hypotheses--imagesbecausethey are clothed in sense, hypothesesbecausethey areassumptionsonly,until they are broughtinto connexionwith theideaof good.

The genei'al meaning of the passage 5o8-5ii, so far as thethoughtcontainedin it admitsofbeingtranslatedintothe terms ofmodernphilosophy,maybe describedor explainedas follows:-There is a truth,one and self-existent,to which by the help ofa ladderletdown fromabove,the humanintelligencemayascend.This unity is like the sun in the heavens, the light by whichall things are seen, the being by which they are created andsustained. It is the ideaof good. And the steps of the ladderleading up to this highestor universal existenceare the mathe-

xcvi The ideaof good,etc. iRe]>ublicmatiealsciences,which also contain in themselves an element

VI. of the universal. These, too,we see in a new manner whenweINTRODUC-

TION. connect them with the idea of good. They then cease to be ihypotheses or pictures, and becomeessential parts of a highertruth whichis at oncetheir first principleandtheir final cause.

We cannot give any more precise meaningto this remarkablepassage, but we may trace in it several rudimentsor vestigesof thoughtwhich are commonto us and to Plato: such as (I) theunityand correlation of the sciences,or rather of science,for inPlato's timethey were not yet parted offor distinguished; (2)theexistenceof a DivinePower, or life or idea or cause or reason,not yet conceivedor no longer conceivedas in the Timaeusandelsewhere under the form of a person; (3)the recognitionofthe hypothetical and conditionalcharacter of the mathematicalsciences,and in a measure of everyscience when isolatedfromthe rest; (4) the convictionof a truth which is invisible,andof a law, though hardly a law of nature, whichpermeates theintellectualrather than the visibleworld.

The methodofSocratesis hesitatingand tentative,awaitingthefullerexplanationof the idea ofgood,and ofthe nature ofdialecticin the seventh book. The imperfect intelligenceof Glaucon,andthe reluctanceof Socratestomakea beginning,markthe difficultyof the subject. The allusion to Theages' bridle, and to theinternal oracle, or demonic sign, of Socrates, which here, asalwaysin Plato, is onlyprohibitory; the remark that the salva-tion of any remnant of good in the present evil state of theworld is due to God only; the reference to a future state ofexistence, 498D, which is unknown to Glaueonin the tenthbook,6o8D, and in which the discussionsof Socratesand hisdiscipleswouldbe resumed; the surprisein the answers at 487Eand 497B; the fancifulirony of Socrates,where he pretendsthat he can only describe the strange position of the philo-sopher in a figureof speech; the originalobservationthat theSophists, after all, are only the representatives and not theleaders of publicopinion; thepictureof the philosopherstandingaside in the shower of sleet under a wail; the figure of ' thegreat beast'followedby the expression of good-willtowards thecommonpeople who would not have rejectedthe philosopherif theyhadknownhim; the ' rightnoblethought'thatthe highest

Tke Idea of Good. xcvii

truths demandthe greatestexactness; the hesitationofSocrates Republicin returning once more to his well-worn theme of the idea of YI.INTRODUC-

good; the ludicrousearnestness of Glaucon; the comparisonof ,,o_.philosophyto a deserted maidenwho marries beneath her--aresome ofthe mostinterestingcharacteristicsofthe sixthbook.

Yeta few morewords may be added,on the old theme,whichwas so oft discussed in the Socratic circle, of which we, likeGlauconand Adeimantus,wouldfain, if possible,have a clearernotion. Like them, we are dissatisfiedwhen we are told thatthe ideaof good can onlybe revealed to a studentof the mathe-matical sciences,and we are inclined to think that neither wenor they couldhave been led along that path to any satisfactorygoal. For we have learned that differencesof quantity cannotpass intodifferencesofquality,and that the mathematicalsciencescan never rise above themselves into the sphere of our higherthoughts, although they may sometimes furnish symbols andexpressionsof them,and may train the mind inhabits of abstrac-tion and self-concentration. The illusionwhich was natural toan ancient philosopherhas ceased to be an illusion to us. Butif the process by which we are supposed to arrive at the ideaof good be really imaginary,may not the idea itself be also amere abstraction? We remark, first, that in all ages, andespeciallyin primitivephilosophy,words such as being,essence,unity, good,have exerted an extraordinary influence over themindsof men. The meagrenessor negativenessof their contenthas been in an inverse ratio to their power. They havebecomethe forms under which all thingswere comprehended. Therewas a need or instinct in the human soul which they satisfied;theywere not ideas,but gods,and tothis newmythologythemenof a latergeneration began to attach the powersandassociationsof the elder deities.

The idea of good is one of those sacred words or forms ofthought, which were beginning to take the place of the oldmythology. It meant unity, in which all time and all existencewere gatheredup. It was the truth of all things,andalso the lightin which they shone forth, and became evident to intelligenceshuman and divine. It was the cause of all things,the power bywhich they were brought into being. It was the universalreasondivestedof a human personality. It was the life as well as the

h

xcviii The Idea of Good.Republiclight of the world, all knowledgeand all power were compre-

VI. hended in it. The way to it was through the mathematicalINTRODUC-

T,oN. sciences,and these too were dependent on it. To ask whetherGOdwas the maker of it, or made by it, wouldbe like askingwhetherGod couldbe conceivedapart fromgoodness,or goodnessapart fromGod. The Godofthe Timaeusisnot reallyat variancewith the idea of good; they are aspects of the same, differingonlyas the personal from the impersonal,or the masculinefromthe neuter,the one beingthe expressionorlanguageof mythology,the other ofphilosophy.

This,or somethinglike this,is the meaningof the idea of goodas conceivedby Plato. Ideas of number, order, harmony, de-velopmentmay also be said to enter into it. The paraphrasewhich has just been givenof it goes beyond the actualwords ofPlato. We haveperhaps arrivedat the stageofphilosophywhichenablesus to understandwhat he is aimingat, better than he didhimself. We are beginningto realize what he saw darkly andat a distance. But if he couldhave been told that this,or someconceptionof the same kind,but higher than this,was the truthat whichhe was aiming,and the needwhich he soughttosupply,he wouldgladlyhaverecognizedthat more was containedin hisown thoughtsthan he himselfknew. As hiswords are few andhis manner reticent and tentative,so must the style of his inter-preter be. We should not approach his meaning more nearlyby attemptingto define it further. In translating him into thelanguage of modern thought,we mightinsensiblylose the spiritof ancient philosophy. It is remarkable that although Platospeaks of the idea of goodas the first principle of truth andbeing, it is nowhere mentioned in his writings except in thispassage. Nor did it retain any hold upon the .minds of hisdisciples in a later generation; it was probablyunintelligibletothem. Nor does the mentionof it in Aristotle appear to haveany referencetothis or any otherpassagein his extantwritings.

ANALVS,S.]BOOKVII. And now I will describe in a figure the staph.enlightenment or unenlightenment of our nature :--Imagine 514human beings living in an underground den which is opentowards the light; they have been there from childhood,hav-ing their necksand legs chained, and can onlysee into the den.

Analysis514-517. xcixAt a distance there is a fire, and between the fire and the lge_li¢VII.prisoners a raised way, and a low wall is built along the way, AN_vsxs.like the screen over which marionette players show their

515puppets. Behind the wall appear moving figures,who hold intheir hands various works of art, and among them images ofmen and animals,wood and stone, and some of the passers-byare talkingand others silent. ' A strange parable,'he said, 'andstrangecaptives.' They are ourselves,I replied; and they seeonlythe shadowsof the imageswhich the fire throwson the wallof the den; to these theygive names,and if we addan echowhichreturns from the wall, the voices of the passengerswill seemto proceed from the shadows. Supposenow thatyou suddenlyturn themroundand makethemlookwithpain and griefto them-selves at the real images; will they believe them to be real ?Willnot their eyes be dazzled,and will they not try to get awayfromthe lightto somethingwhich they are ableto beholdwithout

516blinking? And supposefurther,that they are draggedup a steepand ruggedascent intothe presence of the sun himself,will nottheir sightbe darkenedwith the excess of light? Sometime willpass before they get the habit of perceivingat all ; and at firstthey will be ableto perceiveonly shadowsand reflectionsin thewater ; then they willrecognizethe moonand the stars,and willat lengthbehold the sun in hisown proper place as he is. Lastof all they will conclude:--This is he who gives us the year andthe seasons,and is the authorof all that we see. How willtheyrejoicein passing from darkness to light! How worthless tothemwill seem the honours and glories of the den ! But nowimaginefurther, that they descend into their old habitations;-in that underground dwellingthey will not see as well as their

517fellows,and willnotbe able tocompetewiththemin the measure-mentofthe shadowson the wall; there willbe manyjokes aboutthe man who went on a visit to the sun and lost his eyes,andif they find anybodytryingto set free and enlightenone of theirnumber,they will put him to death, if they can catch him. Nowthe caveor den is the world of sight,the fire is the sun, the wayupwards is the wayto knowledge,and inthe worldof knowledgethe idea of good is last seen and with difficulty,but when seenis inferred to be the authorof goodand right--parent of the lordof lightinthis world,and of truth and understandingin the other.

h2

c Analysis 5t7-520.Re_li¢ He who attains to the beatific vision is always goingupwards;

VII. he is unwillingto descend into politicalassembliesand courtsANALYSIS*

of law; for his eyes are apt to blinkat the imagesor shadowsof images which they beholdin them--he cannot enter into theideas of those who have never in their lives understood therelation of the shadow to the substance. But blindness is of 5x8two kinds,and may be caused eitherby passingout of darknessinto light or out of light into darkness, and a man of sensewill distinguish between them, and will not laugh equally atboth of them, but the blindnesswhich arises from fulness oflight he will deem blessed, and pity the other; or if he laughat the puzzledsoullookingat the sun,he willhavemorereason tolaugh than the inhabitantsof the den at thosewho descend fromabove. There is a further lesson taught by this parableof ours.Some persons t_ney that instruction is like giving eyes to theblind, but we say that the faculty of sight was always there,and that the soul only requires to be turned round towards thelight. And this is conversion; other virtuesare almostlikebodilyhabits,and may be acquiredinthe same manner,but intelligencehas a diviner life, and is indestructible,turning either to goodor evil accordingto the directiongiven. Didyou never observe 519how the mind of a clever rogue peers out of hi_ eyes,and themore clearly he sees, the more evil he does? Nowif you takesuch an one, and cut away from him those leaden weights ofpleasure and desirewhich bind his soulto earth, hisintelligencewill be turned round,and he will behold the truth as clearlyashe now discerns his meaner ends. And have we not decidedthat our rulers must neither be souneducatedas to haveno fixedrule of life, nor so over-educatedas to be unwilling to leavetheir paradise for the businessof the world? We must chooseout therefore the natures who are most likelyto ascend to thelight and knowledgeof the good; butwe must notallowthemtoremain in the region of light; they must be forceddown againamong the captives in the den to partake of their labours andhonours. 'Will they not think this a hardship?' You shouldremember that our purpose in framingthe State was not thatour citizensshoulddo what they like,but that they shouldservethe State for the commongoodof all. May we not fairlysay 52oto our philosopher,--Friend,we do you no wrong; for in other

Analysis 520-523. ci

States philosophygrows wild,and a wild plant owes nothing Republicto the gardener, but youhave been trained byus to be the rulers VII.

ANALYSIS.and kings of our hive, and therefore we must insist on yourdescendinginto the den. You must,eachof you,take your turn,and become able to use your eyes in the dark,and with a littlepractice you will see far better than those who quarrel aboutthe shadows,whose knowledge is a dream only, whilst yoursisa wakingreality. It may be that the saintor philosopherwhoisbest fitted,may also be the least inclinedto rule,but necessityis laid upon him, and he must no longer live in the heavenof

521ideas. And thiswill be the salvationof the State. For thosewhorule must not be thosewho are desiroustorule ; and,if youcanoffer to our citizensa better life than that of rulers generallyis,there willbe a chancethat the rich, notonlyin this world'sgoods,but in virtue and wisdom,may bear rule. And the only lifewhich is better than the lifeof politicalambitionis that of philo-sophy, which is also the best preparation for the governmentof a State.

Then nowcomesthe question,--Howshallwecreateour rulers;what wayis there fromdarknessto light? The changeis effectedby philosophy; it is not the turningover of an oyster-shell,butthe conversionof a soul from night to day, from becomingtobeing. And what training will draw the soul upwards? Ourformer education had two branches, gymnastic, which wasoccupiedwith the body,and music,the sister art, which infuseda

52_natural harmony into mind and literature; but neither of thesesciencesgave any promise of doingwhat we want. Nothingre-mains tous but that universalor primary scienceof whichall thearts and sciences are partakers,I mean number or calculation.' Very true.' Includingthe art of war ? ' Yes,certainly.' Thenthere is somethingludicrous about Palamedes in the tragedy,eoming in and saying that he had invented number, and hadcounted the ranks and set them in order. For if Agamemnoncould notcount his feet (and withoutnumber how couldhe ?)hemust have been a pretty sort of generalindeed. No man shouldbe a soldier who cannot count,and indeed he is hardly to becalleda man. But I am not speakingof these practical appliea-

523tions of arithmetic, for number, in my view, is rather to beregarded as a conductor to thought and being. I will explain

cii Analysis 523-526.RepublicwhatI meanbythe lastexpression:--Thingssensibleare oftwoVII.ANA_s,_.kinds;the oneclassinviteor stimulatethemind,whilein the

otherthe mind acquiesces.Nowthestimulatingclassare thethingswhichsuggestcontrastandrelation.Forexample,supposethat I holdupto theeyes threefingers--aforefinger,a middlefinger,a little finger--thesight equallyrecognizesall threefingers,butwithoutnumbercannotfurtherdistinguishthem. Oragain,supposetwoobjectsto be relativelygreatandsmall,theseideasof greatnessandsmallnessaresuppliednotbythe sense,butbythemind. And theperceptionoftheircontrastor relation524quickensandsets in motionthe mind,whichis puzzledby theconfusedintimationsofsense,andhasrecoursetonumberinorderto find out whetherthe thingsindicatedare oneor morethanone. Numberrepliesthattheyare twoandnot one,andare tobe distinguishedfromone another. Again, the sightbeholdsgreatandsmall,but onlyina confusedchaos,and notuntiltheyare distinguisheddoesthe questionarise of their respectivenatures; weare thusledonto thedistinctionbetweenthevisibleandintelligible.ThatwaswhatI meantwhenI spokeofstimu-lantsto the intellect; I was thinkingof thecontradictionswhichariseinperception.Theideaofunity,forexample,likethatofafinger,doesnot arousethoughtunlessinvolvingsomeconceptionof plurality; butwhentheone is alsothe oppositeof one,the525contradictiongivesrise to reflection;an exampleof this isaffordedbyanyobjectofsight. All numberhasalsoanelevatingeffect; it raisesthemindoutofthefoamandfluxofgenerationtothe contemplationof being,havinglessermilitaryandretailusesalso. Theretailuseisnotrequiredbyus; butasourguardianisto bea soldieras wellasa philosopher,themilitaryonemayberetained. And to our higherpurposenosciencecan be betteradapted; butitmustbepursuedin thespiritofa philosopher,notof a shopkeeper.It is concerned,not withvisibleobjects,butwithabstracttruth; for numbersare pureabstractions--thetruearithmeticianindignantlydeniesthathisunitiscapableofdivision.When youdivide,he insiststhatyou areonlymultiplying;his526'one' isnotmaterialorresolvableintofractions,butanunvaryingand absoluteequality;and this proves the purelyintellectualcharacterof his study. Notealsothe greatpowerwhicharith-metichasofsharpeningthewits; no otherdisciplineis equally

Analysis 526-528. ciiisevere,or an equal test of generalabifity,or equallyimprovingto RCublica stupid person, vii.

ANALYSIS.

Let our secondbranchof educationbegeometry. ' I caneasilysee,'repfiedGlaueon,' thattheskill of the generalwillbe doubledby his knowledgeof geometry.' Thatis a smallmatter; the useof geometry,to whichI refer, is the assistancegivenby it in thecontemplationof the ideaof good,and the compellingthe mindtolookat true being,and not at generationonly. Yet the presentmode of pursuing these studies,as any one who is the least of amathematicianis aware, is meanand ridiculous; they are madetolookdownwardsto the arts, and not upwards to eternalexistence.

527The geometeris alwaystalkingof squaring,subtending,apposing,as if he had in viewaction; whereas knowledgeis the real objectof the study. It shouldelevate the soul, and create the mind ofphilosophy; it shouldraiseup what has fallendown,not to speakoflesser uses inwar and militarytactics,and in the improvementofthe faculties.

Shallwe propose,as a third branchof oureducation,astronomy?'Very good,'replied Glaucon; ' the knowledgeof the heavens isnecessaryat once for husbandry,navigation,military tactics.' Ilikeyour way of giving useful reasons for everythingin order tomakefriendsof the world. And there is a difficultyin proving tomankind that education is not only useful information but apurificationof the eye of the soul,whichis better than the bodily

528eye, for by this aloneis truth seen. Now,willyouappeal to man-kindin generalor tothe philosopher? or wouldyouprefer to lookto yourself only? 'Every man is his own best friend.' Thentake a step backward,forwe are outof order, and insert the thirddimensionwhichis of solids,after the secondwhich is of planes,and then youmayproceedto solidsinmotion. But solidgeometryis notpopular and has notthe patronageof the State, nor isthe useof it fullyrecognized; the difficultyis great, and the votariesof thestudyare conceitedand impatient. Still the charm of the pursuitwins uponmen, and, if governmentwould lend a littleassistance,there mightbegreat progressmade. ' Very true,' repliedGlaucon;' but do I understand you now to begin with plane geometry,and to place next geometry of solids, and thirdly, astronomy,or the motion of solids?' Yes, I said; my hastiness has onlyhindered us.

civ Analysis528-531.Ref,_¢blic 'Very good,and now let us proceed to astronomy,aboutwhich

vii. I am willingto speakin your loftystrain. No one can failto see 529ANALYSIS.

that the contemplationofthe heavensdraws the soulupwards.' Iam an exception,then ; astronomyas studiedat present appearsto me to draw the soulnot upwards,but downwards. Star-gazingis just lookingup at the ceiling--no better; a man may lie onhis back on land or onwater--he may look up or lookdown,butthere is no science in that. The vision of knowledgeof whichI speak is seen not with the eyes, but with the mind. All themagnificenceofthe heavensis but the embroideryof acopy whichfallsfar shortofthe divineOriginal,and teachesnothingabouttheabsoluteharmoniesormotionsof things. Their beautyis like thebeauty of figuresdrawn by the hand of Daedalus or any othergreat artist,whichmay be used forillustration,but no mathemati-53°clan wouldseek to obtain i?omthem true conceptionsof equalityor numericalrelations. How ridiculousthen to lookfor these inthe map of the heavens,in whichthe imperfectionof matter comesin everywhereas a disturbingelement,marring the symmetry ofday and night,of months and years,of the sunand stars in theircourses. Onlyby problems can we place astronomyon a trulyscientificbasis. Let the heavensalone,and exert the intellect.

Still, mathematicsadmit of other applications, as the Pytha-goreanssay, and we agree. There is a sister scienceof barmonicalmotion,adapted to the ear as astronomyis to the eye,and theremay be other applications also. Let us inquire of the Pytha-goreans about them,not forgettingthat we have an aimhigherthan theirs, which is the relation of these sciences to the ideaof good. The error which pervades astronomy also pervadesharmonics. The musiciansput their ears in the place of their 53xminds. 'Yes,' replied Glaucon,' I like to see them laying theirears alongsideof their neighbours'faces--somesaying,"That's anew note,"othersdeclaringthat the twonotes are the same.' Yes,I said; but youmean the empirics who are always twistingandtorturingthe stringsof the lyre, and quarrellingabout the tempersofthe strings; I amreferringratherto the Pythagoreanharmonists,who are almost equallyin error. For they investigateonly thenumbers of the consonanceswhich are heard, and ascend nohigher,--of the true numerical harmonywhichis unheard, and isonly to be foundin problems,they have not even a conception.

A nalysis 53 I-5 33. cv

'That last,' he said, 'must be a marvellousthing.' A thing, I Republicreplied,whichis onlyusefulif pursuedwitha viewto the good. VII.ANALYSIS.

Allthese sciencesare the prelude of the strain,and are profit-able if they are regarded in their naturalrelationsto oneanother.' I dare say, Socrates,'said Glaucon; ' but such a study will be anendless business.' What study do you mean--of the prelude, orwhat? For all these things are only the prelude,and you surelydo notsuppose that a mere mathematicianis also a dialectician?

532' Certainlynot. I have hardly ever known a mathematicianwhocouldreason.' And yet, Glaucon,is not true reasoningthat hymnof dialecticwhichis the musicof the intellectualworld,and whichwas byus comparedto the effort of sight, when from beholdingthe shadowson the wallwe arrived at last at the images whichgave the shadows? Even so the dialecticalfacultywithdrawingfrom sense arrives by the pure intellect at the contemplationofthe idea of good, and never rests but at the very end of theintellectualworld. And the royal road out of the cave into thelight, and the blinking of the eyes at the sun and turning tocontemplatethe shadowsof reality,not the shadows of an imageonly--this progress and gradual acquisitionof a new faculty ofsight by the help of the mathematicalsciences,is the elevationofthe soulto the contemplationof the highest idealof being.

' So far, I agreewithyou. Butnow, leavingthe prelude,let usproceedto the hymn. What, then, is the nature of dialectic,and

533what are the paths which lead thither?' Dear Glaucon,youcannot follow me here. There can be no revelation of theabsolutetruth to one who has not beendisciplinedin the previoussciences. But that there is a science of absolute truth, whichis attained in someway very differentfrom those now practised,I am confident. For all other arts or sciences are relative tohuman needs and opinions; and the mathematicalsciencesarebut a dream or hypothesisof true being,and never analyse theirown principles. Dialecticalone rises to the principlewhich isabove hypotheses,converting and gently leading the eye of thesouloutof the barbarous sloughof ignoranceinto the light of theupper world, with the help of the scienceswhichwe have beendescribing--sciences,as they are often termed, although theyrequire some other name, implyinggreater clearnessthan opinionand less clearness than science,and this in our previous sketch

cvl Analysis 533-537-

Re[,ublicwas understanding.Andso weget fournames--twoforintellect,VII. and two for opinion,--reasonor mind,understanding,faith,per-ANALYSIS.

ceptionof shadows--whichmakeaproportion--being:becoming:: 534intellect:opinion--andscience:belief::understanding:perceptionof shadows. Dialecticmay be furtherdescribedas that sciencewhichdefinesand explainsthe essence or beingof eachnature,which distinguishesand abstractsthe good,and is ready to dobattleagainstall opponentsin the causeof good. Tohimwhoisnot adialecticianlifeis buta sleepy dream; andmanya manis inhis gravebefore he is well wakedup. And wouldyou have thefuture rulers of yourideal State intelligentbeings,or stupid asposts? 'Certainlynot the latter.' Then youmust trainthem indialectic,whichwillteachthem to ask and answerquestions,andis the coping-stoneof thesciences.

I dare say that you have not forgotten how our rulers were 535chosen; and the process of selection may be carried a stepfurther :--As before, they must be constant and valiant, good-looking,and of noble manners, but now they must also havenatural abilitywhich educationwillimprove; that is to say, theymust be quick at learning,capableof mental toil,retentive, solid,diligent natures, who combine intellectual with moral virtues;not lameand one-sided,diligentin bodilyexerciseand indolent inmind, or conversely; not a maimed soul, which hates falsehoodand yet unintentionally is always wallowing in the mire of 536ignorance; not a bastardor feebleperson,but sound inwind andlimb,and in perfect conditionfor the great gymnastictrial of themind. Justice herselfcan findno faultwithnatures suchas these;and they will be the saviours of our State ; disciplesof anothersort wouldonly make philosophy more ridiculousthan she is atpresent. Forgive my enthusiasm; I am becomingexcited; butwhen I see her trampled underfoot,I am angry at the authors of-her disgrace. ' I did not noticethat youwere moreexcitedthanyououghtto have been.' But I felt that I was. Now do not letus forgetanother pointin the selectionof our disciples--that'theymust be youngand not old. For Solonis mistakenin sayingthatan old man can be alwayslearning; youth is the time of study,and here we mustrememberthat the mind is free and dainty,and,unlike the body, must not be made to work against the grain.Learningshouldbe at first a sort of play,inwhichthe naturalbent 537

Analysis537-539. evilis detected. As in training them for war, the youngdogs should Rel_bllcat first onlytaste blood; but when the necessarygymnasticsare VII.ANALYSIS.

over which during two or three years divide life between sleepand bodilyexercise, then the educationof the soul willbecomeamore seriousmatter. At twentyyears of age,a selectionmust bemadeof the more promisingdisciples,with whoma new epochofeducationwill begin. The sciences which they have hithertolearned in fragmentswill.now be broughtinto relationwitheachother and withtrue being; forthe power of'combiningthemis thetest of speculative and dialectical ability. And afterwards atthirty a further selectionshall be made of those who are able towithdrawfrom theworld of sense into the abstractionof ideas.But at this point, judging from present experience, there is adanger that dialecticmay be the source of many evils. Thedanger may be illustratedbya parallelcase :--Imagine a personwho has been brought up in wealth and luxury amida crowd offlatterers,and who is suddenlyinformedthat he is a supposititious

538son. He has hitherto honoured his reputed parents and dis-regarded the flatterers,and now"he does the reverse. This isjustwhat happens with a man's principles. There are certaindoctrineswhichhe learnt athome and whichexerciseda parentalauthorityover him. Presently he finds that imputationsare castuponthem; a troublesomequerist comesand asks, 'What is thejust and good?' or proves that virtueis vice and vicevirtue,andhis mind becomesunsettled, and he ceases to love,honour, and

539obey themas he has hithertodone. He is seduced intothe lifeofpleasure, and becomesa lawlesspersonand a rogue. The case ofsuch speculators is very pitiable, and, in order that our thirtyyears' old pupils may not require this pity,let us take everypossible care that young persons do not study philosophy tooearly. For a youngman is a sort of puppywho onlyplays withan argument; and is reasonedinto and out of his opinionseveryday; he soon begins to believenothing, and brings himselfandphilosophyinto discredit. A man of thirty does notrun on inthisway; he will argue and not merely contradict, and adds newhonour to philosophyby the sobrietyof his conduct. What timeshallwe allow for this secondgymnastic training of the soul?-say, twicethe timerequired forthe gymnasticsof the body ; six,or perhaps fiveyears, to commenceat thirty, and then forfifteen

cviii The Divisionsof Knowledge.Republicyearslet thestudentgo downinto the den, and commandarmies,

VII. andgainexperienceoflife. At fiftylet him return to the end of 540ANALYSIS,

all things,and havehiseyes upliftedtothe ideaof good,andorderhis life after that pattern; if necessary, taking his turn at thehelm ofState, and trainingup others to be his successors. Whenhis time comes he shall depart in peace to the islands of theblest. He shall be honouredwith sacrifices,and receivesuchworship as the Pythianoracleapproves.

'You are a statuary,Socrates,and have made a perfect imageof our governors.' Yes,and of our governesses,for the womenwill share in all things with the men. And youwill admit thatour State is not a mere aspiration, but may really come intobeing when there shall arise philosopher-kings,one or more,who will despise earthly vanities, and will be the servants ofjustice only. 'And how will they begin their work ?' Their 541first act will be to send away into the country all those who aremore than ten years of age, and to proceed with those who areleft....

I._TRODUC-At the commencement of the sixth book, Plato anticipatedTION.

his explanationof the relation of the philosopher to the worldin an allegory,in this, as in other passages, followingthe orderwhich he prescribes in education,and proceedingfrom the con-crete to the abstract. At the commencementof BookVII, underthe figure of a cave having an opening towards a fire and away upwards to the true light, he returns to view the divisionsof knowledge,exhibiting familiarly,as in a picture, the resultwhich had been hardly won by a great effort of thought in theprevious discussion; at the same time castinga glance onwardat the dialecticalprocess,whichis represented by the way leadingfrom darkness to light. The shadows,the images,the reflectionof the sun and stars in the water, the stars and sun themselves,severally correspond,--the first,to the realm of fancyand poetry,--the second,to the world of sense,--the third, tothe abstractionsor universals of sense, ofwhichthe mathematicalsciencesfurnishthe type,--the fourthand last to the same abstractions,when seenin the unity of the idea, fromwhich they derive a new meaningand power. The true dialecticalprocess begins with the con-templationof the real stars, and not mere reflectionsof them,

T/wgrowthof A bslractions, cixand endswith the recognitionof the sun, or idea of good,as the Republicparent not only of light but of warmth and growth. To the VII.l_rttoouc-

divisionsof knowledge the stages of educationpartly answer :-- x_oN.first,there is the early educationof childhoodand youth in thefanciesof the poets,and in thelaws and customsof the State ;-then there is the training of the body to be a warrior athlete,and a good servant of the mind;--and thirdly, after an intervalfollowsthe educationof later life,which beginswith mathematicsand proceedsto philosophyingeneral.

There seem to be two great aims in the philosophyof Plato,--first, to realize abstractions; secondly, to connect them. Ac-cordingto him,the true educationis that which drawsmen frombecomingto being, and to a comprehensivesurvey of all being.He desires to develop in the human mind the facultyof seeingthe universal in all things ; until at last the particularsof sensedrop away and the universalalone remains. He then seeks tocombinethe universalswhich he has disengagedfrom sense,notperceiving that the correlationof them has no other basis butthe commonuse of language. He never understands that ab-stractions,as Hegel says, are 'mere abstractions'--of use whenemployed in the arrangement of facts,but adding nothingto thesum of knowledgewhen pursued apart from them, or withreferenceto an imaginaryidea of good. Stillthe exercise of thefacultyof abstraction apart from facts has enlarged the mind,and playeda great part in theeducationof thehuman race. Platoappreciatedthe value of this faculty,and saw that it might bequickened by the study of number and relation. All things inwhich there is opposition or proportion are suggestive of re-flection. The mere impression of sense evokes no power ofthoughtor of mind,but when sensible objectsask to be comparedand distinguished,then philosophybegins. The science of arith-meticfirst suggests such distinctions. There followin order theother sciences of plain and solid geometry, and of solids inmotion,one branch of which is astronomyor the harmony ofthe spheres_--tothis is appended the sister science of the har-mony of sounds. Plato seems also to hint at the possibilityofother applications of arithmeticalor mathematicalproportions,such as we employ in chemistry and natural philosophy,suchas the Pythagoreansand even Aristotle make use of in Ethics

cx A priori Astronomy.Republicand Politics,e.g. his distinetionbetweenarithmeticaland geo-

VII. metricalproportionin theEthics(BookV),or betweennumericalI_rRODUC-

T*ON.andproportionalequalityin thePolities(iii.8, iv.x2,&c.).ThemodernmathematicianwillreadilysympathisewithPlato's

deMghtin thepropertiesof puremathematics.He willnot bedisinelinedto saywithhim:--Letalonethe heavens,andstudythe beautiesof numberandfigurein themselves.He toowillbeapttodepreciatetheirapplicationto thearts. HewillobservethatPlatohasa conceptionof geometry,inwhichfiguresare tobe dispensedwith; thus in a distantandshadowywayseemingto anticipatethepossibilityofworkinggeometricalproblemsbyamoregeneralmodeofanalysis.He willremarkwith intereston the baekwardstateof solidgeometry,which,alasI wasnotencouragedbytheaid of theStatein the ageof Plato;and hewillrecognizethegraspofPlato'smindin his abilitytoconceiveof one scienceof solidsin motionincludingthe earthas wellas theheavens,--notforgettingto noticethe intimationtowhichallusionhas beenalreadymade,that besidesastronomyandharmonicsthescienceofsolidsin motionmayhaveotherappli-cations.Stillmorewillhe bestruckwiththecomprehensivenessof viewwhichled Plato,at a timewhenthesescienceshardlyexisted,to say that they must be studiedin relationto oneanother,andto the ideaof good,or commonprincipleof truthandbeing. Buthe willalsosee (andperhapswithoutsurprise)thatin thatstageof physicalandmathematicalknowledge,Platohas falleninto the errorof supposingthathe canconstructtheheavensa prioriby mathematiealproblems,anddeterminetheprinciplesof harmonyirrespeetiveof the adaptationofsoundstothehumanear. The illusionwasa naturalonein thatageandcountry. The simplicityand certaintyof astronomyand har-moniesseemedto contrastwith the variationand complexityof the worldof sense; hencethe circumstaneethat therewassomeelementarybasisof fact,somemeasurementof distanceor timeor vibrationsonwhichthey must ultimatelyrest, wasoverlookedby him. The modempredecessorsof Newtonfellintoerrorsequallygreat; andPlatocanhardlybe saidto havebeenvery far wrong,or mayevenclaima sort of propheticinsightinto the subject,whenwe considerthat the greaterpartof astronomyat thepresentdayconsistsof abstraetdynamies,

Afystical a_i_lications of lJlat/wmatics, cxi

by the help of which most astronomicaldiscoveries have been tgel_ublicmade. VII.

| NTRODUC.-

The metaphysicalphilosopherfrom his pointofview recognizes T,oN.mathematicsas an instrument of education,--whichstrengthensthe power of attention,developes the sense of order and thefaculty of construction,and enables the mind to grasp undersimple formulae the quantitative differences of physical phe-nomena. But while acknowledgingtheir value in education,hesees also that they have no connexionwith our higher moraland intellectual ideas. In the attempt which Plato makes toconnect them, we easily trace the influencesof ancient Pytha-gorean notions. There is no reason to suppose thathe isspeak-ing ofthe idealnumbersat p. 525E ; buthe is describingnumberswhich are pure abstractions, to which he assigns a real andseparate existence, which,as 'the teachers of the art' (meaningprobably the Pythagoreans)would have affirmed, repel all at-temptsat subdivision,and in which unityand everyother numberare conceivedof as absolute. The truth and certainty ofnumbers,when thus disengaged from phenomena,gave them a kind ofsacrednessin the eyes of an ancient philosopher. Nor is it easyto say howfar ideas of order and fixednessmayhavehad a moraland elevatinginfluenceon the minds of men,' who,' in the wordsof the Timaeus, 'might learn to regulate their erring lives ac-cording to them' (47C). It is worthy of remark that the oldPythagoreanethicalsymbolsstill existas figuresof speech amongourselves. And those who in modern times see the world per-vaded by universallaw,may also see an anticipationof this lastword of modern philosophyin the Platonic idea of good,whichis the source and measure of all things,and yet onlyan abstrac-tion. (Cp.Philebus,sub fin.)

Two passages seem to require more particular explanations.First, that which relates to the analysis ofvision. The difficultyin this passage may be explained, like many others, from dif-ferences in the modes of conceptionprevailing among ancientand modern thinkers. To us, the perceptions of sense are in-separable from the act of the mind which accompaniesthem.The consciousnessof form, colour, distance, is indistinguishablefrom the simple sensation, which is the medium of them.Whereas to Plato sense is the Heraclitean flux of sense, not

cxii A priori Harmonics.Republicthe visionof objects in the order inwhich they actuallypresent

vii. themselvestothe experiencedsight,but as they may be imaginedINTRODUC°

Tso_. to appear confusedand blurred to the half-awakenedeye of theinfant. The first action of the mind is aroused by the attemptto set in order this chaos,and the reason is required to framedistinct conceptionsunder which the confused impressions ofsense may be arranged. Hence arises the question, ' What isgreat, what is small?' and thus beginsthe distinctionofthe visibleand the intelligible.

The seconddifficultyrelates to Plato'sconceptionof harmonics.Three classesof harmonistsare distinguishedby him :--first,thePythagoreans,whomhe proposes to consultas in the previousdiscussionon musiche was to consultDamon--theyare acknow-ledged to be masters in the art, but are altogether deficientin the knowledgeof its higher import and relation to the good;secondly,the mere empirics, whomGlauconappears to confusewith them, and whom both he and Socrates ludicrouslydescribeas experimentingby mere auscultationon the intervalsof sounds.Both of these fall short in different degrees of the Platonicideaof harmony,whichmust be studied in a purely abstract way,firstby the method of problems, and secondlyas a part of universalknowledgein relationto the ideaof good.

The allegoryhas a politicalas well as a philosophicalmeaning.The den or cave represents the narrow sphere of politicsor law(ep.thedescription of the philosopher and lawyer in the Theae-tetus, i72-i76), and the light of the eternal ideas is supposed toexercisea disturbing influenceon the mindsof thosewho returnto this lower world. In other words, their principles are toowide for practical application; they are looking far away intothe past and future,when their business is with the present.The ideal is not easily reduced to the conditionsof actual life,and may often be at variance with them. And at first, thosewho return are unable to compete with the inhabitants of theden in the measurement of the shadows, and are derided andpersecutedby them; but after a while they see the things belowin far truer proportions than those who have never ascendedinto the upper world. The difference between the politicianturned into a philosopher and the philosopher turned into apolitician,is symbolizedby the two kinds of disordered eyesight,

The effects of Polilical Ideals. cxiii

the one which is experienced by the captivewho is transferred RepualicVII.fromdarkness to day, the other,of the heavenlymessengerwho INvxoD_'c-voluntarilyfor the goodof his fellow-mendescends into the den. a-_o_.In what way the brighter light is to dawn on the inhabitantsof the lower world, or how the idea of good is to becomethe guiding principle of polities,is left unexplained by Plato.Like the nature and divisions of dialectic, of which Glaueonimpatiently demands to be informed, perhaps he would havesaid that the explanationcouldnot be given except to a discipleof the previot_ssciences. (CompareSymposium_IoA.)

Manyillustrationsof this part of the Republicmay be foundinmodern Politics and in daily life. For among ourselves, too,there have been two sorts of Politiciansor Statesmen, whoseeyesight has become disordered in two differentways. First,there have been great men who,in the languageof Burke, 'havebeen too much given to general maxims,' who, like J. S. Millor Burkehimself,have been theoristsor philosophersbeforetheywere politicians,or who, having been students of history, haveallowedsome great historicalparallel, such as the EnglishRevo-lution of x688, or possibly Athenian democracy or RomanImperialism, to be the medium through which they viewedcontemporary events. Or perhaps the long projectingshadowof some existinginstitutionmay havedarkenedtheir vision. TheChurchofthe future,the Commonwealthof the future, the Societyof the future,have so absorbed their minds,that they are unableto see in their true proportions the Politics of to-day. Theyhave been intoxicated with great ideas, such as liberty, orequality, or the greatest happiness of the greatest number, orthe brotherhoodof humanity,and they no longercare to considerhow these ideas must be limitedin practice or harmonizedwiththe conditionsof human life. They are full of light, but the lightto them has become only a sort of luminous mist or blindness.Almost every one has known some enthusiastic half-educatedperson,who sees everythingat falsedistances,and in erroneousproportions.

With this disorder of eyesight may be contrasted another--of those who seenot far into the distance,but whatis near only;who have been engaged all their lives in a trade or a profession;who are limited to a set or sect of their own. Men of this kind

i

cxiv The dangerswhichbesetyoutht['e_)ublichave no universal except their own interests or the interests

Vll. of their class,no principle butthe opinionof persons like them-l_rrRoDuc._o_. selves, no knowledgeof affairsbeyond what they pick up in

the streets or at their club. Suppose them to be sent into alarger world, to undertake some higher calling, from beingtradesmen to turn generals or politicians,from being school-mastersto becomephilosophers:morimaginethemona suddento receivean inwardlight which reveals to them for the firsttime in theirlives a higheridea of Godand the existenceof aspiritualworld_by this suddenconversionorchangeis not theirdailylifelikelyto beupset; and on the otherhandwill notmanyof theirold prejudicesand narrownessesstill adhere to themlong afterthey have begunto take a more comprehensiveviewof human things? From familiarexamples like these we maylearn what Plato meant by the eyesight which is liable to twokinds ofdisorders.

Nor have we any difficultyin drawing a parallel between theyoung Athenian in the fifth century before Christ who becameunsettled by new ideas, and the student of a modern Universitywho has been the subject of a similar 'aufkl_irung.' We tooobserve thatwhen youngmen begin to criticisecustomarybeliefs,or to analyse the constitution of human nature, they are apt tolose hold of solidprinciple (&ratrbfl_flatov a_r_v g_oixfrat ). Theyare like trees which have been frequently transplanted. Theearth about them is loose, and they have no roots reaching farinto the soil. They 'light upon every flower,' followingtheirown wayward wills, or because the wind blows them. Theycatch opinions,as diseases are caught--when they are in theair. Borne hither and thither, 'they speedily fall into beliefs'the opposite of those in which they were brought up. Theyhardlyretain the distinctionofrightandwrong; they seemtothinkone thing as good as another. They suppose themselves to besearchingafter truthwhenthey are playingthe gameof' followmyleader.' They fallin love' at first sight' withparadoxesrespectingmorality,some fancy about art, some noveltyor eccentricityinreligion,and like lovers they are so absorbed for a time in theirnew notionthat they can think ofnothingelse. The resolutionofsome philosophicalor theologicalquestion seems to them moreinteresting and important than any substantial knowledgeof

in Kmesof ?ransition. cxv

literature or science or even than a good life. Like the youth Re2kubli¢VII.in the Philebus,they are ready to discourseto any one about a IST_ODt_C-new philosophy. They are generally the disciples of some TZON.eminent professor or sophist, whom they rather imitate thanunderstand. They may be counted happy if in later years theyretain some of the simple truths which they acquired in earlyeducation,and which they may, perhaps, find to be worth allthe rest. Such is the picture which Plato draws and which weonly reproduce, partly in his own words, of the dangers whichbeset youth in times of transition,when old opinionsare fadingaway and the neware not yet firmlyestablished. Their conditionis ingeniouslycompared by him to that of a supposititiousson,who has made the discovery that his reputed parents are nothis real ones,and, in consequence,they have lost their authorityover him.

The distinctionbetween the mathematicianand the dialecticianis also noticeable. Plato is very well aware that the faculty ofthe mathematicianis quite distinct fromthe higherphilosophicalsense which recognizes and combines first principles (531E).The contemptwhich he expresses at p. 533 for distinctions ofwords, the danger of involuntary falsehood,the apologywhichSocrates makesfor his earnestness of speech,are highlycharac-teristic of the Platonicstyle and mode of thought. The quaintnotionthat if Palamedeswas the inventorof numberAgamemnoncouldnot havecountedhis feet; the art by whichwe are made tobelieve that this State of ours is not a dream only; the gravitywith which the first step is taken in the actualcreation of theState, namely, the sending out of the city all who had arrivedat ten years of age, in order to expedite the businessof educationby a generation,are also truly Platonic. (For the last, comparethe passage at the end of the third book (415D), irr which heexpects the lie about the earthborn men to be believedin thesecondgeneration.)

ateph. 13OO_rVIII. And so we have arrivedat the conclusion,that ASALvs_s.543 in the perfect Statewivesand childrenare to be in common; and

the educationand pursuits of men and women,both in war andpeace,are to be common,and kingsare to be philosophersandwarrior'_and the soldiers of the State are to live together,

i2

cxvi Analysis 543-546.Rtpublichavingall thingsin common; and they are to be warriorathletes,VIII. receiving no pay but only their food,from the other citizens._ALYSIS.

Nowlet us return to the point at which we digressed. ' That iseasilydone,'he replied: ' Youwere speakingof the State whichyou had constructed,andof the individualwho answered to this,both of whom you affirmedto be good; and you said that of 544inferior States there were four forms and four individualscor-responding to them,which althoughdeficientin variousdegrees,were all of them worth inspecting with a view to determiningthe relative happiness or misery of the best or worst man. ThenPolemarchusand Adeimantus interrupted you, and this led toanother argument,--and so here we are.' Suppose that we putourselvesagain in the same position, and do you repeat yourquestion. ' I shouldlike to knowof what constitutionsyou werespeaking?' Besides the perfect State there are only four ofany note in Hellas:--first, the famousLacedaemonianor Cretancommonwealth; secondly,oligarchy,a State fullof evils; thirdly,democracy,whichfollowsnext in order; fourthly,tyranny, whichis the diseaseor death of all government. Now,States are notmade of ' oakand rock,' butof flesh and blood; and therefore asthere are five States there must be five human natures in in-dividuals,which correspond to them. And first, there is theambitiousnature, which answers to the LacedaemonianState; 545secondly,the oligarchicalnature : thirdly, the democratical; andfourthly,the tyrannical. This last willhave tobe comparedwiththe perfectlyjust, which is the fifth,that we may know which isthe happier, and then we shall be able to determine whetherthe argumentof Thrasymachusor our ownis the moreconvincing.And as before we began with the State and went on to theindividual,so now, beginningwith timocracy, let us go on tothe timocraticalman, and then proceed to the other forms ofgovernment,andtheindividualswho answer to them.

But howdid timocracyarise outof the perfect State? Plainly,likeall changes of government,from divisionin the rulers. Butwhencecame division? ' Sing,heavenlyMuses,'as Homer says ;--let them condescendto answer us, as if we were children,towhom they put on a solemn face in jest. 'And what will they._ay?' They will say that human things are fated to decay,and546even the perfectState will not escapefrom this law of destiny,

Analysis546-548. cxviiwhen' the wheelcomesfullcircle' ina periodshortorlong. Plants Rep_licor animals have times of fertilityand sterility, whichthe intel- viii.A_ALYSlS.

ligenceofrulersbecausealloyedbysensewillnotenablcthemtoascertain,andchildrenwillbcbornoutofseason.Forwhereasdivinecreationsarcina perfectcyclcornumber,thehumancreationisina numberwhichdeclinesfromperfection,andhasfourtermsandthreeintervalsofnumbcrs_increasing,waning,assimilating,dissimilating,andyetperfectlycomrncnsuratewitheachother.Thc bascofthenumberwitha fourthadded(orwhichis3:4),multipliedby fiveand cubcd,givestwo har-monics:--Thcfirstasquarenumber,whichisa hundredtimesthebase(orahundredtimesahundred);thesecond,anoblong,beingahundredsquaresoftherationaldiameterofafigurethesideofwhichisfive,subtractingonefromeachsquareortwoperfectsquaresfromall,andaddingahundredcubesofthree.Thisentirenumberisgeometricalandcontainstheruleorlawof"generation.When thislawisneglectedmarriageswillbeun-propitious;theinferioroffspringwho arethenbornwillintimebecometherulers;theStatewilldecline,andeducationfallintodecay;gymnasticwillbepreferredtomusic,andthegoldand

547silverandbrassandironwillformachaoticmass--thusdivisionwillarise.SuchistheMuses'answertoourquestion.'Anda trucanswer,ofcoursc:--butwhatmorehavetheytosay?'Theysaythatthetworaces,theironandbrass,andthesilverandgold,willdrawtheStatediffcrentways;--theonewilltaketotradeandmoneymaking,andtheothers,havingthetrucrichesandnotcaringformoney,willresistthem:thecontestwillendinacompromise;theywillagreetohaveprivateproperty,andwillenslavetheirfellow-citizenswho wcrconcctheirfriendsandnurturers.Buttheywillrctaintheirwarlikccharacter,andwillbcchieflyoccupiedinfightingandcxercisingrule.Thusarisestimocracy,whichisintermediatebetweenaristocracyandoligarchy.Thenewformofgovernmentresemblestheidealinobedience

torulersandcontemptfortrade,inhavingcommonmeals,andindcvotiontowarlikeandgymnasticexerciscs.Butcorruptionhascreptintophilosophy,andsimplicityofcharacter,whichwasonce

548hernote,isnowlookedforonlyinthemilitaryclass.Artsofwarbegintoprevailovcrartsofpeace;therulerisnolongera

cxviii Analysis548-55I..Ret_blfc philosopher; as in oligarchies,there springs up among themPill. an extravagantlove of gain--get another man's and save yourANALYSIS.

own, is their principle; and they have dark places inwhich theyhoard their goldand silver,for the useof their womenand others;they take their pleasures by stealth, like boys who are runningaway from their father--the law; and their education is notinspired by the Muse,but imposed by the strong arm of power.The leading characteristic of this State is party spirit andambition.

And what manner of man answers to such a State? ' In loveof contention,' replied Adeimantus, 'he will be like our friendGlaucon.' In that respect, perhaps, but not in others. Heis self-asserting and ill-educated, yet fond of literature, al-549though not himself a speaker,--fierce with slaves, but obedientto rulers, a lover of power and honour, which he hopes togain by deeds of arms,--fond,too,of gymnastics and of hunting.As he advances in years he grows avaricious,for he has lostphilosophy,which is the onlysaviourand guardian of men. Hisorigin is as follows:--His father is a good man dwelling in anill-ordered State, who has retired from politics in order that hemay lead a quiet life. His mother is angryat her loss of prece-dence among other women; she is disgusted at her husband'sselfishness,and she expatiates to her son on the unmanlinessand indolenceof his father. The old family servant takes upthe tale, and says tothe .youth:--' Whenyou growupyou mustbemore of a man than your father.' All the world are agreed that 55ohe who minds his own business is an idiot,while a busybodyishighly honouredand esteemed. The young man compares thisspirit with his father's words and ways, and as he is naturallywell disposed,althoughhe has suffered from evil influences,herests at a middle point and becomes ambitiousand a lover ofhonour.

And now let us set another city over against another man.The next form of government is oligarchy, in which the ruleis of the rich only; nor is it difficult to see how such a Statearises. The declinebeginswith the possessionof goldand silver;illegal modes of expenditure are invented; one draws anotheron, and the multitude are infected; riches outweigh virtue;lovers of money take the place of lovers of honour; misers of 55I

Analysis 55_-5 53- cxix

politicians; and, in time,politicalprivilegesare confinedby law Relbublicto the rich, who do not shrink from violence in order to effect VIII.

ANALYSIS,

their purposes.Thus much of the origin,--let us next consider the evils of

oligarchy. Woulda manwhowanted to be safeon avoyagetakea bad pilot becausehe was rich, or refuse a good one becausehe was poor? And does not the analogy apply still more tothe State? And there are yet greater evils: two nations arestruggling togetherin one--the rich and the poor; and the richdare not put arms into the handsof the poor, and are unwillingtopay ibr defendersout of their own money. And have we not

552already condemned that State in which the same persons arewarriors aswell as shopkeepers? The greatestevil of allis thata man may sell his property and have no place in the State;while there is one classwhich has enormous wealth,the otheris entirely destitute. But observe that these destitutes had notreally anymore of the governing naturein themwhen they wererich than now that they are poor; they were miserable spend-thrifts always. They are the drones of the hive; only whereasthe actual drone is unprovided by nature with a sting_the two-leggedthingswhomwecalldronesare someof themwithoutstingsand some of them have dreadful stings; in other words,thereare paupers and there are rogues. These are never far apart;and in oligarchicalcities, where nearly everybody is a pauperwho is not a ruler, you will find abundance of both. Andthis evil state of society originates in bad educationand badgovernment.

553 LikeState,like man,--the changein the latter begins with therepresentativeof timoeracy; he walks at first in the waysof hisfather,who may have been a statesman, or general, perhaps;and presentlyhe seeshim ' fallenfromhis highestate,'the victimof informers,dying in prison or exile, or by the hand of theexecutioner. The lesson which he thus receives, makes himcautious; he leavespolitics,represses his pride,and savespence.Avariceis enthroned as his bosom's lord, and assumes the styleof the GreatKing; the rationaland spirited elementssit humblyon the ground at either side, the one immersedin calculation,theother absorbedin the admirationofwealth. The love ofhonourturns to love of money; the conversionis instantaneous. The

cxx Analysis554-557.Republicman is mean, saving, toiling,the slave of one passion which is 554VIII. the masterof the rest : Is he not the very image of the State?AN_vsis.

He has had no education,or he wouldnever have allowed theblind god of riches to lead the dance within him. And beinguneducated he will have many slavish desires, some beggarly,some knavish, breeding in his soul. If he is the trustee of anorphan,and has the power to defraud,he willsoonprovethat heis not withoutthe will,and that his passions are onlyrestrainedby fear and not by reason. Hence he leads a dividedexistence;in which the better desires mostly prevail. But when he is con-555tending for prizesand other distinctions,he is afraidtoincur a losswhichis to be repaid only by barren honour; in timeof war hefightswith a smallpart of his resources,and usuallykeeps hismoneyand loses the victory.

Next comes democracyand the democratic man, out of oli-garchy and the oligarchicalman. Insatiableavariceis the rulingpassion of an oligarchy; and they encourageexpensivehabitsinorder that they may gain by the ruin of extravagantyouth. Thusmen of family often lose their property or rights of citizenship;but they remainin the city,lull of hatred againstthe new ownersof theirestatesand ripe for revolution. The usurerwith stoopingwalk pretends not to see them; he passes by, and leaves hissting--that is, his money--in some other victim; and many aman has to pay the parent or principal sum multiplied into afamilyof children,and is reduced into a state of dronagebyhim. 556The only way of diminishingthe evil is either to limit a man inhis use of his property, or to insist thathe shall lend at his ownrisk. But the ruling class do not want remedies; they careonly for money,and areas carelessof virtueas the poorest of thecitizens. Now there are occasionson which the governors andthe governed meet together,--at festivals,on a journey,voyagingor fighting. The sturdy pauper finds that in the hour of dangerhe is not despised; he sees the rich man puffing and panting,and draws the conclusionwhichhe privatelyimparts to his com-panions,--'that our people are not good for much;' and as asicklyframe is made ill bya mere touch fromwithout,or some-times without external impulse is ready to fall to pieces of itself,so fromthe least cause,or with none at all, the city falls ill andfights a battle for life or death. And democracy comes into 557

Analysis 557-559- cxxi

power when the poor are the victors,killing some and exiling Ret_u_licsome,andgivingequalshares in the governmenttoall the rest. VIII.ANALYSLS.

The manner of lifein such a State is that of democrats; thereis freedomand plainness of speech, and every man does whatis right in his own eyes, and has his own way of life. Hencearise the most various developments of character; the State islike a piece of embroidery of which the coloursand figures arethe manners of men, and there are many who, likewomen andchildren,prefer this varietyto real beauty and excellence. TheState is not one but many, like a bazaarat which you can buyanytlaing. The great charm is, that you may do as you like;you may govern if you like, let it alone if you like; go to war

558and make peace if you feel disposed,and all quite irrespectiveof anybodyelse. When youcondemn men to deaththey remainalive all the same; a gentleman is desired to go into exile,and he stalks about the streets like a hero; and nobodyseeshim or cares for him. Observe, too, how grandly Democracysets her foot upon all our fine theories of education,--howlittleshe cares for the training of her statesmen! The only quali-ficationwhich she demands is the professionof patriotism. Suchis democracy;--a pleasing, lawless, various sort of government,distributingequalityto equalsand unequalsalike.

Let us now inspect the individualdemocrat; and first, as inthe ease of the State,we will trace his antecedents. He is theson of a miserlyoligarch,and has been taughtbyhim to restrainthe love of unnecessary pleasures. Perhaps I ought to explain

559this latter term:--Necessary pleasures are those which aregood, and which we cannot do without; unnecessarypleasuresare those which do no good, and of which the desire mightbe eradicated by early training. For example, the pleasuresofeating and drinkingare necessaryand healthy,up to a certainpoint; beyond that point they are alike hurtful to body andmind, and the excess may be avoided. When in excess, theymay be rightly called expensive pleasures, in oppositionto theuseful ones. And the drone, as we called him, is the slave ofthese unnecessary pleasures and desires, whereas the miserlyoligarchis subjectonlyto the necessary.

The oligarch changes into the democrat in the followingmanner:--The youth who has had a miserly bringing up, gets

cxxii Analysis559-562.Republica taste of the drone's honey; he meets with wild companions,viii. who introducehim to every new pleasure. As in the State, soANALYSI_

in the individual,there are allies on both sides, temptationsfromwithout and passions from within; there is reason also andexternal influences of parents and friends in alliance with theoligarchicalprinciple; and the two factionsare in violentconflict56owith one another. Sometimesthe party of order prevails, butthen again new desires and new disorders arise, and the wholemob of passionsgets possessionof the Acropolis,that is to say,the soul, which they find void and unguarded by true wordsand works. Falsehoodsand illusionsascend to take their place ;the prodigal goes back into the country of the Lotophagi ordrones, and openly dwells there. And if any offer of allianceor parley of individualelders comesfrom home, the false spiritsshut the gates of the castle and permit no one to enter,--thereis a battle, and they gain the victory; and straightwaymakingalliance with the desires, they banish modesty,which they callfolly,and send temperance over the border. When the househas been swept and garnished,they dress up the exiled vices,and,crowningthem withgarlands,bring them backunder new names.Insolence they call good breeding, anarchyfreedom, waste mag-nificence,impudencecourage. Such is the process by whichthe 56iyouth passes from the necessary pleasures to the unnecessary.After a whilehe divideshis time impartiallybetween them; andperhaps, when he gets older and the violence of passion hasabated, he restores some of the exiles and lives in a sort of equi-librium, indulging first one pleasure and then another; and ifreason comes and tells him that some pleasures are good andhonourable,and others bad andvile,he shakes hishead and saysthat he can make no distinctionbetween them. Thus he livesin the fancyof the hour; sometimeshe takes to drink, and thenhe turns abstainer; he practises in the gymnasiumor he doesnothing at all; then again he would be a philosopher or apolitician; or again,he wouldbe a warrior or a man of business ;he is

'Everythingby startsandnothinglong.'

There remainsstill the finest and fairestof all men and all 56zStatesmtyranny and the tyrant. Tyranny springs from de-mocracymuchas democracysprings fromoligarchy. Botharise

Analysis 562-564. cxxiii

from excess; the one from excess of wealth, the other from Republicexcess of freedom. 'The great natural good of life,' says the VIII.ANALYSIS,

democrat,' is freedom.' And this exclusivelove of freedomandregardlessnessof everythingelse, is the cause of the changefrom democracyto tyranny. The State demands the strongwine of freedom,and unless her rulers give her a plentifuldraught, punishes and insults them; equality and fraternity ofgovernors and governed is the approved principle. Anarchy isthe law, not of the State only,but of private houses,and extends

563even tothe animals. Fatherand son,citizenand foreigner,teacherand pupil,oldand young,are all on a level; fathersand teachersfear their sons and pupils, and the wisdom of the young manis a match for the elder, and the old imitate the jaunty mannersof the young because they are afraid of being thought morose.Slaves _tre on a level with their masters and mistresses, andthere is no differencebetween men and women. Nay, the veryanimals in a democraticState have a freedomwhichis unknownin other places. The she-dogsare as goodas their she-mistresses,and horses and asses march along with dignity and run theirnoses againstanybodywho comes in their way. ' That has oftenbeen my experience.' At last the citizens become so sensitivethat they cannot endure the yoke of laws,written or unwritten;they would have no man call himself their master. Such isthe gloriousbeginning of things out of which tyranny springs.' Glorious,indeed; but what is to follow?' The ruin of oligarchy

564is the ruin of democracy; for there is a law of contraries; theexcess of freedom passes into the excess of slavery,and thegreater the freedom the greater the slavery. Youwillrememberthat in the oligarchywere foundtwoclasses--roguesand paupers,whomwe compared to drones with and without stings. Thesetwo classes are to the State what phlegm and bile are to thehuman body; and the State-physician,or legislator, must getrid of them, just as the bee-masterkeeps the drones out of thehive. Now in a democracy, too, there are drones, but they aremore numerous and more dangerous than in the oligarchy;there they are inert and unpractised, here they are full of lifeand animation; and the keener sort speak and act, while theothers buzz about the bema and prevent their opponents frombeing heard. And there is another class in democraticStates,

cxxiv Mnalysis564-567.Re, lie of respectable,thriving individuals,who can be squeezedwhenviii. the drones have need of their possessions; there is more-565ANALYSIS.

over a third class, who are the labourers and the artisans, andthey make up the mass of the people. When the people meet,they are omnipotent,but they cannot be brought together un-less they are attracted by a little honey; and the rich aremade to supply the honey, of which the demagogues keep thegreater part themselves, givinga taste only to the mob. Theirvictims attempt to resist; they are driven mad by the stingsof the drones,and so becomedownrightoligarchsin self-defence.Then follow informations and convictions for treason. Thepeople have some protector whom they nurse into greatness,and from this root the tree of tyranny springs. The nature ofthe change is indicated in the old fable of the temple of ZeusLycaeus, which tells how he who tastes human flesh mixed upwith the flesh of other victims will turn into a wolf. Even sothe protector, who tastes human blood, and slays some andexiles others with or without law, who hints at abolitionofdebts and divisionof lands, must either perish or become a566wolf--that is, a tyrant. Perhapshe is drivenout, but he sooncomes backfrom exile; and then if his enemiescannotget ridof him bylawfulmeans,they plot his assassination.Thereuponthe friendof the people makeshis well-knownrequestto themfor a body-guard,whichthey readilygrant, thinkingonly of hisdanger and not of their own. Now let the rich manmake tohimselfwings,for he will never runaway again if he doesnotdo so then. And the Great Protector,havingcrushedall hisrivals,standsproudlyerect in the chariotof State, a full-blowntyrant: Letus enquireintothe natureofhis happiness.

In the earlydays of his tyranny he smiles and beams uponeverybody; he is nota ' dominus,'no, nothe: hehas onlycometo putan end to debtand the monopolyof land. Havinggot ridof foreignenemies,he makeshimselfnecessary to the State by 567alwaysgoing to war. He is thus enabledto depressthe poorby heavy taxes,and so keep themat work; and he canget ridof bolderspirits by handingthem over to the enemy. Thencomesunpopularity; someof his old associateshavethe courageto oppose him. The consequenceis, that he has to make apurgationof the State; but, unlike the physician who purges

A nalysls 567-569 . cxxv

away the bad,he must get rid of the high-spirited,the wise and Rtpubli¢the wealthy; for he has no choicebetween death and a life of Vlll.ANALYSIS.

shame and dishonour. And the more hated he is, the more hewillrequire trusty guards; but howwill he obtain them? 'Theywill comeflockinglike birds--forpay.' Willhe not rather obtainthem on the spot ? He will take the slaves from their owners

568and make them his body-guard; these are his trusted friends,who admire and lookup to him. Are not the tragic poets wisewho magnifyand exalt the tyrant, and say that he is wise byassociationwith the wise? And are not their praises of tyrannyalonea sufficientreason why we should exclude them ti'omourState? They may go to other cities, and gather the mob aboutthem withfine words,and change commonwealthsinto tyranniesand democracies, receiving honours and rewards for theirservices; but the higher they and their friendsascend constitutionhill, the more their honour will fail and become 'too asthmaticto mount.' To return to the tyrant--How will he support thatrare army of his? First,by robbingthe templesof their treasures,which will enable him to lighten the taxes; then he will takeall his father's property, and spend it on his companions,maleor female. Now his father is the demus,and if the demus gets

569angry, and says that a great hulkingson oughtnot to be a burdenon his parents,and bids him and his riotous crew begone,thenwill the parent know what a monster he has been nurturing,and that the son whom he would fain expel is too strong forhim. ' You do not mean to say that he will beat his father?'Yes, he will, after having taken away his arms. 'Then he isa parricide and a cruel, unnatural son.' And the people havejumped from the fear of slavery into slavery, out of the smokeinto the fire. Thus liberty, when out of all order and reason,passes into the worst formof servitude....

In the previousbooksPlatohasdescribedthe idealState; now I_raODt,C-TION.

he returns to the perverted or decliningforms,on which hehadlightlytouchedat the end of Bookiv. Thesehedescribesina successionof parallelsbetweenthe individualsandthe States,tracingthe originof either in the State orindividualwhichhaspreceded them. He begins by askingthe point at whichhedigressed; and is thus led shortlyto recapitulatethe substance

cxxvi The order of declinein Stales

R¢2_.blicof the three former books,which also containa parallel of theVIII. philosopherand the State.II_ODUe-

r,o_. Ofthefirstdeclinehegivesnointelligibleaccount;hewouldnot have likedto admitthemost probable causesof the fall of hisidealState,whichto us wouldappear to be the impracticabilityofcommunismor the natural antagonismof the ruling and subjectclasses. He throws a veil of mystery over the origin of thedecline,whichhe attributes toignoranceof the lawof population.Of this law the famous geometrical figure or number is theexpression. Like the ancients in general, he had no ideaof thegradual perfectibilityof man or of the educationof the humanrace. His ideal was not to be attained in the course of ages,but was to spring in fullarmourfrom the head of the legislator.When good laws had beengiven,he thought onlyof the mannerin which they were likelyto be corrupted,or of how they mightbe filled up in detail or restored in accordance with their originalspirit. He appears not to havereflectedupon the fullmeaningofhis own words, ' In the brief space of human life, nothing greatcan be accomplished'(x. 6o8B) ; or again,as he afterwards saysin the Laws OiL676),' Infinite time is the maker of cities.' Theorder of constitutionswhich is adopted by him represents anorder of thought rather than a successionof time, and may beconsideredas the first attempt to framea philosophyof history.

The first of these declining States is timocracy,or the govern-ment of soldiers and lovers of honour, which answers to theSpartan State ; this is a governmentof tbrce, in which educationis not inspired by the Muses, but imposed by the law, and inwhich all the finer elements of organizationhave disappeared.The philosopherhimselfhas lostthe love oftruth, and the soldier,whois of a simpler and honesternature, rules in his stead. Theindividualwho answers to timocracyhas some noticeablequalities.He is described as ill educated,but, like the Spartan,a lover ofliterature; and althoughhe is a harsh master to his servants hehas no natural superiority over them. His character is basedupon a reaction against the circumstancesof his father, who ina troubled city has retired from politics; and his mother, whois dissatisfiedat her own position,is always urging him towardsthe life of politicalambition. Such a character may have hadthis origin, and indeed /.,ivy attributes the Licinianlaws to a

not kistorical kut imaginary, cxxvii

femininejealousyof a similarkind(vii.34). But there isobviously Republicnoconnectionbetweenthe mannerin which the timocraticState viii.

INTRODUC-

springs out of the ideal, and the mere accident by which the _xo_.timocraticman is the son ofa retired statesman.

The two next stages in the declineof constitutionshave evenless historicalfoundation. For there is no trace in Greek historyof a politylikethe Spartan or Cretanpassing intoan oligarchyofwealth, or of the oligarchyof wealth passing into a democracy.The order ofhistoryappears to be different; first,in the Homerictimesthere is the royal or patriarchal formof government,whicha century or two later was succeeded by an oligarchyof birthrather than of wealth,and inwhich wealthwas onlythe accidentof the hereditarypossessionof land and power. Sometimesthisoligarchicalgovernmentgave way toa governmentbased uponaqualificationof property, which,accordingto Aristotle's mode ofusing words, would have been called a timocracy; and this insome cities, as at Athens, became the conducting medium todemocracy. But such was notthe necessaryorder of successionin States ; nor, indeed,can any order be discernedin the endlessfluctuationof Greekhistory(likethe tides in the Euripus),except,perhaps, in the almost uniform tendency from monarchy toaristocracy in the earliest times. At first sight there appears tobe a similar inversion in the last step of the Platonicsuccession;for tyranny, instead of being the natural end of democracy,inearly Greek history appears rather as a stage leading to de-mocracy; the reign of Peisistratus and his sons is an episodewhichcomesbetween the legislationof Solonand the constitutionof Cleisthenes; and some secret causecommonto themall seemsto have led the greater part of Hellas at her first appearance inthe dawn of history, e.g. Athens, Argos, Corinth, Sicyon,andnearly every Statewith the exceptionof Sparta,through a similarstage of tyranny which ended either in oligarchyor democracy.But then we must remember that Plato is describingrather thecontemporarygovernmentsof the SicilianStates,whichalternatedbetween democracy and tyranny, than the ancient history ofAthens or Corinth.

The portrait of the tyrant himselfis just such as the laterGreekdelighted to draw of Phalaris and Dionysius,in which,as in thelivesof mediaevalsaints or mythicheroes,the conductand actions

exxviii Tkeexaggera/ionof Tyrannyand Democracy.Rel_blicof one were attributed to another in order to fillup the outline.VIII, There was noenormitywhichthe Greekwas not ready to believeIMTIODUC:-T,o_. ofthem; the tyrantwasthe negationofgovernmentand law; his

assassinationwas glorious; there was no crime, however un-natural,which might not with probabilitybe attributed to him.In this, Plato was only followingthe common thought of hiscountrymen,which he embellished and exaggerated with allthe power of his genius. There is no need to suppose that hedrew fromlife ; or that hisknowledgeoftyrants isderivedfromapersonal acquaintance with Dionysius. The manner in whichhe speaksof them would rather tend to render doubtfulhis everhaving ' consorted' withthem,or entertained the schemes,whichare attributedto him in the Epistles, of regenerating Sicily bytheir help.

Plato in a hyperbolicaland serio-comicvein exaggerates thefolliesof democracywhich he also sees reflected in sociallife.To him democracy is a state of individualismor dissolution;inwhich every one is doingwhat is rightin his own eyes. Ofa people animated by a commonspirit of liberty, rising as oneman to repel the Persian host, which is the leading idea ofdemocracyin Herodotus and Thucydides, he never seems tothink. But it he is nota believerin liberty,stillless is he a loverof tyranny. His deeper and more serious condemnationis re-served for the tyrant, who is the ideal of wickedness and alsoof weakness,andwho in his utter helplessnessand suspiciousnessis leadingan almostimpossibleexistence,without that remnant ofgood which,in Plato's opinion, was required to give power toevil (Booki. p.352). This ideal of wickednessliving in helplessmisery, is the reverse of that other portrait of perfect injusticeruling in happiness and splendour, which first of all Thrasy-machus, and afterwards the sons of Ariston had drawn, andis also the reverse of the king whose rule of life is the goodofhis subjects.

Eachof these governmentsand individualshas a correspondingethicalgradation: the ideal State is under the rule of reason, notextinguishing but harmonizingthe passions, and training themin virtue; in the timocracyand the timocraticman the constitu-tion,whether of the State or of the individual,is based,first, uponcourage,andsecondly,uponthe loveof honour; this lattervirtue,

Free use of metaphorin Plato. cxxix

which is hardly to he esteemed a virtue, has superseded allthe Republicrest. In the secondstage of decline the virtues have altogether VIII.INTRODLC-

disappeared,and the love of gain has succeededtothem ; in the _,o_.third stage, or democracy,the various passions are allowed tohave free play, and the virtues and vices are impartiallyculti-vated. But this freedom,which leads to many curious extrava-gances of character, is in reality only a state of weakness anddissipation. At last,one monster passiontakes possessionof thewhole nature of man--this is tyranny. In all of them excess--the excess first of wealthand then of freedom,is the elementofdecay.

The eighthbookof the Republicaboundsin picturesof lifeandihncifulallusions; the use ofmetaphoricallanguageis carriedto agreater extent than anywhere else in Plato. We may remark,(i), the descriptionof the twonations in one,whichbecomemoreand moredividedin the Greek Republics,as in feudal times,andperhaps also in our own; (2),the notionof democracyexpressedin a sort of Pythagorean formula as equality among unequals;(3),the free and easyways ofmen and animals,whichare charac-teristic of liberty, as foreignmercenaries and universal mistrustare of the tyrant ; (4),the proposal that mere debts shouldnot berecoverableby lawis a speculationwhich has often been enter-tainedby reformersof the law inmoderntimes,and is in harmonywith the tendenciesof modern legislation. Debt and land werethe twogreat difficultiesofthe ancient lawgiver: in moderntimeswe maybe said tohavealmost,if notquite,solvedthe first ofthesedifficulties,buthardly the second.

Still more remarkable are the correspondingportraits of in-dividuals: there is the family pictureof the father and motherand the old servant of the timocratical man, and the out-ward respectabilityand inherent meanness of the oligarchical;the uncontrolledlicence and freedom of the democrat,in whichthe youngAlcibiadesseems to be depicted,doingrightor wrongas he pleases,and who at last, like the prodigal,goes into a farcountry (notehere the play of language bywhich the democraticman is himself represented under the image of a State havinga citadeland receiving embassies); and there is the wild-beastnature, which breaks loose in his successor. The hit about thetyrant being a parricide; the representationof the tyrant's lifeas

k

cxxx TAe 2Vum3er of ttte Slate.

Re2kublican obscenedream; the rhetoricalsurprise of a more miserableVIII. than themost miserableof men in Bookix ; the hint tothe poetsINTRODUC-T_OM.that if they are the friendsof tyrants there is noplaceforthem in

a constitutionalState,and that theyare too clevernot to see theproprietyof theirown expulsion;the continuousimageof thedroneswho are of two kinds,swellingat last into the monsterdrone havingwings (see infra, Book ix),--are among Plato'shappiesttouches.

Thereremainsto beconsideredthegreatdifficultyof thisbookof the Republic,the so-callednumberof the State. This is apuzzlealmostasgreat as the Numberof the Beast in the BookofRevelation,andthoughapparentlyknownto Aristotle,is referredtoby Ciceroasa proverbofobscurity(Ep.adAtt.vii.i3, 5)- Andsomehave imaginedthatthere is no answer to the puzzle,andthat Plato has been practisingupon his readers. But such adeceptionas this is inconsistentwith the manner in whichAristotle speaksof the number(Pol.v. i2, § 7), and wouldhavebeen ridiculousto any reader of the Republicwho was ac-quaintedwith Greek mathematics.As little reasonis there tbr"supposingthatPlatointentionallyused obscureexpressions; theobscurityarises from ourwant of familiaritywith the subject.On the other hand, Plato himself indicates that he is notaltogetherserious,and in describinghis number as a solemnjest of the Muses,he appearsto imply some degree of satireonthe symbolicaluseof number. (Cp.Cratylus,]_assim; Protag.a4uft.)

Our hope of understandingthe passagedependsprincipallyon an accuratestudyof the words themselves; on whicha faintlightis thrownbythe parallelpassagein theninthbook. Anotherhelpis theallusionin Aristotle,whomakesthe importantremarkthat the latter partof the passage (from&v_r_rp_To__rvO_v,K._.L)describes a solid figure1. Some further clue may be gatheredfrom theappearanceofthePythagoreantriangle,whichis denotedby the numbers3, 4, 5, and in which,as in every right-angled

Pol.v. i2,§8 :--'Heonlysaysthatnothingisabiding,butthatallthingschangein a certaincycle; andthat theoriginofthechangeis a baseofnumberswhichareintheratioof4 :$; andthiswhencombinedwitha tlgureoffivegivestwoharmonies; hemeanswhenthe numberofthisfigurebecomessolid.'

Tke Number of lke State. cxxxi

triangle,the squares ofthe two lessersidesequalthe squareofthe RepublicVIII.hypotenuse(32+4"_= 5_,or 9+i6 = 25). I_ov_c.

Plato begins by speaking of a perfect or cyclicalnumber (cp. Txou.Tim.39D),i.e. a number in which the sumof the divisorsequalsthe whole; this is the divineor perfectnumberin whichall lessercycles or revolutionsare complete. He also speaksof a humanor imperfectnumber, having four terms and three intervals ofnumberswhich are related toone another in certain proportions;these he converts intofigures,and finds in them whenthey havebeen raised to the third power certain elementsof number,whichgive two 'harmonies,' the one square, the other oblong; but hedoes not say that the square number answers to the divine,orthe oblongnumber to the human cycle; nor is any intimationgiventhat the first or divinenumber represents the period of theworld,the secondthe period of the state, or of the human race asZeller supposes; nor is the divine numberafterwards mentioned(cp.Arist.). The second is the number of generationsor births,and presides over them in the same mysterious manner inwhich the stars preside over them, or in which, according tothe Pythagoreans, opportunity, justice, marriage, are repre-sented by some number or figure. This is probably the number2_6.

The explanationgiven in the text supposes the twoharmoniesto make up the number8ooo. This explanationderivesa certainplausibilityfrom the circumstancethat 8ooois the ancientnumberof the Spartan citizens(Herod.vii.34),and wouldbe what Platomight have called 'a numberwhich nearly concernsthe popula-tion of a city' (588A); the mysterious disappearance of theSpartan populationmay possiblyhave suggestedto him the firstcauseof his declineof States. The lesseror square 'harmony,' of4oo,might be a symbol of the guardians,--the larger or oblong' harmony,'of the people,and the numbers3,4,5 might refer re-spectivelyto the three orders in the Stateor parts ofthe soul,thefourvirtues,the five forms of government. The harmonyof themusicalscale,whichis elsewhereused as a symbolof the harmonyof the state (Rep. iv.443D),is also indicated. For the numbers3,4, 5,whichrepresent the sidesof the Pythagoreantriangle,alsodenotetheintervalsof the scale.

The terms used in the statement of the problem may bek2

exxxii The Number of the State.

,Republicexplained as follows. A perfect number(rf'k_o__l_Ot_),VIII. as alreadystated,is one which is equalto the sum of its divisors.INTRODUC*

r_o_. Thus 6, which is the first perfect or cyclicalnumber,- I +2+3.The words gpo_,'terms' or ' notes,' and d_roo'ra_r_,' intervals,'areapplicabletomusicas well as to number and figure. IIp,_r_is the' base' on which the whole calculationdepends, or the 'lowestterm' fromwhich it can be worked out. The words 8wfila_vair__,i 8v_a_r_4l_va,have been variouslytranslated--' squared andcubed' (Donaldson),'equalling and equalled in power' (Weber),'by involutionand evolution,'i.e. by raising the power and ex-tractingthe root(as in the translation). Numbers are called 'likeand unlike' (6/_o,o_rr_r_x,l d_o/zoLo_r_)when the factorsor thesidesof the planes and cubeswhich they represent are or are notin the same ratio: e.g. 8 and 97= 23and 3'_; and conversely.'Waxing' (,_o_rf¢)numbers,called also 'increasing' (b,r_pr,X_i_),are those which are exceeded by the sum of their divisors: e.g.I2 and x8are less than x6and2x. 'Waning' (_8_vo_) numbers,calledalso 'decreasing' (lhX_,r,;_),are those which exceedthe sumof their divisors: e.g. 8 and _7 exceed 7 and x3. The wordstranslated 'commensurableand agreeable toone another' (,rpoo'_-7opa_I t_,/ra)seem to be differentways of describingthe samerelation, with more or less precision. They are equivalent to'expressible in terms having the same relation to one another,'like the series 8, iz, x8, z7, each of which numbers is in therelation of x½to the preceding. The 'base,' or 'fundamentalnumber,which has ] added to it' (_])= _ or a musical fourth.'Ap_o_;ais a 'proportion' of numbers as of musicalnotes, appliedeither to the parts or factorsof a singlenumber or to the relationof one number to another. The first harmony is a 'square'number (_-q,l_a_,_); the second harmonyis an ' oblong' number(_rpo_,_),i.e. a number representing a figure of which theoppositesides only are equal. '_#t0go_a_rb_ta/a_rpo_= 'numberssquaredfrom'or'upondiameters'; _,lr_,v= 'rational,'i.e. omittingfractions,d/;/_Ctr_r, ' irrational,'i.e. includingfractions; e.g. 49is asquareof the rationaldiameterof a figurethe side of which= 5 :5°, of an irrationaldiameterof the same. Forseveralofthe explanationshere given and for a good deal besides I amindebtedto an excellent article on the PlatonicNumberbyDr.Donaldson(Proc.of the Philol.Society,vol. i.p. 8_ft.).

The Number of the Slate. cxxxiii

The conclusionswhich he drawsfrom these data are summed Republicup by him as follows. Having assumed that the number of the VIII.INTRODUC-perfect or divine cycle is the number of the world, and the T_oN.number of the imperfect cycle the number of the state, heproceeds: ' The period of the world is defined by the perfectnumber 6, that of the state by the cube of that number or 216,which is the product of the last pair of terms in the PlatonicTetractys1; and if we take this as the basis of our computation,we shall have two cube numbers (ab_Et_ _uvd_evalr_ Ka't_vra-trrtv6ptyat),viz. 8 and 27; and the mean proportionals betweenthese, viz. I2 and I8, will furnish three intervals and four terms,and these terms and intervals stand related to one anotherin the sesqui-alteraratio,i.e. each term is to the precedingas 2"

Nowif we remember that the number zi6 =8×27=3s+4s+5s,and that 32+42= 52,we must admitthat this number implies thenumbers3, 4,5, to which musiciansattach so much importance.And if we combine the ratio _ with the number 5, or multiplythe ratiosofthe sidesbythehypotenuse,we shallby first squaringand thencubingobtain twoexpressions,which denotethe ratioofthe two last pairs of terms in the PlatonicTetractys,the formermultipliedby the square,the latter by the cubeofthe number xo,the sum of the first four digits which constitute the PlatonicTetractys.' The two _pl_orlathe elsewhere explains asfollows: 'The first apttorlais "i_rqz,hrdKtrItcarbvroo'au'rd_t_,in otherwords (_×5)2= zoo×_. The second tlpporla,a cube of the sameroot,is describedas Ioomultiplied(a)by the rational diameter of5diminished by unity, i.e., as shown above,48: (_)by two in-commensurablediameters,i.e. the twofirst irrationals,or 2and3 :and (_,)by the cube of 3, or 27. Thus we have (48+ 5+ZT)mo= moo×z3. This secondharmonyis to be the cubeof the numberofwhich the former harmonyis the square,and therefore mustbedividedby the cube of 3. In other words, the whole expressionwill be: (I), for the first harmony, ,i_: (2), for the secondharmony,_-_.'

The reasonswhichhave inclinedme toagreewithDr.Donaldsonand also withSehleiermacherin supposingthat zx6is the Platonicnumberof births are : (x)that it coincideswiththe descriptionofthe number given in the first part of the passage(e'r,_rrp_r?...

iThePlatonicTetractysconsistedofa seriesofseventerms,t, 2,3,4,9,8,27.

cxxxiv The Number of tlte State.

Republic_l_r&h_vav):(2) that the number ui6 with its permutationswouldviii. havebeen familiartoa Greekmathematician,thoughunfamiliarto

INTRODUC-

e,ON. us : (3)that 216is the cubeof6,and alsothe sum of 38,4s,58,thenumbers 3, 4,5 representing the Pythagoreantriangle,of whichthe sideswhen squaredequalthe squareof thehypotenuse(3_"+4*= 5_): (4) thatit is alsothe periodof thePythagoreanMetempsy-chosis: (5)the three ultimateterms or bases (3, 4, 5) of which2_6 is composedanswer to the third,fourth,fifth in the musicalscale: (6)thatthe number216is the productof the cubesof2 and3,whichare the two last terms in the PlatonicTetractys: (7)thatthe Pythagoreantriangleis saidby Plutarch(deIs. et Osir.,373E),Proclus (super prima Eucl. iv. p. iIx), and Quintilian(de Musicaiii.p. 152)tobe containedin this passage,so that the traditionofthe school seems to point in the same direction: (8) that thePythagoreantriangleis calledalsothe figureof marriage(_,a/_,,ov

But though agreeing with Dr. Donaldson thus far, I see noreason for supposing,as he does,that the first or perfectnumberis the world,the human or imperfect numberthe state ; nor hashe given any proof that the second harmonyis a cube. Nor doI think that d_[o;p._v_ _vf_vcan mean 'two incommensurables,'which he arbitrarily assumes to be 2 and 3,but rather, as thepreceding clause implies,But'iv_p*Ot_o'iv&rb_[J,6;Irtov_talad'rpov _ftt-_rfiSo_,i.e. two square numbersbasedupon irrational diametersofa figurethe side ofwhich is 5= 5° ×u.

The greatest objectionto the translation is the sense given tothe words g_r;_-pwor7ruOl_vK.r._.,'a base of three with a thirdadded to it, multipliedby 5-' In this somewhat forcedmannerPlato introduces once more the numbers ot the Pythagoreantriangle. But the coincidencesin the numberswhich followarein favourof the explanation. The first harmonyof 4o0, as hasbeen already remarked, probably represents the rulers; thesecond and oblongharmony of 7600,the people.

And here we take leave of the difficulty. The discoveryofthe riddle would be useless, and would throw no light onancient mathematics. The point of interest is that Plato shouldhave usedsuch a symbol,and that so much of the Pythagoreanspirit should have prevailed in him. His general meaning isthat divine creation is perfect, and is represented or presided

The Number of llze Sgale. cxxxv

over by a perfect or cyclicalnumber; human generation is im- Republicperfect,and represented or presidedoverbyan imperfectnumber YllI.

INTRODUC.

or series of numbers. The number 504o, which is the number TION.ofthe citizensin the Laws, is expresslybasedbyhimon utilitariangrounds,namely,the convenienceof the number for division; itis also madeup of tbe first sevendigitsmultipliedbyone another.The contrastofthe perfectand imperfectnumber may havebeeneasily suggestedby the correctionsofthe cycle,whichwere madefirst by Meton and secondlyby Callippus; (the latter is said tohave been a pupil of Plato). Of the degree of importanceor ofexactnessto be attributedtothe problem,the numberofthe tyrantin Bookix.(729= 365x2), and the slight correctionof the error inthe number 5o4o+i2 (Laws, 771 C), may furnish a criterion.There is nothing surprising in the circumstancethat those whowereseekingfor order in nature and had foundorder in number,shouldhave imaginedone to givelaw to the other. Platobelievesina power ofnumber far beyondwhathe couldseerealizedintheworld around him,and he knows the great influencewhich 'thelittle matter of i, 2, 3' (vii.522C)exercises upon education. Hemay even be thoughtto have a propheticanticipationof the dis-coveriesof Queteletand others,that numbers depend uponnum-bers; e.g.--in population,the numbers of birthsand the respectivenumbers of childrenborn of either sex, on the respectiveagesofparents, i.e. on other numbers.

Steph. BOOK IX. Last of all comesthe tyrannical man, aboutwhom ASALVSI$.57I we have to enquire, Whence is he, and how does he live--in

happinessor in misery ? There is,however,a previous questionof the nature and number of the appetites,whichI shouldlike toconsiderfirst. Someofthem are unlawful,and yet admitofbeingchastenedand weakenedin variousdegreesby thepower of reasonand law. 'What appetites do you mean?' I mean those whichare awakewhenthe reasoningpowersare asleep,whichget upandwalkabout nakedwithoutany self-respector shame; and there isnoconceivablefollyor crime,howevercruelor unnatural,of which,in imagination,they may not be guilty. 'True,' he said; 'verytrue.' But when a man's pulse beats temperately; and he hassupped on a feastof reason and cometo a knowledgeof himself

cxxxvi Analysis 572-574.

Republicbeforegoing to rest, and has satisfiedhis desiresjust enough to 572.rx. prevent their perturbing his reason, which remains clear andANALYSIS.

luminous,and when he is free fromquarrel and heat,--the visionswhich he has onhis bed are leastirregular and abnormal. Evenin goodmen there is such an irregular wild-beastnature,whichpeers outin sleep.

To return:--You remember what was said of the democrat;that he was the son of a miserly father,who encouraged thesaving desiresand repressed theornamentaland expensiveones;presentlythe youthgotintofine company,andbegan to entertainadisliketo his father's narrow ways; and being a betterman thanthecorrupters ofhis youth,he cameto a mean,and led a life,notof lawlessor slavishpassion,butof regular and successiveindul-gence. Nowimaginethatthe youthhas becomea father,and hasa sonwho is exposedto thesame temptations,and has companionswho lead him into every sort of iniquity,and parents and friendswho try to keep himright. The counsellorsof evil find thattheir 573only chance of retaining him is to implantin his soul a monsterdrone,or love; while other desiresbuzzaround him and mystifyhim with sweet soundsand scents,this monster love takes pos-session of him, and puts an end to every true or modest thoughtor wish. Love,likedrunkennessand madness,is a tyranny; andthe tyrannicalman, whether made by nature or habit, is just adrinking,lusting,furioussortof animal.

And howdoes such an one live? ' Nay,that you must tell me.'Well then, I fancythat he will liveamid revelries and harlotries,and lovewillbe the lord and master of the house. Manydesiresrequire much money, and so he spends all that he has andborrowsmore ; and when he has nothing the young ravens arestill in thenest inwhichtheywere hatched,cryingforfood. Love 574urges them on ; and theymust be gratifiedby forceor fraud,or ifnot, they become painful and troublesome; and as the newpleasuressucceedthe old ones,so will the son take possessionofthe goodsof his parents ; if theyshow signs of refusing,he willdefraud and deceive them; and if they openly resist,what then?' Icanonlysay,that Ishouldnotmuchliketobeintheirplace.' But,O heavens,Adeimantus,to think that for some new-fangledandunnecessarylove he will giveup his old fatherand mother,bestand dearestof friends,or enslave themto the fanciesof thehour!

Analysis 574-577. cxxxvii

Truly a tyrannical son is a blessing to his father and mother! RepublicWhen there is nomore to begot out of them,he turns burglaror IX.ANALYSTS.

pickpocket,or robs a temple. Love overmastersthe thoughtsofhis youth,and he becomes in soberreality the monster that he

575was sometimesin sleep. He waxes strong in all violenceandlawlessness; and is ready for any deed of daring that willsupply the wants of his rabble-rout. In a well-orderedStatethere are onlya few such,and these in time of war go out andbecomethe mercenaries of a tyrant. But in time of peace theystay at home and do mischief; they are the thieves, footpads,cut-purses, man-stealers of the community; or if they are ableto speak, they turn false-witnessesand informers. ' No smallcatalogueofcrimestruly,even if the perpetratorsare few.' Yes,Isaid ; but smalland great are relativeterms, and no crimeswhichare committedby them approach those of the tyrant, whomthisclass,growingstrong and numerous,createout of themselves. Ifthe people yield,well and good; but, if they resist,then, as beforehe beat his father and mother,so now he beatshis fatherlandandmotherland,and places his mercenariesover them. Suchmen intheir early days live with flatterers,and they themselvesflatter

576others, in order to gain their ends ; but they soon discard theirfollowerswhen they have no longer any need of them; they arealways either masters or servants,--the joys of friendshipareunknown to them. And they are utterly treacherousand unjust,if the nature of justice be at all understoodby us. Theyrealizeour dream; and he who is the most of a tyrant by nature, andleads the life of a tyrant for the longest time, will be the worstof them, and being the worst of them, will also be the mostmiserable.

Likeman, likeState,--the tyrannicalmanwillanswerto tyranny,whichis the extreme oppositeof the royal State ; for one is thebest and the other the worst. Butwhich is the happier? Greatand terrible as the tyrant may appear enthroned amid his satel-lites, let us notbe afraidto go in and ask ; and the answer is,thatthe monarchical is the happiest, and the tyrannical the most

577miserable of States. And may we not ask the same questionabout the men themselves,requestingsome one tolookintothemwho is able to penetrate the inner nature of man, and willnot bepanic-struckby the vain pompoftyranny? I willsupposethat he

cxxxviii Ana/ysis 577-579.

Re_v.blicis onewhohas livedwithhim,andhasseenhimin familylife,IX. or perhapsin thehouroftroubleanddanger.A_Yszs.

Assumingthatweourselvesare the impartialjudgeforwhomweseek,let usbeginbycomparingthe individualandState,andaskfirstofall,whethertheStateis likelytobe freeor enslaved--Willtherenotbea littlefreedomandagreatdealofslavery?Andthefreedomis ofthe bad,andthe slaveryof thegood; andthisappliesto the manas wellas to the State; for his soulis fullofmeannessand slavery,and the betterpart is enslavedto theworse. Hecannotdowhathewould,andhismindis fullof con-fusion; he is theveryreverseofa freeman.TheStatewillbe 578poorandfullof miseryandsorrow; andtheman'ssoulwillalsobe poorandfullofsorrows,andhewillbethemostmiserableofmen. No,notthe mostmiserable,forthereisyeta moremiser-able.' Whois that?' The tyrannicalmanwhohasthemisfortunealsoto becomea publictyrant. ' ThereI suspectthat youareright.' Sayrather,' I amsure;' conjectureis outof placeinanenquiryof thisnature. He is likea wealthyownerof slaves,onlyhehas moreofthemthan anyprivateindividual.Youwillsay,'Theownersofslavesare notgenerallyinanyfearofthem.'Butwhy? Beeansethewholecity is ina leaguewhichprotectsthe individual.Supposehoweverthat oneof theseownersandhishouseholdiscarriedoffbya godintoawilderness,wheretherearenofreemento helphim--willhenotbeinan agonyofterror?--willhe notbecompelledtoflatterhisslavesandtopromisethem579manythingssoreagainsthiswill? Andsupposethesamegodwhoearriedhimoffweretosurroundhimwithneighbourswhodeclarethatnomanoughtto haveslaves,andthat theownersofthemshouldbe punishedwithdeath. ' Stillworseandworse!He willbein the midstofhis enemies.'Andis not our tyrantsucha captivesoul,whois tormentedby a swarmof passionswhiehhecannotindulge; livingindoorsalwayslikea woman,andjealousofthosewhocangooutandseetheworld?

Havingso manyevils,willnot themostmiserableof men bestillmoremiserablein a publiestation? Masterof otherswhenheisnotmasterofhimself;likea sickmanwhoiscompelledtobeanathlete; themeanestofslavesandthemostabjectofflatterers;wantingallthings,andneverabletosatisfyhisdesires;alwaysinfearanddistraction,liketheStateofwhichhe istherepresentative.

A nalysis 58o-58 3. cxxxix

58oHis jealous, hateful, faithless temper grows worse with corn- Rt_blicmand; he is more and more faithless, envious,unrighteous,--the Ix.ANALYSIS.

most wretched of men,a miseryto himself and to others. Andso let us havea final trial and proclamation; need we hire aherald, or shall I proclaimthe result? ' Makethe proclamationyourself.' The son of Ariston (thebest)is of opinionthat the bestandjuslesl of men is alsothehappiest,and thatthis ishe whois themostroyal masterof himself; and that theunjustman is hewho isthegreatesttyrantof himselfand ofhis Slate. And I addfurther-'seenorunseenbygodsormen.'

This is our first proof. The second is derived from the threekindsof pleasure,whichanswer to the three elementsof thesoul

58I--reason, passion, desire; under which last is comprehendedavarice as well as sensual appetite,while passion includes am-bition,party-feeling,love of reputation. Reason,again,is solelydirected to the attainmentof truth, and careless of money andreputation. In accordancewith the differenceof men's natures,one of these three principles is in the ascendant,and they havetheir several pleasures correspondingto them. Interrogatenowthe three natures, and each one will be found praising his ownpleasures and depreciating those of others. The money-makerwill contrastthe vanityof knowledgewiththe solid advantagesofwealth. The ambitiousman will despiseknowledgewhichbringsno honour; whereasthe philosopherwill regard onlythe fruitionof truth, and willcall other pleasures necessaryrather than good.

582Now, how shall we decide between them? Is there any bettercriterion than experience and knowledge? And which of thethree has the truest knowledgeand thewidest experience? Theexperience of youth makes the philosopheracquaintedwith thetwokinds ofdesire,but theavariciousandtheambitiousman nevertastethepleasures of truth and wisdom. Honour he has equallywith them; they are 'judged of him,' but he is 'not judged ofthem,'for theynever attain to the knowledgeof true being. Andhis instrument is reason, whereas their standard is only wealthand honour; and if by reason we are to judge,his goodwillbe thetruest. And so we arraveat the result that the pleasure of therationalpart of thesoul,and a life passed in suchpleasure isthe

583pleasantest. He who hasa righttojudgejudgesthus. Nextcomesthe lifeof ambition,and,in the thirdplace,that ofmoney-making.

cxl Analysls 583-585.Re, lie Twice has thejust manoverthrownthe unjust--oncemore,as inIX.ANALYSIS.anOlympiancontest,firstofferingup aprayerto thesaviourZeus,

let him trya fall. A wisemanwhisperstome that the pleasuresof thewise aretrueand pure; all othersareashadowonly. Letus examinethis : Isnotpleasureopposedto pain,andis therenota meanstatewhich is neither? When a manis sick,nothingismore pleasantto him thanhealth. Butthis he never foundoutwhile he was well. In painhe desiresonlyto ceasefrompain;onthe otherhand,whenhe is inan ecstasyofpleasure,restis painfulto him. Thusrest or cessationis both pleasureand pain. Butcanthatwhichis neitherbecomeboth? Again,pleasureandpainaremotions,and the absenceof them is rest ; but if so,how can584theabsenceof either of thembe the other? Thus we are ledtoinferthatthe contradictionis an appearanceonly,andwitcheryofthesenses. And these are notthe only pleasures,for there areotherswhichhaveno precedingpains. Purepleasurethenis notthe absenceof pain, nor pure pain the absenceof pleasure;althoughmost of the pleasureswhich reach the mind throughthe bodyarereliefsofpain,and havenotonlytheirreactionswhenthey depart,but their anticipationsbeforethey come. They canbe bestdescribedin a simile. There is in naturean upper,lower,and middle region,and he who passes from the lower to themiddleimaginesthat he is going up andis alreadyin the upperworld; and if he were takenbackagainwould think,and trulythink,thathe was descending. Allthisarisesoutof hisignoranceof the trueupper,middle,and lower regions. And a likeconfu-sionhappenswithpleasureandpain,andwith manyotherthings.The manwho comparesgrey with black,calls grey white; and 585the manwho comparesabsenceof painwithpain,callstheabsenceof pain pleasure. Again,hungerand thirstare inanitionsof thebody,ignoranceandfollyof the soul; andfoodis thesatisfactionof the one,knowledgeof the other. Now which is the purersatisfaction--thatof eatingand drinking,or that of knowledge?Considerthe matterthus: The satisfactionofthatwhich hasmoreexistenceistruer thanof thatwhich has less. The invariableandimmortalhasa morerealexistencethan thevariableand mortal,and has a correspondingmeasureof knowledgeand truth. Thesoul,again,has moreexistenceandtruthandknowledgethanthebody, and is thereforemore really satisfied and has a more

Analysis 586-588. cxli

586natural pleasure. Those who feast only on earthly food, are Re2bublicalwaysgoingat random up to the middle and down again; but IX.ANALYSIS.

they never pass into the true upper world,or havea taste of truepleasure. They are like fatted beasts,fullof gluttonyand sensua-lity, and ready to kill one another by reason of their insatiablelust; for they are not filled with true being, and their vesselisleaky (ep. Gorgias, 243 A, foll.). Their pleasures are mereshadowsof pleasure,mixedwith pain, colouredand intensifiedbycontrast, and therefore intensely desired; and men go fightingabout them,as Stesiehorussays that the Greeks foughtabout theshadowof Helenat Troy, becausethey knownotthe truth.

The samemay be said of the passionateelement:--the desiresof the ambitioussoul,as wellas of the covetous,have an inferiorsatisfaction. Only whenunder the guidanceofreason doeither of

587the other principlesdo their own businessor attain the pleasurewhich is natural to them. When not attaining,they compeltheother parts ofthe soulto pursuea shadowof pleasurewhichis nottheirs. And the more distant they are from philosophy andreason, the more distant they will be from law and order, andthe more illusive will be their pleasures. The desires of loveand tyranny are the farthest from law, and those of the kingare nearest to it. There is one genuine pleasure, and twospuriousones: the tyrant goes beyond even the latter; he hasrun awayaltogether fromlaw and reason. Nor can the measureof his inferiority be told,except in a figure. The tyrant is thethird removed from the oligarch,and has therefore,nota shadowof his pleasure,but the shadowof a shadowonly. The oligarch,again,is thrice removed from the king,and thus we get the for-mula 3x3, which is the number of a surface, representing theshadow which is the tyrant's pleasure,and if you like to cubethis ' number of the beast,' you will find that the measure ofthe differenceamounts to 729; the king is 729times more happythan the tyrant. And this extraordinarynumber is nearlyequalto the number of days and nights in a year (365×2 : 73o); and

588is therefore concerned with human life. This is the intervalbetween a good and bad man in happiness only: what mustbe the differencebetweenthem incomelinessoflifeand virtue!

Perhapsyou may remember some one sayingat the beginningof our discussionthat the unjust manwas profitedif he had the

cxlii A nalysis588-590.Rel_ublicreputation of justice. Now that we know the nature of justiceIX.

and injustice, let us make an image of the soul, whieh willAMALYStS.

personifyhis words. First of all, fashiona multitudinousbeast,having a ring of headsof all manner of animals,tame and wild,and able to produce and change them at pleasure. Supposenow another form of a lion,and another of a man ; the secondsmaller than the first, the third than the second; join themtogether and cover them with a humanskin, in which they arecompletely concealed. When this has been done, let us tellthe supporter of injustice that he is feeding up the beasts and 589starving the man. The maintainerof justice, on the other hand,is trying to strengthen the man; he is nourishing the gentleprinciplewithin him, and makingan alliancewith the lionheart,in order that he may be able to keep down the many-headedhydra,and bring all into unity with each other and with them-selves. Thus in every point of view, whether in relation topleasure, honour, or advantage, the just man is right, and theunjustwrong.

But now,let us reason withthe unjust,who is not intentionallyin error. Is not the noble that which subjects the beast to theman, or rather to the God in man ; the ignoble,that which sub-jects the man to the beast ? And if so,whowouldreceivegoldonconditionthathe wasto degrade the noblestpart of himselfunderthe worst?--who would sell his son or daughter into the handsof brutal and evilmen, for any amount of money ? And willhe sell his own fairer and divinerpart withoutany compunctionto the most godless and foul? Would he not be worse than 59oEriphyle,who sold her husband's life for a necklace? And in-temperance is the letting loose of the multiformmonster, andpride and sullenness are the growth and inerease of the lionand serpent element, while luxury and effeminacy are causedbya too great relaxation of spirit. Flattery and meannessagainarise when the spirited elementis subjectedto avarice,and thelion is habituated to become a monkey. The real disgrace ofhandicraft arts is, that those who are engaged in them haveto flatter, instead of mastering their desires; therefore we saythat they should be placed under the control of the better prin-ciple in another because they have none in themselves; not,asThrasymaehusimagined,to the injury of the subjects,but for

A#alysis 59I, 592. cxliii

their good. And our intention in educating the young, is to Republic59I give them self-control; the law desires to nurse up in them a IX.ANALYSIS.

higher principle, and when they have acquired this, they maygo their ways.

'What, then, shall a man profit, if he gain the whole world'and becomemore and more wicked? Or what shallhe profit byescaping discovery,if the concealmentof evil prevents the cure?If he had been punished,the brute withinhimwould havebeensilenced,and the gentler element liberated; and he wouldhaveunited temperance, justice, and wisdom in his soul--a unionbetter far than any combinationof bodily gifts. The man ofunderstandingwillhonour knowledgeaboveall; in the next placehe will keep under his body, not only for the sake of healthand strength, but in order to attain the most perfect harmonyof bodyand soul. In the acquisitionof riches, too, he will aimat order and harmony; he will not desire to heap up wealthwithout measure, but he will fear that the increase of wealthwill disturb the constitution of his own soul. For the same

592reason he will only accept such honours as will make him abetter man; any others he will decline. _In that case,' said he,' he will never be a politician.' Yes,buthe will,in his owncity;thoughprobablynot in his native country,unlessbysome divineaccident. 'You mean that he will be a citizen of the ideal city,which has no place upon earth.' But in heaven, I replied,there is a pattern of such a city,and he who wishes may orderhis life after that image. Whether such a state is or ever willbe matters not; he will act according to that pattern and noother.....

The most noticeable points in the 9th Book of the Republic INTRO_'C-TION.

are :--(i) the accountof pleasure ; (a)the number of the intervalwhichdivides the king from the tyrant ; (3)the pattern whichis inheaven.

I. Plato's account of pleasure is remarkable for moderation,and in this respect contrasts with the later Platonistsand theviews which are attributed to them by Aristotle. He is not,like the Cynics,opposed to all pleasure, but rather desires thatthe several parts of the soul shall have their natural satisfac-tion; he even agrees with the Epicureans indescribingpleasure

cxliv PlaMs Accountof pleasure.Republicas something more than the absence of pain. This is proved

IX. by the eireumstaneethat there are pleasures which have noINTRODUC*

T_o_. antecedentpains (as he also remarksin the Philebus),such asthe pleasuresof smell,and also the pleasuresof hope and an-ticipation. In the previousbook (pp.558, 559)he had madethedistinctionbetweennecessaryandunnecessarypleasure,whichisrepeated by Aristotle, and he now observes that there are afurtherclass of' wild beast' pleasures,correspondingto Aris-totle'sO_p,dr_. He dwellsupon the relativeand unrealcharacterof sensual pleasures and the illusionwhich arises out of thecontrastof pleasure and pain, pointing out the superiorityofthe pleasuresof reason, which are at rest, over the fleetingpleasures of sense and emotion. The pre-eminenceof royalpleasure is shown by the fact that reason is able to form ajudgmentof the lower pleasures,whilethe two lowerparts ofthe soulare incapableofjudgingthe pleasuresof reason. Thus,in his treatmentof pleasure, as in many other subjects,thephilosophyof Plato is 'sawn up into quantities'by Aristotle;the analysiswhich was originallymade by him became in thenext generationthe foundationof further technicaldistinctions.Both in Platoand Aristotlewe note the illusion under whichthe ancientsfellof regardingthe transienceof pleasureas a proofof its unreality,and of confoundingthe permanenceof the in-tellectualpleasureswiththe unchangeablenessof the knowledgefromwhich they are derived. Neither dowe like to admitthatthe pleasures of knowledge,though more elevating,are notmore lasting than other pleasures,and are almost equallyde-pendent on the accidentsof our bodily state (cp. Introd. toPhilebus).

2. The numberof the intervalwhich separatesthe king fromthe tyrant,and royal fromtyrannicalpleasures,is 729, thecubeof 9, whichPlato characteristicallydesignatesas a numbercon-cernedwith human life,becausenearlyequivalentto the numberof days and nights in the year. He is desirousof proclaimingthat the interval betweenthem is immeasurable,and invents aformulato give expression to his idea. Those who spoke ofjusticeas a cube,of virtueas an art of measuring(Prot.357A),sawno inappropriatenessin conceivingthesoul underthe figureof a line, or the pleasure of the tyrant as separatedfromthe

'Tke kingdomof keave+tis wit you.' cxlvpleasure of the king by the numerical interval of 729. And in Re2Oublicmodern times we sometimes use metaphoricallywhat Plato IX.II_RODUC.

employedas a philosophiealformula. ' It is not easyto estimate _o_.the loss of the tyrant, except perhaps in this way,' says Plato.So we might say, that akhough the life of a good man is notto be compared to that of a bad man, yet you may measure thedifferencebetween them by valuingone minute of the one atan hour of the other ('One day in thy courts is better than athousand'), or youmight say that ' there is an infinitedifference.'But this is not so much as saying,in homelyphrase, 'They area thousand miles asunder.' And accordingly Plato finds thenatural vehicle of his thoughts in a progressionof numbers;this arithmeticalformulahe draws out with the utmost serious-ness, and both here and in the numberof generation seems tofind an additionalproofof the truth of his speculationin formingthe number into a geometricalfigure; just as persons in our owndayare apt to fancythat a statementis verifiedwhen it has beenonly thrown into an abstract form. In speaking of the number729as proper to human life, he probably intended to intimatethat one year of the tyrannical= i2 hours of the royal life.

The simpleobservationthat the comparisonof twosimilarsolidsis effeetedby the comparisonof the cubes of their sides, is themathematicalgroundworkof this fancifulexpression. There issome difficultyin explaining the steps by which the number729 is obtained;the oligarch is removed in the third degreefrom the royal and aristoeratical,and the tyrant in the thirddegree from the oligarchical;but we have to arrange the termsas the sides of a square and to count the oligarch twice over,thus reckoning them not as = S but as = 9- The square of 9 ispassed lightlyoveras onlya step towardsthe cube.

3. Towards the closeof the Republie, Plato seems to be moreand more convincedof the ideal character of his own specula-tions. At the end of the 9th Bookthe patternwhich is inheaventakes the placeof the city of philosopherson earth. The visionwhich has received form and substance at his hands, is nowdiscovered to be at a distance. And yet this distant kingdomis also the rule of man's life (Bk. vii. 54° E). (' Say not lo!here, or 1o! there, for the kingdomof God iswithin you.') Thusa note is struck which prepares for the revelation of a future

1

cxlvi Analysis595-597._'epubliclifein the followingBook. But the future life is present still; the

IX. idealof politicsis to be realizedinthe individual.INTRODUC-TION,

A.-,^LYS_BOOKX. Manythings pleased me in the order of our State,Steph.but there was nothing which I liked better than the regulation 595about poetry. The division of the soul throws a new light onour exclusion of imitation. I do not mind telling you in confi-dencethat all poetryis an outrage on the understanding,unlessthe hearers have that balm of knowledgewhich heals error.I have loved Homer ever since I was a boy,and even now heappears to me to be the great master of tragic poetry. Butmuch as I love the man, I love truth more, and therefore Imust speak out : and first of all,will you explainwhat is imita-tion, for really I do not understand? ' How likely then that Ishouldunderstand!' That mightverywell be,forthe duller often 596sees better than the keener eye. ' True, but in your presenceI can hardly venture to say what I think.' Then suppose thatwe begin in our old fashion, with the doctrine of universals.Let us assume the existence of beds and tables. There is oneidea of a bed, or of a table, which the maker of each had inhis mindwhen making them; he did not makethe ideasof bedsand tables,but he made beds and tables according to the ideas.And is there not a maker of the works of all workmen,whomakes not only vessels but plants and animals, himself, theearth and heaven, and things in heaven and under the earth?He makes the Gods also. ' He must be a wizard indeed!' Butdo you not see that there is a sense in which you could dothe same ? You have only to take a mirror, and catch thereflectionof the sun,and the earth, or anythingelse--there nowyouhavemadethem. 'Yes,but onlyin appearance.' Exactlyso ;and the painter is such a creator as you are with the mirror,andhe is even more unreal than the carpenter; althoughneitherthe carpenter nor any other artist can be supposed to make597the absolute bed. ' Not if philosophers may be believed.' Norneed we wonder that his bed has but an imperfect relation tothe truth. Reflect :--Here are three beds; one in nature, whichis made byGod; another, which is made by the carpenter; andthe third, by the painter. God only made one, nor could hehave made more than one; for if there had been two, there

Analysis 597-6oo. cxlvii

would always have been a third--more absolute and abstract Ref_ublicthan either, under which they wouldhave been included. We X.

ANALYSIS,may therefore conceiveGod to be the naturalmaker of the bed,and in a lower sense the carpenter is also the maker; but thepainter is rather the imitator of what the other two make; Irehas to do with a creation which is thrice removed from reality.And the tragicpoet is an imitator,and,like every otherimitator,is thriceremoved from the king and fromthe truth. The painter

598imitatesnot the original bed,but the bed madeby the carpenter.And this,without being really different,appears to be different,and has many points of view, of which only one is caughtbythe painter, who represents everything because he representsa piece of everything,and that piece an image. And he canpaint any otherartist,althoughhe knowsnothingoftheir arts ; andthis with sufficientskill to deceive children or simple people.Suppose now that somebodycame to us and told us, how hehad met a man who knewall that everybody knows,and betterthan anybody:--should we not infer him to be a simpletonwho,having no discernmentof truth and falsehood,had met with awizard or enchanter,whomhe fanciedto be all-wise? Andwhenwe hear persons saying that Homer and the tragedians knowall the arts and all the virtues, must we not infer that they are

599under a similar delusion? they do not see that the poets areimitators, and that their creations are only imitations. 'Verytrue.' But if a person could create as well as imitate,he wouldrather leave some permanent work and not an imitationonly;he would rather be the receiver than the giverof praise? ' Yes,forthen he wouldhavemore honourand advantage.'

Let us now interrogateHomer and the poets. Friend Homer,say I to him,I am not goingto ask you about medicine,or anyart to which your poems incidentally refer, but about theirmain subjects--war, military tactics, polities. If you are onlytwice and not thrice removed from the truth--not an imitatoror an image-maker,please to informus whatgood youhave everdone to mankind? Is there any city which professes to havereceived laws fromyou, as Sicilyand Italy havefromCharondas,

6ooSparta from Lycurgus,Athens from Solon? Or was any warever carried on by your counsels? or is any inventionattributedto you, as there is to Thales and Anacharsis? Or is there any

12

cxlviii Analysis 600-602.

.Redh_licHomericway of life,such as the Pythagoreanwas,in which youX. instructed men, and which is called after you_ 'No, indeed;_NAL¥61S.

and Creophylus[Flesh-child]was even moreunfortunatein hisbreedingthanhe was in his name,if,as traditionsays,Homerinhis lifetimewas allowedby him and his otherfriends to starve.'Yes, but could this ever have happenedif Homer had reallybeen the educatorof Hellas? Wouldhe not havehad manydevoted followers? If Protagoras and Prodicus can persuadetheir contemporariesthat no one can manage houseor Statewithout them, is it likely that Homer and Hesiod would havebeenallowedto goaboutas beggars--I mean if they had reallybeen able to do the world any good?--would not men havecompelled them to stay where they were, or have followedthemabout in order to get education? But they did not; andthereforewe may infer that Homer and all the poets are onlyimitators,who do but imitatethe appearancesof things. For6oxas a painter by a knowledgeof figure and colour can paint acobblerwithoutany practice irl cobbling,so the poet can de-lineateanyart in the coloursof language,and giveharmonyandrhythm to the cobbler and also to the general; and youknowhow mere narration,when deprivedof the ornamentsof metre,is likea facewhich has lost the beautyof youthand never hadanyother. Oncemore,the imitatorhas noknowledgeof reality,but only of appearance. The painter paints,and the artificermakesa bridleand reins, but neitherunderstandsthe use ofthem--the knowledgeof this is confinedto the horseman;andso of other things. Thus we have three arts: one of use, an-other of invention,a third of imitation; and the user furnishesthe rule to the two others. The flute-player will know thegood and bad flute, and the maker will put faith in him; butthe imitator will neither know nor have faith--neither science6o2nor true opinion can be ascribed to him. Imitation, then, isdevoid of knowledge,being only a kind of play or sport, andthe tragicand epicpoets are imitatorsin the highestdegree.

And now let us enquire, what is the facultyin man whichanswers to imitation. Allow me to explain my meaning: Ob-jects are differently seen when in the water and when out ofthe water,when near and when at a distance; and the painteror jugglermakes use of this variationto impose uponus. And

Analysis602-605. cxlixthe art of measuringand weighing and calculatingcomesin to t_e_ubllcsave our bewildered minds from the power of appearance; for, X.A_ALYSIS*

6o3as we were saying, two contrary opinions of the same aboutthe same and at the same time, cannot both of them be true.But which of them is true is determined by the art of calcula-tion; and this is allied to the better facultyin the soul,as thearts of imitation are to the worse. And the same holds of theear as well as of the eye, of poetry as well as painting. Theimitation is of actions voluntary or involuntary, in which thereis an expectationof a goodor bad result, and present experienceof pleasure and pain. But is a man in harmony with himselfwhen he is the subjectof these conflictinginfluences? Is therenot rather a contradictionin him? Let me further ask,whether

6o4he is more likely to control sorrow when he is alone or whenhe is in company. 'In the latter case.' Feeling would leadhim to indulge his sorrow, but reason and law control himand enjoin patience; since he cannot know whether his afflic-tion is good or evil, and no human thing is of any greatconsequence, while sorrow is certainly a hindrance to goodcounsel. For when we stumble,we should not, like children,make an uproar; we should take the measures which reasonprescribes, not raising a lament, but finding a cure. And thebetter part of us is ready to follow reason,while the irrationalprinciple is full of sorrow and distraction at the recollectionofour troubles. Unfortunately,however,this latter furnishes thechief materials of the imitativearts. Whereas reason is everin repose and cannot easily be displayed,especiallyto a mixed

6o5multitude who have no experience of her. Thus the poet islike the painter in two ways: first he paints an inferior degreeof truth, and secondly, he is concerned with an inferior partof the soul. He indulges the feelings,while he enfeeblesthereason; and we refuse to allow him to have authority over themind of man ; for he has no measure 6f greater and less, andis a maker ofimages andvery far gone fromtruth.

But we have not yet mentioned the heaviestcount in theindictment--thepower which poetry has of injuriouslyexcitingthe feelings. When we hear some passage in which a herolaments his sufferings at tedious length, you know that wesympathize with him and praise the poet; and yet in our own

cl Analysis 605-608.Republicsorrows such an exhibitionof feeling is regarded as effeminateX.ANALY_S.and unmanly(cp.Ion, 535E). Now,ought a man to feel pleasure

in seeing another do what he hates and abominatesin himself?Is he not giving way to a sentiment which in his own case he 6o6would control?--he is off his guard because the sorrow is an-other's; and he thinks that he may indulgehis feelingswithoutdisgrace, and will be the gainer by the pleasure. But the in-evitable consequenceis that he who begins by weeping at thesorrows of others, will end by weeping at his own. The sameis true of comedy,--you may often laugh at buffoonerywhichyou would be ashamed to utter, and the love of coarse merri-ment on the stage will at last turn you into a buffoonat home.Poetry feeds and waters the passions and desires; she letsthem rule instead of ruling them. And therefore, when wehear the encomiastsof Homer a_rming that he is the educatorof Hellas, and that all life should be regulated by his precepts,6o7we may allow the excellenceof their intentions,and agree withthem in thinking Homer a great poet and tragedian. But weshall continue to prohibit all poetry which goes beyond hymnsto the Gods and praisesof famousmen. Not pleasureand pain,but lawand reason shall rule in our State.

These are our grounds for expelling poetry; but lest sheshould charge us with discourtesy,let us also make an apologyto her. We will remind her that there is an ancient quarrelbetween poetry and philosophy,of which there are many tracesin the writings of the poets, such as the saying of ' the she-dog,yelping at her mistress,' and 'the philosophers who are readyto circumvent Zeus,' and ' the philosophers who are paupers.'Neverthelesswe bear her no ill-will,and will gladlyallowher toreturn upon condition that she makes a defence of herself inverse ; and her supporterswho are not poets may speakin prose.We confess her charms; but if she cannot show that she isuseful as well as delightful,like rational lovers, we must re-nounce our love, though endeared to us by early associations.Having come to years of discretion,we know that poetry is not 6o8truth, and that a man should be careful how he introduces herto that state or constitutionwhich he himself is; for there is amightyissue at stake--no less than the goodor evilof a humansouL And it is not worth while to forsake justice and virtue

Analysis 6o8-6_i. eli

for the attractions of poetry, any more than for the sake of Republichonour or wealth. 'I agree with you.' -_\

ANALYSI._

And yet the rewards of virtue are greater far than I havedescribed. 'And can we conceive things greater still?' Not,perhaps, in this brief span of life: but shouldan immortalbeingcare about anything short of eternity? 'I do not understandwhat you mean ?' Do you not knowthat the soul is immortal?' Surely you are not prepared to prove that?' Indeed I am.' Then let me hear this argument,ofwhichyoumake solight.'

6o9 You wouldadmit that everythinghas an element of goodandofevil. In all things there is an inherent corruption; and if thiscannot destroy them, nothing else will. The soul too has herown corrupting principles, which are injustice, intemperance,cowardice,and the like. But none of these destroy the soul inthe samesense that diseasedestroysthe body. The soul may befull of all iniquities, but is not, by reason of them, brought anynearer to death. Nothingwhichwas not destroyed from withinever perished by external affectionof evil. The body, which

6Iois one thing, cannot be destroyed by food,which is another,unless the badness of the food is communicatedto the body.Neither can the soul, which is one thing, be corrupted by thebody, which is another, unless she herself is infected. Andas no bodily evil can infect the soul, neither can any bodilyevil,whether disease or violence,or any other destroy the soul,unless it can be shown to render her unholy and unjust. Butno one will ever prove that the souls of men become more un-just when they die. If a person has the audacityto say thecontrary, the answer is--Then why do criminals require thehand of the executioner, and not die of themselves? 'Truly,'he said, 'injustice would not be very terrible if it brought acessation of evil; but I rather believe that the injusticewhichmurdersothers may tend to quickenand stimulatethe life of theunjust.' You are quite right. Ifsin whichis her own naturalandinherent evil cannot destroy the soul, hardly will anythingelse

6xt destroyher. But the soulwhich cannotbe destroyedeither byinternal or external evilmust be immortaland everlasting. Andif this be true, soulswillahvaysexist inthe samenumber. Theycannot diminish,because they cannot be destroyed; nor yet in-crease, for the increase of the immortalmust come fromsome-

clil Analysis6Ix-614.Republicthing mortal, and so all would end in immortality. Neither is

x. the soul variable and diverse; for that which is immortal mustARAL_tSLS.

be ofthe fairest and simplest composition. If we wouldconceiveher truly, and so behold justice and injustice in their ownnature, she must be viewed by the light of reason pure as atbirth, or as she is reflected in philosophywhen holding con-verse with the divineand immortaland eternal. In her presentconditionwe see her only like the sea-god Glaueus,bruised and

• maimed in the sea which is the world, and coveredwith shells6x2and stones which are incrusted upon her from the entertain-ments of earth.

Thus far, as the argument required, we have said nothing ofthe rewards and honours which the poets attribute to justice;we have contented ourselves with showingthat justice in her-self is best for the soul in herself,even if a man shouldput ona Gyges' ring and have the helmet of Hades too. And nowyou shall repay me what you borrowed; and I will enumeratethe rewards of justice in life and after death. I granted, forthe sake of argument, as you will remember, that evil mightperhaps escape the knowledgeof Gods and men, although thiswas really impossible. And since I have shown that justicehas reality,you must grant me also that she has the palm ofappearance. In the first place, the just man is known to theGods, and he is therefore the friend of the Gods, and he will 613receive at their hands every good, always excepting such evilas is the necessary consequenceof former sins. All things endin good to him,either in life or after death, even what appearsto be evil; for the Gods have a care of him who desires to bein their likeness. And what shall we say of men? Is nothonestythe best policy? The clever rogue makes a great startat first,but breaksdownbefore he reaches the goal,and slinksaway in dishonour;whereas the truerunner perseveres to theend,and receives the prize. Andyou must allowme to repeatall the blessingswhich you attributedto the fortunateunjust--they bear rule in the city, they marryand give in marriagetowhom theywill; and the evils which you attributedto the un-fortunatejust, do reallyfall in the end on the unjust,although,as youimplied,their sufferingsarebetterveiled in silence.

Butall the blessingsof this presentlife are as nothingwhen 614

Analysis614-6_6. cliiicomparedwith those which await good men after death. ' I Rehubllcshouldlike to hear aboutthem.' Come,then,and Iwill tell you x.A_ALYSIS.the story of Er, the son of Armenius,a valiantman. He wassupposedto havedied in battle,but tendaysafterwardshisbodywas founduntouchedby corruptionand sent homefor burial.On the twelfthdayhewas placedon the funeralpyre and therehe came to life again,and told what he had seen in the worldbelow. He said that his soul went with a great companyto aplace,in whichthere were twochasmsneartogetherin theearthbeneath,and two correspondingchasms in the heavenabove.And therewere judgessittingin the intermediatespace,biddingthe just ascendby the heavenlyway on the right hand,havingthe seal of theirjudgmentset uponthem before,whilethe unjust,havingthe seal behind,were biddento descendby the wayon thelefthand. Him theytold tolookand listen,as hewas to be theirmessengerto menfromtheworldbelow. Andhe beheldandsawthe souls departingafter judgmentat either chasm; some whocame from earth, were worn and travel-stained; others, whocamefromheaven,were clean andbright. Theyseemedgladtomeet and rest awhilein the meadow; heretheydiscoursedwith

615one anotherof what they had seen in the other world. Thosewhocame from earthwept at the remembranceoftheir sorrows,but the spiritsfrom above spokeof glorioussightsand heavenlybliss. He said that for everyevil deed theywere punishedten-fold--nowthejourneywas of a thousandyears'duration,becausethe life of man was reckonedas a hundredyears--andthe re-wards of virtue were in the same proportion. He addedsome-thing hardlyworthrepeatingaboutinfantsdyingalmostas soonas theywere born. Of parricidesand other murderers he hadtorturesstill more terrible to narrate. He was present whenone of the spirits asked--Whereis Ardiaeusthe Great? (ThisArdiaeuswas a crueltyrant,whohadmurderedhis father,andhiselder brother,a thousandyearsbefore.) Anotherspirit answered,' He comes not hither, and will never come. And I myself,'headded,'actually saw this terrible sight. At the entranceof thechasm,as we were aboutto reascend,Ardiaeusappeared,andsomeother sinners--mostof whomhadbeentyrants,butnot all--andjustas theyfanciedthattheywerereturningto life,thechasm

616gave a roar,and then wild, fiery-lookingmen who knew the

cliv Mnalysis6x6,6i 7.Ret_blicmeaning of the sound,seized him and several others, and bound

x. them hand and foot and threw them down, and dragged themANALYSIS.

along at the side of the road, lacerating them and carding themlikewool,and explainingto the passers-by,that they were goingto be cast into hell.' The greatest terror of the pilgrims as-cending was lest they should hear the voice, and when therewas silence one by one they passed up with joy. To thesesufferings there were correspondingdelights.

On the eighth day the souls of the pilgrims resumed theirjourney, and in four days came to a spot whence they lookeddown upon a line of light,in colourlikea rainbow,only brighterand clearer. One day more brought them to the place,and theysaw that this was the column of light which binds together thewholeuniverse. The ends of the columnwere fastenedtoheaven,and from them hung the distaff of Necessity,on which all theheavenlybodies turned--the hookand spindlewere of adamant,and the whorl of a mixed substance. The whorl was in formlikea number of boxes fitting into one another with their edgesturned upwards, making together a single whorl which waspierced by the spindle. The outermosthad the rim broadest,and the inner whorls were smaller and smaller, and had theirrims narrower. The largest (the fixed stars)was spangled--theseventh (the sun)was brightest--theeighth (themoon)shone bythe lightof the seventh--the secondand fifth(Saturnand Mercury)617were most like one another and yellower than the eighth--thethird (Jupiter)had the whitest light--the fourth (Mars)was red--the sixth (Venus)was inwhiteness second. The whole had onemotion,but while this was revolvingin one directionthe seveninner circles were movingin the opposite,with variousdegreesof swiftness and slowness. The spindle turned on the knees ofNecessity,and a Siren stood hymning upon each circle, whileLachesis,Clotho,and Atropos,the daughters of Necessity,sat onthrones at equal intervals, singing of past, present, and future,responsive to the musicof the Sirens; Clotho from timeto timeguiding the outer circle with a touch of her right hand ; Atroposwith her lefthand touchingand guidingthe innercircles ; Lachesisin turn putting forth her hand from time to timeto guide both ofthem. On their arrival the pilgrimswent to Lachesis,and therewas an interpreter who arranged them, and taking from her

A nalysis 617-619. clv

knees lots, and samples of lives,got up into a pulpitand said. Re_lic' Mortalsouls,hear the words of Lachesis,the daughter of Ne- X.

ANALYSIS.cessity. A new period of mortal life has begun, and you maychoosewhat divinity you please; the responsibilityof choosing

6x8is with you--God is blameless.' After speakingthus, he castthelots amongthemand each one tookup the lotwhichfellnear him.He then placed on the ground beforethem the samplesof lives,manymorethan the soulspresent ; andthere were allsortsoflives,of men and of animals. There were tyrannies ending in miseryand exile,and livesof men and womenfamousfor their differentqualities; and also mixed lives,made up of wealth and poverty,sickness and health. Here, Glaucon,is the great risk of humanlife, and therefore the whole of educationshould be directed tothe acquisitionof sucha knowledgeas will teach a man to refusethe evil and choosethe good. He should knowall the combina-tions which occurin life--of beauty withpovertyor withwealth,--of knowledgewith external goods,--and at last choose withreference to the nature of the soul, regarding that only as thebetter life which makes men better, and leavingthe rest. And

6i9a man musttake withhim an iron senseof truth and right into theworld below,that there too he may remain undazztedbywealthor the allurementsof evil,and be determinedtoavoidthe extremesand choose the mean. For this, as the messenger reported theinterpreter to have said, is the true happinessof man; and anyone, as he proclaimed,may, if he choosewith understanding,havea good lot, even though he come last. _Let not the first becarelessin his choice,nor the last despair.' He spoke; and whenhe had spoken,he who had drawn the first lot chosea tyranny:he did not seethat he was fated to devourhis own children--andwhen he discovered his mistake, he wept and beat his breast,blamingchance and the Gods and anybody rather than himself.He was one of those who had come from heaven, and in hisprevious life had been a citizen of a well-ordered State, but hehad onlyhabit and no philosophy. Like many another,he madea bad choice,becausehe had no experienceof life; whereasthosewho came from earth and had seen trouble were not in such ahurry to choose. But if a man had followedphilosophy whileupon earth, and had been moderately fortunate in his lot, hemightnot only he happyhere, but his pilgrimageboth from and

clvi Analysis 6x9-62I._ee_blicto thisworldwouldbe smoothand heavenly. Nothingwas more

.1". curiousthan the spectacleof the choice,at oncesad and laughableANALYSIS.

andwonderful; mostof the soulsonly seekingto avoidtheirownconditionina previouslife. He sawthe soulof Orpheuschanging620into a swan becausehe wouldnot bebornof a woman; therewasThamyrasbecominga nightingale; musicalbirds,like the swan,choosingto be men; the twentieth soul,which was that of Ajax,preferringthelife ofa lion to that ofa man,in remembranceoftheinjusticewhich was done to him in the judgment of the arms;and Agamemnon,from a likeenmity to human nature, passinginto an eagle. Aboutthe middlewas thesoulof Atalantachoosingthe honours of an athlete, and next to her Epeus taking thenature of a workwoman; amongthe last was Thersites,who waschanging himselfinto a monkey. Thither, the last of all, cameOdysseus,and soughtthe lotof a private man,whichlay neglectedand despised,and when he found it he went away rejoicing,andsaidthat if he hadbeenfirstinsteadof last, his choicewouldhavebeen the same. Men, too, were seen passing into animals, andwildand tame animalschanging intoone another.

When all the souls had chosentheywent to Lachesis,who sentwith each of themtheirgenius or attendantto fulfiltheir tot. Hefirst of all broughtthemunder the handof Clotho,anddrew themwithin the revolutionof the spindle impelledby her hand; fromher they were carried to Atropos, who made the threads irre-versible; whence, without turning round, they passed beneath62Ithe throne of Necessity; and when they had all passed, theymovedon in scorching heat to the plain of Forgetfulnessandrestedat eveningbythe river Unmindful,whosewater eouldnotbe retained in any vessel; of this they had all to drink a certainquantity--some of them drank more than was required,and hewho drank forgot all things. Er himself was prevented fromdrinking. When they had gone to rest, aboutthe middleof thenight there were thunderstormsand earthquakes,and suddenlythey were all driven divers ways, shooting like stars to theirbirth. Concerninghis return to the body, he only knew thatawakingsuddenly in the morning he found himself lying on thepyre.

Thus,Glaueon,the tale has beensaved,and willbe our salvation,if we believe that the soul is immortal, and hold fast to the

Why was Plato theenemyof thepoets? clviiheavenly way of Justice and Knowledge. So shall we pass Republicundefiledover the river of Forgetfulness,andbe dear toourselves x._NALYSIS,

and to the Gods,andhavea crown of reward and happinessbothin this world andalsointhe millennialpilgrimageof the other.

The Tenth Bookof the Republicof Platofallsinto twodivisions: IST_ODVC-TION.

first, resuming an old thread which has been interrupted,Socrates assails the poets_who, now that the nature of the soulhas been analyzed,are seen to be very far gone from the truth;and secondly,having shown the reality of the happiness of thejust, he demands that appearance shall be restored to him, andthen proceeds to prove the immortalityof the souL The argu-ment,as in the Phaedoand Gorgias,is supplementedby the visionof a future life.

Why Plato,who was himself a poet, and whosedialoguesarepoems and dramas, should have been hostile to the poets as aclass, and especially to the dramatic poets; why he should nothave seen that truth may be embodied in verse as well as inprose, and that there are some indefinablelights and shadowsof human life which can only be expressed in poetry--someelementsof imaginationwhich alwaysentwinewithreason; whyhe should have supposed epicverse to be inseparablyassociatedwith the impuritiesof the oldHellenicmythology; why he shouldtry Homerand Hesiod by the unfair and prosaic testof utility,-are questionswhich have always been debated amongststudentsof Plato. Though unable to give a completeanswer tothem,wemayshow--first, that his views arose naturallyoutof the circum-stancesof hisage ; and secondly,we mayelicitthe truthas well asthe error whichis containedin them.

He is the enemy of the poets becausepoetrywas declininginhis own lifetime,and a theatrocracy,as he says in the Laws(iii. 7oiA), had taken the place of an intellectual aristocracy.Euripidesexhibitedthe lastphase of the tragicdrama,and in himPlato saw the friend and apologist of tyrants, and the Sophistof tragedy. The old comedywas almost extinct; the new had "not yet arisen. Dramatic and lyric poetry, like every otherbranch of Greek literature, was falling under the power ofrhetoric. There was no 'second or third' to /Eschylus and

clviii Why was Plato tke enemyof thepoets._RepublicSophoclesin the generationwhich followedthem. Aristophanes,X.I_TROVUC-in one of his later comedies(Frogs,89 loll.),speaksof ' thousands

T,os. of tragedy-makingprattlers,' whose attempts at poetry he com-pares to the chirping of swallows; ' their garrulity went farbeyond Euripides,'--' they appeared once upon the stage, andthere was an end of them.' To a man of genius who had a realappreciationof the godlike A_lschylusand the noble and gentleSophocles,thoughdisagreeingwith some parts of their ' theology'(Rep.ii. 38o),these ' minor poets' must have been contemptibleand intolerable. There is no feelingstronger in the dialoguesofPlatothan a sense ofthe decline and decay bothin literature andin politics which marked his own age. Nor can he have beenexpected to lookwithfavour on the licenceof Aristophanes,nowat the end of his career, who had begun by satirizing Socratesin the Clouds,and in a similar spirit forty years afterwards hadsatirizedthe foundersofidealcommonwealthsin hisEeeleziazusae,or FemaleParliament (ep.x.606C, and Lawsii. 658ff.; 817).

There were other reasons forthe antagonismof Plato to poetry.The professionof an actor was regarded by himas a degradationof human nature, for 'one man in his life' cannot 'play manyparts ;' the characters which the actor performs seem to destroyhis own character,and to leavenothingwhich can be truly calledhimself. Neither can any man live his life and act it. The actoris the slave of his art, not the master of it. Taking this viewPlatois more decidedin his expulsionof the dramaticthan of theepicpoets, thoughhe must haveknown that the'Greek tragediansaffordednoble lessons and examplesof virtue and patriotism,towhich nothing in Homer can be compared. But great dramaticor evengreat rhetorical power is hardlyconsistentwith firmnessor strength of mind, and dramatic talent is often incidentallyassociatedwitha weak or dissolutecharacter.

In the Tenth BookPlatointroducesa new seriesof objections.First, he says that the poet or painter is an imitator,and inthe third degree removed from the truth. His creations arenot tested by rule and measure; they are only appearances.In modern times we should say that art is not merely imita-tion,but rather the expression of the ideal in forms of sense.Even adopting the humble image of Plato, from which hisargumentderives a colour, we should maintainthat the artist

l/VkywasPlato the enemyof the_oets? clixmayennoblethe bed whichhe paints by the foldsof the drapery, Republicor by the feelingof homewhich he introduces; and there have X.INT_ODUC-

been modern painters who have imparted such an ideal in- T,o_.terest to a blacksmith'sor a carpenter's shop. The eyeor mindwhich feels as well as sees can give dignity and pathos to aruined mill, or a straw-builtshed [Rembrandt], to the hull ofa vessel 'going to its last home' [Turner]. Still more wouldthis apply to the greatest works of art, which seem to be thevisibleembodimentofthe divine. Had Platobeen askedwhetherthe Zeus or Athene of Pheidiaswas the imitationof an imitationonly,wouldhe not have been compelledto admit that somethingmore was to be found in them than in the formof any mortal;and that the rule of proportion to which they conformed was'higher far than any geometry or arithmetic could express ?'(Statesman,257A.)

Again, Plato objects to the imitative arts that they expressthe emotional rather than the rational part of human nature.He does not admit Aristotle's theory, that tragedy or otherserious imitationsare a purgation of the passions by pity andfear; to him they appear only to afford the opportunityof in-dulging them. Yet we must acknowledgethat we may some-times cure disordered emotions by givingexpression to them;and that they often gain strength when pent up within our ownbreast. It is not every indulgenceof the feelingswhich is to becondemned, l_orthere maybe a gratificationofthe higheras wellas of the lower--thoughtswhich are too deep or too sad to beexpressed by ourselves,may find an utterance in the words ofpoets. Every one would acknowledge that there have beentimes whenthey were consoledand elevatedbybeautifulmusic orby the sublimityof architecture or by the peacefulnessof nature.Plato has himself admitted, in the earlier part of the Republic,that the arts might have the effectof harmonizingas well as ofenervating the mind; but in the Tenth Book he regards themthrough a Stoic or Puritan medium. He asks only ' What goodhave they done?' and is not satisfiedwiththe reply,that _Theyhavegiven innocentpleasureto mankind.'

He tells us that he rejoices in the banishment of the poets,since he has found by the analysis of the soul that they areconcerned with the inferior faculties. He means to say that

clx WAywasPlato tke enemyof tkepoets._Relkublicthe higher facultieshave to do with universals,the lowerwith

X. particulars of sense. The poets are on a level with their ownINTRODUC-

T*ON.age, but not on a level with Socrates and Plato; and he waswell aware that Homer and Hesiod could not be made a ruleof life by any process of legitimate interpretation; his ironicaluse of them is in fact a denial of their authority; he saw, too,that the poets were not critics--as he says in the Apology,' Anyone was a better interpreter of their writings than they werethemselves' (22C). He himself ceased to be a poet when hebecame a disciple of Socrates; though,as he tells us of Solon,'he might have been one of the greatest of them, if he hadnot been deterred by other pursuits' (Tim.2i C). Thus frommany points of view there is an antagonismbetween Plato andthe poets, which was foreshadowed to him in the old quarrelbetween philosophy and poetry. The poets, as he says in theProtagoras (316 E), were the Sophists of their day; and hisdislike of the one class is reflected on the other. He regardsthem both as the enemies of reasoning and abstraction, thoughin the ease of Euripides more with reference to his immoralsentimentsabout tyrants and the like. For Plato is the prophetwho 'came into the worldto convincemen'--first of the fallibilityofsense and opinion,and seeondtyof the reality of abstract ideas.Whatever strangeness there may be in modern timesin opposingphilosophytopoetry, which to us seemto haveso many elementsin common, the strangeness will disappear if we conceive ofpoetry as allied to sense, and of philosophy as equivalenttothoughtandabstraction. Unfortunatelythe veryword' idea,'whichto Plato is expressive of the most real of all things,is associatedin our minds with an element of subjectivenessand unreality.We may note also how he differs from Aristotlewho declarespoetry to be truer than history,for the oppositereason, becauseit is concerned with universals,not like history,with particulars(Poet.c. 9, 3).

The things which are seen are opposed in Scripture to thethings which are unseen--they are equally opposed in Plato touniversalsand ideas. To him allparticularsappear to be floatingabout in a world of sense; they have a taint of error or even ofevil. There is no difficultyin seeing that this is an illusion; forthere is no more error or variationin an individualman, horse_

Why was Plato the enemyof/he _oets? clxi

bed,etc.,than in the elassman,horse,bed,etc.; nor is the truth Re2#ublicwhich is displayedin individualinstances less certainthan that X.11_'IZODUC-which is conveyed through the medium of ideas. But Platoj T,o,.who is deeplyimpressed with the real importanceof universalsas instruments of thought, attributes to them an essential truthwhich is imaginary and unreal; for universals may be oftenfalse and particulars true. Had he attained to any clear con-ception of the individual,which is the synthesisof the universaland the particular; or had he been able to distinguishbetweenopinion and sensation, which the ambiguityof the words /16_-a,_ah,t_r6m,_I_?_and the like, tended to confuse, he would nothave denied truth to the particulars of sense.

But the poets are also the representatives of falsehoodandfeigning in all departments of life and knowledge,like the so-phists and rhetoricians of the Gorgias and Phaedrus; theyare the false priests, false prophets, lying spirits, enchantersof the world. There is another count put into the indictmentagainst them by Plato, that they are the friends of the tyrant,and bask in the sunshine of his patronage. Despotism in allages has had an apparatus of false ideas and false teachers atits service--in the history of Modern Europe as well as ofGreece and Rome. For no governmentof men depends solelyupon force; without some corruption of literature and morals--some appeal to the imaginationof the masses--somepretenceto the favour of heaven--some element of good giving powerto evil (cp. i. 352),tyranny, even for a short time, cannot bemaintained. The Greek tyrants were not insensible to theimportance of awakening in their cause a Pseudo-Hellenicfeeling; they were proud of successes at the Olympicgames;they were not devoid of the love of literature and art. Platois thinking in the first instanceof Greek poets who had gracedthe courts of Dionysius or Archelaus: and the old spirit offreedomis rousedwithin him at their prostitutionof the TragicMuse in the praises of tyranny. But his prophetic eye extendsbeyond them to the false teachers of other ages who are thecreatures of the governmentunder which they live. He com-pares the corruption of his contemporarieswith the idea of aperfect society,and gathers up into one mass of evil the evilsand errors of mankind; to him they are personified in the

m

clxii 14:hy was Plato the enemy of the _oets P

Re_ubllcrhetoricians,sophists, poets, rulers who deceive and govern theX. world.

]NTRODUC.r_os. A further objectionwhich Plato makes to poetry and the

imitative arts is that they excite the emotions. Here themodern reader will be disposed to introduce a distinctionwhichappears to have escaped him. For the emotions are neitherbad nor good in themselves, and are not most likely to becontrolledby the attempt to eradicate them, but by the mode-rate indulgenceof them. And the vocation of art is to presentthought in the formof feeling,to enlist the feelings on the sideof reason, to inspire even for a moment courage or resigna-tion; perhaps to suggest a sense of infinity and eternity in away which mere language is incapable of attaining. True, thesame power which in the purer age of art embodies gods andheroes only, may be made to express the voluptuous imageofa Corinthiancourtezan. But this only shows that art, like otheroutward things, may be turned to good and also to evil, andis not more closely connectedwith the higher than with thelower part of the soul. All imitative art is subject to certainlimitations, and therefore necessarily partakes of the natureof a compromise. Something of ideal truth is sacrificed forthe sake of the representation, and somethingin the exactnessof the representation is sacrificed to the ideal. Still, works ofart have a permanent element; they idealize and detain thepassing thought,and are the intermediates between sense andideas.

In the present stage of the human mind, poetry and otherforms of fiction may certainly be regarded as a good. But wecan also imagine the existence of an age in which a severerconceptionof truth has either banished or transformed them.At any rate we must admit that they holda different place atdifferent periods of the world's history. In the infancyof man-kind, poetry, with the exception of proverbs, is the whole ofliterature, and the only instrument of intellectual culture; inmodern times she is the shadow or echo of her former self,and appears to have a precarious existence. Milton in his daydoubted whether an epic poem was any longer possible. Atthe same time we must remember, that what Plato wouldhave called the charms of poetry have been partly transferred

Why wasPlalo tke enemyof tkepoets? clxiiito prose; he himself (Statesman 304)admits rhetoric to be the _'elbubllchandmaiden of Politics,and proposes to find in the strain of X.I_trRo_uc.law (Laws vii.8i i) a substitute for the old poets. Amongour- T,oN.selves the creative power seems often to be growing weaker,and scientific fact to be more engrossing and overpoweringtothe mind than formerly. The illusionof the feelingscommonlycalled love,has hitherto been the inspiring influenceof modernpoetry and romance, and has exercised a humanizingif not astrengthening influenceon the world. But may notthe stimuluswhich love has given to fancy be some day exhausted? Themodern English novel which is the most popularof all formsof reading is not more than a century or two old: will thetale of love a hundred years hence, after so many thousandvariations of the same theme, be still received with unabatedinterest ?

Art cannotclaim to be on a level with philosophyor religion,and may oftencorrupt them. It is possibleto conceivea mentalstate in which all artistic representationsare regarded as a falseand imperfect expression, either of the religious ideal or ofthe philosophical ideal. The fairest forms may be revolting incertain moods of mind, as is proved by the fact that the Maho-metans, and many sects of Christians,have renouncedthe useof pictures and images. The beginningof a great religion,whether Christian or Gentile, has not been 'wood or stone,'but a spirit movingin the hearts of men. The discipleshavemet in a large upper room or in ' holes and cavesof the earth' ;in the second or third generation, they have had mosques,temples, churches, monasteries. And the revival or reformof religions, like the first revelation of them, has come fromwithin and has generally disregarded external ceremoniesandaccompaniments.

But poetry and art may also be the expressionof the highesttruth and the purest sentiment. Plato himself seems to waverbetween two oppositeviews--when,as in the third Book,he in-sists that youth shouldbe brought up amidwholesomeimagery;and again in Book x,when he banishes the poets from his Re-public. Admitting that the arts, which some of us almostdeify,have fallen short of their higher aim, we must admit on theother hand that to banish imaginationwhollywould be suicidal

m2

clxiv Why was Platothe enemyof tkeiOoelsRepublicas well as impossible. For nature too is a form of art; and a

X. breath of the fresh air or a single glance at the varying land-I _ODUC-

rzos. scape would in an instant revive and reillumine the extin-guished spark of poetry in the human breast. In the lowerstages of civilizationimaginationmore than reason distinguishesman from the animals; and to banish art would be to banishthought, to banish language, to banish the expression of alltruth. No religion is wholly devoid of external forms; eventhe Mahometanwho renounces the use of pictures and imageshas a temple in which he worships the Most High, as solemnand beautiful as any Greek or Christian building. Feeling tooand thought are not really opposed; for he who thinks mustfeel before he can execute. And the highest thoughts, whenthey become familiarizedto us,are always tending to pass intothe form of feeling.

Plato does not seriously intend to expel poets from life andsociety. But he feelsstronglythe unrealityof their writings; heis protesting againstthe degeneracyof poetry in his own day aswe might protest againstthe want of serious purpose in modernfiction,against the unseemlinessor extravaganceof some of ourpoets or novelists,againstthe time-servingof preachers or publicwriters, against the regardlessnessof truth which to the eye ofthe philosopher seems to characterize the greater part of theworld. For we too have reason to complainthat our poets andnovelists ' paint inferior truth' and 'are concerned with theinferior part of the soul'; that the readers of them becomewhat they read and are injuriouslyaffected by them. And welookin vain fortlrat healthy atmosphere ofwhich Plato speaks,-' the beautywhich meetsthe sense likea breeze and imperceptiblydraws the soul,evenin childhood,into harmonywith the beautyof reason.'

For there might be a poetry which would be the hymn ofdivine perfection, the harmony of goodness and truth amongmen : a strain whichshouldrenewthe youthofthe world,and bringback the ages in which the poet was man's onlyteacherand bestfriend,--whichwould find materials in the living present as wellas in the romance of the past, and might subdue to the fairestforms of speech and verse the intractable materials of moderncivilization,--whichmight elicit the simple principles,or, as Plato

Why was Plato the enemy of the poets e clxv

wouldhave calledthem, the essential forms, of truth and justice RejOublicout of the variety of opinion and the complexityof modern X.INTRODUC-

society,--whichwouldpreserve all the good of each generation T_o_.and leave the bad unsung,--whlch should be based not on vainlongings or faint imaginings,but on a clear insight into thenature of man. Then the tale of love might begin again inpoetry or prose, two in one,united in the pursuit of knowledge,or the service of God and man; and feelingsof love might stillbe the incentiveto great thoughts and heroic deeds as in thedays of Dante or Petrarch; and many types of manly andwomanly beauty might appear among us, rising abovethe or-dinary level of humanity,and manyliveswhichwere like poems(Laws vii. 8i7 B), be not only written, but lived by us. Afew such strains have been heard among men in the tragediesofA_schylusand Sophocles,whom Plato quotes,not, as Homeris quoted by him,in irony, butwith deepand seriousapproval,-in the poetry of Milton and Wordsworth, and in passages ofother Englishpoets,--first and aboveall in the Hebrewprophetsand psalmists. Shakespeare has taught us how"great menshould speak and act; he has drawn characters of a wonderfulpurity and depth; he has ennobled the human mind, but, likeHomer (Rep. x.599full.),he ' has left noway oflife.' The nextgreatest poet of modern times, Goethe, is concerned with 'alower degreeof truth' ; he paints the world as a stage onwhich'all the men and women are merely players'; he cultivateslife as an art, but he furnishesno ideals of truth and action. Thepoet may rebel against any attempt to set limits to his fancy;and he may argue truly that moralizingin verse is not poetry.Possibly, like Mephistopheles in Faust, he may retaliate onhis adversaries. But the philosopher will still be justified inasking, ' How may the heavenly gift of poesy be devoted tothe goodof mankind?'

Returning to Plato,we may observe that a similar mixtureof truth and error appears in other parts of the argument. Heis aware of the absurdity of mankind framingtheir wholelivesaccording to Homer; just as in the Phaedrus he intimatestheabsurdity of interpreting mythologyupon rational principles;both these were the modern tendencies of his own age,whichhe deservedly ridicules. On the other hand,his argumentthat

clxvi Thearguraentfor immortalily.Re2kublicHomer, if he had been able to teach mankind anything worth

.h:INr_ODVC-knowing,would not have been allowed by them to go about

r_oN. begging as a rhapsodist,is both falseand contrary to the spiritof Plato (cp. Rep. vi. 489A foil.). It may be compared withthose other paradoxes of the Gorgias, that 'No statesman wasever unjustly put to death by the city of which he was thehead' ; and that ' No Sophist was ever defrauded byhis pupils'(Gorg.519 foll.)......

The argument for immortalityseems to rest on the absolutedualismof soul and body. Admitting the existence of the soul,we know of no force which is able to put an end to her. Viceis her own proper evil; and if she cannot be destroyed bythat, she cannot be destroyed by any other. Yet Plato hasacknowledgedthat the soul may be so overgrown by the in-crnstations of earth as to lose her original form; and in theTimaeus he recognizes more strongly than in the Republicthe influencewhich the body has over the mind,denying eventhe voluntariness of human actions, on the ground that theyproceed from physical states (Tim.86,87). In the Republic, aselsewhere, he wavers between the original soul which has tobe restored, and the character which is developed by trainingand education......

The visionofanother world is ascribed to Er, the son ofArme-nius, who is said by Clement of Alexandria to have beenZoroaster. The tale has certainly an oriental character, andmay be comparedwith the pilgrimagesof the soul in the ZendAvesta (cp. Haug,Avesta,p. 197). But no trace of acquaintancewithZoroaster is found elsewhere in Plato's writings,and thereis no reason for giving him the name of Er the Pamphylian.The philosophyof Heracleituscannot be shown to be borrowedfromZoroaster,and still less the myths of Plato.

The local arrangement of the vision is less distinct than thatof the Phaedrus and Phaedo. Astronomyis mingledwith sym-bolismand mythology; the great sphere of heaven is representedunder the symbolof a cylinderor box, containingthe seven or-bits of the planets and the fixed stars; this is suspended froman axis or spindle which turns on the knees of Necessity; therevolutions of the seven orbits contained in the cylinder areguided by the fates, and their harmonious motion produces

The description of lhe heavens, clxvii

the music of the spheres. Through the innermost or eighth R_ubllcof these, which is the moon, is passed the spindle; but it is X.INTRODUC.

doubtfulwhether this is the continuationof the columnof light, T,ON.from which the pilgrims contemplate the heavens; the wordsof Plato imply that they are connected,but not the same. Thecolumn itself is dearly not of adamant. The spindle (whichis of adamant) is fastened to the ends of the chains which ex-tend to the middle of the columnof light--this column is saidto hold together the heaven; but whether it hangs from thespindle,or is at right angles to it, is notexplained. The cylindercontaining the orbits of the stars is almost as much a symbolas the figure of Necessity turning the spindle ;--for the outer-most rim is the sphere of the fixed stars, and nothingis saidabout the intervals of space which divide the paths of thestars in the heavens. The description is both a picture andan orrery, and therefore is necessarily inconsistentwith itself.The column of light is not the MilkyWay--which is neitherstraight, nor like a rainbow--but the imaginaryaxis of the earth.This is compared to the rainbow in respect not of form butof colour,and not to the undergirders of a trireme,but to thestraight rope running from prow to stern in which the under-girders meet.

The orrery or picture of the heavens given in the Republicdiffers in its mode of representation from the circles of thesame and of the other in the Timaeus. In both the fixed starsare distinguished from the planets, and they move in orbitswithout them, although in an opposite direction: in the Re-public as in the Timaeus (4° B) they are all moving round theaxis of the world. But we are not certain that in the formerthey are moving round the earth. No distinctmentionis madein the Republic of the circles of the same and other; althoughboth in the Timaeus and in the Republic the motion of thefixedstars is supposed to coincidewith the motionof the whole.The relative thickness of the rims is perhaps designed to ex-press the relative distances of the planets. Plato probablyintended to represent the earth, from which Er and his com-panions are viewing the heavens, as stationary in place; butwhether or not herself revolving,unless this is implied in therevolutionof the axis, is uncertain(cp.Timaeus). The spectator

elxviii Thechoiceof the lots.R_ublic may be supposedto lookat the heavenlybodies,either from

3(. aboveor below. The earth is a sort of earth and heaveninI_oDuc-

Tao_. one,like the heavenof the Phaedrus,on the backof whichthe spectatorgoesout to takea peepat thestars andis borneroundin the revolution.There is nodistinctionbetweentheequatorandtheecliptic. But Platois no doubtled to imaginethat the planetshavean oppositemotionto that of the fixedstars,in order to accountfortheirappearancesin the heavens.In the descriptionof the meadow,and the retributionof thegoodandevilafterdeath,thereare tracesof Homer.

Thedescriptionof the axis as a spindle,andofthe heavenlybodiesas forminga whole,partly arisesoutof the attempt toconnectthe motionsof the heavenlybodieswith the mytho-logicalimageof theweb,or weavingof theFates. Thegivingofthe lots,theweavingofthem,andthemakingofthemirrever-sible,whichare ascribedto the three Fates--Laehesis,Clotho,Atropos,are obviouslyderivedfromtheirnames. Theelementof chancein humanlife is indicatedby the orderof the lots.Butchance,howeveradverse,maybe overcomeby thewisdomof man,if he knowshowto choosearight; there is a worseenemyto man than chance;this enemyis himself. He whowas moderatelyfortunatein the numberof the lot--eventheverylastcomer--mighthaveagoodlifeif he chosewithwisdom.And as Platodoesnot liketo makean assertionwhichis un-proven,he morethan confirmsthis statementa fewsentencesafterwardsby the exampleof Odysseus,who choselast. Butthevirtuewhichis foundedon habitis not sufficientto enablea manto choose; he must addtovirtueknowledge,if he is toact rightly when placedin new circumstances.The routineof goodactionsandgoodhabitsis aninferiorsortof goodness;and,as Coleridgesays, 'Commonsenseis intolerablewhichisnot basedon metaphysics,'so Platowouldhavesaid,' Habitisworthlesswhichisnotbaseduponphilosophy.'

The freedomof the will to refusethe eviland tochoosethe ,!goodisdistinctlyasserted. 'Virtueis free,andas amanhonours ilor dishonoursher he willhavemoreor lessof her.' The life I!ofmanis ' rounded' bynecessity; thereare circumstancesprior !tobirthwhichaffecthim(cp.Pol.273B). Butwithinthewallsofnecessitythereis an openspacein whichhe is his ownmaster,

Thecredibilityof the visions, clxixand can studyfor himself the effects which the variouslycorn- Republicpounded gifts of nature or fortune have upon the soul,and act X.INTRODUC-

accordingly. All mencannothave the firstchoicein everything. T_o_.But the lot of all men is good enough,if they choosewisely andwill livediligently.

The verisimilitude which is given to the pilgrimage of athousand years, by the intimation that Ardiaeus had lived athousand years before; the coincidenceof Er coming to lifeon the twelfth day after he was supposed to have been deadwith the seven days which the pilgrimspassed inthe meadow,and the four days during which they journeyed to the columnof light; the precision with which the soul is mentionedwhochose the twentieth lot; the passing remarks that there wasno definitecharacter among the souls,and that the soulswhichhad chosen ill blamed any one rather than themselves; or thatsome of the soulsdrank more than was necessaryof the watersof Forgetfulness,while Er himselfwas hindered from drinking;the desire of Odysseus to rest at last, unlike the conceptionofhim in Dante and Tennyson; the feigned ignoranceof how Erreturned to the body,when the other souls went shootinglikestars to their birth,--add greatly to the probabilityof the narra-tive. They are such touchesofnature as the art of Defoemighthave introducedwhen he wished to win credibilityfor marvelsand apparitions.

There still remain to be considered some points which havebeen intentionally reserved to the end: (I) the Janus-likecharacter of the Republic, which presents two faces--one anHellenic state, the other a kingdomof philosophers. Connectedwith the latter of the two aspects are (II) the paradoxes of theRepublic, as they have been termed by Morgenstern: (a) thecommunity of property; (_)of families; (y) the rule of philo-sophers ; (8)the analogy of the individualand the State,which,like some other analogies in the Republic, is carried too far.We may then proceed to consider (III) the subject of educa-tion as conceived by Plato, bringing together in a generalview the education of youth and the educationof after-life;(IV) we may note further some essential differencesbetweenancientand modernpoliticswhichare suggestedbythe Republic;

elxx Spar/anfeaturesof/he RepuMic.I,rv,_ue-(V)we may compare the Politieusand the Laws; (VI)we mayTIOI_.

observe the influenceexercised by Plato on his imitators; and(VII) take occasionto consider the nature andvalue of political,and (VIII)of religiousideals.

I. Platoexpresslysays that he is intendingto foundan HellenicState (Bookv. 47° E). Many of his regulations are character-istically Spartan; such as the prohibition of goldand silver, thecommonmeals of the men, the military training of the youth,the gymnastic exercises of the women. The life of Sparta wasthe life of a camp (Lawsii. 666E), enforcedeven more rigidlyintime of peace than in war; the citizens of Sparta, like Plato's,were forbiddento trade--they were to be soldiers and not shop-keepers. Nowhere else in Greece was the individual so com-pletely subjected to the State; the time when he was to marry,the educationof his children,the clotheswhich he was to wear,the foodwhichhe was to eat, were all prescribedby law. Someof the best enactments in the Republic, such as the reverenceto be paid to parents and elders, and some of the worst, suchas the exposure of deformed children, are borrowed from thepractice of Sparta. The encouragementof friendships betweenmen and youths, or of men with one another, as affording in-centives to bravery, is also Spartan; in Sparta too a nearerapproach was made than in any other Greek State to equalityofthe sexes, and to communityof property ; and while there wasprobably less of licentiousness in the sense of immorality, thetie of marriage was regarded more lightly than in the rest ofGreece. The 'suprema lex' was the preservation of the family,and the interest of the State. The coarse strength of a militarygovernment was not favourableto purity and refinement; andthe excessive strictness of some regulations seems to have pro-duceda reaction. Of all Hellenes the Spartans were most acces-sible to bribery; several of the greatest of them might bedescribedin the words of Plato as having a ' fiercesecret longingafter gold and silver.' Though not in the strict sense com-munists, the principle of communism was maintained amongthem in their division of lands, in their commonmeals, in theirslaves, andin the free use of one another'sgoods. Marriagewasa publicinstitution: and the womenwereeducatedby theState,andsanganddancedin publicwith the men.

S_artan features of the R_ublic. clxxi

ManytraditionswerepreservedatSpartaofthe severitywith I_,ROD_.whichthemagistrateshadmaintainedtheprimitiveruleofmusic T*ON.and poetry;as in the Republicof Plato,the new-fangledpoetwas to be expelled. Hymnsto the Gods,whichare the onlykindofmusicadmittedintothe idealState,weretheonlykindwhichwaspermittedat Sparta. TheSpartans,thoughanun-poeticalrace,wereneverthelessloversofpoetry; theyhadbeenstirred by the ElegiacstrainsofTyrtaeus,they had crowdedaroundHippiasto hearhis recitalsofHomer; butin this theyresembledthe citizensofthe timoeratieratherthanoftheidealState(548E). Thecouncilofeldermenalsoeorrespondsto theSpartangerousia;and the freedomwithwhichthey are per-mittedto judgeaboutmattersof detailagreeswithwhatwearetoldof that institution. Oncemore,the militaryruleof notspoilingthe deador offeringarmsatthe temples;themodera-tionin the pursuitof enemies;the importaneeattachedto thephysiealwell-beingof the eitizens;the use ofwarfarefor thesakeof defenceratherthanof aggression--arefeaturesprobablysuggestedbythespiritandpracticeofSparta.

TotheSpartantypethe idealStaterevertsin thefirstdecline;andthecharacterof theindividualtimoeratisborrowedfromtheSpartancitizen. The love of Lacedaemonnot onlyaffeetedPlatoandXenophon,but was sharedby manyundistinguishedAthenians;there they seemedto finda prineiplewhichwaswantingin theirowndemocracy.The_bxo,_iaoftheSpartansat-traetedthem,thatis tosay,notthe goodnessof theirlaws,butthespiritoforderandloyaltywhichprevailed.Fascinatedbytheidea,citizensofAthenswouldimitatetheLacedaemoniansin theirdress and manners; theywere knownto the eontemporariesof Platoas ' the personswho hadtheir earsbruised,'liketheRoundheadsof theCommonwealth.The loveof anotherchurchor countrywhen seen at a distanceonly,the longingfor animaginarysimplicityin civilizedtimes,the fonddesireofa pastwhichneverhasbeen,or ofa futurewhichneverwillbe,--theseare aspirationsof thehumanmindwhichareoftenfeltamongourselves. Suchfeelingsmeetwitha responsein theRepublicofPlato.

But thereare otherfeaturesof the PlatonicRepublic,as,forexample,the literaryandphilosophicaleducation,andthegrace

clxxii Hellenicfeelingin Plato.tmaoDvc,and beauty of life, which are the reverse of Spartan. Plato

TIObK

wishes to give his citizens a taste of Athenian freedom as wellasof Lacedaemoniandiscipline. His individualgeniusis purelyAthenian,althoughin theory he is a lover of Sparta; and heis somethingmore than either--he has also a true Hellenicfeeling. He is desirousof humanizingthe wars of Hellenesagainstone another; he acknowledgesthat the DelphianGodis the grand hereditaryinterpreterof all Hellas. The spiritofharmonyand the Dorianmode are to prevail,and the wholeState is to havean external beauty which is the reflex of theharmonywithin. But he has not yet foundout the truthwhichhe afterwardsenunciatedin the Laws (i. 6_ D)--that he was abetter legislatorwhomade men to be of onemind,thanhe whotrained them for war. Thecitizens,as in other HellenicStates,democraticas well as aristocratic,are really an upper class;for, althoughno mention is made of slaves, the lower classesare allowedto fadeawayinto the distance,and are representedin the individualby the passions. Plato has no idea either ofa socialState inwhichall classes are harmonized,or of a federa-tionof Hellas or the world in which differentnationsor Stateshavea place. His city is equippedforwarratherthanfor peace,and thiswouldseem to be justifiedby the ordinaryconditionofHellenicStates. The mythof the earth-borumenis an embodi-ment of the orthodoxtraditionof Hellas,and the allusionto thefour ages of the world is also sanctionedby the authorityofHesiodand the poets. Thuswe see that the Republicis partlyfoundedon the ideal of the oldGreekpolis,partly on the actualcircumstancesof Hellas in that age. Plato,likethe old painters,retainsthe traditionalform,and like themhe has also a visionofa city in the clouds.

There is yet anotherthreadwhichis interwovenin thetextureof the work; for the Republicis notonly a DorianState, but aPythagoreanleague. The'way of life' whichwas connectedwiththe nameof Pythagoras,liketheCatholicmonasticorders,showedthe powerwhich the mind of an individualmight exerciseoverhis contemporaries,andmayhavenaturallysuggestedto Platothepossibilityof revivingsuch 'mediaevalinstitutions.' The Pytha-goreans,like Plato, enforceda rule of life and a moral and in-tellectualtraining. The influenceascribedto music, which to

Tke Pytkagoreanwayof life. clxxiiiusseems exaggerated,is also a Pythagoreanfeature; it is not to IN_ODUC-be regarded as representing the real influeneeof music in the _1o_.Greek world. More nearly than any other government ofHellas, the Pythagorean league of three hundred was an aris-toeraeyof virtue. Foronce in the historyof mankind the philo-sophyof order or x&rt_o_,expressing and consequentlyenlistingon its side the combined endeavoursof the betterpart of thepeople, obtained the management of publie affairs and heldpossession of it for a considerable time (until about B.c. 5oo).Probably only in States prepared by Dorian institutionswouldsuch a leaguehavebeen possible. The rulers, likePlato'sq_aK_,were required to submit to a severetraining in order to preparethe way for the education of the other members of the com-munity. Longafter the dissolutionof the Order, eminentPytha-goreans, sueh as Arehytas of Tarentum, retained their politicalinfluenceoverthe citiesof MagnaGrmeia. There wasmuchherethat was suggestive to the kindred spirit of Plato, who haddoubtless meditated deeply on the 'way of life of Pythagoras'(Rep. x.6ooB)and his followers. Slighttraees of Pythagorean-ism are to be found in the mystical number of the State,in thenumber whieh expresses the interval betweenthe "kingand thetyrant, in the doctrine of transmigration,in the music of thespheres, as well as in the great though secondary importanceascribedto mathematicsin education.

But as in his philosophy,so also in the form of his State, hegoes far beyond the oldPythagoreans. He attemptsa task reallyimpossible,which is to unite the past of Greek historywith thefuture of philosophy,analogousto that other impossibility,whiehhas often been the dream of Christendom,the attempt to unitethe past history ofEurope with the kingdomofChrist. Nothingactuallyexistingin the worldat all resemblesPlato'sideal State;nor does he himself imagine that such a State is possible. Thishe repeats again and again; e.g. in the Republic (ix.subfin.),orin the Laws (Bookv. 739),where, casting a glaneeback on theRepublic, he admits that the perfect state of communismandphilosophy was impossible in his own age, though still to beretained as a pattern. The same doubt is impliedin the earnest-ness with which he argues in the Republic(v.472D)that idealsare none the worse because theycannotbe realizedin fact,and

clxxiv H/asPlatoa goodcitizen._l_,oDuc,in the chorus of laughter,which like a breaking wave will, as

"lION,

he anticipates, greet the mention of his proposals; thoughlikeother writers of'fiction,he uses all his art to give realitytohis inventions. When asked how the ideal politycan comeintobeing,he answers ironically,' When one son of a king becomesa philosopher'; he designates the fictionof the earth-born menas 'a noble lie' ; and when the structure is finally complete,hefairlytells you that his Republic is a vision only,which in somesense may have reality, but not in the vulgar one of a reign ofphilosophers upon earth. It has been said that Plato flies aswell as walks,but this falls short of the truth ; for he flies andwalks at the same time,and is in the air and on firm ground insuccessiveinstants.

Niebuhr has asked a trifling question,which may be brieflynoticed in this place--Was Plato a good citizen? If by this ismeant, Was he loyal to Athenian institutions?--he can hardly besaid to be the friend of democracy: but neither is he the friendof any other existing form of government; all of them he re-garded as ' states of faction' (Lawsviii.832C); none attained tohis ideal of a voluntaryrule overvoluntarysubjects,whichseemsindeed more nearly to describe democracythan any other; andtheworst of them is tyranny. The truth is, that thequestionhashardlyany meaning when applied to a great philosopherwhosewritings are not meant for a particular age and country,but forall time and all mankind. The decline of Athenian politicswasprobablythe motivewhich led Plato to frame an ideal State,andthe Republic may be regarded as reflecting the departing gloryof Hellas. As well might we complainof St. Augustine_whosegreat work' The City of God' originated in a similar motive,fornot being loyal to the Roman Empire. Even a nearer parallelmight be afforded by the first Christians, who cannot fairlybe charged with being bad citizens because,though _subject tothe higher powers,'they were lookingforward to a citywhich isin heaven.

II. The idea of the perfect State is full of paradox when.judged of according to the ordinary notions of mankind. Theparadoxes of one age have been said to become the common-places of the next; but the paradoxes of Plato are at least asparadoxical to us as they were to his contemporaries. The

T_ communityof properly, clxxvmodern world has either sneered at them as absurd, or de- INTRoDOC-nouncedthemas unnaturaland immoral; men havebeenpleased T*oN.to find in Aristotle's criticismsof them the anticipationof theirown good sense. The wealthy and cultivatedclasseshave dis-likedand also dreaded them ; they havepointedwithsatisfactionto the failure of efforts to realize them in practice. Yet sincethey are the thoughts of one of the greatest of human intelli-gences, and of one who has done most to elevate moralityandreligion, they seem to deserve a better treatmentat our hands.We may have to address the public, as Plato does poetry, andassure them that we mean no harm to existing institutions.There are serious errors which have a side of truth and whichtherefore may fairly demand a careful consideration: there aretruths mixedwith error of whichwe may indeedsay, ' The halfisbetter than the whole.' Yet 'the half' may be an importantcon-tribution tothe study of human nature.

(a) The first paradox is the communityof goods,which ismentioned slightlyat the end of the third Book,and seemingly,as Aristotleobserves, is confined to the guardians; at least nomention is made of the other classes. But the omissionis notof any real significance,and probably arises out of the plan ofthe work, whichprevents the writer fromenteringintodetails.

Aristotle censures the community of property much in thespirit of modern political economy,as tending to repress in-dustry, and as doing away with the spirit of benevolence.Modernwriters almost refuse to consider the subject,which issupposed to have been long ago settled by the commonopinionof mankind. But it must be rememberedthat the sacrednessofproperty is a notion far more fixed in modern than in ancienttimes. The world has grown older, and is therefore more con-servative. Primitivesociety offeredmany examplesof land heldin common,either by a tribe or by a township, and such mayprobablyhave been the originalform of landedtenure. Ancientlegislatorshad inventedvariousmodes of dividingandpreservingthe divisions of land among the citizens; accordingto Aristotlethere were nations who held the land in commonand dix4dedthe produce, and there were others who divided the land andstored the produce in common. The evils of debt and the in-equalityof property were far greater in ancient than in modern

elxxvi Tke communityof property.l_oDue-times,and the accidents towhich propertywas subjectfromwar,

TION.

or revolution,or taxation,or other legislativeinterference,werealso greater. All these circumstancesgaveproperty a less fixedand sacredcharacter. The early Christiansare befievedto haveheld their property in common,and the prineiple is sanctionedby the words of Christ himself,and has been maintainedas acounselof perfectionin almostall ages of the Church. Nor havethere been wanting instances of modern enthusiasts who havemadea religion of communism; in every age of religiousexcite-ment notions like Wyeliffe's 'inheritance of graee' have tendedto prevail. A like spirit, but fiercer and more violent,has ap-peared in politics. 'The preparationof the Gospelof peace' soonbecomesthe red flagof Republicanism.

We can hardly judge what effect Plato's views wouldhaveupon his own contemporaries; they wouldperhaps haveseemedto them only an exaggeration of the Spartan commonwealth.Even modernwriters wouldacknowledgethat the right ofprivateproperty is based on expediency,and may be interfered with ina varietyofways for the publicgood. Any other modeof vestingproperty which was found to be more advantageous,would intime acquirethe samebasis of right; ' the most useful,'in Plato'swords, ' would be the most sacred.' The lawyers and ecclesi-astics of former ages wouldhave spoken of propertyas a sacredinstitution. But they onlymeant by such language tooppose thegreatest amount of resistance to any invasionof the rights of in-dividualsand of the Church.

When we consider the question,without any fear of immediateapplicationto practice, in the spirit of Plato's Republic, are wequite sure that the received notions of property are the best ?Is the distribution of wealth which is customary in civilizedcountries the most favourable that can be conceived for theeducationand developmentof the mass of mankind? Can ' the ispectator of all time and all existence' be quite convincedthat

one or two thousand years hence, great changes will not have (taken place in the rightsof property,or eventhat the very notion

of property, beyondwhat is necessaryfor personalmaintenance, imay not have disappeared? This was a distinction familiar toAristotle,though likelyto be laughed at among ourselves. Sucha changewouldnot be greater than some other changesthrough

Tlzecommuni_ of property, clxxvii

which the world has passed in the transition from ancient to Ii_r_o_uc.modern society, forexample, the emancipationof the serfs in x_oN.Russia, or the abolition of slavery in America and the WestIndies; and not so great as the differencewhich separates theEastern village communityfrom the Western world. To accom-plish such a revolution in the course of a few centuries,wouldimplya rate of progress not more rapid than has actuallytakenplace during the last fiftyor sixty years. The kingdomof Japanunderwent more change in fiveor six years than Europein fiveor six hundred. Many opinions and beliefswhich have beencherishedamongourselvesquite as strongly as the sacrednessofpropertyhavepassed away; and the mostuntenablepropositionsrespecting the right of bequests or entail have been maintainedwith as much fervour as the most moderate. Someone will beheard to ask whether a state of societycan be final in whichtheinterests of thousands are perilled on the life or characterof asingleperson. And many will indulgethe hope that our presentconditionmay, after all, be only transitional,and may conducttoa higher, inwhich property,besidesministeringto the enjoymentof the few,may also furnish the means of the highest culturetoall,andwill be a greater benefit to the publicgenerally,and alsomore under the controlof publicauthority. There may comeatime when the saying,' Have I nota right to dowhat I willwithmy own?' willappear to be a barbarous relicof individualism;-when the possessionof a part may be a greaterblessingto eachandall than the possessionofthe wholeis now toany one.

Such reflections appear visionary to the eye of the practicalstatesman, but they are within the range of possibilityto thephilosopher. He can imagine that in some distantageor clime,and through the influenceof some individual,the notionof com-monproperty may or might have sunk as deep into the heart ofa race, and have become as fixed to them, as private propertyis to ourselves. He knows that this latter institutionis not morethan four or fivethousand years old: may not the end revert tothe beginning? In our own age evenUtopias affectthe spiritoflegislation,andan abstract ideamay exercisea great influenceonpracticalpolitics.

The objectionsthat would be generally urgedagainstPlato'scommunityof property,aretheold onesofAristotle,thatmotives

n

clxxviii The communityof property.XmaoDvc-for exertionwould be taken away,and that disputeswouldarise

TION.

when eachwas dependentupon all. Every manwouldproduceas little and consumeas muchas he liked. The experienceofcivilizednations has hithertobeen adverse to Socialism. Theeffortis too great for humannature; men try to live in common,but the personalfeeling is always breakingin. On the otherhandit maybe doubtedwhetherourpresentnotionsof propertyare not conventional,for they differ in different countriesandin differentstates of society. We boast of an individualismwhichis not freedom,but rather an artificial result of the in-dustrial state of modernEurope. The individualis nominallyfree, but he is also powerlessin a world boundhandand footin the chainsof economicnecessity. Even if we cannotexpectthe mass of mankindto becomedisinterested,at any rate weobservein them a power of organizationwhich fifty years agowouldnever havebeen suspected. The same forceswhichhaverevolutionizedthepoliticalsystem of Europe,mayeffecta similarchange in the social and industrialrelationsof mankind. Andif we suppose the influenceof some good as well as neutralmotivesworkingin the community,there will be no absurdityin expecting that the mass of mankind having power, andbecomingenlightenedabout the higher possibilRiesof humanlife, when they learn how muchmore is attainablefor all thanis at present the possessionof a favouredfew, may pursuethecommoninterestwithanintelligenceandpersistencywhichman-kindhavehithertonever seen.

Now that the world has once been set in motion,and is nolongerheldfast underthetyrannyof customandignorance; nowthat criticismhas pierced the veil of tradition and the past nolongeroverpowersthe present,--the progressof civilizationmaybeexpectedto be fargreaterand swifterthanheretofore. Evenat our present rate of speed the point at which we may arrivein two or three generationsis beyondthe power of imaginationto foresee. There are forces in theworldwhichwork,not in anarithmetical,but in ageometricalratioof increase. Education,touse the expressionof Plato, moveslike a wheel with an ever-multiplyingrapidity. Nor canwe say how great may be itsinfluence,when it becomes universal,--when it has been in-heritedbymanygenerations,--whenit is freedfromthe trammels

The communilyof wives and children, clxxix

of superstition and rightly adapted to the wants and capacitiesI_-_oDuoof different classes of men and women. Neither do we know T*ON.how much more the co-operationof minds or of hands maybecapableof accomplishing,whether in labour or in study. Theresources of the natural sciences are not half-developedas yet;the soil ofthe earth,insteadofgrowingmorebarren,maybecomemany times more fertile than hitherto; the uses of machineryfar greater,and also more minutethan at present. Newsecretsof physiology may be revealed, deeply affectinghuman naturein its innermostrecesses. The standardof healthmaybe raisedand the lives of men prolongedby sanitaryand medicalknow-ledge. There may be peace, there may be leisure, there maybe innocent refreshments of many kinds. The ever-increasingpower of locomotionmay join the extremes of earth. Theremay be mysteriousworkings of"the humanmind,such as occuronlyatgreat crisesof history. The Eastand the West maymeettogether,and all nationsmaycontributetheir thoughtsand theirexperience to the commonstock of humanity. Manyother ele-ments enter into a speculationof this kind. But it is better tomake an end of them. For such reflections appear to themajorityfar-fetched,and to men of science,commonplace.

(3)Neither to the mind of Platonor ofAristotledid the doctrineof communityof property present at all the same difficulty,orappear to be the same violationof the commonHellenic senti-ment, as the communityof wives and children. This paradoxhe prefacesby anotherproposal,that the occupationsof menandwomenshall be the same, and that to this end they shall haveacommontrainingandeducation. Maleand femaleanimalshavethe same pursuits--why notalsothe twosexes ofman?

Buthave we not here falleninto acontradiction? forwe weresayingthat differentnaturesshouldhavedifferentpursuits. Howthencan men andwomen have the same? And is not the pro-posal inconsistentwith our notion of the divisionof labour?-These objections are no sooner raised than answered; for, ac-cordingto Plato,there is noorganicdifferencebetween men andwomen,but only the accidentalone that men beget and womenbear children. Followingthe analogyof the other animals,hecontends that all naturalgifts are scatteredaboutindifferentlyamongboth sexes, though there maybe a superiorityof degree

1'12

elxxx Tke communityof wivesand children.I_BODUC-on the part of the men. The objectionon the score of decency

TION.

to their taking part in the same gymnastic exercises,is met byPlato's assertionthat the existingfeelingis a matter ofhabit.

That Plato shouldhave emancipatedhimself fromthe ideas ofhis own country and from the example of the East, shows awonderful independenceof mind. He is consciousthat womenare halfthe humanrace, in some respects the moreimportanthalf(Laws vi. 78i B); and for the sake both of men and women hedesires to raise the woman to a higher level of existence. Hebrings, not sentiment, but philosophy to bear upon a questionwhich both in ancient and modern times has been chiefly re-garded in the light of customor feeling. The Greeks had nobleconceptionsof womanhoodin the goddessesAtheneand Artemis,and in the heroines Antigoneand Andromaehe. But these idealshad nocounterpart inactual life. The Athenianwomanwas in noway the equalof her husband; she was notthe entertainer ofhisguestsor the mistress of his house,but only his housekeeperandthe mother of his children. She took nopart in militaryor politi-calmatters ; nor is there any instancein the later ages of Greeceofa womanbecomingfamousin literature. ' Hers is the greatestglory who has the least renown among men,' is the historian'sconceptionof feminine excellence. A very different ideal ofwomanhoodis held up by Plato to the world ; she is to be thecompanionof the man,and to share with him in the toils of warand in the cares of government. She is to be similarly trainedboth in bodily and mental exercises. She is to lose as far aspossible the incidents of maternity and the characteristics of thefemale sex.

The modern antagonistofthe equalityof the sexeswouldarguethat the differencesbetween men and women are not confinedtothe singlepointurgedbyPlato; that sensibility,gentleness,grace,are the qualitiesofwomen,while energy, strength, higherintelli-gence, are to be looked for in men. And the criticism is just:the differencesaffect the whole nature, and are not, as Platosupposes,confinedtoa singlepoint. Butneither canwe say howfar these differencesare due to education and the opinions ofmankind,or physicallyinherited from the habits and opinionsofformer generations. Women have been always taught, notexactly that they are slaves, but that they are in an inferior

The communityof wivesand children, clxxxiposition,whichisalso supposedto havecompensatingadvantages; I_OD_-TION.

and to this positionthey haveconformed. It is alsotrue that thephysical form may easily change in the course of generationsthrough the modeof life ; and the weaknessor delicacy,whichwas once a matter of opinion,may becomea physical fact. Thecharacteristicsof sex vary greatlyin differentcountriesand ranksof society,and at different ages in the same individuals. Platomay have been right in denying that there was any ultimatedifference in the sexes of man other than that which exists inanimals, because all other differencesmay be conceivedto dis-appearin other states ofsociety,or under differentcircumstancesof lifeand training.

The first wave havingbeen passed,we proceedto the second--communityof wives and children. ' Is it possible? Is it desir-able?' For,as Glauconintimates,and as we far more stronglyinsist, 'Great doubtsmay be entertained aboutboththese points.'Any free discussionof the question is impossible,and mankindare perhaps right in not allowingthe ultimatebasesof socialliltto be examined. Few of us can safely enquire into the thingswhich nature hides,any more than we candissectour ownbodies.Still,the mannerin which Platoarrivedat his conclusionsshouldbe considered. For here, as Mr. Grote has remarked, is awonderful thing, that one of the v_sest and best of men shouldhave entertained ideas of moralitywhich are whollyat variancewith our own. And if we would do Plato justice, we mustexaminecarefullythe character of his proposals. First, we mayobserve that the relations of the sexes supposedby him are thereverse of licentious: he seems rather to aim at an impossiblestrictness. Secondly,he conceivesthe familyto be the naturalenemy of the state; and he entertains the serious hope that anuniversal brotherhood may take the place of private interests--an aspiration which, although not justified by experience, haspossessed many noble minds. On the other hand, there is nosentiment or imagination in the connectionswhich men andwomen are supposed by him to form; human beings return tothe level of the animals, neither exalting to heaven, nor yetabusingthe natural instincts. All that world of poetryand fancywhich the passion of love has called forth in modern literatureand romancewouldhave been banishedby Plato. The arrange-

clxxxii Ttmcommunityof wivesand ddldren.i_t,oD_c-ments of marriage in the Republic are directedto one objeet--

TION,

the improvementof the race. In successivegenerations a greatdevelopmentboth of bodily and mental qualities might be pos-sible. The analogy of animals tends to show that mankind canwithin certain limits receive a change of nature. And as inanimals we should commonlychoose the best for breeding, anddestroy the others, so there must be a selection made of thehuman beings whoselivesare worthy to be preserved.

We start back horrified from this Platonicideal,in the belief,first, that the higher feelingsof humanityare far too strong to becrushed out; secondly,that if the plan could be carried intoexecutionwe shouldbe poorly recompensed by improvementsinthe breed for the loss of the best things in life. The greatestregard for the weakestand meanestof humanbeings--the infant,the criminal,the insane,the idiot,truly seems to us one of thenoblest results of Christianity. We have learned,though as yetimperfectly,that the individualman has an endless value in thesight of God, and that we honour Him when we honour thedarkened and disfiguredimageof Him (cp.Lawsxi.931A). Thisis the lesson which Christ taught in a parable when He said,' Their angels do always behold the face ofMy Father which isin heaven.' Such lessons are onlypartially realized in any age ;they were foreign to the age of Plato,as they havevery differentdegreesof strength in differentcountriesor ages of the Christianworld. To the Greek the familywas a religiousand customaryinstitution binding the members together by a tie inferior instrength to that of friendship, and having a less solemn andsacred sound than that of country. The relationship whichexisted on the lowerlevel of custom,Plato imaginedthat he wasraisingto the higher level of nature and reason; while from themodernand Christianpoint of viewwe regard himas sanctioningmurderand destroyingthe first principlesof morality.

The great error in these and similar speculationsis that thedifferencebetween manand the animals is forgotteninthem. Thehuman being is regarded with the eye of a dog- or bird-fancier(v. 459 A), or at best of a slave-owner; the higher or humanqualitiesare left out. The breeder of animals aimschieflyat sizeor speedor strength ; in a few cases at courageor temper; mostoften the fitness of the animalfor food is the great desideratum.

Tke communityof wives and children, clxxxiii

But mankindarenot bredto be eaten,nor yet fortheir superiority I,T,o_c.TION,

in fightingor in running or in drawingcarts. Neither does theimprovementof the human race consistmerelyin the increaseofthe bones and flesh,but in the growthand enlightenmentofthemind. Hence there must be 'a marriageoftrue minds' as wellasofbodies,ofimaginationand reasonas wellas oflustsandinstincts.Men and women without feelingor imaginationare justly calledbrutes ; yet Platotakes awaythese qualities and puts nothing intheir place,not eventhe desire of a nobleoffspring,sinceparentsare notto know their own children. The mostimportanttransac-tion of sociallife,he who is the idealistphilosopherconvertsintothe most brutal. For the pair are to have no relation to oneanother, except at the hymeneal festival; their children are nottheirs, hut the state's; nor is any tie of affectionto unite them.Yet here the analogyof the animalsmight havesaved Platofroma gigantic error, if he had ' not lost sight of his own illustration'(ii.375D). For the 'nobler sort of birds and beasts' (v.459A)nourishand protect their offspringand are faithfultoone another.

An eminent physiologistthinks it worth while ' totry and placelife on a physical basis.' But should not life rest on the moralrather than upon the physical? The higher comesfirst, thenthe lower; first the human and rational,afterwards the animal.Yet they are not absolutely divided; and in timesof sicknessormomentsof self-indulgencethey seemto be onlydifferentaspectsof a commonhuman nature whichincludesthem both. Neitheristhe moralthe limitof the physical,but the expansionandenlarge-ment of it,--the highest form which the physicalis capableofreceiving. As Platowouldsay, the bodydoes nottake careofthebody, and still less of the mind,but the mindtakes care ofboth.In all human action not that which is commonto man and theanimalsis the characteristicelement,but that whichdistinguisheshimfrom them. Even if we admit the physicalbasis,and resolveallvirtueinto health of body--'lafafon quenotresangcircule,'stillon merely physical groundswe must comeback to ideas. Mindand reason and duty and conscience,under these or other names,are always reappearing. There cannotbe health ofbodywithouthealth of mind; nor health ofmindwithoutthe senseofdutyandthe love of truth (ep.Charm.156D, E).

That thegreatestofancientphilosophersshouldinhisregulations

clxxxiv The community of wives and children.

I.T,ODUC-about marriagehave falleninto the error of separatingbodyandTION.

mind, does indeed appear surprising. Yet the wonder is notso much that Plato should have entertained ideas of moralitywhich to our own age are revolting,but that he shouldhavecon-tradicted himself to an extent which is hardly credible, fallingin an instant from the heaven of idealism into the crudestanimalism. Rejoicing in the newly found gift of reflection, heappears to have thought out a subject about which he hadbetter havefollowedthe enlightenedfeelingof his own age. Thegeneral sentimentof Hellas was opposedto his monstrous fancy.The old poets,and in later timethe tragedians,showednowant ofrespect for the family,onwhichmuch of their religionwasbased.But the example of Sparta, and perhaps in some degree thetendency to defypublic opinion,seems to have misled him. Hewillmake one familyout of all the families of the state. He willselect the finest specimens of men and women and breed fromthese only.

Yet becausethe illusionis alwaysreturning (for the animalpartof human nature willfrom timeto timeassert itself in the disguiseofphilosophyas well as of poetry),and also becauseanydeparturefrom establishedmorality,even where this is not intended,is aptto be unsettling,it may be worth while to draw outa little moreat length the objectionsto the Platonic marriage. In the firstplace, history shows that wherever polygamyhas been largelyallowedthe race has deteriorated. One man to onewomanis thelaw of God and nature. Nearly all the civilizedpeoples of theworld at some period before the age of written records, havebecome monogamists; and the step when once takenhas neverbeen retraced. The exceptions occurring among Brahmins orMahometansor the ancientPersians, are ofthat sort whichmaybesaid to provethe rule. The connexionsformedbetweensuperiorand inferior races hardly ever producea noble offspring,becausethey are licentious; and because the children in such casesusuallydespise the mother and are neglectedby the father whois ashamedof them. Barbarousnationswhen they are introducedby Europeans to vice die out; polygamistpeoples either importand adoptchildrenfrom other countries,or dwindle in numbers,or both. Dynasties and aristocracieswhich havedisregardedthelaws of nature have decreased in numbers and degenerated in

The communiO,of wivesand children, clxxxvstature ; 'mariages de eonvenance'leave their enfeeblingstamp IN.oboe.

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on the offspring of them (cp. King Lear, Act i. Sc.2). Themarriageof near relations,or the marryingin and in of the samefamily tends constantly to weakness or idiocy in the children,sometimes assumingthe form as they grow older of passionatelicentiousness. The commonprostituterarely has any offspring.By such unmistakable evidence is the authority of moralityasserted in the relations ofthe sexes: andsomanymoreelementsenter into this ' mystery' than are dreamed of byPlatoand someother philosophers.

Recent enquirers have indeed arrived at the conclusionthatamong primitive tribes there existed a communityof wives asof property, and that the captive taken by the spear was theonly wifeor slave whomany man was permitted tocall his own.The partial existence of such customsamong some of the lowerraces of man, and the survival of peculiar ceremonies in themarriages of some civilized nations, are thought to furnish aproof of similar institutions having been onceuniversal. Therecan be no question that the study of anthropologyhas consider-ably changed our views respecting the first appearance of manupon the earth. We know more about the aborigines of theworld than formerly,but our increasing knowledgeshowsaboveall things howlittle we know. With all the helps whichwrittenmonumentsafford,we do but faintlyrealizethe conditionof mantwo thousand or three thousandyears ago. Ofwhat hisconditionwas when removed to a distance2oo,oooor 3oo,oooyears, whenthe majorityof mankindwere lower and nearer the animalsthanany tribe now existing upon the earth, we cannoteven entertainconjecture. Plato (Lawsiii.676 foll.)and Aristotle (Metaph.xi.8,§§I9,2o)may havebeen more right than we imaginein supposingthat some forms of civilizationwere discoveredand lost severaltimesover. If we cannot argue that all barbarism is a degradedcivilization,neither canwe set any limitstothe depth of degrada-tion to which the human race may sink through war, disease,orisolation. And if we are to draw inferences about the originof marriage from the practice of barbarous nations,we shouldalso consider the remoter analogy of the animals. Many birdsand animals,especiallythe carnivorous,haveonly onemate,andthe love and care of offspringwhich seems to be natural is in-

clxxxvi The communityof wivesand cMldren.Im,oDue-consistentwiththeprimitivetheoryofmarriage.Ifwe goback

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to an imaginarystatein whichmen werealmostanimalsandthe companionsof them,we haveas muchrightto arguefromwhatis animalto whatis humanas fromthe barbarousto thecivilizedman. The recordof animallifeon the globeis frag-mentary,--theconnecthaglinksare wantingandcannotbe sup-plied; the recordof sociallife is still more fragmentaryandprecarious. Evenif we admitthatour first ancestorshad nosuchinstitutionas marriage,stillthestagesbywhichmenpassedfromouter barbarismto the comparativecivilizationof China,Assyria,andGreece,or evenof theancientGermans,arewhollyunknowntous.

Suchspeculationsare apttobe unsettling,beeansetheyseemtoshowthataninstitutionwhichwasthoughtto be a revelationfromheaven,is onlythe growthofhistoryandexperience.Weaskwhatis the originof marrmge,and we are told that likethe right of property,aftermanywars and contests,it hasgraduallyarisenoutof theselfishnessof barbarians.We standfacetofacewithhumannaturein its primitivenakedness.Weare compelledtoaccept,notthe highest,butthe lowestaccountof the originof humansociety. Butonthe otherhandwemaytrulysay that everystep in humanprogresshasbeenin thesamedirection,andthatin thecourseofagestheideaofmarriageandof thefamilyhasbeenmoreandmoredefinedandconse-crated. The civilizedEast is immeasurablyin advanceof anysavagetribes;theGreeksandRomanshaveimprovedupontheEast; the Christiannationshavebeen stricterin their viewsof the marriagerelationthananyof the ancients. In this asin somanyotherthings,insteadof lookingbackwithregret tothe past,we shouldlookforwardwithhopeto the future. Wemustconsecratethatwhichwe believetobe the mostholy,andthat' whichis themostholywillbe themostuseful.'There ismorereasonformaintainingthe sacrednessof themarriagetie,whenwe see the benefitofit, thanwhenwe onlyfelta vaguereligioushorror aboutthe violationof it. But in all times oftransition,whenestablishedbeliefsare beingundermined,thereis a dangerthat in thepassagefromtheoldtothe newwe mayinsensiblyletgo themoralprinciple,findinganexcuseforlisten-ingto thevoiceofpassionin theuncertaintyofknowledge,orthe

The communityof wivesand children, clxxxviifluctuationsofopinion. Andthere are manypersonsin our own I_,o_c.

"rtoN.

daywho, enlightenedby the study ofanthropology,and fascinatedby what is new and strange, some using the languageof fear,others of hope,are inclined tobelieve that a timewill comewhenthrough the self-assertionof women, or the rebelliousspirit ofchildren, by the analysis of human relations,or by the forceofoutward circumstances,the ties of familylife maybe broken orgreatly relaxed. They point to societies in America and else-where whichtend to show that the destructionof the familyneednot necessarilyinvolve the overthrowof all morality. Whateverwe may think of such speculations,we canhardlydeny that theyhave been more rife in this generation than in any other; andwhither they are tending,who canpredict?

To the doubts and queries raised by these ' socialreformers'respecting the relationofthe sexes and the moral nature ofman,there is a sufficientanswer, if any is needed. The differencebe-tweenthem and us is reallyone of fact. They are speakingof manas they wishor fancyhim to be, butwe are speakingof him as heis. Theyisolatethe animalpart of his nature; we regardhimas acreature havingmany sides, or aspects,movingbetweengoodandevil, striving to rise abovehimself and to become'a little lowerthan the angels.' We also, to use a Platonic formula,are notignorantof the dissatisfactionsand incompatibilitiesof familylife,of themeannessesof trade, of the flatteries of one classof societybyanother,of the impedimentswhich the familythrows in thewayof loftyaimsand aspirations. But we are consciousthat there areevils and dangers in the background greater still,which are notappreciated, because they are either concealed or suppressed.What a conditionof man would that be,in whichhumanpassionswere controlledby noauthority,divineor human,in which therewas no shame or decency,no higher affectionovercomingorsanctifyingthe natural instincts,but simplya rule of health! Is itforthis that we are asked to throwaway the civilizationwhichisthegrowth of ages?

For strengthand healthare not the onlyqualitiestobe desired;there are the moreimportantconsiderationsof mindand characterand soul. We know how human nature may be degraded; wedo not know how by artificial means any improvementin thebreed can be effected. The problemis a complexone,for if we

clxxxviii TAecommunityof wivesand children.I_T,ODUC.go back only four steps (and these at least enter into the com-

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position of a child),there are commonlythirty progenitors tobe taken into account. Manycurious facts, rarely admittingofproof,are told usrespectingthe inheritaneeofdiseaseor characterfrom a remoteancestor. We can tracethe physicalresemblancesof parentsand childrenin the samefamily-

' Sicoculos,sicillemanus,sicoraferebat';but scarcelyless often the differenceswhich distinguishchildrenboth from their parents and from one another. WeV_aretoldof similar mental peculiarities running in families, and againof a tendency, as in the animals, to revert to a common ororiginal stock. But we havea difficultyin distinguishingwhatis a true inheritance of genius or other qualities, and what ismere imitation or the result of similar circumstances. Greatmen and great womenhave rarely had great fathers and mothers.Nothingthat we know of in the circumstancesof their birth orlineagewill explain their appearance. Of the English poets ofthe last and two preceding centuries scarcely a descendantremains,--none have ever been distinguished. So deeply hasnature hidden her secret, and so ridiculous is the fancy whichhas been entertained by some that we might in time bysuitablemarriage arrangements or, as Plato would have said, 'by aningenious system of lots,' produce a Shakespeare or a Milton.Even supposingthat we could breed men having the tenacityof bulldogs,or, like the Spartans, 'lacking the wit to run awayin battle,' would the world be any the better? Many of thenoblest specimens of the human race have been among theweakest physically. Tyrtaeus or Aesop, or our own Newton,would have been exposed at Sparta; and some of the fairestand strongest men and women have been among the wickedestand worst. Not by the Platonic device of uniting the strongand fair with the strong and fair, regardless of sentiment andmorality, nor yet by his other device of combining dissimilarnatures (Statesman 3IoA), have mankind graduallypassed fromthe brutality and licentiousnessof primitivemarriageto marriageChristianand civilized.

Few persons would deny that we bring into the world aninheritance of mental and physical qualities derived first fromour parents, or through them from some remoter ancestor,

The communityof wivesand children, clxxxixsecondly from our race, thirdly from the general condition of XWr_ODVC-

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mankind into which we are born. Nothing is commonerthanthe remark, that 'So and so is like his father or his uncle';and an aged person may not unfrequently note a resemblancein a youth to a long-forgottenancestor, observingthat 'Naturesometimes skips a generation.' It may be true also, that if weknewmore about our ancestors, these similaritieswouldbe evenmore strikingtous. Admitting the factswhichare thus describedin a pol_lar way, we may however remark that there is nomethodof differenceby which they can be definedor estimated,and that they constituteonlya smallpart of eachindividual. Thedoctrineofhereditymay seemto takeoutof our handsthe conductof our own lives,but it is the idea, not the fact, which is reallyterrible to us. For whatwe havereceived fromour ancestors isonly a fraction ofwhat we are, or may become. The knowledgethat drunkenness or insanityhas beenprevalent m a familymaybe the best safeguardagainsttheir recurrence in a futuregenera-tion. The parent will be most awake to the vices or diseasesin his child of which he is most sensible within himself. Thewhole of life may be directed to their preventionor cure. Thetraces of consumptionmay become fainter, or be whollyefl]aced:the inherent tendency to vice or crime maybe eradicated. Andso heredity, from being a curse, may become a blessing. Weacknowledgethat in the matter of our birth, as in our naturegenerally,there are previous circumstanceswhich affectus. Butupon this platformof circumstancesor withinthis wall of neces-sity,we havestill the power of creating a lifeforourselvesby theinformingenergy of the humanwill.

There is another aspect ofthe marriagequestionto whichPlatois a stranger. All the children born in his state are foundlings.It never occurred to him that the greater part of them,accordingto universalexperience,wouldhave perished. For children canonly be brought up in families. There is a subtle sympathybetween the mother and the child which cannot be suppliedbyothermothers,or by' strong nurses oneor more' (Lawsvii.789E).If Plato's ' pen' was as fatal as the Cr6chesof Paris, or thefoundlinghospitalof Dublin,morethan nine-tenthsof his childrenwouldhaveperished. There wouldhave beennoneed to exposeor put out of the waythe weaklierchildren,for they wouldhave

cxc The communityof wivesand children.Iwr,,oDuc.died of themselves. So emphaticallydoes natureprotest against

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the destructionof the family.What Plato had heard or seen of Sparta was applied by him

in a mistaken way to his ideal commonwealth. He probablyobserved that both the Spartan men and womenwere superiorin form and strength to the other Greeks; and this superiorityhe was disposed to attribute to the laws and customs relatingto marriage. He did not consider that the desire of a nobleoffspring was a passion among the Spartans, or t_at theirphysical superiority was to be attributed chiefly, not to theirmarriage customs, but to their temperance and training. Hedid not reflect that Sparta was great, not in consequenceof therelaxation of morality,but in spite of it, by virtue of a politicalprinciple stronger far than existed in any other Grecian state.Least of all did he observe that Sparta did not really producethe finest specimensof the Greek race. The genius, the politicalinspiration of Athens, the love of liberty--all that has madeGreecefamouswith posterity,werewanting amongthe Spartans.They had no Themistocles,or Pericles, or Aeschylus,or Sopho-cles, or Socrates, or Plato. The individual was not allowedto appear above the state; the laws were fixed,and he had nobusiness to alter or reform them. Yetwhence has the progressof cities and nations arisen, if not from remarkable individuals,cominginto the world we know not how,and from causes overwhich we have no control? Something too much may havebeen said in modern times of the value of individuality. Butwe can hardly condemntoo strongly a system which,instead offosteringthe scattered seeds or sparks of genius and character,tends to smother andextinguishthem.

Still, while condemning Plato, we must acknowledge thatneither Christianity,nor any other formof religion and society,has hitherto been able to copewith this most difficult of socialproblems,and that the side fromwhich Plato regarded it is thatfrom which we turn away. Populationis the most untameableforce in the political and social world. Do we not find, especi-ally inlarge cities,that the greatest hindranceto the ameliorationof the poor is their improvidence in marriage?--a small faulttruly, if not involving endless consequences. There are wholecountries too,such as India,or, nearer home,Ireland, in which a

Thecommunityof wivesand children, exciright solutionofthe marriage questionseemsto lie at the founda- I_T*ODU_-TION.

tion of the happiness of the community. There are too manypeople on a given space, or they marry too early and bringinto the world a sicklyand half-developedoffspring; or owingto the very conditionsof their existence,they becomeemaciatedand hand on a similar life to their descendants. But who canoppose thevoiceof prudence tothe ' mightiestpassionsof man-kind' (Laws viii.835C), especiallywhen theyhavebeen licensedbycustomand religion? In addition to the influencesof educa-tion,we seem to require some new principlesof right andwrongin these matters, some force of opinion,which may indeed bealready heard whispering in private, but has never affected themoral sentimentsof mankind in general. We unavoidablylosesight of the principle of utility,just in that action of our livesin which we have the most need of it. The influences whichwe can bring to bear upon this question are chiefly indirect.In a generation or two, education,emigration,improvementsinagriculture and manufactures,may have provided the solution.The statephysicianhardly likes to probethewound: it is beyondhis art; a matterwhich he cannot safely let alone,but which hedare nottouch:

'Wedobutskinandfilmthe ulcerousplace.'When againin privatelife we see a whole familyone by one

droppingintothegrave undertheAte of someinheritedmalady,and the parents perhaps survivingthem, do our minds evergo backsilently to that day twenty-fiveor thirty years beforeon which underthe fairest auspices,amid the rejoicingsoffriendsand acquaintances,a brideand bridegroomjoined handswith one another? In making such a reflectionwe are notopposingphysicalconsiderationsto moral,butmoral to physical;we are seekingto makethevoice of reasonheard,which drivesus backfrom the extravaganceof sentimentalismon commonsense. The late Dr. Combe is said by his biographerto haveresistedthe temptationto marriage,becausehe knew that hewas subjectto hereditaryconsumption.Onewho deservedtobecalledamanof genius,a friendof myyouth,was in thehabitof wearinga blackribbonon his wrist,in orderto remindhimthat,being liableto outbreaksof insanity,he mustnotgive wayto the naturalimpulses of affection:he died unmarriedin a

excii Thecommunityof wivesand children.IWriODUC-lunaticasylum. These two little factssuggestthe reflectionthat aTION,

veryfew persons havedone froma sense ofduty what the rest ofmankindoughtto have done underlikecircumstances,if they hadallowedthemselves to think of all the misery which they wereabout to bring into the world. If we could prevent such mar-riages without any violationof feeling or propriety, we clearlyought; and the prohibition in the course of time wouldbe pro-tectedby a ' horror naturalis' similar to that which,in all civilizedagesand countries,has prevented the marriage of near relationsby blood. Mankindwouldhavebeen the happier, if some thingswhich are now allowedhad from the beginningbeen denied tothem; if the sanctionof religion could have prohibited practicesinimicalto health; if sanitary principles couldin early ageshavebeen invested with a superstitious awe. But, livingas we dofaron in the world's history,we are no longer ableto stampat oncewiththe impress of religiona newprohibition. A freeagent can-not have his fanciesregulated by law; and the execution of thelaw would he rendered impossible,owing to the uncertainty ofthe cases in which marriage was to be forbidden. Who canweighvirtue, or even fortuneagainst health,or moral and mentalqualitiesagainst bodily? Who can measureprobabilities againstcertainties? There has been some good as well as evil in thediscipline of suffering; and there are diseases, such as con-sumption, which have exercised a refining and softening in-fluenceon the character. Youth is too inexperiencedto balancesuchnice considerations; parents do not often think of them,orthink of them toolate. They are at a distanceand may probablybe averted; change of place,a new state of life, the interests ofa home may be the cure of them. So personsvainly reason whentheir minds are already made up and their fortunes irrevocablylinked together. Nor is there any ground for supposing thatmarriages are to any great extent influenced by reflections ofthis sort, which seem unable to make any head against theirresistible impulse of individual attachment.

Lastly, no one can have observed the first rising flood of thepassions in youth, the difficulty of regulating them, and theeffectson the whole mind and nature which followfrom them,the stimuluswhich is given to them by the imagination,withoutfeelingthat there is somethingunsatisfactoryin our method of

Thecommunityof womenand children, cxeiiitreatingthem. That the most important influenceon humanlife )get,chile.should be wholly left to chance or shrouded in mystery, and I_T_ODUC-"//'ION,

instead of beingdisciplinedor understood,shouldbe required toconformonly to an external standard of propriety--cannot beregarded by the philosopheras a safe or satisfactoryconditionofhuman things. And still those who havethe chargeofyouthmayfind a way by watchfulness,by affection,by the manlinessandinnocenceoftheir own lives,byoccasionalhints,bygeneraladmo-nitions which every one can apply for himself, to mitigatethisterrible evilwhich eats out the heart of individualsand corruptsthe moral sentiments of nations. In no duty towards others isthere more need of reticence and self-restraint. So great is thedanger lest he who would be the counsellorof another shouldrevealthe secret prematurely,lest he shouldget anothertoomuchinto his power,or fixthe passing impressionofevil bydemandingthe confessionofit.

Nor is Plato wrong in asserting that family attachmentsmayinterfere with higher aims. If there have been some who 'toparty gave up what was meant for mankind,' there have cer-tainly been others who to family gave up what was meant formankind or for their country. The cares of children, thenecessity of procuring money for their support, the flatteriesof the rich by the poor, the exclusiveness of caste, the prideof birth or wealth, the tendency of family life to divert menfrom the pursuit of the ideal or the heroic, are as lowering inour own age as in that of Plato. And if we prefer to look atthe gentle influencesof home,the developmentof the affections,the amenitiesof society,the devotionof one memberof a familyfor the goodof the others, which formone side of the picture,we must not quarrel with him, or perhaps ought rather to begrateful to him,for having presented to us the reverse. Withoutattemptingto defend Plato ongrounds of morality,we mayallowthat there is an aspect of the world which has not unnaturallyled him into error.

We hardly appreciate the power which the idea of the State,like all other abstract ideas, exercised over the mind of Plato.To us the State seems to be built up out of the family,or some-times to be the framework in which family and social life iscontained. But to Plato in his present moodof mindthe family

O

cxciv The government of _kiloso)Ohers.

Republic.is only a disturbing influence which,-insteadof filling up, tendsl_r,oDuc,to disarrange the higher unity of the State. No organizationTION.

is neededexcept a political,which,regardedfromanotherpointofview,is a militaryone. The Stateis all-sufficingforthewantsof man,and,like the ideaof the Churchin laterages,absorbsallotherdesiresandaffections. Intimeofwarthe thousandcitizensare to standlike a rampartimpregnableagainsttheworldor thePersian host; in timeof peacethe preparationfor warandtheirdutiesto the State,which are also their dutiesto one another,takeup their wholelife and time. The onlyotherinterest whichis allowedto them besides thatof war,is the interest of philo-sophy. When they are too old to be soldiersthey are to retirefrom active life and to have a second novitiateof study andcontemplation. There is an element of monasticismeven inPlato'scommunism. If he could have done without children,he mighthave converted his Republicinto a religious order.Neither in the Laws (v. 739B), when the daylightof commonsense breaks in upon him, does he retract his error. In thestate of which he would be the founder, there is no marryingor giving in marriage: but becauseof the infirmityof mankind,he condescendstoallow the law of nature to prevail.

(_)But Plato has an equal, or, in his own estimation,evengreater paradoxin reserve, whichis summedup in the famoustext, ' Until kings are philosophersor philosophersare kings,citieswill nevercease fromill.' Andby philosophersheexplainshimself to mean those who are capableof apprehendingideas,especially the idea of good. To the attainmentof this higherknowledgethe second educationis directed. Througha processof trainingwhich has already made them good citizens theyare nowto be made good legislators. We findwith somesur-prise (not unlike the feeling which Aristotlein a well-knownpassage describes the hearers of Plato'slectures as experiencing,when they went to a discourse on the idea of good, expectingto be instructed in moral truths, and received instead of themarithmetical and mathematical formulae)that Plato does notpropose for his future legislators any study of finance or lawor military tactics, but only of abstract mathematics,as a pre-paration for the still more abstractconceptionof good. We ask,with Aristotle,What is the use of a man knowing the idea of

Tkegovernmentof pkilosopkers, cxcvgood, if he does not know what is good for this individual,Repu$1ic.this state, this condition of society ? We cannot understand INTRoDu¢-TXON.

how Plato's legislators or guardians are to be fitted for theirwork ofstatesmen by the study of the fivemathematicalsciences.We vainly search in Plato's own writings for any explanationof this seeming absurdity.

The discovery of a great metaphysical conceptionseems toravish the mind with a prophetic consciousnesswhich takesaway the power of estimating its value. No metaphysicalen-quirer has ever fairly criticised his own speculations; in hisown judgment they have been above criticism; nor has heunderstood that what to him seemed to be absolute truth mayreappear in the next generation as a form of logic or an in-strument of thought. And posterityhavealso sometimesequallymisapprehendedthe real valueof his speculations. They appearto them to have contributed nothing to the stock of humanknowledge. The idea of good is apt to be regarded by themodern thinker as an unmeaning abstraction; but he forgetsthat this abstraction is waiting ready for use,and will hereafterbe filled up by the divisionsof knowledge. When mankinddonot as yet know that the world is subject to law,the introduc-tion of the mere conceptionof law or design or final cause,andthe far-off anticipationof the harmony of knowledge,are greatsteps onward. Even the crude generalizationof the unity ofall things leads men to view the world with differenteyes, andmay easily affect their conceptionof human life and of politics,and also their own conductand character(Tim.9oA). We canimagine how a great mind like that of Pericles might deriveelevationfrom his intercourse with Anaxagoras(Phaedr.z7oA).To be struggling towards a higher but unattainableconceptionis a more favourableintellectualconditionthan to rest satisfiedin a narrow portion of ascertained fact. And the earlier,whichhave sometimes been the gTeater ideas of science, are oftenlost sight of at a later period. How rarely can we say of anymodern enquirer m the magnificent language of Plato, that'He is the spectator of all time and of all existence!'

Nor is there anything unnatural in the hasty applicationofthese vast metaphysical conceptionsto practical and politicallife. In the first enthusiasmof ideas men are apt to see them

02

cxcvi Thegovernmentof philosophers.Republic.everywhere, and to apply them in the most remote sphere,Ir_r_ODVC-They donot understand that the experience of ages is requiredTION.

to enablethem tofill up 'the intermediate axioms.' Plato him-self seems to have imaginedthat the truths of psychology,likethose of astronomy and harmonics, would be arrived at by aprocess of deduction,and that the method which he has pur-sued in the Fourth Book, of inferring them from experienceand the use of language, was imperfect and only provisional.But when, after having arrived at the idea of good,which is theend of the scienceof dialectic,he is asked,What is the nature, andwhat are the divisions of the science? he refuses to answer, asif intendingby the refusal to intimatethat the state of knowledgewhich then existed was not such as would allow the philo-sopher to enter into his final rest. The previoussciences mustfirst be studied, and will, we may add, continue to be studiedtill the end of time, although in a sense different from anywhich Plato could have conceived. But we may observe,that while he is aware of the vacancy of his own ideal, he isfull of enthusiasm in the contemplationof it. Lookinginto theorb of light, he sees nothing, but he is warmed and elevated.The Hebrew prophet believed that faith in God would enablehim to govern the world; the Greek philosopher imaginedthat contemplationof the goodwould make a legislator. Thereis as much to be filled up in the one case as in the other, andthe one mode of conception is to the Israelite what the otheris to the Greek. Both find a repose in a divine perfection,which,whether in a more personal or impersonalform, existswithout them and independently of them, as well as withinthem.

There is no mentionof the idea of good in the Timaeus, norof the divine Creatorof the world in the Republic; and we arenaturally led to ask in what relation they stand to one another.Is God above or below the idea of good? Or is the Idea ofGoodanother modeof conceivingGod? The latter appearsto bethe truer answer. To the Greek philosopher the perfectionand unity of God was a far higher conception than his person-ality, which he hardly found a word to express, and which tohim would have seemed to be borrowed from mythology. Tothe Christian,on the other hand, or to the modern thinker in

The governmentof _Mloso/hers. cxevii

general, it is difficult, if not impossible, to attach reality to Rei_ublic.what he terms mere abstraction; while to Plato this very ab- INtRODUC-TION.straction is the truest and most real of all things. Hence,froma difference in forms of thought, Plato appears to be restingon a creation of his own mind only. But if we may be allowedto paraphrase the idea of good by the words 'intelligent prin-ciple of law"and order in the universe, embracingequally manand nature,' we begin to find a meeting-pointbetween him andourselves.

The question whether the ruler or statesman should be aphilosopher is one that has not lost interest in modern times.In most countriesof Europe and Asia there has been some onein the course of ages who has truly united the powerof com-mand with the power of thought and reflection,as there havebeen also many false combinationsof these qualities. Somekind of speculative power is necessary both in practical andpolitical life; like the rhetorician in the Phaedrus, men requireto have a conceptionof the varieties of human character, andto be raised on great occasions above the commonplacesofordinary life. Yet the idea of the philosopher-statesmanhasnever been popular with the mass of mankind; partly becausehe cannot take the world into his confidenceor make themunderstand the motives from which he acts; and also becausethey are jealous of a power which they do not understand.The revolution which human nature desires to effect step bystep in many ages is likelyto be precipitated by him in a singleyear or life. They are afraid that in the pursuit of his greateraims he may disregard the commonfeelingsof humanity. Heis too apt to be lookinginto the distant futureor backinto theremote past, and unable to see actions or events which, to usean expressionof Plato's, ' are tumblingout at his feet.' Besides,as Plato would say, there are other corruptionsof these philo-sophical statesmen. Either 'the native hue of resolution issicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought,'and at the momentwhen action above all things is required he is undecided,orgeneral principles are enunciated by him in order to coversome change of policy; or his ignorance of the world hasmade him more easily fall a prey to the arts of others; or insome cases he has been convertedinto a courtier,who enjoys

cxcviii Thegovernmentof philosophers.Republic.the luxury of holdingliberal opinions,but was never known toImRoDVc-perform a liberal action. No wonder that mankindhave been inTION.

the habit of callingstatesmenof this class pedants,sophisters,doctrinaires,visionaries. For, as we may be allowedto say, alittleparodyingthe wordsof Plato,' theyhaveseen badimitationsof the philosopher-statesman.' But a man in whom the powerof thought and action are perfectly balanced,equal to the pre-sent, reaching forward to the future, 'such a one,' ruling in aconstitutionalstate, 'they have never seen.'

But as the philosopheris apt to fail in the routine of politicallife,so the ordinarystatesman is also apt to fail in extraordinarycrises. When the face of the world is beginning to alter, andthunder is heard in the distance, he is still guided by his oldmaxims,and is the slave of his inveterate party prejudices; hecannot perceive the signs of the times; instead of looking for-ward he looks back; he learns nothing and forgets nothing;with ' wise saws and modern instances' he would stem therising tide of revolution. He lives more and more within thecircle of his own party, as the world without him becomesstronger. This seems to be the reason why the old order ofthings makes so poor a figure when confronted with the new,why churches can never reform, why most political changesare made blindly and convulsively. The great crises in thehistory of nations have often been met by an ecclesiasticalpositiveness, and a more obstinate reassertion of principleswhich have lost their hold upon a nation. The fixed ideas ofa reactionarystatesmanmay be comparedto madness; they growupon him,and he becomespossessed by them; nojudgementofothers is ever admitted by him to be weighed in the balanceagainsthis own.

(_) Plato, labouring under what, to modern readers, appearsto have been a confusionof ideas, assimilates the state to theindividual, and fails to distinguish Ethics from Politics. Hethinks that to be most of a state which is most like oneman, and in which the citizens have the greatest uniformityofcharacter. He does not see that the analogy is partly fal-lacious, and that the willor character of a state or nation isreally the balance or rather the surplus of individual wills,which are limited by the conditionof having to act in common.

_TheSlateand lke Individual. cxcix

The movement of a body of men can never have the pliancy Ref_ublic.or facilityof a single man; the freedomof the individual,which I_oDve.TION.

is alwayslimited,becomes stillmore straitenedwhen transferredto a nation. The powers of action and feelingare necessarilyweaker and more balanced when they are diffused througha community; whence arises the oftendiscussed question,' Cana nation, like an individual,have a conscience?' We hesitateto say that the characters of nations are nothing more thanthe sum of the characters of the individuals who composethem; because there may be tendencies in individualswhichreact uponone another. A whole nationmay be wiser than anyone man in it; or may be animated by some commonopinionor feeling which could not equally have affectedthe mind of asingleperson, or may have been inspired bya leaderof geniustoperform acts more than human. Plato does not appear to haveanalysed the complications which arise out of the collectiveaction of mankind. Neither is he capable of seeing that analo-gies, though specious as arguments, may often haveno founda-tion in fact, or of distinguishing between what is intelligibleor vividlypresent to the mind, and what is true. In this respecthe is far belowAristotle,who is comparativelyseldom imposedupon by false analogies. He cannot disentangle the arts fromthe virtues--at least he is always arguing from one to theother. His notion of music is transferred from harmony ofsounds to harmony of life: in this he is assisted by the am-biguitiesoflanguage as well as by the prevalenceof Pythagoreannotions. And having onceassimilated the state to the individual,he imaginesthat he will find the successionof states paralleledin the livesofindividuals.

Still, through this fallacious medium,a real enlargement ofideas is attained. When the virtues as yet presented no distinctconceptionto the mind, a great advance was made by the com-parison of them with the arts; for virtue is partly art, and hasan outward form as well as an inward principle. The harmonyof musicaffordsa livelyimageof the harmoniesof the worldandof human life, and may be regarded as a splendid illustrationwhich was naturally mistaken for a real analog)'. In the sameway the identificationof ethics with politics has a tendency togivedefinitenessto ethics,and also to elevate and ennoblemen's

ec T/reEducation of tke R_uklic.

Ret_ublic.notions of the aims of governmentand of the dutiesof citizens;INV*ODUC-forethics fromonepoint ofview maybe conceivedas an idealizedTION.

law and politics; and politics,as ethicsreducedto the conditionsof human society. There have been evils which have arisenout of the attemptto identifythem, and this has led to theseparationor antagonismof them, which has been introducedby modern politiealwriters. But we may likewise feel thatsomething has been lost in their separation,and that theancient philosopherswho estimatedthe moral and intellectualwellbeingof mankindfirst, and the wealth of nationsand indi-vidualssecond,mayhavea salutaryinfluenceon the speculationsof moderntimes. Manypoliticalmaximsoriginatein a reactionagainstan oppositeerror; and when the errors againstwhichthey were directedhave passed away, they in turn becomeerrors.

III. Plato's views of education are in several respects re-markable; like the rest of the Republic they are partly Greekand partly ideal, beginningwith the ordinary curriculumof theGreekyouth,and extending to after-life. Platois the first writerwho distinctly says that educationis to comprehend the wholeof life, and to be a preparation for another in which educationbegins again (vi. 498D). This is the continuous thread whichruns through the Republic, and which more than any other ofhis ideas admitsofan applicationto modernlife.

He has long given up the notionthat virtue cannotbe taught;and he is disposed to modifythe thesis of the Protagoras,thatthe virtues are one and not many. He is not unwilling toadmit the sensible world into his scheme of truth. Nor doeshe assert in the Republic the involuntariness of vice, whichis maintained by him in the Timaeus, Sophist, and Laws(cp. Protag.345 foiL,35u, 355; Apol. 25E; Gorg. 468, 5o9E).Nor do the so-called Platonic ideas recovered from a formerstateof existence affecthis theory of mental improvement. Stillwe observe in him the remains of the old Socratic doctrine,thattrue knowledgemust be elicited fromwithin,and is to be soughtfor in ideas, not in particulars of sense. Education,as he says,will implant a principle of intelligence which is better than ten

TAeEducationof IAeRe_u$1ie. eelthousand eyes. The paradoxthat the virtues are one, and the Re]_ublic.kindred notion that all virtue is knowledge,are not entirely re- 1NT_o,uc-TION.

nounced; the first is seen in the supremacygiven tojusticeoverthe rest ; the secondin the tendency to absorb the moralvirtuesin the intellectual,and to centre all goodnessinthe contemplationof the idea of good. The world of sense is still depreciatedandidentifiedwith opinion, though admitted to be a shadowof thetrue. In the Republic he is evidentlyimpressed with the con-victionthat vicearises chiefly from ignoranceand may be curedby education; the multitudeare hardlyto be deemed responsiblefor what they do (v.499E). A faint allusionto the doctrine ofreminiscenceoccurs in the Tenth Book(62IA) ; but Plato'sviewsof educationhave no more real connectionwith a previousstateof existence than our own; he only proposes to elicit from themind that which is there already. Educationis represented byhim, not as the fillingof a vessel, but as the turning the eye ofthe soultowardsthe light.

He treats first of musicor literature_whichhe divides into trueand false, and then goes on to gymnastics; of infancy in theRepublic he takes no notice,though in the Laws he gives sagecounsels about the nursing of children and the managementofthe mothers,and wouldhavean educationwhich is even prior tobirth. But in the Republic he beginswith the age at which thechild is capableof receivingideas,and boldlyasserts, in languagewhich soundsparadoxicalto modern ears, thathe must be taughtthe falsebefore he can learn the true. The modern and ancientphilosophicalworldare notagreed abouttruth and falsehood; theone identifies truth almost exclusivelywith fact, the other withideas. This is the differencebetween ourselvesand Plato,whichis,however,partlya differenceofwords (cp.supra,p.xxxviii). Forwe tooshouldadmit that a childmust receivemany lessonswhichhe imperfectlyunderstands; he must be taught some things in afigureonly,some toowhich he can hardlybe expectedto believewhen he grows older; butwe shouldlimit theuse offictionby thenecessity of the case. Plato woulddraw the line differently;accordingto him the aimof early educationisnot truthas a matterof fact, but truth as a matter of principle; the childis tobe taughtfirst simple religious truths, and then simple moral truths, andinsensiblytolearn the lessonof goodmannersand good taste. He

ccii The Educationof tke RqkuMic.Re2_ublic.would make an entire reformationof the old mythology; likeI,_RoDUC-Xenophanesand Heracleitus he is sensible of the deep chasm"lION*

which separateshis ownage from Homer and Hesiod,whom hequotes and invests with an imaginaryauthority,but only for hisown purposes. The lusts and treacheriesof the gods are to bebanished; the terrors of the world beloware to be dispelled; themisbehaviourof the Homeric heroes is not to be a model foryouth. But there is another strain heard in Homer which mayteach our youth endurance; and something may be learnt inmedicine from the simple praetiee of the Homeric age. Theprinciplesonwhichreligionis to be basedaretwoonly: first, thatGod is true; secondly,that he is good. Modern and Christianwriters haveoften fallenshort of these ; theycan hardlybe saidto havegone beyond them.

The youngare to be brought up in happysurroundings,out ofthe way of sights or sounds which may hurt the character orvitiatethe taste. Theyare to live in an atmosphereof health; thebreeze is alwaysto be wafting to them the impressions of truthand goodness. Could such an education be realized,or if ourmodern religiouseducationcould be bound up with truth andvirtue and goodmanners and good taste, thatwould be the besthope of humanimprovement. Plato, like ourselves, is lookingforward to changesin the moraland religiousworld, and is pre-paring forthem. He recognizesthe danger of unsettlingyoungmen's mindsbysuddenchangesof lawsandprinciples,bydestroy-ingthe sacrednessof one set of ideaswhen there is nothingelsetotake their place. He is afraidtoo of the influenceof the drama,on the ground that it encouragesfalsesentiment,and therefore hewouldnot havehis children takento the theatre; he thinks thatthe effecton the speetatorsis bad,and on the actors still worse.His idea of edueationis that of harmoniousgrowth,in whichareinsensibly learnt the lessons of temperanceand endurance,andthe bodyandmind developein equalproportions. The first prin-ciple which runs through all art and nature is simplicity; thisalsoisto be the rule of humanlife.

The seeondstage of edueationis gymnastic,which answers tothe periodof muscular growthand development. The simplicitywhich is enforced in music is extended to gymnastic; Plato isawarethat the training of the bodymaybe inconsistentwith the

TheEducationof theRepublic. cciiitrainingof the mind,and that bodilyexercisemay be easilyover- Repu_llc.done. Excessivetrainingof the body isapttogivemenaheadache IN_ODUC-TION.

or to render them sleepyat a lectureonphilosophy,and this theyattribute not to the true cause, but to the nature of the subject.Two points are noticeablein Plato's treatment of gymnastic:-First, that the time of training is entirelyseparatedfrom the timeofliterary education. He seems to have thoughtthat two thingsofan oppositeand differentnature couldnot be learntat the sametime. Here we canhardlyagreewithhim; and,if wemayjudgebyexperience,the effectofspending three years betweenthe agesoffourteenand seventeenin mere bodilyexercisewouldbe far fromimprovingto the intellect. Secondly,he affirmsthat musicandgymnasticare not, as commonopinionis apt to imagine,intended,the one for the cultivationof the mind and the other of the body,but that they are both equallydesignedforthe improvementofthemind. The body, in his view, is the servant of the mind; thesubjectionofthe lower to the higheris for the advantageof both.And doubtlessthe mindmay exercisea verygreat and paramountinfluenceover the body,if exerted not at particular momentsandby fitsand starts, but continuously,in makingpreparationfor thewholeof life. Other Greek writers sawthe mischievoustendencyof Spartan discipline(Arist. Pol.viii.4,§ I foll.; Thuc.ii.37,39)-But only Plato recognized the fundamentalerror on which thepracticewas based.

The subject of gymnastic leads Plato to the sister subject ofmedicine, which he further illustrates by the parallel of law.The moderndisbeliefin medicinehas led in this,as insome otherdepartments of knowledge,to a demand for greater simplicity;physicians are becoming aware that they often make diseases_greater and more complicated' by their treatment of them(Rep. iv.426A). In two thousand years their art has made butslender progress; what they have gained in the analysis of theparts is in a great degree lost by their feebler conceptionof thehuman frame as a whole. They have attendedmore to the cureofdiseasesthan to the conditionsof health; andtheimprovementsin medicinehavebeen more than counterbalancedby the disuseof regular training. Until lately they havehardlythought of airand water, the importance of which was well understoodby theancients; as Aristotleremarks, 'Airand water,beingthe elements

cciv The Educationof the Re_uhh'c.Republic.which we most use, havethe greatesteffectupon health' (Polit.ISrRODUC-vii.II, §4)" For agesphysicianshavebeenunder the dominionofZLON.

prejudiceswhich haveonly recently given way; and now thereare as many opinionsin medicineas in theology,and an equaldegreeof scepticismand somewantof tolerationaboutboth. Platohas several goodnotions about medicine; accordingto him, ' theeye cannotbe cured without the rest of the body,nor the bodywithoutthe mind' (Charm.i56 E). No man of sense, he says inthe Timaeus,wouldtake physic; and we heartilysympathizewithhimin the Laws when he declares that ' the limbs of the rusticworn withtoilwillderive more benefitfrom warmbathsthan fromthe prescriptions of a not over wise doctor' (vi.761C). But wecan hardly praise him when, in obedience to the authority ofHomer, he depreciates diet,or approve of the inhuman spirit inwhich he wouldget rid of invalidand useless lives by leavingthemto die. He doesnot seemtohave consideredthat the 'bridleof Theages' might be accompaniedbyqualitieswhich were of farmorevalueto the State than the health or strength of the citizens;or that the dutyof takingcareof thehelpless mightbean importantelement of education in a State. The physician himself (this isa delicate and subtle observation)should not be a man in robusthealth ; he shouldhave, in modern phraseology,a nervous tem-perament; he shouldhaveexperienceofdiseasein hisown person,in order that his powersof observationmay be quickened in thecase ofothers.

The perplexity of medicineis paralleled by the perplexity oflaw; inwhich,again,Platowouldhavemen followthe goldenruleof simplicity. Greater matters are to be determined by thelegislator or by the oracle of Delphi,lesser matters are to be leftto the temporary regulation of the citizens themselves. Plato isaware that laissezfaire is an importantelement of government.The diseases of a State are like the heads of a hydra; theymultiplywhenthey are cut off. The true remedy for them is notextirpation but prevention. And the way to prevent them is totake care of education,and educationwilltake care of all the rest.So in modern times men have often felt that the only politicalmeasure worth having--the only one which wouldproduce anycertainor lastingeffect,was a measureof nationaleducation. Andin our own morethan in any previous age the necessityhas been

TheEducationof the Republic. ccvrecognizedof restoring the ever-increasingconfusionof law to 2?epubllc.simplicityand commonsense. I_oDvc.TIOlq.

When the training in musicand gymnasticis completed,therefollowsthe first stageof activeand publiclife. Butsooneducationis to begin again from a new point of view. In the intervalbetween the Fourth and Seventh Books we have discussedthenature of knowledge,and have thence been led to form a higherconceptionof what was required of us. For true knowledge,according to Plato, is of abstractions,and has to do, not withparticulars or individuals,but with universalsonly; not with thebeauties of poetry, but with the ideas of philosophy. And thegreat aimof educationis the cultivationof the habitof abstraction.This is to be acquired through the study of the mathematicalsciences. They aloneare capable of givingideas of relation,andofarousingthe dormantenergiesof thought.

Mathematicsinthe ageof Platocomprehendeda verysmallpartof that which is now includedin them; but they bore a muchlarger proportion to the sum of human knowledge. Theywerethe only organon of thought which the human mindat that timepossessed,and the onlymeasurebywhichthe chaosof particularscould be reduced to rule and order. The faculty which theytrainedwas naturallyat war with the poeticalor imaginative; andhence to Plato, who is everywhere seeking for abstractionsandtrying to get rid of the illusionsof sense, nearlythe wholeof edu-cationis containedin them. Theyseemedto havean inexhaustibleapplication,partly because their true limitswere not yet under-stood. These Plato himself is beginning to investigate; thoughnot aware that number and figureare mere abstractionsofsense,he recognizes that the forms used by geometry are borrowedfrom the sensible world (vi. 5io, 5ii). He seeks to find theultimategroundof mathematicalideasin the idea of good,thoughhe does not satisfactorilyexplain the connexionbetween them;and in his conceptionof the relationof ideasto numbers,he fallsvery far short of the definitenessattributed to him by Aristotle(Met.i.8, §24; ix. x7). But if he failsto recognizethe true limitsof mathematics,he also reaches a point beyondthem; in hisview,ideas of number become secondary to a higher conceptionofknowledge. The dialecticianis as muchabovethe mathematicianas the mathematicianis above the ordinaryman (cp. vii.5z6D,

ccvi The Idea of Good.Republic.53I E). The one,the self-proving,the goodwhich is the higherIm_oDvc-sphere ofdialectic,is the perfecttruth to whichall things ascend,TION.

and in which they finallyrepose.This self-proving unity or idea of good is a mere vision of

which no distinct explanationcan be given, relative only to aparticular stage in Greek philosophy. It is an abstractionunderwhich no individuals are comprehended, a whole which hasno parts (cf. Arist.,Nic. Eth., i.4)- The vacancyof such a formwas perceivedbyAristotle,but notby Plato. Nor did he recognizethat in the dialecticalprocess are includedtwo or more methodsof investigationwhich are at variancewith each other. He didnot see that whether he took the longer or the shorter road, noadvancecould be madein this way. And yet such visions oldenhave an immense effect; for although the method of sciencecannot anticipate science, the idea of science, not as it is, butas it will be in the future, is a great and inspiring principle. Inthe pursuit of knowledge we are always pressing forward tosomething beyond us; and as a false conceptionof knowledge,forexample the scholasticphilosophy,maylead men astrayduringmany ages, so the true ideal, though vacant, may draw alltheir thoughts in a right direction. It makes a great differencewhether the general expectation of knowledge,as this indefinitefeeling may be termed, is based upon a soundjudgment. Formankindmay oftenentertain a true conceptionof what knowledgeought to be when they have but a slender experience of facts.The correlationof the sciences, the consciousnessof the unityof nature, the idea of classification,the sense of proportion,the unwillingnessto stop short of certainty or to confoundpro-bability with truth, are important principles of the higher edu-cation. AlthoughPlato could tell us nothing,and perhaps knewthat he couldtellus nothing,of the absolutetruth,he has exercisedan influence on the human mind which even at the present dayis not exhausted ; and politicaland social questionsmayyet arisein which the thoughts of Plato may be read anew and receivea fresh meaning.

The Idea of good is so called only in the Republic,but thereare traces of it in other dialoguesof Plato. It is a cause aswell as an idea,and from this point of view may be comparedwith the creatorof the Timaeus,who out of his goodnesscreated

TheScienceof DialecKc. ccvii

all things. It corresponds to a certain extentwith the modern Re_blic.conceptionof a law of nature, or of a final cause, or of both in I_oDuc.

TION.

one, and in this regard may be connectedwith the measuremadsymmetry of the Philebus. It is represented in the Sym-posiumunderthe aspect of beauty,and is supposedto be attainedthere by stages of initiation, as here by regular gradations ofknowledge. Viewed subjectively,it is the process or scienceof dialectic. This is the sciencewhich, accordingto the Phae-drus, is the true basisof rhetoric, which alone is able to distin-guishthe natures and classesof men and things; which dividesa whole into the natural parts, and reunites the scattered partsinto a natural or organizedwhole; which defines the abstractessences or universal ideas of all things, and connects them;which pierces the veil of hypothesesand reaches the final causeor first principle of all; which regards the sciencesin relationto the idea of good. This ideal science is the highestprocessof thought, and may be described as the soul conversingwithherself or holding communionwith eternal truth and beauty,and in another form is the everlastingquestionand answer--the ceaseless interrogativeof Socrates. The dialoguesof Platoare themselves examplesof the nature and method of dialectic.Viewed objectively,the idea of good is a power or cause whichmakes the world without us correspond with the world within.Yet this world withoutus is still a world of ideas. With Platothe investigationof nature is another department of knowledge,and in this he seeks to attain only probable conclusions (cp.Timaeus,44D).

If we ask whether this science of dialecticwhich Plato onlyhalf explains to us is more akin to logicor to metaphysics,theanswer is that in his mind the twosciencesare notas yet dis-tinguished, any more than the subjectiveand objectiveaspectsof the world and ofman, which German philosophyhas revealedto us. Nor has he determined whether his science of dialecticis at rest or in motion, concerned with the contemplationofabsolute being, or with a process of developmentand evolu-tion. Modernmetaphysics may be described as the scienceofabstractions,or as the scienceofthe evolutionof thought; modernlogic, when passing beyond the bounds of mere Aristotelianforms, may be defined as the science of method. The germ of

ccviii The Scienceof Dialeclic.Re_llc.bothofthemiscontainedinthePlatonicdialeetic;allmeta-IST.ODUC-physicianshavesomethingincommonwiththeideasofPlato;TION.

alllogicianshavederivedsomethingfromthemethodofPlato.The nearestapproachinmodernphilosophytotheuniversalscience of Plato,is to be found in the Hegelian 'succession ofmoments in the unity of the idea.' Plato and Hegel alike seemto have conceivedthe world as the correlationof abstractions;and not impossibly they would have understood one anotherbetterthan anyof their commentatorsunderstandthem(cp.Swift'sVoyageto Laputa,c.81). There is, however,a differencebetweenthem: for whereas Hegel is thinking of all the mindsof menas one mind,which developesthe stages of the idea in differentcountries or at different times in the same country, with Platothese gradations are regarded only as an order of thought orideas; the history of the human mind had not yet dawnedupon him.

Many criticismsmay be made on Plato's theory of education.While in some respects he unavoidablyfalls short of modernthinkers, in others he is in advanceof them. He is opposed tothe modes of education which prevailed in his own time; buthe can hardly be said to have discovered new ones. He does

i ,Havingadesireto seethoseancientswhoweremostrenownedforwit' andlearning,Isetapartonedayonpurpose.I proposedthatHomerand' Aristotlemightappearattheheadofalltheircommentators; butthesewere'so numerousthatsomehundredswereforcedto attendin the courtand'outwardroomsof thepalace.I knew,andcoulddistinguishthesetwo' heroes,atfirstsight,notonlyfromthecrowd,butfromeachother.Homer'wasthetallerandcomelierpersonof thetwo,walkedveryerectforoneof' hisage,andhiseyeswerethemostquickandpiercingI everbeheld.Aris-' totlestoopedmuch,andmadeuseof a staff. Hisvisagewasmeagre,his'hair lankandthin,andhisvoicehollow.I soondiscoveredthatbothof' themwereperfectstrangerstotherestofthecompany,andhadneverseenor' heardof thembefore.AndI hada whisperfroma ghost,whoshallbe'nameless,"Thatthesecommentatorsalwayskeptinthemostdistantquarters' fromtheirprincipals,inthelowerworld,throughaconsciousnessofshame'andguilt,becausetheyhadsohorriblymisrepresentedthemeaningof these' authorstoposterity."I introducedDidymusandEustathiustotIomer,and' prevailedonhimtotreatthembetterthanperhapstheydeserved,forhesoon' foundtheywantedageniusto enterintothespiritofapoet. ButAristotle•wasoutofallpatiencewiththeaccountIgavehimofScotusandRamus,as' Ipresentedthemtohim; andheaskedthem"whethertherestofthetribe' wereasgreatduncesasthemselves?"'

Tke Education of later life. ccix

not see that educationis relative to the charactersof individuals; Republic.he only desires to impress the same form of the state on the I_TRoDuc-TION,minds of all. He has no sufficient idea of the effectof litera-ture on the formation of the mind, and greatly exaggeratesthat of mathematics. His aim is above all things to trainthe reasoning faculties; to implant in the mind the spiritand power of abstraction; to explain and define general notions,and_if possible,toconnect them. Nowonder that in the vacancyof actualknowledgehis followers,and at times evenhe himself,should have fallen away from the doctrine of ideas, and havereturned to that branch of knowledge in which alone the rela-tionof the oneandmanycan be trulyseen--the scienceof number.In his views both of teachingand training he might be styled,in modern language, a doctrinaire; after tile Spartan fashionhe wouldhave his citizenscast in one mould; he does not seemto consider that some degree of freedom, 'a little wholesomeneglect,'is necessary to strengthen and develope the characterand to give play to the individualnature. His citizenswouldnothave acquiredthat knowledgewhich inthe visionof Er is sup-posedto be gainedby the pilgrimsfromtheir experienceof evil.

On the other hand, Plato is far in advance of modernphilo-sophers and theologianswhen he teaches that educationis tobe continuedthrough life and will begin again in another. Hewould never allow education of some kind to cease; althoughhe was aware that the proverbial saying of Solon,' I grow oldlearning many things,' cannot be applied literally. Himselfravished with the contemplationof the idea of good, and de-lighting in solid geometry (Rep. vii. 528),he has no difficultyin imagining that a lifetime might be passed happily in suchpursuits. We who know how many more men of businessthere are in the world than real students or thinkers, are notequally sanguine. The educationwhich he proposes for hiscitizens is really the ideal life of the philosopher or man ofgenius, interrupted, but only for a time, by practical duties,--alife not for the many,but for thefew.

Yet the thought of Plato may not be whollyincapableof ap-plicationto our own times. Even if regarded as an idealwhichcan never be realized, it may have a great effect in elevatingthe characters of mankind,and raising them abovethe routine

P

eex The Educalionof later life.Res_tblic.of their ordinary occupationor profession. It is the best formINT_oDuc-under whichwe canconceivethe whole of life. Neverthelessthe

TION,

idea of Plato is not easily put into practice. For the educationof after life is necessarily the educationwhich each one giveshimself. Men and women cannotbe brought together in schoolsor collegesat forty or fiftyyears of age; and if they could theresult would be disappointing. The destinationof most men iswhat Plato would call ' the Den' for the whole of life,and withthat they are content. Neither have they teachers or adviserswith whom they can take counsel in riper years. There is no' schoolmasterabroad' who will tell them of their faults, or in-spire them with the higher sense of duty,or with the ambitionof a true success in life; no Socrates who will convictthem ofignorance; noChrist,or followerof Christ,who will reprovethemof sin. Hence they havea difficultyin receivingthe first elementof improvement,whichis self-knowledge. The hopes ofyouthnolongerstir them; theyrather wishtorest thantopursuehighobjects.A fewonlywho havecomeacross great menandwomen,or eminentteachers of religionand morality,havereceiveda secondlifefromthem,and have lighteda candlefrom the fire oftheir genius.

The want of energy is one of the main reasons why so fewpersons continue to improve in later years. They have not thewill,and do not knowthe way. They ' never try an experiment,'or lookup a pointof interest for themselves; they makeno sacri-fices for the sake of knowledge; their minds, like their bodies,at a certain age become fixed. Geniushas been defined as 'thepower oftakingpains ' ; but hardly any one keeps up his interestin knowledge throughouta whole life. The troubles of a family,the businessof makingmoney,the demands of a professionde-stroy the elasticityof the mind. The waxen tablet of the memorywhich was once capable of receiving 'true thoughts and clearimpressions' becomeshard and crowded; there is not room forthe accumulationsof a long life (Theaet.194iT.). The student,asyears advance, rather makes an exchange of knowledgethanadds to his stores. There is no pressing necessity to learn;the stock of Classicsor History or Natural Science which wasenough for a man at twenty-five is enough for him at fifty.Neither is it easy to give a definite answer to any one whoasks how he is to improve. For self-educationconsists in a

The Education of later life. ccxi

thousand things, commonplacein themselves,--inadding towhat Republic.we are by nature somethingof what we are not; in learningto Isr_oDuc.TION.

see ourselves as others see us; in judging, not by opinion,butby the evidenceof facts; in seeking out the societyof superiorminds; in a study of the lives and writingsof great men; inobservationof the world and character; in receiving kindlythenatural influenceof differenttimes of life; in any act or thoughtwhich is raised above the practice or opinionsof mankind; inthe pursuit of some new or original enquiry; in any effort ofmind which calls forth some latent power.

If any one is desirous of carrying out in detail the Platoniceducationof after-life,some such counselsas the followingmaybe offered to him :--That he shall choose the branch of know-ledge to which his own mind most distinctly inclines, and inwhich he takes the greatest delight, either one which seemsto connect with his own daily employment,or, perhaps, fur-nishes the greatest contrast to it. He may study from thespeculativeside the professionor business in which he is practi-cally engaged. He may make Homer, Dante, Shakespeare,Plato, Bacon the friends and companionsof his life. He mayfind opportunitiesof hearing the livingvoice of a great teacher.He may select for enquiry some point of history or some un-explained phenomenon of nature. An hour a day passed insuch scientific or literary pursuits will furnish as many factsas the memory can retain, and will give him 'a pleasure not tobe repentedof' (Timaeus,59D). Only let him bewareof beingthe slave of crotchets,or of running after a Will o' the Wisp inhis ignorance,or inhis vanityof attributing tohimself the giftsofa poet or assuming the air of a philosopher. He shouldknowthe limits of his own powers. Better to build up the mind byslow additions, to creep on quietlyfrom one thing to another,to gain insensiblynew powers and new interests in knowledge,than to form vast schemes which are never destined to berealized. But perhaps, as Plato would say, ' This is part ofanother subject' (Tim.87 B); though we may also defend ourdigression byhis example(Theaet.72,77).

IV. We remark with surprise that the progress of nationsor

p2

ccxii The Progress of the World.

Republi,:the naturalgrowth of institutionswhich fill modern treatisesonISTKODUc-politicalphilosophyseem hardlyever to have attractedtheatten-TiON.

tion of PlatoandAristotle. The ancientswere familiarwith themutabilityof humanaflhirs; they could moralizeoverthe ruinsofcities and the fall of empires (cp. Plato,Statesman3oi, 3ou, andSulpieius'Letter to Cicero, Ad Faro. iv. 5); by them fate andchance were deemed to be real powers, almost persons, and tohave had a great share in politicalevents. The wiser of themlike Thucydides believedthat ' what had been would be again,'and that a tolerableidea of the futurecould be gatheredfromthepast. Also theyhad dreamsof a GoldenAge which existedonceupona time andmight still exist in some unknownland,or mightreturn again in the remote future. But the regular growth of astate enlightened by experience, progressing in knowledge, im-proving in the arts, of which the citizens were educatedby thefulfilmentof politicalduties,appears never to have comewithinthe range of their hopes andaspirations. Such a statehadneverbeenseen, and therefore could not be conceivedby them. Theirexperience (cp. Aristot. Metaph. xi. ui; Plato, Laws iii. 676-9)led them toconcludethat there had been cycles of civilizationinwhich the arts had been discoveredand lost many times over,and cities had been overthrownand rebuilt again and again,anddeluges and volcanoesandother natural convulsionshad alteredthe face of the earth. Tradition told them of manydestructionsof mankind and of the preservation of a remnant. The worldbegan again after a deluge and was reconstructed out of thefragments of itself. Also they were acquaintedwith empires ofunknownantiquity,like the Egyptian or Assyrian ; but they hadnever seen them grow, and could not imagine,any more thanwe can, the state of man which preceded them. They werepuzzled and awestrickenby the Egyptian monuments,of whichthe forms, as Plato says, not in a figure, but literally,were tenthousand years old (Laws ii. 656E), and they contrasted the an-tiquityof Egyptwiththeir own shortmemories.

The early legends of Hellas have no real connectionwith thelater history: they are at a distance,and the intermediateregionis concealedfrom view; there is no roador pathwhichleads fromone to the other. At the beginning of Greek history, in thevestibule of the temple, is seen standingfirst of all the figureof

TAe Progress of tke World. ccxiii

the legislator,himself the interpreter and servant of the God. l?e_ublic.The fundamentallawswhich he gives arenot supposedto change Iwr_o_c.TION.

withtime and circumstances. The salvationof the state is heldrather to depend on the inviolablemaintenanceof them. Theywere sanctionedby the authority of heaven,and it was deemedimpiety to alter them. The desire to maintain them unalteredseems to be the origin of what at first sight is very surprisingto us--the intolerantzeal of Plato against innovatorsin religionor politics (cp. Laws x. 9o7-9); althoughwith a happy incon-sistencyhe is also willingthat the laws of other countriesshouldbe studiedand improvementsin legislationprivately communi-cated to the Nocturnal Council(Laws xii.95I, 2). The additionswhich were made to them in later ages in order to meet theincreasing complexityof affairs were still ascribed by a fictionto the original legislator; and the words of such enactmentsatAthens were disputed over as if they had been the words ofSolonhimself. Plato hopes to preserve in a later generationthemind of the legislator; he wouldhave his citizensremainwithinthe lineswhich he has laid down for them. He wouldnot harassthem with minuteregulations,and he would have allowedsomechanges in the laws: but not changes which wouldaffect thefundamentalinstitutionsof the state, such for exampleas wouldconvert an aristocracy into a timocracy, or a timocracyinto apopular form of government.

Passing from speculationsto facts, we observe that progresshas been the exceptionrather than the law of human histoD-.And therefore we are not surprised to find that the ideaof pro-gress is of modernrather than of ancientdate; and, likethe ideaof a philosophyof history, is not more than a century or twoold.It seems to have arisen out of the impression left on the humanmind by the growth of the Roman Empire and of the ChristianChurch, and to be due to the politicaland social improvementswhich they introducedinto the world ; and still more in our owncentury to the idealism of the first French Revolutionand thetriumph ofAmericanIndependence; and in a yet greaterdegreeto the vast material prosperity and growth of populationinEngland and her colonies and in America. It is also to beascribed in a measure to the greater study of the philosophyofhistory. The optimist temperament of some great writers has

ccxiv The Republic and the Laws.

Republic.assistedthe creationof it, while the oppositecharacter has led aI_rRoDuc-few toregard the future of the world as dark. The ' spectatorofTION.

alltimeand of allexistence' sees more of 'the increasingpurposewhich through the ages ran' than formerly: but tothe inhabitantof a small state of Hellas the visionwas necessarilylimited likethe valley in which he dwelt. There was no remote past onwhich his eye could rest, nor any future from which the veilwas partly liRedup by the analogyof history. The narrownessof view, which to ourselves appears so singular, was to himnatural, if notunavoidable.

V. For the relation of the Republic to the Statesman and theLaws,the twoother works of Platowhichdirectlytreat of politics,see the Introductionsto the two latter; a few general points ofcomparisonmay be touchedupon in this place.

And first of the Laws. (I) The Republic, though probablywritten at intervals, yet speaking generallyand judging by theindicationsof thought and style, may be reasonablyascribed tothe middleperiodof Plato's life: the Laws are certainly the workofhis decliningyears, and some portionsofthem at any rate seemto have been written in extreme old age. (2)The Republic isfull of hope and aspiration: the Laws bear the stamp of failureand disappointment. The one is a finished work which receivedthe last touches of the author: the other is imperfectlyexecuted,and apparentlyunfinished. The one has the grace and beautyofyouth: the other has lost the poeticalform,but has more of theseverityand knowledgeof lifewhich is characteristicof old age.(3) The most conspicuous defect of the Laws is the failure ofdramaticpower, whereasthe Republic is fullof strikingcontrastsof ideas and oppositionsof character. (4) The Laws may be saidto have more the nature of a sermon, the Republic of a poem;the one is more religious,the other more intellectual. (5) Manytheories of Plato, such as the doctrine of ideas, the governmentof the world by philosophers, are not found in the Laws; theimmortality of the soul is first mentioned in xii. 959,967; theperson of Socrates has altogether disappeared. The communityof women and children is renounced; the institutionof commonor publicmeals forwomen(Lawsvi.78i)is forthe first time intro-

TAe Republic and ttw Laws. ccxv

dueed(Ar.Pol.ii. 6, §5). (6)There remainsin the Lawsthe old Republic.enmityto the poets (vii.817_, who are ironicallysalutedin high- I,T,ODuc--riot,

flownterms, and,at the same time,are peremptorilyordered outof the city, if they are not willing to submit their poems to thecensorship of the magistrates(cp. Rep.iii.398_. (71Though thework is in most respects inferior,there are a few passagesin theLaws, such as v. 7u7ff.(the honour due to the soub, viii.835ff.(the evils of licentiousor unnatural love),the whole of Bookx.(religion),xi. 918 ff. (the dishonesty of retail trade),and 9u3ft.(bequests),which come more home to us, and contain more ofwhat may be termed the modern element in Platothan almostanythinginthe Republic.

The relationof the twoworks to oneanother is verywellgiven:(i) by Aristotle in the Politics(ii. 6, §§ I-5) from the side of

the Laws :-'The same, or nearly the same, objections apply to Plato's

'later work,the Laws,and thereforewe had betterexaminebriefly'the constitution which is therein described. In the Republic,' Socrateshas definitelysettled in all a few questionsonly; such'as the communityof women and children, the community of'property, and the constitution of the state. The populationis'divided into two classes--oneof husbandmen,and the other of'warriors; from this latter is taken a third class of counsellors'and rulers of the state. But Socrateshas notdeterminedwhether'the husbandmenand artists are to havea share in the govern-'merit, and whether they too are to carry arms and share in'military service or not. He certainly thinks that the women' ought to share in the educationof the guardians,and to fight'by their side. The remainder of the work is filled up with'digressions foreign to the main subject, and with discussionsabout the education of the guardians. In the Laws there ishardlyanythingbut laws; notmuch is said aboutthe constitution.This,whichhe had intendedtomake more of the ordinarytype,he graduallybrings round to the otheror ideal form. For withthe exception of the community of women and property, hesupposesever)thing to be the same in bothstates; there is to be

'the same education; the citizensof both are to live free from'servile occupations,and there are to be commonmealsinboth.' The only differenceis that in the Laws the commonmealsare

ccxvi Tit* Republic and tAeLaws.

Republic.'extended to women,and the warriors number about5ooo,but inl_r_oDuc-' the Republiconly iooo.'TION.

(ii) by Platoin the Laws (Bookv. 739B-E), from the side ofthe Republic:--

' The first and highestformof the state and of the government'and of the law is thatin whichthere prevailsmost widelythe'ancientsayingthat "Friends haveallthingsincommon."Whether'there is now, or ever will be, this communionof women and'children and of property, in which the private and individual'is altogether banishedfrom life,and things which are by nature' private,such as eyes and ears andhands, havebecomecommon,'and all men express praise and blame,and feel joy andsorrow,' on the sameoccasions,and the laws unite the city to the utmost,--' whether all this is possibleor not, I say thatno man,actingupon'any other principle,will ever constitutea state more exalted in'virtue, or truer or better than this. Such a state, whether in-'habited by Gods or sons of Gods,will make them blessed who' dwelltherein; and thereforeto this we areto lookforthe pattern'of the state, and to cling to this, and,as far as possible,to seek' forone whichis like this. The state whichwe havenow in hand,'when created, will be nearest to immortalityand unity in the' next degree; and after that, by the grace of God,we will com-'plete the third one. And we will begin byspeakingof the nature'and originof the second.'

The comparativelyshort work called the Statesmanor Politicusin its style and manner is more akin to the Laws, while in itsidealism it rather resembles the Republic. As far as we canjudge by various indicationsof language and thought, it mustbe later than the one and of course earlier than the other. Inboththe Republicand Statesmanaclose connectlonis maintainedbetween Politicsand Dialectic. In the Statesman,enquiries intothe principlesof Methodare interspersedwith discussionsaboutPolities. The comparativeadvantages of the rule of law and ofa person are considered, and the decisiongiven in favourof aperson (Arist.Pol. iii.i5, i6). But much maybe said on the otherside,nor is theoppositionnecessary;forapersonmayrule by law,and law may be so applied as to be the livingvoiceof the legis-lator. As in the Republic, there is a myth, describing,however,nota future,but a former existence of mankind. The questionis

Cicero'sDeRe_ubllca. ccxviiasked,*Whether the state of innocencewhich is describedin the Relkubllc.myth, or a state likeour own which possessesart andscienceand I_T_oDUC-

TIONo

distinguishesgood fromevil, is the preferableconditionof man.'To this questionof the comparativehappinessof civilizedandprimitivelife,whichwas so oftendiscussedin the last centuryandin our own, no answer is given. The Statesman, though lessperfect in style than the Republic and of far less range, mayjustly be regarded as one ofthe greatestof Plato'sdialogues.

VI. Others as well as Plato have chosen an ideal Republictobe the vehicleofthoughtswhich they couldnotdefinitelyexpress,or which went beyond their own age. The classicalwritingwhich approaches most nearly to the Republic of Plato is the' De Republica' of Cicero; but neither in this nor in any otherof his dialoguesdoeshe rivalthe art of Plato. The mannersareclumsy and inferior; the hand of the rhetoricianis apparent atevery turn. Yet noble sentiments are constantlyrecurring: thetrue note of Romanpatriotism--'We Romansare a great people'--resounds through the wholework. Like Socrates,Ciceroturnsaway from the phenomena of the heavens to civil and politicallife. He would rather not discuss the 'two Suns' of which allRomewas talking,when he can converse about'the twonationsin one' which had divided Rome ever since the days of theGracchi. Like Socratesagain,speaking in the personof Scipio,he is afraid lest he should assume too much the characterof ateacher, rather than of an equalwho is discussingamongfriendsthe two sides of a question. He wouldconfine the terms Kingor State to the rule of reason and justice, and he will not concedethat title either to a democracyor to a monarchy. But underthe rule of reason andjustice he is willingto includethe naturalsuperior ruling over the natural inferior,which he comparestothe soul ruling over the body. He prefers a mixture of formsof governmentto any single one. The two portraits of the justand the unjust,which occur in the second bookof the Republic,are transferred to the state--Philus, one of the interlocutors,maintaining against his wilt the necessity of injustice as aprinciple of government,while the other, Laelius,supports theopposite thesis. His views of languageand numberare derived

ccxviii 5l. Augustine'sDe CivitateDei.Rq_ublic.from Plato; like him he denouncesthe drama. He also declaresI_r_oDuc-that if his life were to be twice as long he would have no timeTIOIg.

to read the lyric poets. The picture of democracyis translatedby him word for word,thoughhe has hardly shown himself ableto 'carry the jest ' of Plato. He converts into a statelysentencethe humorous fancy about the animals,who 'are soimbuedwiththe spirit of democracythat they make the passers-by get outof their way' (i. 42). His descriptionof the tyrant is imitatedfrom Plato, but is far inferior. The second book is historical,and claims for the Romanconstitution(whichis to him the ideal)a foundationof fact such as Platoprobablyintended to havegivento the Republic in the Critias. His most remarkable imitationof Plato is the adaptationof thevision of Er, which is convertedby Cicero into the 'Somnium Scipionis'; he has 'romanized'the mythof the Republic,addingan argumentfor the immortalityof the soul taken from the Phaedrus, and some other touchesderived from the Phaedo and the Timaeus. Though a beautifultale and containingsplendidpassages, the 'SomniumScipionis' isvery inferior to the vision of Er ; it is onlya dream, and hardlyallows the reader to suppose that the writer believes in his owncreation. Whether his dialogueswere framed on the model ofthe lost dialoguesof Aristotle,as he himselftells us, orof Plato,to which they bear many superficialresemblances,he is still theRomanorator; he is not conversing,but making speeches, andis never able to mould the intractable Latin to the grace andease of the Greek Platonic dialogue. But if he is defectiveinform, much more is he inferior to the Greek in matter; he no-where in his philosophicalwritings leaves upon our minds theimpressionof an original thinker.

Plato's Republic has been said to be a church and not a state;and such an ideal of a city in the heavens has always hoveredoverthe Christianworld,and is embodiedin St. Augustine's 'DeCivitate Dei,' which is suggested by the decay and fall of theRoman Empire, much in the same manner in which we mayimagine the Republic of Plato to have been influenced by thedeclineof Greekpoliticsin the writer's own age. The differenceis that in the time of Plato the degeneracy,though certain, wasgradual and insensible: whereas the taking of Rome by theGoths stirred like an earthquake the age of St. Augustine. Men

St. A2tguslz)ze's De Civitate Dei. ccxix

were inclinedto believe that the overthrowof the citywas to be Republic.ascribedto the anger felt by the old Romandeities at the neglect 1_r_oD,,c.TION,

of their worship. St. Augustine maintains the opposite thesis;he argues that the destruction of the Roman Empire is due,not to the rise of Christianity,but to the vices of Paganism.He wanders over Roman history, and over Greek philosophyand mythology,and finds everywherecrime, impiety and false-hood. He compares the worst parts of the Gentile religionswith the best elementsof the faithof Christ. tie shows nothingof the spirit which led others of the early Christian Fathers torecognize in the writings of the Greek philosophersthe powerofthe divine truth. He traces the parallel of the kingdomof God,that is, the history of the Jews, contained in their scriptures,and of the kingdomsof the world, which are found in gentilewriters, and pursues them both into an ideal future. It needhardly be remarkedthat his use both of Greekand of Romanhistorians and of the sacred writings of the Jews is whollyuncritical. The heathen mythology,the Sybilline oracles, themyths of Plato,the dreamsof Neo-Platonistsare equallyregardedby him as matter of fact. He must be acknowledgedto be astrictly polemical or controversialwriter who makes the bestof everything on one side and the worst of everythingon theother. He has no sympathy with the old Roman life as Platohas with Greek life, nor has he any idea of the ecclesiasticalkingdom which was to arise out of the ruins of the Romanempire. He is not blind to the defectsof the ChristianChurch,and looks forward to a timewhen Christianand Paganshall bealike brought beforethe judgment-seat,and the true City of Godshallappear.... The work of St. Augustineis a curiousrepertoryof antiquarian learning and quotations,deeply penetrated withChristian ethics, but showing little power of reasoning,and aslender knowledge of the Greek literature and language. Hewas a great genius, and a noble character,yet hardly capableoffeelingor understandinganything external to his own theology.Of all the ancient philosophers he is most attracted by Plato,though he is very slightly acquainted with his writings. Heis inclined to believe that the idea of creationin the Timaeusisderived fromthe narrative in Genesis; and he is strangelytakenwith the coincidence(?)of Plato's saying that 'the philosopher

ccxx Dang_sDe Monarctu'a.

Re_bll¢.is the lover of God,' and the words of the Book of Exodus1_r_Duc-in which God reveals himself to Moses (Exod. iii. z4). HeTIOI_o

dwellsat length on miraclesperformedin his own day,of whichthe evidenceis regarded byhim as irresistible. He speaks in avery interesting manner of the beauty and utility of nature andof the human frame, which he conceivesto afford a foretasteof the heavenly state and of the resurrectionof the body. Thebook is not really what to most persons the title of it wouldimply,and belongs to an age which has passed away. But itcontains many fine passages and thoughts which are for alltime.

The short treatise de Monarchiaof Dante is by far the mostremarkable of mediaevalideals, and bears the impress of thegreat genius in whom Italy and the MiddleAges are so vividlyreflected. It is the vision of an Universal Empire, which issupposed to be the natural and necessary government of theworld, having a divine authoritydistinct from the Papacy, yetcoextensive with it. It is not 'the ghost of the dead RomanEmpiresittingcrownedupon thegrave thereof,' but the legitimateheir and successor of it, justified by the ancient virtues of theRomans and the beneficence of their rule. Their right to bethe governorsof the world is also confirmed by the testimonyof miracles, and acknowledgedby St. Paul when he appealedto Caesar,and even more emphaticallyby Christ Himself,Whocould not have made atonement for the sins of men if He hadnot been condemned by a divinely authorized tribunal. Thenecessity forthe establishmentof an Universal Empire is provedpartly by a/#r/on"arguments such as the unity of God and theunity of the familyor nation ; partly by perversionsof Scriptureand history,by falseanalogiesof nature, by misappliedquotationsfrom the classics,and by odd scraps and commonplacesof logic,showinga familiarbut byno means exactknowledgeof Aristotle(of Plato there is none). But a more convincingargument stillis the miserablestate of the world,whichhe touchinglydescribes.He sees no hope of happiness or peace for mankind until allnations of the earthare comprehendedin a single empire. Thewhole treatise shows how deeplythe idea of the Roman Empirewasfixedin the mindsof hiscontemporaries.Notmuchargumentwas needed to maintainthe truth of a theorywhichto his own

Sir ThomasJ[ords U?opia. ccxxicontemporaries seemed so natural and congenial. He speaks, Republic.or rather preaches,from the point of view,notof the ecclesiastic,Im_oDuc.TION_

but of the layman, although,as a good Catholic,he is willingto acknowledgethat in certain respects the Empire mustsubmittothe Church. The beginningand end of all his noblereflectionsand of his arguments, goodand bad, is the aspiration,' that inthis little plot of earth belongingto mortal man life may passin freedom and peace.' So inextricablyis hisvisionof the futureboundupwith the beliefsand circumstancesofhis ownage.

The ' Utopia' of Sir Thomas More is a surprising monumentof his genius, and shows a reach of thought far beyond hiscontemporaries. The book was written by him at the age ofabout 34 or 35,and is full of the generous sentimentsof youth.He brings the light of Plato to bear upon the miserablestateof his own country. Living not long after the Wars of theRoses, and in the dregs of the CatholicChurchin England,heis indignant at the corruption of the clergy,at the luxuryof thenobilityand gentry, at the sufferingsof the poor,at the calamitiescaused by war. To the eye of More the whole world wasin dissolution and decay; and side by side with the miseryand oppression which he has described in the First Bookof theUtopia, he places in the Second Book the ideal statewhich bythe help of Plato he had constructed. The times were full ofstir and intellectual interest. The distant murmur of the Re-formationwas beginning to be heard. To minds like More's,Greekliterature was a revelation: there had arisenan art ofinter-pretation,and the NewTestamentwas beginningto be understoodas it had never been before,and has not oftenbeen since,in itsnatural sense. The life there depicted appeared to him whollyunlike that of Christian commonwealths,in which 'he sawnothing but a Certainconspiracy of rich men procuring theirown commoditiesunderthe nameand title ofthe Commonwealth.'He thought that Christ,like Plato,' institutedall things common,'for which reason, he tells us, the citizens of Utopiawere themore willing to receive his doctrines*. The communityof

t _Howbeit,I thinkthiswasnosmallhelpandfurtherancein thematter,thattheyheardussaythatChristinstitutedamonghis,allthingscommon,andthatthe samecommunitydothyetremainin therightestChristiancom-munities'(Utopia,EnglishReprints,p. x44).

eexxii Sir TAomasMore'sUtopia.Re_lic. propertyis a fixed idea with him, though he is aware of theIm*oDvc-argumentswhich may be urged on the other side1. We wonderTION.

how in the reign of Henry VIII, thoughveiledin anotherlanguageandpublishedin a foreigncountry.,such speculationscould havebeenendured.

He is gifted with far greater dramaticinvention than anyonewho succeeded him, with the exceptionof Swift. In the art offeigninghe is aworthydiscipleof Plato. Like him, starting froma smallportionof fact,he founds histalewith admirableskill onafew lines in the Latin narrative of the voyages of AmerigoVespucci. He is very precise aboutdates and facts,and has thepower of makingus believe thatthe narratorofthe talemust havebeen an eyewitness. We are fairly puzzled by his manner ofmixingup real and imaginarypersons; his boyJohn ClementandPeter Giles,the citizen of Antwerp, with whomhe disputesaboutthe precise words which are supposedto have been used by the(imaginary)Portuguese traveller, Raphael Hythlodayo ' I havethe more cause,'saysH_hloday, ' to fear that mywords shallnotbe believed, for that I know how difficultlyand hardly I myselfwould have believedanother man telling the same, if I had notmyselfseen it withmine own eyes.' Or again: ' If youhad beenwith me in Utopia,andhadpresently seen their fashionsand lawsas I did which lived there fiveyears and more,and wouldneverhave comethence, but only to make the new land known here,'etc. Moregreatlyregrets thathe forgottoask H_hloday in whatpart of the world Utopia is situated; he ' would have spent nosmall sumof money rather than it should have escapedhim,' andhe begs Peter Giles to see Hythlodayor write to him and obtainan answer to the question. After this we are not surprised tohear that a Professorof Divinity(perhaps 'a late famousvicar ofCroydonin Surrey,'as the translator thinks) is desirousof beingsent thither as amissionaryby the High Bishop,'yea, and thathemayhimselfbe made Bishopof Utopia,nothing doubtingthat hemust obtainthis Bishopricwithsuit ; andhe eounteththata godly

*' Thesethings(I say),whenI considerwithmyself,IholdwellwithPlato,anddonothingmarvelthathewouldmakenolawsforthemthatrefusedthoselaws,wherebyall menshouldhaveandenjoyequalportionsof richesandcommodities.Forthewisemandideasilyforeseethistobetheoneandcaalywaytothewealthofa community,if equalityof allthingsshouldbebroughtinandestablished'(Utopia,EnglishReprints,pp.67,68).

Sir Tttomas21fore'sUtopia. cexxiiisuit which proceedethnot of the desire of honour or lucre, but Republic.oaly of a godlyzeal.' The design mayhave failedthrough the ImRODUC-TION,

disappearanceof Hythloday,concerningwhom we have 'veryuncertainnews' after his departure. There is nodoubt,however,that he had told Moreand Giles the exact situationof the island,but unfortunatelyat the samemoment More'sattention,as he isremindedin a letter from Giles,was drawn offbya servant,andone of the companyfroma cold caught on shipboardcoughedsoloud as to prevent Giles from hearing. And 'the secret hasperished' with him; to this day the place of Utopia remainsunknown.

The words of Phaedrus (275 B), ' O Socrates,you can easilyinventEgyptiansor anything,'are recalledtoourmindas wereadthis lifelike fiction. Yet the greatermerit of the workis not theadmirable art, but the originalityof thought. Moreis as free asPlatofrom the prejudices of his age,and far more tolerant. TheUtopiansdo not allowhimwho believesnot in the immortalityofthe soul to share in the administrationof the state (cp. Laws x.908loll.),' howbeitthey put him to no punishment,becausetheybe persuadedthat it is in noman's power to believewhathe list' ;and ' noman is to be blamedfor reasoningin supportof his ownreligionk' In the publicser_fices' noprayers be used,butsuch asevery man may boldly pronounce without givingoffenceto anysect.' He says significantly(p. I43), ' There be that give worshipto aman thatwas once of excellentvirtue orof famousglory, notonly asGod,but also the chiefest andhighestGod. But the mostand thewisestpart, rejectingall these,believethat there isa certaingodlypower unknown,far abovethe capacityand reachof man'swit, dispersed throughoutall the world, not in bigness,but invirtue and power. Him they call the Father of all. To Himalone they attribute the beginnings,the increasings,the proceed-

' ' Oneofourcompanyinmypresencewassharplypunished.He,assoonashewasbaptised,began,againstourwills,withmoreearnestaffectionthanwisdom,to reasonofChrist'sreligion,andbegantowaxsohotinhismatter,thathedidnotonlypreferourreligionbeforeall other,butalsodiddespiseandcondemnallother,callingthemprofane,andthefollowersofthemwickedanddevilish,andthechildrenof everlastingdamnation.Whenhehadthuslongreasonedthematter,theylaidholdonhim,accusedhim,andcondemnedhimintoexile,notas a despiserofreligion,butasa seditiouspersonandaraiserupofdissensionamongthepeople'(IXz45).

ccxxiv Sir Ttwmas More's UtojMa.

Ra2h_ddic.ings, the changes,and the ends of allthings. Neither give theyIwrRot,uc-anydivinehonoursto anyother thanhim.' So farwas MorefromTIO_N*

sharing the popularbeliefsof his time. Yetat the end he remindsus that he does not in all respects agree with the customs andopinionsof the Utopianswhich he describes. And we shouldlethim havethebenefitofthis savingclause,and not rudelywithdrawthe veil behind whichhe has beenpleased to concealhimself.

Noris he less in advanceof popular opinioninhis politicalandmoral speculations. He would like to bring military glory intocontempt; he would set all sorts of idle people to profitableoccupation,includingin the same class,priests,women,noblemen,gentlemen,and ' sturdyand valiant beggars;'that the labourof allmay be reducedto six hours a day. Hisdislike of capitalpunish-ment,and plans forthe reformationofoffenders; his detestationofpriests and lawyers1; his remark that 'although everyone mayhear of ravenous dogs and wolvesand cruel man-eaters,it is noteasyto findstates that are well andwisely governed,'are curiouslyat variancewiththe notionsofhis ageand indeedwith his own life.There are many pointsin which he showsa modern feelingand apropheticinsight likePlato. He is a sanitary reformer; he main-tains thatcivilizedstateshavea right to the soilofwaste countries;he is inclinedto the opinion which places happiness in virtuouspleasures, but herein, as he thinks, not disagreeing from thoseother philosophers who define virtue to be a life according tonature. He extends the idea of happiness so as to include thehappiness of others; and he argues ingeniously,' All men agreethat we ought to make others happy; but if others, how muchmore ourselves!' And still he thinks that there may be a moreexcellentway,but to this noman'sreasoncan attainunlessheavenshouldinspirehim with a higher truth. His ceremoniesbeforemarriage;his tlumaneproposalthat war should be carried onby assassinatingthe leadersof the enemy,may be comparedtosome of the paradoxesof Plato. He has a charmingfancy,likethe affinitiesof Greeksand barbariansin the Timaeus,that theUtopianslearntthe languageof the Greekswith the morereadi-nessbecausetheywere originallyof the sameracewiththem. Heis penetratedwith the spiritof Plato,and quotesor adaptsmany

' Comparehissatiricalobservation:'They(the Utopians)havepriestsofexceedingholing,andthereforeveryfew' (p.I$o).

Sir TAomas :tIore's UtoiOia. ccxxv

thoughtsbothfromthe RepublicandfromtheTimaeus.Hepre- Rel_blic.fers publicdutiesto private,and is somewhatimpatientofthe x_oDu¢.importunityof relations.His citizenshaveno silveror goldof T,o,.theirown,butarereadyenoughtopaythemtotheirmercenaries(cp.Rep.iv.422,423). Thereis nothingof whichheismorecon-temptuousthanthe loveof money. Gold is usedfor fettersofcriminals,anddiamondsandpearlsforchildren'snecklaces1.

LikePlatohe is fullof satiricalreflectionsongovernmentsandprinces; onthestateoftheworldandof knowledge.The heroofhisdiscourse(Hythloday)isveryunwillingtobecomea ministerof state,consideringthathewouldlosehis independenceandhisadvicewouldneverbeheeded'_.Heridiculesthenewlogicofhistime; the Utopianscouldneverbe made to understandthedoctrineof SecondIntentions3. Heisverysevereonthesportsof thegentry; theUtopianscount'huntingthe lowest,the,Alest,andthemostabjectpart of butchery.'He quotesthewordsoftheRepublicinwhichthephilosopheris described'standingoutofthe wayundera walluntilthe drivingstormofsleetandrainbe overpast,'whichadmitof a singularapplicationto More'sownfate;although,writingtwentyyearsbefore(abouttheyeari5_4),

Whentheambassadorscamearrayedingoldandpeacocks'feathers' totheeyesofalltheUtopiansexceptveryfew,whichhadbeeninothercountriesforsomereasonablecause,allthatgorgeousnessofapparelseemedshamefulandreproachful.Insomuchthattheymostreverentlysalutedthevilestandmostabjectofthemforlords--passingovertheambas_dorsthemselveswith-outanyhonour,judgingthembytheirwearingofgoldenchainstobelxmdmen.Youshouldhaveseenchildrenalso,thathadcastawaytheirpearlsandpreciousstones,whentheysawthelikestickingupontheambassadors'caps,digandpushtheirmothersunderthesides,sayingthustothem--"Look,mother,howgreata lubberdothyetwearpearlsandpreciousstones,asthoughhewerea littlechildstill."Butthemother;yeaandthatalsoingoodearnest: " Peace,son,"saithshe."I thinkhebesomeoftheambas-sadors'fools"'(p.xo2L

Cp.anexquisitepassageatp.35.ofwhichtheconclusionisasfollows:'Andverilyitisnaturallygiven. .. suppressedandended.'

'Fortheyhavenotdevisedoneofallthoserulesofrestrictions,amplifica-tions,andsuppositions,verywittilyinventedin thesmallLogicals,whichhereourchildrenineveryplacedolearn.Furthermore,theywereneveryetabletofindoutthesecondintentions;insomuchthatnoneofthemallcouldeverseemanhimselfincommon,asthe)"callhim,thoughhebetasyouknow)biggerthanwaseveranygiant,yea,andpointedtoofusevenwithourfinger'(p.mS).

q

eexxvi Tke NowAtlantis: Tke City of tireSun.g_/_b/_?,he can hardly be supposed to have foreseen this. There is noJm_o,_:-touchof satirewhichstrikes deeperthan hisquiet remarkthat the

greater part of the precepts of Christ are more at variancewiththe livesof ordinaryChristiansthan the discourseof Utopia1.

The ' New Atlantis' is only a fragment, and far inferior inmerit tothe ' Utopia.' The work is fullof ingenuity,but wantingin creative fancy, and by no means impresses the reader witha sense of credibility. In some places Lord Bacon is character-istically different from Sir Thomas More,as,for example, in theexternal state which he attributes to the governorof Solomon'sHouse,whose dress he minutelydescribes,while to Sir ThomasMore such trappings appear simply ridiculous. Yet, after thisprogrammeof dress, Baconadds the beautifultrait, ' that he had alookas though he pitied men.' Several thingsare borrowed byhim from the Timaeus; but he has injured the unity of style byadding thoughtsand passages which are taken from the HebrewScriptures.

The 'City of the Sun," written by Campanella (I568-i639),a Dominican friar, several years after the 'New Atlantis' ofBacon,has many resemblances to the Republic of Plato. Thecitizens have wives and children in common; their marriagesare of the same temporary sort, and are arranged by the magis-trates from time to time. They do not, however, adopt hissystem of lots, but bring together the best natures, male andfemale, 'according to philosophical rules.' The infants untiltwo years of age are brought up by their mothers in publictemples; and since individuals for the most part educate theirchildren badly, at the beginning of their third year they arecommittedto the care of the State,and are taught at first,not outof books,but from paintings of all kinds,which are emblazonedon the walls of the city. The city has six interior circuits ofwalls, and an outer walt which is the seventh. On this outerwall are painted the figures of legislators and philosophers,and

3,Andyetthemostpartofthemis moredissidentfromthemannersoftheworldnowa days,thanmycommunicationwas. Butpreachers,slyandwilymen,followingyourcounsel(asI suppose)becausetheysawmenevibwillingto frametheirmannersto Christ'srule,theyhavewrestedand wriedhisdoctrine,and,likea ruleof lead,haveappliedit to men'smanners,thatbysomemeansattheleastway,theymightagreetogether'(p.66).

The City of lhe Sun. ccxxvii

on eachof the interiorwalls the symbols or forms of some one Rq_tic.of the sciences are delineated. The women are, for the most IST_OD_:,part, trained, like the men, in warlike and other exercises; but _"they have two special occupationsof their own. After a battle,they and the boys soothe and relieve the woundedwarriors;also they encourage them with embraces and pleasantwords(ep. Plato, Rep. v. 468). Some elements of the Christian orCatholic religion are preserved among them. The life of theApostles is greatly admired by this people because they hadall things in common;and the short prayer which Jesus Christtaught men is used in their worship. It is a duty of the chiefmagistratesto pardonsins, and therefore thewhole people makesecret confessionof them to the magistrates,and they to theirchief,who is a sort of Rector Metaphysicus; and by this meanshe is well informedoxall that is going on in the mindsof men.After eontession,absolutionis granted tothe citizenscollectively,but no one is mentioned by name. There also exists amongthema practiceof perpetualprayer, performedbya successionofpriests, who change every hour. Their religion is a worshipof God in Trinity, that is of Wisdom, Love and Power, butwithout any distinctionof persons. They behold in the sunthe reflectionof His glory; mere graven images they reject,refusingtofallunder the ' tyranny' of idolatry.

Many details are given about their customs of eating anddrinking,about their mode of dressing, their employments,theirwars. Campanella looks forward to a new mode of education,which is to be astudy of nature,and not of Aristotle. He wouldnot have his citizens waste their time in the considerationofwhat he calls 'the dead signs of things.' He remarks that hewho knows one science only, does not really know that oneany more than the rest, and insists strongly on the necessityof a variety of knowledge. More scholarsare turned outin theCity of the Sun in one year than by contemporarymethods inten or fifteen. He evidently believes, like Bacon, that hence-forward natural science will play a great part in education,ahopewhichseems hardly tohavebeen realized,eitherin our ownor in any former age ; at any rate the fulfilmentof it has beenlongdeferred.

There is a gooddeal of ingenuityand even originalityin thisq_

cexxviii Eliot's Monarchy of Man.

Rel#ublic.work, and a most enlightened spirit pervades it. But it hasI_--_m,c.little or no charm of style,and fallsvery far short of the ' NewTION.

Atlantis' of Bacon,and stillmore of the ' Utopia' of Sir ThomasMore. It is full of inconsistencies,and though borrowed fromPlato,shows but a superficialacquaintancewith his writings. Itis a work such as one might expect to have been written by aphilosopherand man of genius who was also a fiiar, and who hadspent twenty-sevenyears of his lifein a prison of the Inquisition.The most interesting feature of the book, common to Platoand Sir Thomas More, is the deep feelingwhich is shown bythe writer, of the misery and ignorance prevailing among thelower classes in his own time. Campanellatakes note of Aris-totle's answer to Plato's communityof property, that in a societywhere all things are common, no individual would have anymotive to work (Arist. Pol.ii. 5,§6) : he replies, that his citizensbeing happy and contented in themselves (they are required towork only four hours a day),will have greater regard for theirfellowsthan exists amongmen at present. He thinks,like Plato,that if he abolishesprivate feelingsand interests, a great publicfeelingwilltake their place.

Otherwritingson idealstates, such as the ' Oceana' of Harring-ton, in which the Lord Archon, meaning Cromwell,is described,not as he was, butas he ought to have been; or the ' Argenis' ofBarclay, which is an historical allegory of his own time, aretoo unlikePlato to be worth mentioning. More interesting thaneither of these, and far more Platonic in style and thought, isSir John Eliot's 'Monarchy of Man,'in which the prisoner ofthe Tower, no longer able 'to be a politicianin the land of hisbirth,' turns away fron_politics to view 'that other city whichis within him,' and finds on the very threshold of the gravethat the secret of human happiness is the mastery of self. Thechange of government in the timeof the English Commonwealthset men thinking about first principles, and gave rise to manyworks of this class.... The great original genius of Swift owesnothing to Plato; nor is there any trace in the conversationorin the works of Dr.Johnsonof any acquaintancewith his writings.He probably would have refuted Plato without reading him, inthe same fashion in which he supposed himself to have refutedBishop Berkeley's theory ofthe non-existenceof matter. If we"

Tke value of Ideals. ccxxix

except the so-called English Platonists,or rather Neo-Platonists,Re_lic.who never understoodtheir master,and the writingsof Coleridge, INT*O_e-

TION_

who was to some extent a kindred spirit, Plato has left nopermanentimpressionon Englishliterature.

VII. Human life and conductare affectedby idealsinthe sameway that they are affected by the examples of eminent men.Neither the one nor the other are immediatelyapplicabletoprac-tice,but there is a virtue flowingfrom themwhichtends to raiseindividualsabove the commonroutine of society or trade, andto elevate States above the mere interests of commerceor thenecessities of self-defence. Like the ideals of art they arepartly framed by the omission of particulars; they require tobe viewedat a certain distance,and are apt to fade away if weattempt to approachthem. They gain an imaginarydistinctnesswhen embodiedin a State or in a systemof philosophy,but theystill remain the visions of 'a world unrealized.' Morestrikingand obviousto the ordinarymind are the examplesof great men,who have served their own generation and are rememberedinanother. Even in our own family circle there may have beensome one, a woman, or even a child, in whose face has shonefortha goodness more than human. The ideal then approachesnearer to us,and we fondly cling to it. The ideal of the past,whether of our own past livesor of former states of society,hasa singular fascinationfor the minds of many. Too late we learnthat suchideals cannothe recalled,thoughthe recollectionofthemmay havea humanizinginfluenceon othertimes. Butthe abstrac-tions ofphilosophyare tomost personscoldand vacant; they givelight withoutwarmth; they are like the fullmoonin the heavenswhen there are nostars appearing. Men cannotlive by thoughtalone; the worldof sense is alwaysbreakingin upon them. Theyare for the most part confinedtoa corner of earth, and see buta little way beyond their own homeor placeof abode; they ' donot rift up their eyes to the hills'; they are not awakewhenthe dawnappears. But in Platowe have reached a height fromwhich a man may lookintothe distance(Rep.iv.445C)and beholdthe future of the world and of philosophy. The ideal of theState and of the lifeof the philosopher; the idealofan education

ccxxx Thefuture of tl_ raceand of the individual.

d_tlb_lic, continuingthrough life and extending equally to both sexes;ImmoDvc-the ideal of the unity and correlationof knowledge; the faithinT|ON.

good and immortality--arethe vacant forms of light on whichPlatois seekingto fixthe eye of mankind.

VIII.Two otherideals,whichnever appearedabovethe horizonin Greek Philosophy,floatbefore the minds of men in our ownday: one seen more clearly than formerly,as though each yearand each generationbroughtus nearer to somegreat change; theother almostin the same degree retiring from view behind thelaws of nature, as if oppressed by them, but still remaining asilenthopeofwe knownot what hiddenin the heart of man. Thefirst ideal is the future of the human race in this world; thesecondthe future of the individualin another. The first is themore perfect realizationof our own present life; the second,theabnegation of it: the one, limited by experience, the other,transcending it. Both of them have been and are powerfulmotivesof action; there are a few in whom they have taken theplaceof all earthly interests. The hope of a futurefor the humanrace at first sight seems to be the more disinterested,the hopeof individual existencethe more egotistical,of the two motives.But when men have learned to resolve their hope of a futureeither forthemselvesor for theworld into the will of God--'notmy will but Thine,' the differencebetween them falls away; andthey may be allowed to make either of them the basis of theirlives,accordingto their own individualcharacteror temperament.There is as much faithin the willingnessto work for an unseenfuture in this world as in another. Neither is it inconceivablethat some rare nature may feel his duty to another generation,or to another century,almost as stronglyas to his own, or thatliving always in the presence of God,he may realize anotherworld as vividly as he does this.

The greatest of all idealsmay, or rather must be conceivedbyus under similitudesderived from human qualities; althoughsometimes, like the Jewish prophets,we may dash awaythesefiguresofspeech anddescribe the natureof Godonlyin negatives.These againby degrees acquire a positive meaning. It wouldbe well, if when meditating on the higher truths either of

TAeidealof Divinegoodness, ccxxxiphilosophy or religion, we sometimes substituted one form of Rgpublic.expression for another, lest through the neeessitiesof language Im*OD_C-TION.

we shouldbecomethe slavesof mere words.There is a third ideal,not the same,but akin tothese,which has

a place in the home and heart of everybelieverinthe religion ofChrist,and in which men seemto find a nearer and more familiartruth, the Divine man, the Son of Man,the Saviourof mankind,Who is the first-bornand headof the wholefamilyin heavenandearth,in Whom the Divineand human,thatwhichis withoutandthatwhich is withinthe rangeof our earthlyfaculties,are indisso-lubly united. Neither is this divine form of goodness whollyseparablefromthe ideal of the ChristianChurch,whichis said inthe New Testament to be ' His body,'or at variancewith thoseother imagesof goodwhich Platosets beforeus. Wesee Himina figureonly,and of figures of speech we select but a few,andthose the simplest,to be the expressionof Him. We beholdHimin a picture,but He is not there. We gatherup the fragmentsofHis discourses,but neither do they represent Him as He trulywas. His dwellingis neither in heavennor earth, but in the heartof"man. This is that imagewhichPlatosaw dimlyinthe distance,which,when existing among men, he called,in the languageofHomer, ' the likeness of God' (Rep.vi. 5oi B),the likenessof anature which in all ages men have felt to be greaterand betterthan themselves, and which in endless forms,whetherderivedfromScripture or nature,from the witness of historyor fromthehuman heart, regarded as a person or not as a person,with orwithoutparts or passions,existingin space or not in space,is andwill alwayscontinueto be to mankindthe Idea of Good.

j , •

THE REPUBLIC

BOOK I

PERSONSOF THE DIALOGUE

SOCRATES, 2vho isthenarrator. CEPHALUS.GLAUCON. _'/ THRASYMACHUS.ADEIMANTUS. CLEITOPHON.POLEMARCHUS.*'7

Aswlotherswhoaremuteauditors.

The sceneis laidin thehouseofCephalusat thePiraeus;andthewholedialogueis narratedbySocratesthedayafterit actuallytookplaceto Timaeus,Hermoerates,Critias,anda namelessperson,whoareintroducedin the Timaeus.

I .own yesterdayto the PiraeuswithGlaueonteet_t_llc327 thesonofAriston,thatI mightofferupmyprayersto Lthe goddess 1; and also because I wanted to see in what So_.Arz_GLAVCOr_.

mannertheywouldcelebratethe festival,whichwas a Meetingofnewthing.IwasdelightedwiththeprocessionoftheSocratesinhabitants;butthatoftheThracianswasequally,ifnotandGlau-more,beautiful.Whenwe hadfinishedourprayersandeonwithPolem-viewedthespectacle,weturnedinthedirectionofthecity;archusandatthatinstantPolemarchusthesonofCephaluschancedattheBendideautocatchsightofusfromadistanceaswe werestartingon festival.ourway home,andtoldhisservanttorunandbiduswaitforhim. The servanttookholdofmc bythecloakbehind,andsaid:Polemarchusdesiresyoutowait.Iturnedround,andaskedhimwherehismasterwas.Thereheis,saidtheyouth,comingafteryou,ifyouwill

onlywait.

IBendis,theThracianArtemis.B

2 The Home of Polemarchus.

Rel_.blic Certainlywe will, said Glaueon: and in a few minutes/" Polemarchusappeared,andwithhimAdeimantus,Glaucon's

soc,.,T_,brother, Niceratusthe son of Nicias,andseveralotherswhoPOLEMAR-

o,u,. had beenat the procession.GLAIdCON_a,.,,,_-,us. Polemarchussaid to me: I perceive,Socrates, that youc,_,._,., andyour.companionare alreadyonyour wayto the city.

You arenot farwrong, I said.Butdo you see, he rejoined,howmanywe are?Of course.And are you stronger than all these? for if not, you will

have to remainwhereyouare.Maythere not bethe alternative,I said, that we mayper-

suadeyou to let usgo?Butcanyou persuadeus, if werefuseto listento you? he

said.Certainlynot, repliedGlaucon.Then we are not going to listen; of that you may be

assured.The Adeimantusadded: Has noone toldyou of the torch-race328equestrianon horsebackin honourof the goddesswhichwill takeplacetorch-race.

in the evening.9With horses! I replied: That is a novelty. Will horse-

mencarry torchesand pass them oneto anotherduring therace?

Yes,said Polemarchus,and not onlyso, buta festivalwillbe celebratedat night,which you certainlyoJght to see.Let us rise soon aftersupper and see this festival, therewillbe a gatheringof young men, andwe willhave a goodtalk. Staythen,and do not be perverse.

Glauconsaid: I suppose,sinceyou insist,that wemust.Verygood,I replied.

The Accordinglywewentwith Polemarchusto his house; andgatheringthere we foundhis brothers Lysias and Euthydemus,andoffriendsat the with them Thrasymachusthe Chalcedonian,CharmantideshouseofCephahts.the Paeanian,and Cleitophonthesonof Aristonymus.There

too was Cephalusthe fatherof Polemarchus,whom I hadnot seenfor a long time,and I thoughthim verymuchaged.He wasseated ona cushionedchair,and had a garland onhis head,for he had been sacrificingin the court; and therewere someotherchairsin the roomarrangedin a semicircle,

Tke aged Cepkalus. 3

upon whichwe sat down by him. He salutedmeeagerly, XepubZicand then he said:-- -1"

Youdon'tcometosee me,Socrates,as oftenas youought: c_P.,L_.s.SOCRATES,

_If I were still able to go and seeyou I wouldnot ask youto cometo me. But at myage I can hardlyget to the city,andthereforeyoushouldcome oftenerto the Piraeus. Forlet metell you, that the morethe pleasuresof the bodyfadeaway, the greater to me is thepleasureand charmof con-versation. Donot thendenymyrequest,butmakeourhouseyour resort and keepE._qg_eo__mpany__ith_.__e_e.youngmen; weare oldfriends,and youwillbe quiteat homewithus.

I replied: There isnothingwhichformypart I like better,Cephalus,than conversingwith aged men; for Iregardthemas travellersw__hoh._h3_g_ae.-ajourneywhichI too mayhave_rgVT"andofwhom[_augh_toenquire,whethertheway_t_-_/nd easy,o_ ruggedand difficult. And this is aquest]0nWhich! should liketoask of youwhohavearrivedat that timewhich the poets call the 'thresholdof old age'--Is lifeharder towardsthe end,or whatreport doyougiveof it?

3_9 I will tell you,Socrates.he said,what myownfeelingis. Oldageisnot to

Menof my ageflocktogether; w__a/eb_ird%of a feather,as blameforthe old proverbsays; and at our meetingsthe tale of my the troubles

acquaintancecommonlyis--I cannoteat,I cannotdrink; the ofoldmen.

pleasuresof youth andloveare fledaway: therewasa goodtime once,but now that is gone,and life is no longer life.Some complainof the slightswhichare put upon thembyrelations,and theywilltellyou sadlyof howmanyevilstheiroldage is the cause. Butto me,Socrates,thesecomplainersseem to blamethat which is not reallyin fault. Fo_._oJl_lage were the cause, I too beingold, and everyother oldman,w6fildhave feltas theydo. But this is not my ownexperience,nor that of others whomI haveknown. Howwell I rememberthe aged poet Sophocles,when in answerto the question,Howdoes lovesuit with age,Sophocles,-are you stillthe man you were? Peace,he replied; most Theexcel-gladlyhaveI _e._m_dthe thing ofwhiclay6h s156ik• I feel lentsaying' ofSopho-as_ escapedfrom a mad and furiousmaster. His ties.wordshaveoftenoccurredto mymindsince,and theyseem

; as good to me now as at the timewhen he uttered them.B 2

4 Tkemistoclesa_gltke Seriphian.

i _ve/_t_:Forcertainlyoldagehasa greatsenseofcalmandfreedom_A_/" whenthepassionsrelaxtheirhold,then,as Sophoclessays,

c_ra,a.u_we are freedfromthe graspnotof onemadmasteronly,I SocPat_s,.+ butofmany. Thetruthis,Socrates,that theseregrets,andalso thecomplaintsaboutrelations,are to be attributedtothe san_ cause,whichis notoldage,butmen'sr.haracters--_._ _/_.__. .._ "- . - L ndtempers; forhe_hct_ andha ,p aaturewill..-.. ...............ppy.

¢..t_-z_.j6g.--_;_-= _ ...... - . . f_...__ .... h_r_'d|yfeelthepressureof age,but to hlmwhois o an.,_'f#-..d_f.._,._.,..opI_ositectispositi6h_y_tth_'andageareequallya burden.C;_ It isad- ' I listenedin admiration,and wantingto drawhimout,

miredtlmt that he mightgo on--Yes,Cephalus,I said" but I rathertheold,iftheyareto suspectthatpeoplein generalare notconvincedbyyou

comfort-whenyouspeakthus; theythinkthatoldagesitslightlyuponable,musthavea fair you,notbecauseofyourhappydisposition,butbecauseyoushareof arerich,andwealthiswellknowntobea greatcomforter.externalgoods; Youare right,he replied;theyare notconvinced:andneither thereis somethinginwhattheysay;not,however,so muchvirtuealonenorriches as theyimagine. I mightanswerthemas Themistoclesaloneean answeredthe Seriphianwhowasabusinghimand sayingmakean thathewasfamous,not for his ownmeritsbutbecauseheoldmanhappy, wasan Athenian: ' Ifyouhad beena nativeofmycountry330

or I ofyours,neitherofuswouldhavebeenfamous.'Andtothosewhoare not rich andare impatientof oldage,thesamereplymaybemade; fortothegoodpoormanoldagecannotbea lightburden,nor cana badrichmaneverhavepeacewithhimself.

MayI ask,Cephalus,whetheryour fortunewasfor themostpartinheritedor acquiredbyyou?

Acquired! Socrates; doyouwantto knowhowmuchIacquired? In theart ofmakingmoneyI havebeenmidwaybetweenmyfather and grandfather:for mygrandfather,whosenameI bear,doubledandtrebledthe valueof hispatrimony,that whichhe inheritedbeing muchwhat I

Cephaluspossessnow; butmyfatherLysaniasreducedthe propertyhasin-hered belowwhatit is atpresent: andI shallbesatisfiedif I leaveratherthanto thesemysonsnotlessbuta littlemorethanI received.foreahel Thatwas_ I asked),ou thequestion,I replied,be-is therefore/ause I see that you a!___t_, whichindifferent[ ......... "'°_'_........ • • _" •• xsa cliaractermticratherof thosewhohaveinheritedthexrtomoney.' fortu_"es__;e whohaveacquiredthem;the makers

The real Advantages of Wealtk. 5

of fortuneshavea secondloveof moneyas a creationof their Rel_blic]own,resemblingt_et--lo-n'ofauthorsfortheirownpoems, /"for of parents for their children,besidesthat natural love of C_,"AL_S."SOCtL.XTES.

!it for the sake of use and profitwhichis commontbth-erii_anda__-)i.n-d hence theyare-ve]kybadcompany,forthey can talkaboutn_u-f'ffi'_ pramesbT'ffea]ffi.

That is true, he said.Yes,that is very true, but mayI ask anotherquestion?-- Theadvan-

What do you considerto be the greatestblessingwhichyou ragesofwealth.have reapedfromyourwealth?

One, he said, of whichI couldnot expecteasilyto con- Thefearofdeathand

vince others. For let me tell you, Socrates,that whena thecon-man thinkshimselfto be near death,fearsand caresenter sciousnessinto his mind whichhe never had before; the tales of a ofsinbe-comelnor@

worldbelowand the punishmentwhich is exactedthereof _iv_inolddeeds done here were once a laughingmatter to him, but age;andtoberichnowheistormentedwiththethoughtthattheymaybetrue:freesamaneitherfromtheweaknessofage,orbecauseheisnowdrawing#oremany

_.mpta-nearertothatotherplace,hehasa clearerviewofthese_ions.things;suspicionsandalarmscrowdthicklyuponhim,andlhebeginstoreflectandconsiderwhatwrongshehasdonetoothers.Andwhenhefindsthatthesumofhistransgres-sionsisgreathewillmanyatimelikeachildstartupinhissleepforfear,andheisfilledwithdarkforebodings.But

331tohimwho isconsciousofnosin,sweethope,asPindarThead-mirablecharminglysays,is the kindnurseofhis age: strainof

' Hope,'hesays,'cherishesthesoulof himwholivesinjusticePindar.andholiness,andis t_ of hisageandthe"companionof hisjourney;--hopewhichismightiesttoswaytherestlesssoulofman.'How admirableare his words! And the great blessingofriches, I do not say to everyman, but to a goodman, is,that he hashad no occasionto deceiveor to defraudothers,either intentionallyor unintentionally;andwhenhe departsto

: theworldbelowhe isnot inanyapprehensionaboutofferingsdueto the gods or debtswhichhe owestomen.-'_--NowtothispeacCo_-i-fi t e pos " ly contri-butes; and thereforeI say, that, settingone thingagainstanother,of th_hieh wealthhas to gi3'e,

• toa manof sensethis is inmyopiniontheg-_eeates_t-. :

-2

6 The first Definition of _usKce

Re4bu31ic Well said, Cephalus,I replied; butas concerning_,Z what is it?---tospeak the truth andto pay.your debts--no

_A_. morethanthis_ Andeve--'_othisaretherenot exceptions?eo_,_- Supposethata friendwhenin hisrightmindhas deposited_us. armswithme andhe asks for themwhenhe is not in hisJusticetospeak rightmind,oughtI togivethembacktohim? No onewouldtruthand saythatI oughtor thatI shouldbe right in doingso, anypay yourdebt_, more than theywouldsay that I o_ght alwaysto speakthe

truth to onewho is inhis condition.Youare quite right,he replied.But then, I said,speakingthe truthand payingyourdebts

is nota correctdefinitionofjustice.Thisisthe Quite correct, Socrates, if Simonides is to be believed,definition said Polemarchusinterposing.of Siraon-ides. But I fear, said Cephalus,that I must go now, for I have toyou ought look after the sacrifices,and I hand over the argumenttonot on altoccasions Polemarchusandthe company.to do Is not Polemarchusyour heir? I said.either.Whatthen To be sure, heanswered,andwentawaylaughingto thewashis sacrifices.meaning? Tell me then,0 thouheir of the argument,whatdid

Simonides say, and accordingto you truly say, aboutjustice?

He saidthatthe re-paymentof adebtis just,andin sayingsohe appearsto meto be right.

I shouldbesorry to doubtthewordof sucha wiseandin-spiredman,buthis meaning,thoughprobablyclearto you,is the reverse of clear to me. For he certainlydoes notmean,as we were just now saying,that I ought to return a

I depositof arms or of anythingelse to onewho asks for it

l whenhe is not in his rightsenses;. and yet a depositcannot332bedenied to be a debt.True.Then when the personwho asks me is not in his right

mindI ambyno means tomakethe return?Certainlynot.When Simonidessaid that the repaymentof a debt was

justice,he did notmeanto includethat case?Certainlynot; for he thinks thata friendoughtalwaysto

dogoodtoa friendand never evil.

is examined and found wanling. 7

You meanthat the return of a depositof goldwhichis to Re_tbllc

the injuryof the receiver,ifthe twopartiesare friends,is not /"the repaymentof a debt,--that is what you wouldimagineso_A_,POLI_MAR-himto say? cHos.

Yes.

Andare enemiesalsoto receivewhatweoweto them? / .

To be sure, he said, they are to receivewhat we owe _-_'J_'-_.e..,.../?them, and an enemy,as I take_.,it. owe_to__an_enem_ythatwhichis dueor proper tohim--that is to say_evil.

Simofdd6_h, _iR6ft_'e-/nafiiiei'_dir-poets,wouldseemto Hemayhavespoken darklyof the nature ofjustice" for he really haremeant' to say thatmeant to say that justiceis the givingto eachmanwhat is justicegivesproper tohim,andthis he termeda debt. tofriendswhatis

That musthavebeenhismeaning,he said. goodandBy heaven! I replied; and if we askedhimwhat dueor toenemieswhatis

propel:thingis givenbymedicine,andto whom,whatanswer evil.doyouthink thathe wouldmaketous?

He wouldsurelyreplythat medicinegivesdrugsandmeatanddrink to humanbodies.

Andwhatdueor proper thing is givenbycookery,and towhat?

Seasoningto food.And what is thatwhichjusticegives,and to whom?If, Socrates,we are to be guidedat all bythe analogyof -_

the precedinginstances,then justice is the art whichgivesgoodto friendsandevilto enemies.

That is his meaningthen?I thinkso.Andwhois bestableto do goodto his friendsandevilto 111mtra-

hisenemiesin timeofsickness? tions.The physician.Or whentheyare ona voyage,amidthe perilsofthe sea?The pilot.Andin whatsort of actionsorwitha viewto whatresultis

the just man most able to do harm to his enemyand goodto his friend? r

In goingtowar againstthe one and in makingallianceswiththeother.

Butwhena manis well,mydearPolemarchus,thereisnoneedof a physician?

L

8 M furtt_r cross-exaraination.

Republic No.L And he whoisnoton a voyagehas noneedofa pilot?

So_, No.POOH-thus. Then in timeof peacejusticewillbe of nouse?

I amvery far fromthinkingso.Youthinkthat justicemaybe of use in peaceas well as 333

in war?Yes.Likehusbandryfor the acquisitionofcorn?Yes.Or like shoemakingfor the acquisitionof shoes,--thatis

whatyoumean?Yes.Andwhatsimilar_.se_0_r__l_..wer.9.(acquisltiorvhasjusticein

timeof peace?Justieeis In_c--Gfit-racts,Socrates,justiceis ofuse.usefulin And bycontractsyoumeanpartnershipscontracts,

Exactly.Butis thejust manor the skilfulplayera moreusefuland

betterpartnerat a gameof draughts?The skilfulplayer.Andin the layingof bricksand stones is thejust man a

moreusefulor betterpartner than the builder?Quitethe reverse.Then inwhatsort of partnershipis the just man a better

partnerthan the harp-player,as in playingthe harp theharp-playeris certainlya betterpartnerthan thejust man?

In a moneypartnership.Yes,Polemarchus,but surelynot in theuse ofmoney; for

youdo notwant a just man tobe your counsellorin the pur-chaseor saleof a horse; amanwhoisknowingabouthorseswouldbe betterfor that,wouldhe not?

Certainly.And when youwant to buya ship,the shipwrightor the

pilotwouldbe better?True.Then what is thatjointuse of silveror gold in whichthe

especiallyjUSt man is tobe preferred?inthesafe- When youwanta depositto be keptsafely.keepingofdeposits. Youmeanwhenmoneyis notwanted,butallowedtolie?

7uslice turns out lo 6e a Thief. 9

Precisely. Republic

That is tosay,justiceis usefulwhenmoney,is ussele.ss? LThat is theinference. So:kAT_,POL_m-Andwhenyouwantto keepa pruning-hooksafe,thenjus- c,os.

ticeisusefulto the individualand to thestate; butwhen3_ouButnotinwanttouse it, thentheart of thevine-dresser? theuseof

money;Clearly. and if so,Andwhenyouwant to keep a shieldor a lyre,andnotto justiceis

onlyusefuluse them,youwouldsaythatjusticeis useful; butwhenyou whenwant to use them, then the art of the soldier or of the moneyor

anythingmusician? elset_Certainly. useless.And so of all other things.;--=_usticeis-usefulwhenthey

are usel_iess whentheyare useful?. " _That i_ t,lcmlerence. - . _. ._:._S._L.Then justice is not goodfor much. But let us consider

this further point: Is not he who can beststrikea blowina boxingmatchor in anykindoffightingbest able to wardoffa blow?

Certainly.And he who is most skilful in preventingor escapingt

froma diseaseis bestable tocreateone?True?And he is the best guard of a campwho is best able to Anew

334steala march uponthe enemy"_ pointof• view: Is

Certainly. nothewhoThen he who is a goodkeeperof anythingis alsoa goodisbest_leto dogoodthief? bestabletoThat, I suppose,is tobe inferred, doevil? I

Then if the just man is good at keepingmoney,he is _goodatstealingit. _

That is impliedin the argument.Then after all the just man has turnedout tobe a thief, i

And this is a lessonwhichI suspectyou musthave learntoutof Homer; for he, speakingofAutolycus,the maternal !grandfatherof Odysseus,who is a favouriteof his, affirmsthat

He wasexcellentaboveallmenin theftandperjury.And so, you and Homerand Simonidesare agreedthat , :

i Readingq,_k_a__t Xaedv,drto_,K.r.A. : _

lo More diy_cullies.

Re_lic ljustice is an art of theft; tobe practisedhowever' for the/" tgood of friendsand for the harm of enemies,'--thatwas

So_,_T_./ whatyouweresaying?Pot.EM._-c_us. No,certainlynot that, thoughI do not nowknowwhatI

did say; but I stillstandbythe latterwords.Well,there is anotherquestion: By friendsand enemies

dowe meanthosewhoare so really,or only in seeming?Justicean Surely,he said,amanmaybe expectedtolovethosewhomart of thefttobeprae-he thinksgood,andto hate thosewhomhe thinksevil.tisedforthe Yes, but do not personsoften err abo_ut_gQodand evil:goodof many_g-_-d kse_.to-.beso, andconversely?friendsandtheharmof That is true.enemies. Then to them the goodwillbe enemiesand the evilwillButwhoarefriendsandbe theirfriends?enemies? True.

? And in that casethey willbe right in doinggoodto theeviland evilto thegood? .........

Clearly.But the goodare just andwouldnot doan injustice?True.

Then accordingtoyour argumentit is just to injure thosewhodo nowrong.9-q_, Socrates; the doctrineis immoral.

/'-Then I supposethatwe ought todo goodto the just andharmto_n'Sus-/-? ".......

I likethat better.Mistakes Butsee theconsequence:--Manya manwhois ignorantofwillsome-times humannatureTaa-sn--fffeffdswhoare badfriends,and in thathappen, casehe oughtto doharmto them; and he hasgoodenemies

whomhe oughttobenefit; but, if so,we shallbe sayingtheveryoppositeofthat whichwe affirmedto be the meaningofSimonides.

Very true, he said; and I think thatwe had bettercorrectan error intowhichwe seem to havefallenin the useof thewords ' friend' and 'enemy.'

What was theerror, Polemarchus? I asked.We assumedthat he is a friendwho seemsto be or who

is thoughtgood.Correctionofthedeft- Andhowis the error to be corrected?nition. We shouldrathersaythathe is a friendwhois, aswellas

A new colour given to the.dejinition, xI

335seems,good; and thathe whoseemson!y.andis not good,Repubaco_-'l_ems to beand is_r,d ; and of an enemythe I.sam_ said. Soc...,POL_aa-

You wouldargue that the goodare our friends.andthe c._s.... _badour enemies? Toap-

we mllst

And insteadof sayingsimplyas we did at first,that it is addreality.Heisajust todogood toour friendsand harmto our enemies,we friendwhoshouldfurthersay: It isjust todo goodtoour friendswhen 'is'aswelltheyaregoodandharmto ourenemieswhenthey'_ir_-6v_Tus'seems'good. And

Yes, that appearstometo bethe truth, weshould ;, ,Butoughtthe just to injureanyoneat all? dogoodto' ------- ourgood

Undou_g_hTt'oinjure thosewhoare bothwickedfriendsandandhis enemies, harmtoourbad

When horses are injured,are they improvedor deterio-enemies.rated.

The latter. TohamDeteriorated,thatis to say,in thegoodqualitiesofhorses, .mynisto

mjnl_not ofdogs? them; and

Yes, ofhorses, toinjurethemis toAnd dogs are deterioratedin the goodqualitiesof dogs, makethem

and notof horses? unjust.Butjusticecan-

Ofcourse, notproduceAnd willnot menwhoare injuredbe deterioratedin that injustice.

whichis the propervirtueof man? ,_Certainly.Andthathumanvirtueis justice?To besure.Thenmenwhoare injuredareof necessitymadeunjust? _;_That_'-_s_i_.Butcan the musicianbyhis art makemenunmusical_ nlustra-• lions. _"Certainlynot. fOr thehorsemanbyhis art makethembadhorsemen?Impossible. _And can the just byjustice makemenunjust,or speaking _

ly,_nthe goodgeneraAssuredlynot..Anymore thanheatcanproducecold?It cannot. _'_

Or droughtmoisture? :_

$

l U Failure of tke DeflniKon.

Re_t/c Clearlynot./" Norcanthegoodharmanyone?

so_A_. Impossible.Potsh-ots, And thejust is the good?THRASYMA-cx_,s. Certainly.

Then to injure_ " -theact_ofajust man,but ofthe oDo,_;_,_,whn___e unj.qst...J____.

I _ say is quitetrue, Socrates.Thenif a man says that justiceconsistsin the repayment

ofdebts,and that goodis the debtwhichajust manowestohis friends,and evil the debt whichhe owesto his enemies,--to say this is notwise; for it is not true, if,as has beenclearlyshown,the injuringofanothercanbe in nocasejust.

I agreewithyou, said Polemarchus.Thesaying Then you and I arepreparedto take uparms againstanyhoweverexplainedone who attributessuch a sayingto Simonidesor Bias orisnottobe Pittacus,or anyotherwisemanor seer?attributed I amquitereadyto dobattleat yourside, he said.toanygoodorwise Shall I tellyouwhoseI believethe sayingtobe? 336man. Whose?

I believethat Perianderor Perdiccasor Xerxesor Is-! menias the Theban,or someother rich and mightyman,I whohada greatopinionof his ownpower,wasthefirst to1 say thatjusticeis 'doinggood to yourfriendsandharmto

your enemies.'Mosttrue,hesaid.Yes, I said; but if this definitionof justicealsobreaks

down,whatothercanbeoffered?Thebru- Severaltimesin thecourseofthediscussionThrasymaehustalityofThrasyma-hadmadeanattempttoget theargumentintohis ownhands,chus. and had been put down by the rest of the company,who

wanted to hear the end. But when Polemarchusand Iha_ddone speaking and there was a pause, he could nolongerholdhis peace; and, gatheringhimselfup, he cameat us like a wild beast, seekingto devourus. We werequitepanic-strickenat thesightofhim.

He roaredout tothewholecompany: Whatfolly,Socrates,has takenpossessionof youall? Andwhy,sillybillies,doyou knockunder to one another? I say thatif you wantreallyto knowwhatjusticeis, youshouldnot onlyask but

TAe Irony of Socrates. I3

answer,and you should not seek honourto yourselffrom R_blicthe refutationof an opponent,but haveyour own answer; zfor there is manya one who canask and cannotanswer,soc_Tm,

THRA_'MA-And nowI will nothaveyou saythat justiceis dutyor ad- c._.vantageor profitor gain or interest,forthissortof nonsense /willnot do for me; I musthaveclearnessandaccuracy.

I was panic-strickenat his words,andcould not lookathim withouttrembling. Indeed I believethat if I had notfixedmy eye upon him,I shouldhavebeenstruckdumb:butwhenI sawhis furyrising,I lookedat himfirst,andwasthereforeable to reply tohim.

Thrasymachus,I said,witha quiver,don'tbeharduponus.Polemarchusand I mayhavebeenguiltyof a little mistakein the argument,but I can assureyou that theerrorwasnotintentional. If we were seekingfor a pieceof gold, youwould not imaginethat we were 'knockingunder to oneanother,'and so losingour chanceof findingit. Andwhy,whenwe are seekin for "ustice,a thin morepreciousthan_eeKlngior_ .......... _.......manyp_d, doyousay thatwe are weaklyyieldingto oneanoth_e¥-_/fid- no--6_o_ng-ou-rutmosttoget att-hetruth'._Nay,mygoodfriend,weare mostwillingandanxiousto doso,butthefactis thatwecannot.Andifso,youpeoplewhoknowallthingsshouldpityusandnotbeangrywithus.

337 Howcharacteristicof SocratesI he replied,witha bitterlaugh;--that'syour ironicalstyle! DidI not foresee--haveI notalreadytoldyou, thatwhateverhe wasaskedhe wouldrefusetoanswer,and try ironyor anyother shuffle,inorderthathe mightavoidanswering? i"

Youare a philosopher,Thrasymachus,I replied,andwell Socra_ !knowthat if youaska personwhatnumbersmakeup twelve,cannotgiveanyanswer itakingcaretoprohibithimwhomyouaskfromansweringtwice ifall true

six, or three timesfour,or sixtimestwo,or fourtimesthree, anSwersareexcluded.

' forthissortof nonsensewillnot doforme,'--thenobviously, iif thatisyour wayof puttingthequestion,noonecanansweryou. Butsupposethat he were to retort, 'Thrasymachus,Thrasyma- !-chnsisas-whatdo you mean? If one of these numberswhichyou sailedwith _:interdict be the true answer to the question,am I falselyhisown _::to say someother numberwhichis not the rightone?-is weapons.

thatyourmeaning?'_How wouldyou answerhim_. __Justas ifthe twocaseswereatallalike! he said.

i 14 TheIrony of Socratesis

: Republic Why shouldthey not be? I replied; and even if theyL are not,but onlyappear to be so to thepersonwhoisasked,so_,_, oughthe not to saywhathethinks,whetheryouand I forbidT_rI_¥MA-c._s, himor not?

GI.AVCON.I presume then that you are going to makeone of the

interdictedanswers?I dare saythat I may,notwithstandingthe danger,ifupon

reflectionI approveofany ofthem.Butwhat if I giveyou an answeraboutjusticeotherand

better,he said, than anyofthese? What do youdeservetohavedoneto you?

Doneto me.t--asbecomesthe ignorant,I mustlearnfromthewise--thatiswhat I deserveto havedoneto me.

"l_eSo- What,and nopayment! a pleasantnotion!phistde- I willpaywhenI have the money,I replied.maads pay-ment for Butyou have,Socrates,saidGlaucon:andyou,Thrasyma.his instruc- chus, need beunder no anxietyaboutmoney,forwe willalltions. Thecompanymakea contributionfor Socrates.arevery I Yes, he replied,andthenSocrateswill do as he alwayswillingto/

contribut!.[ does--refuseto answerhimself,but takeand pullto piecestheanswerof someoneelse.!Socrates Why,mygoodfriend,I said,howcananyoneanswerwhoknows little knows,andsays thathe knows,just nothing; andwho,evenor nothing :howcanhe if he has somefaint notionsof his own,is toldby a mananswer? of authoritynot to utterthem? The naturalthing is,thatAnd he is

deterredby the speaker should be someone like yourself who pro-338the inter- fessesto knowand can tellwhathe knows. Wiltyouthendict ofThrasyma-kindlyanswer, for the edificationof the companyand ofehtts, myself?

Glauconandthe restofthe companyjoinedin myrequest,andThrasymachus,asanyonemightsee,was in realityeagertospeak; forhe thoughtthat he hadan excellentanswer,andwoulddistinguishhimself. Butat firsthe affectedto insistonmyanswering; at lengthhe consentedto begin. Behold,he said,thewisdomofSocrates; he refusesto teachhimself,and goes about learningof others, to whomhe never evensays Thankyou.

That I learn of others,I replied, is quite true; but thatI am ungratefulI whollydeny. MoneyI havenone, andthereforeI pay inpraise,whichis all I have; andhowready

too much for Thrasymachus. 15 !

t amto praise anyonewhoappearstometospeakwellyou Republic Iwillverysoonfind outwhen you answer; for I expectthat L _youwillanswerwell. socrates,TH_Asv_- _

Listen, then, he said; I proclaimthat justiceis nothing c,us. ielsethan the interestof thestronger. Andnowwhydoyou Thedefini-

tionof _inotpraiseme? Butofcourseyouwon't. Thrasy- ,

Let mefirstunderstandyou, I replied. J_s_o u say, machus:'Justiceisis the interestof the_. What, Thrasymachus,is the theinterest

mean_ You cannot mean to say that becauseofthePolydamas,the _t_'_ti-on-ger tqq_a-'ff'w-Care, and strongerorruler.' _'findstheeatingofB_ffe6fiduciveto his bodilystrength,that ;'toeat beef is thereforeequallyfor our goodwhoareweaker _,than he is, and rightandjust for us? /

That'sabominableofyou,Socrates; youtakethewordsin _ !thesense whichis mostdamagingto theargument. :

Not at all, mygoodsir, I said; I amtrying to understandthem; and I wishthat youwouldbe a littleclearer.

Well, he said,haveyou neverheard that formsof govern-mentdiffer; there are tyrannies,andthere are democracies,andthereare arist_SiSi-'a6_e-_'7..............

Yes,I know.And thegovernmentis therulingpowerin eachstate9Certainly.And the differentformsof governmentmakelawsdemo-Socrates

cratical,aristocratical,tyrannical,witha viewto theirseveral compels !_"Ihrasy_interests; andthese laws,whicharemade bythemfor their maehusto :.own interests, are the justice which they deliver to their explainhis _meaning.. T-subjects,and himwho transgressesthemtheypunishas a -breakerof the law,and unjust. And that is what I mean ..... : __U_'when I say that in all states there is the sameprincipleof _ '_v-_ ,_justice,whichis-the intere_Lgz('d_Yg:Qvernment; andas the :_.._ _ .__-: '

339gove s._ havg_.pt)wer,the ony ._-_-"_-_--_reasonableconclusmnm,thatev__er__ there_.Lsone prm- 'cip_terest ofthestronger.

NowI unde_'an_,_'d _,'_r_dwhetheryouare right °_ }or not I will try to discover. But let me remark,that indefiningjustice you haveyourselfused the word'interest'whichyou forbademe to use. It is true, however,that.inyourdefinitionthewords 'of thestronger'areadded. _

A smalladdition,youmustallow,he said.

z6 Are tVords always to be used

Repubz/c Great or small, never mind about that: we must first/" enquirewhetherwhat you are saying is the truth. Now

Soc_r_ weare bothagreed that justice is interestof somesort, butTXRASYMA-o_, you goon tosay ' of the stronger'; about thisadditionI amPOLI_MAR-c_us. notso sure,and mustthereforeconsiderfurther.

Proceed.Heisdis- I will; and first tell me, Do youadmit that it is just forsatisfiedwith the subjectsto obeytheirrulers?exvh- I do.nation;for Butare therulersof statesabsolutelyinfallible,or are theyrulersmayerr. sometimesliabletoerr ?

To be sure,he replied,they are liableto err.Then in making their laws they may sometimesmake

themrightly,andsometimesnot.9True.When they makethemrightly,theymake themagreeably

to their interest; when theyare mistaken,contraryto theirinterest; you admitthat?

Yes.And the laws which they make must be obeyedby their

subjects,--andthat is whatyoucalljustice?Doubtless.

Andthen I/ Then justice, according to your argument,is not onlythejustice ]t_bedieneeto the interestofthe strongerbut thereversewhichmakesa '" What is that youare saying? he asked.mistake I amonly repeatingwhatyou are saying,I believe. Butwill turnouttobe let us consider: Havewe not admittedthat the rulersmaythereversebemistakenabout,their owninterestin what they command,ofthein- and also that to obey them mjustice_ Has not that beenretestof thestronger,admit_e-"d'7

Yes.

Thenyoumustalsohaveacknowledgedjusticenottobeforthe interestof the stron.ger_ww_.b.___lke_.DjJ_ersunintentionallycomm_t-_be donewhichare to their own injury.For if, as you say,justice is the obediencewhichthesubjectrenders to their commands,in that case, 0 wisestof men,isthere any escapefrom the conclusionthat the weaker arecommandedto do,not whatis for the interest,butwhatis forthe injuryof the stronger?

Nothingcan be clearer,Socrates,said Polemarchus,

?.

in tAdr strictestsense._ 2734o Yes,saidCleitophon,interposing,ifyou areallowedto be RejOublic

hiswitness, t.But there is no need of any witness,said Polemarchus,so_T_.CLF..ta_PIIO_,

for Thrasymachushimselfacknowledgesthat rulersmay Po_,_.c.us,sometimescommandwhatis not for theirowninterest,and T._Y_-thatfor subjectsto obeythemis justice. _"Cleitophon

Yes, Polemarchus,--Thrasymachussaid that for subjects_estoto dowhatwascommandedbytheir rulersis just. makea

wayofYes, Cleitophon,but he also said that justice is the escapefor

interest of the stronger, and,while admittingboth these Thrasy-propositions,he furtheracknowledgedthatthestrongermay machusbyinsertingcommandthe weakerwhoarehissubjectstodo whatis not thewords

l for hisowninterest; whencefollowsthatjusticeis the injury'th°ughtto be.'/ quiteasmuchas the interestof thestronger.

But, said Cleitophon,he meant by the interest of thestrongerwhat the stronger thoughtto behis interest,--thiswas whatthe weakerhad to do; and thiswas affirmedbyhimto bejustice.

Thosewere not hiswords,rejoinedPolemarehus.Nevermind,I replied,if he now saysthat theyare, letus

accepthis statement. Tell me, Thrasymachus,I said, didyou mean by justicewhat the stronger thought to be hisinterest,whetherreallysoor not?

Certainlynot, he said. Doyou suppose that I callhim Thiseva-who is mistaken the stronger at the time when he is sionisre- :_pudiatedmistaken? byThra-

Yes,I said,myimpressionwas that you didso,whenyou symachm;admitted_Ihat.thr_ruler_as not infatlib!ebut im ht be some;• / ot_mesnustaken.

Youargue likean informer,Socrates. Doyou mean,forexample,that he who is mistakenabout the sick is a phy-sician in that he is mistaken? or that he who errs inarithmeticor grammaris an arithmeticianor grammarianat the timewhenhe is makingthe mistake,in respectof the whoadoptsmistake? True, we say thatthe physicianor arithmeticianlinean°therof •

or grammarianhas madea mistake,but this is onlyawayof daenee:speaking; for the fact is that neither the grammariannor or'NOrulerartistisanyother personof skill ever makesa mistakein so faras evermis-he is what his name implies; they noneof them err unless taken_a- artistortheirskillfailsthem,andthentheyceasetobeskilledartists,ruler.'

C

I8 Tke argument with Tkrasymackus

Re_blic NOartistor sage or ruler errs at the timewhen he is what/" his nameimplies; thoughhe is commonlysaid to err, andI

so:,aT_ adoptedthe commonmodeof speaking. But tobe perfectlyTn_MA-

_ accurate,sinceyouaresucha loverofaccuracy,weshouldsay_that the ruler, in so far as he is a ruleri_.js_.usu_Land,

• beingunerring,alway_hat w.J_chis (orhis own34Ij in_ect is re_red to executehis corn-! man--'h-dr_f-_dtherefore, as I said _-first_anc(-nowrepeat,

justiceis the interestof thestronger.Indeed,Thrasymachus,and do I really appear to you to

argue likean informer?Certainly,he replied.And do you supposethat I ask these questionswith any

designof injuringyouin the argument?Nay,he replied,' suppose'is nottheword--I knowit ; but

you willbe foundout, and bysheer force of argumentyouwillneverprevail.

I shall not make the attempt,mydear man; but to avoidanymisunderstandingoccurringbetweenus in future,let meask,in whatsensedoyouspeakof a ruleror strongerwhoseinterest,asyou weresaying,he being the superior,it is justthat theinferiorshouldexecute--ishe a ruler in the popularor in thestrict senseof the term?

In the strictestofall senses,he said. Andnowcheatandplaythe informerifyou can; I askno quarterat yourhands.Butyou neverwillbe able,never.

Theessen- And do you imagine,I said, thatI amsucha madmanastial mean-ing of to try and cheat Thrasymachus? I mightas well shavewords dis- a lion.fromtinguishedtheirWhy, he said,youmadetheattempta minuteago,andyouattributes, failed.

Enough,I said,of thesecivilities. It willbe better that Ishouldask you a question: Is the physician,taken in thatstrict sense of whichyou are speaking,a healerof the sickor a maker of money? And rememberthat 1 am nowspeakingof the true physician.

A healerof thesick,he replled.Andthe pilot--thatis tosay,the true pilot--ishe a captain

ofsailorsor a meresailor?A captainof sailors.

is drawing to a conclusion, t9

The circumstancethat he sails in the ship is not to be Re/_h_taken intoaccount; neither is he to be calleda sailor; the ,r.namepilotbywhichhe is distinguishedhas nothingto do So_,T_,Tn_L_UAowithsailing,butis significantof his skillandof hisauthority _us.overthe sailors.

Very true,he said.Now,I said,everyarthasaninterest?Certainly.For whichtheart hasto considerandprovide?Yes, thatis the aimofart.And the interestof anyart is theperfectionof it--thisand

nothingelse?What doyoumean?I meanwhatI mayillustratenegativelybythe exampleof

the body. Supposeyouweretoask mewhetherthebodyisself-sufficingor haswants,I shouldreply: Certainlythebodyhas wants; forthe bodymaybe ill and require tobe cured,and has therefore intereststo which the art of medicineministers; and this is the origin and intentionof medicine,as youwillacknowledge.AmI notright?

342 Quiteright, he replied.But is the art of medicineor any other art faultyor Arthasno

deficientin anyqualityin the samewaythatthe eyemaybe imperfec-tionto be

deficientin sight or the ear failof hearing,and thereforecorrected,requiresanother art to providefor the interestsof seeingandthere-foreno ex-

andhearing--has art in itself,I say,any similarliabilityto traneousfault or defect,and does everyart requireanothersupple-interest.mentaryart to provideforits interests,and thatanotherandanotherwithoutend? Or have the arts to lookonlyaftertheirown interests? Or have theyno needeitherof them-selvesor of another?--havingnofaultsor defects,theyhaveno needto correctthem,either bythe exerciseof their ownart or of any other; theyhave onlyto considerthe interestof their subject.matter. For everyart remainspure andfaultlesswhile remainingtrue--that i_while perfectalTcVunimpair_d.....1ake_Ti'ewordsinyourprecisesense,andtell mewhether I amnot fight.

Yes,clearly.Then medicinedoesnot considerthe interestof medicine,lUusua-

but the interesto_ y.t;2

20 When he suddealy creates a diversiozt.

Re_b:_ True, he said.Z Nor doestheart of horsemanshipconsiderthe interestsof

so,_,=, the art of horsemanship,but the interests of the horse-T/tRA_"VMA*c._ neitherdo anyother arts care for themselves,for theyhave

noneeds; they care onlyfor that which is the subjectof

their art?: True,he said.

/ ) Butsurely,Thrasymaehus,_uperioys ' andrulersof theirownsubjects?•.\ To thishe assentedwitha gooddealofreluctance.

Then, I said, no scienceor art considersor enjoinsthe:interest of the stronger or superior,but only"the interest

ofthe sub'ei_andweaker?He made an attempt to contestthis propositionalso,but

fnally acquiesced.Then, I continued,no physician,in so far as he is a

physician,considershis owngood inwhathe prescribes,butthe goodofhis patient; for the truephysicianis alsoa rulerhaving the human bodyas a subject, and is not a meremoney-maker; that has beenadmitted?

Yes.

And the pilotlikewise,in thestrict senseof the term, isarulerof sailorsand not ameresailor?

That hasbeenadmitted.And sucha pilotand rulerwillprovide and prescribefor

the interest of the sailor who is under him, and not forhis ownor the ruler's interest?

He gavea reluctant'Yes.'Thedis- Then, I said,Thrasymachus,there is no one in any ruleinterestea-who,in sofar as he is a ruler_consi_'lsheSSofrulers, fortiiS--_¢iiinterest'butalwayswhatis for the interestofhis

subjector suitableto hisart ; to thathe!oo..ks,and that alonehe considersin everythingwhichhe saysand does.

Whenwe hadgot to thispointin theargument,and every343one sa/_¢tha{ihe defini/_on'_of' justice hadbeen compietelyup_-'WTh'Yff_ymac_us,_hs-_ad-_of-reply-/ngfto_e,said- Tellme, ?

Theimpu- Why do you ask sucha question,I said,whenyou oughtdence ofThrasy- ratherto be answering?maehus. Becauseshe leavesyou to snivel,and neverwipesyour

Instead of answering" questions he makes a s_beech. 2x

nose: she has not even taughtyou to knowthe shepherdRe:u_¢icfromthe sheep. /-

What makesyou saythat? I replied, so_,_.,THRASYMA-

Becauseyou fancythat the shepherdor neatherdfattens c._.or tends the sheep or oxen with a viewto their own good Thrasyma-

ehus dilates

and not to the good of himselfor his master; and you uponthefurther imaginethat the rulers of states, if they are true advantagesrulers, never think of their subjectsas sheep,and that they ofinjustice.are not studyingtheir own advantagedayand night. Oh, /no; and so entirelyastray are you in your ideas about/the just and unjustas not evento knowthatjusticeand the[just are in realityanother'sgood; that is tosay, the interestof the ruler and stronger, and the loss of the subjectandservant; and injusticethe opposite; for t_is lordover the truly simpleand just: he is the stronger,andhis subjectsdowhatis for his interest,and ministerto hishappiness,whichisveryfar frombeingtheirown. Considerfurther,mostfoolishSocrates,thatthefjust is alwaysa loser ::_in comparisonwith the unjust. _irs_jof all, in privatecontracts: wherever the unjust is ta_ partner of the justyou will find that, when the partnershipis dissolvesL_theunjust man has alwaysmore and the just less. _dly,in their dealingswith theState: whenthereisanincome_.__ 7the just manwillpaymoreand the unjustless on the sameamountof income; andwhenthereis anythingtobe receivedthe one gains nothingand the other much. Observealso especially

when pur-whathappenswhentheytakeanoffice; thereis the justman s,edonaneglectinghisaffairsand perhapssufferingotherlosses,and _at scale.gettingnothingoutof the public,becausehe is just; more-overhe ishatedby hisfriendsand acquaintanceforrefusingto serve them in unlawfulways. But all this is reversedin theeaseof the unjustman. I am speaking,as before,of

344injusticeona largescaleinwhichthe advantageof theunjusti ismostapparent; andmymeaningwillbe mostclearly'seen

if we turn to that highestform of injusticein which theE: criminalis the happiestof men,and the sufferersor those

whorefuseto do injusticeare the mostmiserable--t_ to Tyranny.: say tyranny,whichby fraudand force takesawaythe pro-

perty,o__httle byllttIeii_; compre-hending m one, things sacredas well as profane,private

22 Tkrasymachus in the kattds of Socrates.

Re[_hlie and public; for whichacts of wrong, if he were detectedz perpetratinganyone of themsingly,he wouldbe punished

:: s,,¢_-_, and incur great disgracewthc.y,who do suchwron_ar-::_ T.,,_,,_-_us._/ ticularcasesare calledrobbersof temples,and man-stealers

",4__._"_ and burglarsand swindlersand thieves. Bu_besid_ay_ ._oZ./2te- _ -has._madeslav-"_--6fthem,then,insteadof these namesof reproach,heis t_nned'_happyand blessed,"n-o(onl_c_tIab6"_"m_ii-_"butbyall who hear of his having achievedthe consummationof3

,._ .4_,_jC injustice. For mankindcensure_ustice, feai_iigiliaiiheymay be the victimsof itiiiiiiii_andnot becausethey'_h-_ni_from

/ c_--om---_l_thus, as I have shown, Socrates,in-[ justice,w_zca!e._ has more strength and

L/ { freedomand masterythan justice; and, as I said at first,"_.) justice is the interest of the stronger, whereas injusticeis

_\\"_ \ a man'sownprofitand interest.,.,-_yma- Thrasymachus,when he had thus spoken,having,like achushavingbath-man,delugedourearswith hiswords,bada mindtogomade hisspeech away. But the companywouldnot let him; they insistedwantsto thatheshouldremainanddefendhisposition; andI myselfrun away,buti_de- addedmy own humblerequestthat hewouldnot leaveus.taine_by Thrasymachus,I said to him,excellentman,howsuggestivethe com-pany. are your remarks! And are you goingto run awaybefore

you have fairlytaught or learnedwhether they are true ornot? Is the attempt to determinethe wayof man's life sosmalla matter in your eyes--to determinehowlife maybepassedbyeachoneof us to the greatestadvantage?

And do I differ fromyou,he said,as to the importanceofthe enquiry?

You appear rather, I replied,to haveno care or thoughtabout us,Thrasymachus_whetherwe live better or worsefromnotknowingwhatyou sayyou know,is to youa matterof indifference.Prithee,friend,do notkeepyourknowledge345toyourself; weare a largeparty; andanybenefitwhichyouconferuponus willbe amplyrewarded. For myownpart Iopenlydeclare that I am not convinced,and that I do notbelieveinjusticeto be more gainfulthanjustice,even if un-controlledandallowedto havefreeplay. For,grantingthattheremaybe an unjustmanwho is able to commitinjusticeeitherbyfraudor force,stillthisdoes not convincemeof the

Tke art of payment. 23

superioradvantageofinjustice,andtheremaybeotherswho xe/_l#are in the samepredicamentwithmyself. Perhapswemay /"be wrong; ifso, youinyourwisdomshouldconvinceus that s_T_.

THRASYMA-

weare mistakeninpreferringjusticeto injustice, c.vs.And how am I to convinceyou, he said,if you are not Theswag-

alreadyconvincedby whatI havejust said; what morecan gerofThrasyma-I dofor you? Wouldyouhave meput theproofbodilyinto chgs.yoursouls?

Heaven forbid! I said; I wouldonlyask you to be con-sistent; or, if youchange,changeopenlyandlet therebenodeception. For I must remark,Thrasymachus,if youwillrecallwhatwaspreviouslysaid,that althoughyoubegan bydefiningthe true physicianin an exact sense,you did notobservea like exactnesswhen speakingof the shepherd;youthoughtthat theshepherdas a shepherdtends thesheepnot witha viewto their owngood,but like a merediner orbanquetterwith a view to the pleasuresof the table; or,again,as a trader forsale in the marke%and not as a shep-herd• Yet surelythe art of the shepherdis concernedonlywith the good of his subjects; he has onlyto providethebest for them,since theperfectionof the art is alreadyen-suredwheneverall the requirementsof it aresatisfied. Andthatwaswhat I wassayingjust nowaboutthe ruler. I con-ceivedthat theart of the ruler,consideredas ruler,whether

7 in a stateor inprivatelife,couldonlyregardthegoodof hisflockor subjects; whereasyou seemto thinkthat therulersinstates,that is tosay,the truerulers,likebeinginauthority.

Think! Nay,I amsureof it.Then whyin the case of lesserofficesdo men nevertake

themwillinglywithoutpayment,unlessunder the idea that346they govern for the advantagenot of themselvesbut of

others? Let me ask you a question: Are not theseveral Theartsarts different,by reason of their each having a separatehavedif-ferentfunc-

function"_ And,mydear illustriousfriend,do saywhatyou tionsand• arenottothink,thatwemaymakea littleprogress, becon-

Yes, that is the difference,he replied, foundedwiththeAndeachartgivesus a particulargoodand not merelya artofpay-

general onemmedicine,for example,givesus health; navi- mentwhichiscommongation,safetyat sea,and soon? tothemall.

Yes, he said.

24 Gdvernmeuts rule for t/_eir subjects' good,

Rw#_lic And the art of paymenthasthe specialfunctionof givingL pay: butwe do not confusethiswith other arts, anymoreso_,_, than the art of the pilot is to be confusedwith the art ofT_tASVNA-_u_. medicine,becausethehealthofthe pilotmaybe improvedby

a seavoyage. Youwouldnot be.inclinedto say,wouldyou,that navigationis the art of medicine,at least if we are toadoptyour exactuseof language?

Certainlynot.Or becausea man is in goodhealthwhenhe receivespay

youwouldnot say that the art of paymentis medicine?I shouldnot.Nor wouldyou saythat medicineis the art of receiving

paybecausea mantakesfeeswhenhe is engagedinhealing?Certainlynot.Andwe haveadmitted,I said,that the good.of eachart is

speciallycourt -Yes.Then, if there be any goodwhichall artistshave in com.

mon,that is to be attributedto somethingofwhichthey allhavethe commonuse?

True,he replied.Andwhen the artist is benefitedbyreceivingpay the ad-

vantage is gained by an additionaluse of the art of pay,whichis not the artprofessedby him?

He gavea reluctantassent to this.Then the pay is not derivedby the several artists from

theirrespectivearts. But the truthis, thatwhile the artofmedicinegives health, and the art of the builderbuildsahouse, another art attends themwhich is the art of pay.The various arts may be doing their own businessandbenefitingthat overwhich theypreside,butwouldthe artist]_...receiveanybenefitfromhis art unlesshe werepaidaswell?,/Y

I supposenot.Butdoeshe thereforeconferno benefitwhenhe worksfor

nothing?Certainly,he confersa benefit.

Thetrue Thennow,Thrasymachus,there is no longerany doubtrul_orartists_.ks,that neither arts nor governmentsprovide for their own i_othisowninterests; but, as wewere beforesaying,theyrule and pro-i

advaatage,vide for the interestsof their subjectswho are theweaker!lattthe

and must therefore be paid. 25

and not thestronger--to their good theyattendand not to ,R_tic• • . /,

the good of the superior. And thinis the reason,mydear/ "Thrasymachus,why, as t was just now saying, no one is os_.__'G_uODN.

willingto govern; becauseno one likesto takein handthe perfectionreformationof evilswhichare not his concernwithoutre- ofhisart;347muneration. For, in the executionof his work, and in andthere-forehe

givinghis orders to another,the true artistdoes not regard mustbehis owninterest,butalwaysthat of his subjects; andthere- paid•forein order that rulers maybe willingto_:ule,theymustbepaid_, oneof threemodesof payment,money,or hon_r, ora p_//_31_yfor refusing. " -_'

What do youmean,Socrates? saidGlaucon. Thefirsttwo Threemodesof paymentare intelligibleenough,butwhatthepenaltymodesofpayingis I do not understand,or howa penaltycan bea payment, rulers.

You mean that you do not understandthenature of this money,honour,

paymentwhichto the best men is the great inducementto andapenalty for

rule .9 Of course you knowthat ambitionand avariceare refusingtoheldto be, as indeedtheyare,a disgrace? rule.

Very true.And for this reason,I said, moneyand honourhaveno

attractionfor them; good men do not wish to be openlydemandingpaymentfor governingandso toget thenameofhirelings, nor by secretly helping themselvesout of thepublicrevenuesto get the name of thieves. Andnotbeing /ambitioustheydo not careabouthonour. Whereforeneces-]sity must be laid uponthem, and theymust be inducedto/servefromthe fearof punishment. Andthis,as I imagine,Thepenal-tyis the

is the reasonwhythe fo_ess to take office,in._teadof evilofbe-waitingto be compelled,has 2_n deomedclidaannHrahle,ingruled• ---- . by an in-Nowtheworstpartof thepumshmentis thathe whorefuses_'r....to rule is liabletobe ruled byonewhoiswgr_Ah__a_nhims_e_lf.And the fearof this,as I conceive__office,not becausetheywould,butbecausetheycannothelp--not under the idea that theyare goingtohaveanybenefitor enjoymentthemselves,but as a necessity,and becauseInacitythey are not able to committhe task of rulingto anyone eomposeclwhois betterthan themselves,or indeedas good. Forthere whollyofgoodmenis reason to think that if a citywere composedentirelyof there_ouldgood men,then to avoidofficewouldbe as muchan objectbeunwilling_agreatofcontentionas toobtainofficeis at present;thenweshouldnesstonfle.

26 Tkrasymackus is put to t]_equestion.

Rep_ haveplainproofthat the true ruler is not meantbynature/. to regard his own interest, but that of his subjects;andso_aT_, everyone who knewthiswould chooserather to receiveaa'HR,-_- benefitfromanother than to have the troubleof conferring

one. So far am I from agreeingwith Thrasymaehusthatjustice is the--i-dteresto_rtge_r, ilai-_TaZterquestionnee-tiT-n-orbe furtherdiscussedat present ; but whenThrasy-

Thrasyma-machussaysthat the lifeof theunjust ismoreadvantageouschus main-tainsthat ;thanthatof the just,his newstatementappearsto meto bethelifeof _of a far moreseriouscharacter. Which of us has spokentheunjust . truly? Andwhichsortof life,Glaucon,doyouprefer?is betterthan the _ I for mypartdeem the lifeof the just to be the morelifeofthe advantageous,he answered.just.

Did you hear all the advantagesof the unjustwhich348Thrasymachuswasrehearsing?

Yes,I heardhim,he replied,buthe has notconvincedme.Thenshall we try to findsomewayof convincinghim,if

we can,thathe issayingwhatisnottrue?Mostcertainly,he replied.If, I said, he makesa set speechandwe makeanother

/ recountingall thea_n't@-es _ b-e-i-ngj'ust,andhe answe_'_s] andwe rejoin,theremustbe a nu_m_ing of[ the goodswhichare claimedon eithers_d_in the! end we shall wantjudgest_cide; but if we pro'-"-'--_--c_eedin

r ] our efiqmryas we latelydid,by iiiakingadmissionsto one,'-- t another,we shall unite the offices0f judge and advoca.te

in ourownpersons.Verygood,he said.Andwhichmethoddo I understandyouto prefer? I said.Thatwhichyoupropose.Well, then, Thrasymachus,I said, supposeyou begin

at the beginningand answer me. You.say thatperfect-injusticeismoregainfulthanperfectjustice?

Yes,thatis whatI say,and I havegivenyou myreasons.And whatis your viewaboutthem? Wouldyoucallone

ofthemvirtueand the othervice?Certainly.I supposethatyouwouldcall_usticevirtueandinjusticevice?

Aparadox What a charmingnotion! -'go]il_eiy"too,seeingth'at Istillmoreextreme,affirminjusticeto beprofitableandjusticenot.

The just aims at moderagion, not at excess. 27

What else then wouldyou say? Rel'_ic2".The opposite,he replied.Andwouldyou calljusticevice? so_**_,THI_SY_^-

No, I wouldrathersaysublimesimplicity. ¢.u_.Then wouldyou callinjusticemalignity? thatinius-riceisNo ; I wouldrather saydiscretion, virtue,Anddo theunjustappeartoyou tobe wiseandgood?Yes,he said; at anyrate thoseofthemwhoareableto be

perfectlyunjust,andwhohave the powerof subduingstatesa_;--'b_fl_r-----'F_'-yo--_u--l"*_-na'gineme to be talkingot"_._. Even this professionif undetectedhas ad-Jcantages,thoughtheyare not to be comparedwith thoseof

//fwhich I wasjust nowspeaking._ I donot thinkthat I misapprehendyourmeaning,Thrasy-

machus,I replied; butstillI cannothearwithoutamazement/ that you class injusticewithwisdomand virtue,and justice

with the opposite. - ..............Certainly,I do soclassthem.Now, I said, you are on more substantialand almost

unanswerableground; for if the injusticewhichyou weremaintainingto beprofitablehad beenadmittedbyyouas byothers to be viceanddeformity,an answermighthavebeengiventoyou onreceivedprinciples; but nowI perceivethat !

349you will.call injusticehonourableand strong, and to the iunjustyouwillattributeall thequalitieswhichwereattributedby us beforeto the just,seeingthat you do not hesitateto \rank injusticewithwisdomandvirtue.

Youhaveguessedmostinfallibly,hereplied.Then I certainlyought not to shrinkfromgoingthrough

with theargumentso longas Ihavereasonto thinkthatyou,Thrasymachus,arespeakingyourrealmind; for I dobelievethatyou are nowin earnest andarenot amusingyourselfatourexpense.

I maybe in earnest or not, but whatis that toyou?--torefutethe argumentis yourbusiness.

Very true, I said; that iswhat I haveto do: Butwillyou refutedbybe so good as answer yet one more question? Doesthe theanalogyofthearts.just mantry to gainanyadvantageover thejust?

Far otherwise;if he did he wouldnot be the simpleamusingcreaturewhichhe is.

28 No art aims at eazess.

/" He wouldnot.soe,_r_,_ And howwouldheregardthe attemptto gainan advantageTHF_.qYMA- _.

_o_ over theunjust; wouldthat beconsideredbyhimas justorunjust?

Thejust . He wouldthinkit just,andwouldtry to gaintheadvantage;triestool9-:rainan ad- but he wouldnot be able.vantage Whether he wouldor would not be able, I said, is notovertheunjust,but to the point. My questionis onlywhether the just man,notover while refusingto have more than another just man,wouldthejust ;theunjustwishandclaimto havemorethan the unjust?overboth Yes,he would.just andunjust. Andwhatof the unjust--doeshe claimtohavemorethan

the justman andto domorethan is just?Of course,he said,forhe claimstohavemorethanallmen.And the unjustmanwillstriveandstruggletoobtainmore

than the unjust man or action, in order that he may havemorethan all?

True.

ld we _mayput the matter thus .L.__ just dues notesiremorethan his like but morethan his unlike,whereashe __r'_es--_or-_"_a_bo_h his ]ikeandhis unlike?

Nothing,he said,can be betterthan that statement.And theunjustis goodand wise,andthe just is neither?G_e said.And is not the unjust like the wiseand good and the

just unlikethem?Of course,he said, he who is of a certain nature, is like

thosewhoare ofa certainnature; he whois not, not.Eachofthem,I said,is suchas his likeis?Certainly,he replied.

Illustra- Very good, Thrasymaehus,I said; and now tO take thefions. case ofthe arts : you wouldadmitthatonemanis a musician

and anothernot a musician?Yes.And whichis wiseandwhichis foolish?Clearlythemusicianiswise,and he whois not a musician

is foolish.And he is goodin as far as he is wise,and badin as faras

he is foolish?

The final overgkrow of Thrasymachus. _9

Yes. RepublicAndyouwouldsaythesamesortofthingof thephysician? /'Yes. So_,,,,T_,

THRASYMA-

And do you think, my excellentfriend,that a musician cHu_whenhe adjusts the lyrewoulddesireor claimtoexceedorgo beyonda musicianin the tighteningand looseningthestrings?

I do not thinkthat he would.Buthe wouldclaimto exceedthe non-musician?Ofcourse.

350 And whatwouldyousayof thephysician? In prescribingmeats and drinks would he wish to go beyondanotherphysicianor beyondthe practiceof medicine?

He wouldnot.Buthe wouldwish togobeyondthenon-physician?Yes.

And about knowledgeand ignorancein general; see Theartistwhetheryou think that any man whohas knowledgeever remainswithinthewouldwish to have the choiceof sayingor_fig-_n6i'e'_han I[mitsofano o asn_ledge. Wouldhe not rathersay hisart;or dothe sameas his likein thesamecase?

That, I suppose,canhardlybe denied.And what of the ignorant? wouldhe not desireto have

morethaneither theknowingor the ignorant?I dare say.And theknowingis wise?

And thewiseis_od ?True_Then thew_is¢_ap.dgoodwillnot desireto gainmorethan

his like,but morethanhis unlikeandopposite?Is_po-_v_.........................Whereas the bad and ignorantwilldesire to gain more

than both?Yes.

But did we not say, Thrasymachus,that the unjustgoesbeyondbothhislikeandunlike? Werenottheseyourwords?

Theywere. andsimilar-And you also said that the just willnot go beyondhis lythejust

likebut his unlike? mandoes

3° Tkrasymackus and Socrates.

Re]mklic Yes.I. Then the just is li " _ unjustlike

so¢_, the ev_gnorant ?TH_MA-

_-_. _t_ reference.notexceed And eachof themis such as his likeis?thelimitsofotherjust That wasadmitted.men. Then the just has turnedout to bewise andgoodand the

unjusteviland ignorant.Thrasyma-Thrasymachusmadeall these admissions,not fluently,aschusper-spiringand I repeatthem,but withextremereluctance; it was a hotevenblush-summer'sday,and the perspirationpouredfromhim ining. torrents; and thenI saw whatI had never seen before,

Thrasymachusblushing. As we were now agreedthatjusticewasvirtueandwisdom,and injusticevice and ignor-ance,I proceededto anotherpoint:

Well, I said, Thrasymachus,thatmatteris nowsettled;butwere we not also sayingthat injusticehad strength;do youremember?

Yes, I remember,he said, but do not supposethat Iapproveof what you are sayingor haveno answer; ifhoweverI were to answer,you wouldbe quitecertaintoaccusemeofharanguing; thereforeeitherpermitmeto havemy sayout, or if youwouldratherask, do so, and I willanswer'Verygood,'as they sayto story-tellingoldwomen,andwillnod 'Yes' and ' No.'

Certainlynot,I said,if contrarytoyourrealopinion.Yes,he said,I will,to pleaseyou,sinceyou willnot let

mespeak. What elsewouldyou have?Nothingin the world,I said; andif youare so disposedI

willaskandyoushallanswer.Proceed.Then I will repeat the questionwhichI asked before,in

order that our examinationof the relativenatureof justice35Iand injusticemaybe carriedon regularly. A statementwasmade that injustice is stronger and more powerfulthan

i justice, but nowjustice,havingbeen identifiedwithwisdomand virtue,is easilyshownto be stronger than injustice,ifinjusticeis ignorance; this can no longerbe questionedbyanyone. But I want to viewthe matter,Thrasymachus,ina differentway: You would not deny that a state may be

Injustlce a #rincilMe of weakness and disunion. 3I

unjust and may be unjustlyattemptingto enslaveother 8tpubl/cstates, or may have already enslavedthem,and may be Zholdingmanyoftheminsubjection? soo_T_,']'HRP_.qYIOL.

True, he replied; and I will add that the best and most c,us,perfectlyunjuststate willbe mostlikelyto doso.

I know,I said, that such wasyour position; but what Iwould further consider is, whetherthis power which ispossessedby the superior state can existor be exercisedwithoutjusticeor onlywithjustice.

Ifyou are right in yourview,andjustice iswisdom,then At thisonlywithjustice, butif I amright,thenwithoutjustice, pointthe' temperof

I am delighted,Thrasymachus,to see you not only Thrasyma-chusbegins

noddingassentand dissent,but makinganswerswhichare toimprove.quiteexcellent. Cp.s.45o

That is out ofcivilityto you,hereplied. ,_.6.498c.You are verykind, I said; andwouldyouhave the good-

ness alsoto informme,whetheryouthink thata state,or anarmy,or a band ofrobbersandthieves,or anyothergangofevil-doerscouldact at all iftheyinjuredoneanother?

No indeed,he said,they couldnot.But if theyabstainedfrom injuringoneanother,then they

mightact togetherbetter?Yes.And this is becauseinjusticecreatesdivisionsandhatreds

___sand fighting,and justice_ ......not that true,Thrasymachus?

I agree,he said,becauseI donotwishtoquarrelwithyou. Perfectin-Howgood of you, I said"but I shouldlike to knowalso justice.' whether in

whether injustice,havingthis tendencyto arousehatred,stateorin-wherever existing,amongslavesor amongfreemen,willdividuats.is destrue-not makethem hate one anotherand set themat variancefivetoandrender themincapableofcommonaction? them.

Certainly.And even if injusticebe foundin twoonly,will theynot

quarreland fight,andbecomeenemiestooneanotherandtothe just?

Theywill.And suppose injusticeabidingin a singleperson,would

your wisdom say that she loses or that she retains hernaturalpower?

I' i

32 The suicidal character of injustice.

Rep_l_ Let usassumethat sheretainsher power./" Yet is not the powerwhichinjusticeexercisesof such a

so,_r_, nature that wherevershe takes up her abode,whetherin a_v_ city,in an army,in a family,or in anyother body,thatbody

is, to beginwith, rendered incapable of united action by35_reasonof seditionand distraction;and does it not becomeits own enemyand at variancewithall that opposes it,andwith the just? Is notthis thecase?

Yes,certainly.Andis not injuq_e equallyfatalwhen existingin a single

7person;inthe/ irs lacyre:deri:ghimincapableof 9,on//_ _ _ iaecausehe ,.sn_a( umt_with h,mself,and m t/_:se_nd,. _. placemakinghim an enemytohimselfand thejust.'Y_'-lsnot

C,, that true, Thrasymachus? --'-_Yes.

,_ .3__ And O my friend,I said,surelythegodsare just?c-f_ Grantedthat theyare. _---_--_._/ But if so,the unjustwillbe the enemyofthe gods,andthe

just willbe theirfriend?Feast away in triumph,and take your fill of the argu-

ment; I will not opposeyou, lest I should displeasethecompany.

Recapitu- Wellthen,proceedwithyour answers,andlet mehavethehtion, remainderof my repast. For we have alreadyshownthat

the just are clearlywiser and better and abler than theunjust,and that the unjustare incapableof commonaction;nay more, that to speak as we did of men who are evilactingat any time vigorouslytogether, is not strictly true,for if they had been perfectlyevil, they would have laidhands upon one another; but it is evidentthat there musthave been someremnantof justice in them,whichenabledthem to combine; if there had not been they wouldhaveinjured one anotheras well as theirvictims; theywere but

half-villainsin their enterprises; for had they been wholevillains,and utterly unjust,they would have been utterlyincapableof action. That, as I believe,is the truth_matter,and not whatyousaid at first. But whetherthe justhave--a.better_eKrr_aad_h_ierlifethan the unjust__que_roposed to consTd-_"T't]_/l_theyhave,and for the reasonswhichI-T'h'_avegiven; butstill

The nature of ends and excellences. 33

I should like to examinefurther, for no light matter is at R_pubZicstake,nothinglessthan the ruleof humanlife. I.

Proceed. so_^_,T_IV_.SyMA.

I willproceedby askinga question:Wouldyou not say ¢._thata horse hassomeend? Illustra-tionsof

I should, endsand

And the end or use of a horse or of anythingwouldbe excellencesprepara-thatwhichcouldnot be accomplished,or not sowellaccom-torytotheplished,byany otherthing? enquiryinto the

I donot understand,he said. end and

Let meexplain: Canyousee, exceptwiththe eye? excellenceof theCertainlynot. soul.Or hear,exceptwiththe ear?No.Thesethenmaybetrulysaidtobe theendsoftheseorgans?Theymay.

353 But you can cut offavine-branchwitha daggeror withachisel,andin manyother ways?

Of course.Andyet not so wellaswith a pruning-hookmadeforthe

purpose?True.Maywenotsaythatthisis theendofa pruning-hook?We may.Then now I think you willhave no difficultyin under-

standingmy meaningwhenI askedthequestionwhethertheend of anythingwou!dbe__thatwhichcouldnot be accom-plished,or not so wellac_''--'--_ compl_sh'_d.b'y-a_fb'th-Cf't'h_.-'?--

I under__'fi_h_[ h_e'%_'_n'W_geri*c..........And that to whichan end isappointedhas alsoan excel-Allthingswhichhave

lence? NeedI askagainwhethertheeyehasan end? endshaveIt has. _asov_tuesandexcel-And hasnot the eyean excellence? lencesbyYes. which they

Andthe earhasan endandan excellencealso_ fuimthose• ends.True.And the sameis true of allotherthings; theyhaveeach

oftheman endanda specialexcellence?That isso.Well, and can the eyes fulfil their end if they are

D

34 Everything has a s2_cial end and excellence.

Republicwantingin their own pro er e_d have a d_eetz. instead?so_a_. Howcan they,he said,if theyare blindand cannotseeTHR_-$YMA-o,us. Youmeanto say,if they havelost their properexcellence,

whichis sight; but I havenot arrivedat thatpointyet. Iwouldrather ask the questionmoregenerally,andonlyen-quirewhetherthe thingswhichfulfiltheirendsfulfilthemby

•/" their own properexcetlenc_,and failof fulfillingthemby_ . _: their6wnd_ ..............

Certainly,he replied.I mightsay the sameof the ears; whendeprivedof their

ownproperexcellencethey cannotfulfiltheir end?True.And thesameobservationwillapplyto allother things?I agree.

Andthe Well ; andhasnot thesoul_.u_._.ad..l_ichnothingelsecansou_hasa fulfil? for example,to SUlJerintendand commandanddeli-virtueandanend-- berateandthe like. Are not these functionsproper to thethevirtue soul,and canthey rightlybe assignedto anyotherjustice, theend happi- To no other.hess. And isnot life tobe eckonedamon the endsof thesoul?

Assuredly,he said.And hasnot thesoulan excellencealso?Yes,

And can she or can she not fulfilher own ends whendeprivedof that excellence?

She cannot.f-.\ /I'- Then an evil soul must necessarilybe an evil ruler and

:' superintendent,andthe ogg__l agpod ruler.' "'- k,.. Yes,_; .... . ...._ "

Hence Andwdhavead_!h'at justice is the excellenceof thej_ti_and soul,and ifi_rs'tvm"_t_edefe_'fbTih-C_oul?happinessareneces- That has beenadmitted.sanly con• - /'fThen thejustsoul andthejustmanwilllivewell,andthe t.1"nected. . . ...k. . _ ............ _......

Lunjust manwillhve]II? ..............t// ] T_iYi_-_vq_at"your a umentproves.

/J_ _ [ Andhe who liveswelt is blessedand happy,and he who354qf "J _. _livesill the reverseof happy?

__ --\_ Certainly.ptJ-\ _Then thejust is happy,and theunjustmiserable?

Socrages knows notkit_ alger all. 35

So be it. xe_t,_t/cButhappinessand notmiseryisprofitable, r.Ofcourse. So_,AT_S.Then, my blessedThrasymachus,i_j.gsticecan neverbe c,u_

moreproftablethanjustice.Let this, Socrates,he said, be your entertainmentat the

Bendidea.For whichI amindebtedtoyou, I said,nowthat youhave

growngentletowardsmeandhaveleftoff scolding. Never-Socratesistheless,I havenot beenwell entertained; but thatwas my displeasedwith him-ownfaultand not yours. As an epicuresnatchesa tasteof selfandevery dish which is successivelybrought to table, he not withthehaving allowedhimself time to enjoythe one before,so argument.have I gone from one subject to anotherwithout havingdiscoveredwhatI soughtat fir_st_the n_us_. I left .......that enquiryand turnedawayto const--gi-__rwhetherjust_e isvirtuean_wisdo_ andwhenthere aroseafurth__on a----a'g_uY-_'ffe_-c_mparativeadvantagesofjusticeand injustice,I couldnot refrain frompassingon to that.And the resultof the wholediscussionhasbeenthat I knownothing_itall. For I knownot whatjusticeis, andthere-foreI amnot hkelyto know_er it Is or is not a virtue,norcan I sayw_her the justmanis]_'a'pp_oru_l_y.

D2

a_4

BOOK I I.'-[

R_kublic WITHthesewordsI wasthinkingthatI had madeanend t_At. of the discussion; but theend,in truth, provedto be only 357

soo_,_s, a beginning. For Glaucon,who is alwaysthe most pug-, naciousof men, was dissatisfiedat Thrasymachus'retire-

ment; he wantedto have the battleout. So he saidto me:Socrates,doyouwishreallyto persuadeusj.or on___seemto havepersud_a_( t_ ]mJUStis _!_ys betterthanto

"--*'0-'7 ......• : be u_njust?•- I shouldwishreallyto persuadeyou, I replied,if I could.

Thethree- Thenyou certainlyhave not succeeded. Let me ask_(oufold divi- "sionof now:--Howwouldyou arrangegoods--are therenot_(_nae."gogds. whichwewelcomefor their own sakes,andindependentlyof

;__z_/-_ their consequences,as, for example,harm!eSSop!eazsuresalxdi J_ *Z_,_._J,_ enjoyments,whichdelight us at the time,althoughnothing

._4%.,¢o_ fol]bwst'r0_m-them?• /_ , I agreeIn thinkingthatther_a_uch a class,I replied._)_L_..._ Is there not also a sec_n'cldas_'of goods,such as know-2"_.._¢_ ¢ff,:i'_'t':_--ledge, sight,health,whi_l_-_edesirablenotonly in them-" w_,¢_.A./_-_. _ selves,butaiso fortheirresults?

*" "_- _ And would not ".:_', .,.._ tt_4._,,_._ you reeogmzea tMrd el'ass, as gym-such

_'_ _,_nastic,andthe careof the sick,andt_e-lahysician'sart ; also.¢_t_-_/_:._/.. .... thevariouswaysof money-making--thesedo usgoodbutwe

_-_/_/ regardthemasdisagreeable; andnooneS[ d Ch-_--_et_'_m_:,O,.-._,(.-.:_._,,*for th____a£_me rewardor: _/. resu_ows fromthem?

{7 ' T__ird_class also.Butwhydoyouask?BecauseIwanttoknowinwhichofthethreeclassesyou

wouldplacejustice?In the hig_'replied,_among thosegoodswhich358

i

The old guestion resumed. 37hewhowouldbe happydesiresbothfortheir owng..s_ak¢and Re:ublic :forthesakeof theirresults. 11. i

Thenthemanyare of anothermind• theythink that jus- so_,' GLAUCON.

ticeistobereckonedinthetroublesomeclass,amonggoodswhicharetobepursuedforthesakeofrewardsandofrepu-tation,butinthemselvesaredisagreeableandrathertobeavoided.

I know,I said,thatthis is their mannerof thinking,andthatthiswasthe thesiswhichThrasymachuswasmaintainingjust now, whenhe censuredjusticeandpraisedinjustice.ButI amtoostupidto beconvincedbyhim.

I wish,he said,thatyouwouldhearme as well as him,Threeandthen I shall see whetheryouandI agree. ForThra-headsoftheargu-symachusseems to me,likea snake,to havebeencharmedrnent:-by yourvoicesooner thanheoughtto havebeen; buttomy _"Thena-_-- tureof jus-min_[the natur _ d in'usticehavenot yet been flee:madedear. Settingasidetheirrew_ds andresults,Iwant 2.Justice.......... " a necessity,to knowwhattheyarem themselves,andho_,theyinwardlybutnotaWO_in the_..uL-lt_ please,then,I willrevivetheargu-good:, 3. The rea-mentof Thrasymachus. And_sfI willspeakof thenature._..__sonable-andorigin of justice accordingto thecommonviewof them._e_softhi_,, , - notion.

S__ill showthatallmen whopractisejusticedosoagainst their will, of necessity,but not as a good. And %

_ll_y, I willargue that there is reasonin thisview,forthe t,, •lifeof the unjustis afterallbetterfar thanthe lifeof thejust_ _"--if whatthey sayis true, Socrates,sinceI myselfam notoftheir opinion. But still I acknowledgethat I am perplexedwhenI hear thevoicesofThrasymachusandmyriadsofothersdinningin myears; and,on the other hand,I haveneveryet heardthesuperiorityofjusticeto injusticemaintainedby 1anyonein a satisfactoryway. I wanttohearjusticepraisedin respectofitself; then I shallbesatisfied,andyouarethe !personfromwhomI thinkthat I ammostlikelytohearthis;and thereforeI willpraisethe unjustlifeto theutmostofmypower,andmymannerof speakingwill indicatethemannerin which I desire to hear you too praisingjustice andcensuringinjustice. Will you saywhetheryouapproveofmy proposal?

IndeedI do ; nor can I imagineanythemeaboutwhicha _manofsensewouldoftenerwishtoconverse.

k.i

38 The ring of Gyges.

Repubh'c I am delighted,he replied,to hear you sayso,andshall1I. beginby speaking,as I proposed,of thenatureandoriginof

GLA_co_.iustice.Justicea Thev saythat todo injusticeis, bynature,good; tosuffercompro-injustice,evil" but that the evil is greater thanthg.g_qod.raisebe-tweendo- Andsowhenmenhavebothclonean_injustice andLagand havehad experienceof both,not beingable to avoidthe one359suffering

_"_ eva. and obtain th_t--_i_-tfih_-t-he_;-h__e;i among themselvesto have neitheri hence therearise laws:_ a_ual covenants; aridthatwhichis ordainedby lawis

termedbythemlawfulandjus_---'-'-'-'-'-'-'-'-_ffrVto--b-e-'t_e

t originan-d'natureof justice;--it is a_mean_orcompro_rni__se,

betweenthe best of all,whichis to do injusticeandnot be

A_ _// without the powerOT-_taliation;-and justice, be!nga_middlepointbetweenthe two,is tolerate_l-hbV_ff_.d, butas th_ _fl,, andh___-by_reason" of ih-einabilityofmen t0o-d'6_justice.For noman whois worthyto be calleda manwouldever submitto such an agreementif he wereable to resist; he wouldbe mad if he did. Such is the

:.._ received account,Socrates, of the nature and origin of• "-_._'_.,, justice.

"J_ "_ Now that thosewho practise'justicedo so involuntarily"" and becausetheyhave not"_ power-_'lSe-_t

c'f,._ a_we imaginesomethingof this kind-having givenb67thto the just and the unjustpowerto dowhattheywill,let uswatehandsee whitherdesirewill lead them; thenweshalldiscoverin theveryact the just and unjustmanto beproceedingalong the same road, followingtheir interest,whichall natures deem to be their good,and are only di.verted into the path of justice by_the force of law. Theliberty which we are supposingmay be ino_ "completelygivento themin the form of sucha poweras is saidto havebeen possessedbyGyges, the ancestorof Croesusthe Ly-

Thestory dian_. Accordingto the tradition,Gygeswas a shepherdinofGyges. the serviceof the king of Lydia; there wasa great storm,

andan earthquakemadean openingin the earthat theplacewhere he was feedinghis flock. Amazedat the sight, he

i Readiagr/,y1__rq7I¢_i_tou_-o__ _rpo'l,d_,_.

14rhowouM bejust if he couM not hefoulut out _ 39

descendedinto the opening,where,amongothermarvels,he Republicbeheld a hollowbrazen horse, having doors,at whichhe II.stoopingand looking in saw a dead bodyof stature, as GL,uco,.appearedto him,morethan human,and havingnothingonbut agoldring ; this he tookfromthe fingerof thedeadandr_ascended_-.Nowthe shepherdsmettogether,accordingtocustom,that theymightsend their monthlyreportabouttheflocksto the king; into their assemblyhe camehavingthering on his finger,and as he was sittingamongthem hechancedto turn the colletof the ringinsidehis hand,wheninstantlyhe becameinvisibleto the rest of the companyandtheybeganto speakof himas if he werenolongerpresent.

360He was astonishedat this,and againtouchingthe ring heturnedtheeolletoutwardsandreappeared; he madeseveraltrialsof the ring,and alwayswith thesameresult--whenheturned the collet inwards he becameinvisible,when out-wardshereappeared. Whereuponhe contrivedtobe chosenoneofthe messengerswhoweresentto thecourt; whereassoonas he arrived he seducedthe queen,andwithher helpconspiredagainstthe king and slewhim,andtooktheking-dom. Supposenowthat therewere two such magicrings, Theappli-cationofandthejust puton oneofthemandtheunjusttheother; no thestorymancan be imaginedto be of such an iron naturethat he ofGyges.wouldstand fast__N o manwouldkeephis handsoffwhat"-wasnot his ownwhenhe couldsafelytakewhathe .-TL_.likedout of the market,or go into housesandliewithany /7_--oneat his pleasure,or kill or releasefromprisonwhomhe_! _would,and inall respectsbe likea Godamongmen. Then *__6....the actmnsof the lust wouldbeas the actmnsof theunjust; _they wouldboth comeat last to the samepoint. And this /we maytrulyaffirmto be a great proofthat a manis just,not_sth_ is anygoodtohimindividua_er any onethinksthathecansafel.y_beunjust,therehe is unjust. Forall men believe in their hearts t_t injiisfic_is far moreprofitableto the individualthan justice,andhe whoarguesas I have been supposing,will say that they are right. Ifyou couldimagineanyoneobtainingthispowerofbecominginvisible,and never doing anywrongor touchingwhatwasanother's,he would be thoughtby the lookers-onto be a

_ 40 Thejua and unjuststri_ibedof a_peara_ces._'e_ Rtth_bli¢ mostwretchedidiot,althoughtheywouldpraisehim toone_i ti. another'sfaces,andkeep up appearanceswithone another_i o_veo_ froma fear that theytoo might sufferinjustice. Enoughof17 this.

Now,ifwe are to form a realjudgmentof the lifeof the_ just and unjust,we must isolatethem; there is no other

way; and how is the isolationto be effected? I answer:,_ Let the unjustman be entirelyunjust, and the just man

_,_: entirelyjust ; nothingis to be takenawayfromeither of_: them,and bothare to be p_-rf_ctlyfurnishedforthe workof

Theanjusttheir respectivelives. F_t, Jlet the unjust be like otherrobeclothed distinguishedmasters of craft; like the skilful pilot orwithpowerphysician,who knows intuitivelyhis own powersandkeeps36x

-1 and repu-' tation, within their limits,andwho,if he failsat anypoint,is able

to recoverhimself. So let the unjustmakehis unjustat.temptsin the rightway, andlie hiddenif he meansto begreatin his injustice: (hewhois foundout is nobody;)forthehighestreachof injusticeis, tobedeemedju_ whenyou

, ,: , ar_'-Tti_i:_fbiZe_s_i);that"-_n-'the perfectlyunjustman

(_t._:-*:' we mustassumethe mostperfectinjustice; thereis tobe no• deduction,but we must allowhim, while doingthe mostunjust acts, to have acquired the greatest reputation forjustice. If he have taken a falsestep he must be able to

! recoverhimself;he mustbe onewhocan speakwitheffect,ifany of his deeds cometo light,and who can forcehis waywhereforceis requiredbyhis courageandstrength,andcom-mandof moneyandfriends. Andat his sideletus placethejust man_inhis noblenessandaimp_'.as_._cchy-

Thejust lus says, to be and not to seemgood. There must be noto be un-clothed of se_-_in_ if he seemto be just he willbe honouredandallbuthis rewarded,andthenwe shallnot knowwhetherhe is justforvirtue, thesakeof justiceor for the sake of honoursandrewards;

therefor_e%_Lethimbe clothedin justiceonly, and have noother covering';_'_a-nd-hC iiiiJstbe imaginedin a state of lifethe._p_of the former. Let htm"he the bestof men,_'-andlethimbe thought......... ..............................the worst; then ]aew_ ]have_en put tothe_fl_/_s'hAII"see whetherhe will be affectedbythe fear of infamyand its consequences. And let himcon-

., tinuethus to the hourof death; beingjust andseemingto: be unjust. Whenbothhavereachedthe uttermostextreme,

T/w just in tormengs, ghewicked in prosperity. 4I

the oneofjusticeand the otherof injustice,letjudgmentbe ,ee/_,bl_givenwhichof themis thehappierofthetwo. II.

Heavens! mydear Glaucon,I said,howenergeticallyyou SOC_,T_Gtatucor_.polishthemup for thedecision,first one and thentheother,as if theyweretwostatues.

I do mybest,he said. And nowthatweknowwhat theyare like there is no difficultyin tracingout the sort of lifewhichawaitseitherof them. ThisI willproceedtodescribe;but as youmaythinkthe descriptiona littletoocoarse,I ask s _you to suppose,Socrates,that the wordswhichfolloware "_notmine.--Letmeput themintothemouthsof theeulogists. .._.,-/ iof injustice: They will tell you that thej_Lma_ x_ho=is_:,::_'_/'_*thoughtunjust willbe scourged,rackedjbo_und--willhavehis e'yesbu-rnfout; an-_,a_uffering everykindof '__

; evil,he wil_: -fhTfi_h_-w_'fi_t'_at-he Thejust:/_-02736u_em only, and not to be, iust; the wordsof ,manwill._ _

. o _eamoy _ __Aeschylusmaybe more trulyspokenof the unjustthanof eachexpe:_..riencethaf_" _':"7thejust. For the unjustis pursuinga rr.ality; he.A!9¢_not heought:j -

livewitha._vj_ewtoa_p.e,._xiLr_¢es.--hewantstobereallyunjusttoseem.._,---?_andnotto _ gandnotto seemonly:-- bejust.

' Hismindhasa soildeepandfertile, _ *. a-I_Outof whichspringhisprudentcounselst.'

In thefirstplace,he is thoughtjust,andthereforebearsruleinthecity; hecanmarrywhomhewill,andgiveinmarriageto whomhewill; alsohe can tradeanddealwherehelikes, Theunjust

whoap-and alwaysto his own advantage,becausehe has no mis-pearsjust '_givings about injustice; and at everycontest,whetherin willattainpublicor private,he gets the better of his antagonists,and everysortof pros-gains at their expense,andis rich,and out of his gainshe perity.can benefithis friends,andharmhis enemies; moreover,hecan offersacrifices,anddedicategiftsto thegodsabundantlyand magnificently,and can honour the gods or any manwhomhewantsto honour in a far betterstylethanthejust,.._ 7 i,and thereforehe is likelyto be dearerthan theyare to thegods. And thus, Socrates,godsand menare saidto unite _°in makingthelifeoftheunjustbetterthanthe lifeofthejust.

I wasgoingtosaysomethingin answertoGlaucon,when

I SevenagainstThebes,574- '_

7"

J

leslie Adeimantus,his brother,interposed: Socrates,he said,youjr. donotsupposethatthereis nothingmoreto beurged?

_u_ Why, whatelse is there? I answered.SOC_a_TES."' The strongestpointofallhas notbeenevenmentioned,he

replied.i_ Well, then, accordingto the proverb,' Let brother help

brother'--if he failsin anypart doyouassisthim; although. I must confessthatGlauconhas alreadysaid quite enough_: to layme in thedust,and take frommethepowerofhelping!i justice.t_ Aaeiman- Nonsense,he replied. But let me add somethingmore:1 tus_k_s There isanotherside toGlaucon'sargumentaboutthe praise!_ up thet: argument, andcensureofjusticeand injustice,whichisequallyrequired

Justiceis in order to bring out what I believe to be his meaning.praisedandinjusticeParentsand tutorsare alwaystellingtheir sons and theirb_xaea,bmwardsthattheyareto_just ; butwhy? not.fi_.tJa_e_sakeof363only out ofregardto justice,butfor_ of character_d_utation ; in thetheircon- hope'_o_'_m'_w_o _is_re_ut_.djust_som_-_p-t'_hose

: r_luences,offi_--_nd the likewhichGlauconhasenumeratedamongthe advantagesaccruingto the unjustfromthe repu-tationofjustice. More,however,is madeof appearancesbythis classof persons than by the others; forthey throwinthegoodopinionof the gods,andwilltell you of a shower

I of benefitswhich the heavens,as they say, rain upon the ]_ pious; and this accordswith the testimonyof the nobleHesiod and Homer, the first of whomsays, that the godsJI maketheoaks ofthe just-

4

' Tobearacornsat theirsummit,andbeesin themiddle;Andthesheepareboweddownwiththeweightoftheirfleeces_,'

: and manyother blessingsof a like kind are providedfori them. And Homerhas a verysimilarstrain; for he speaks

of onewhosefameis--

/_Ws the fameof someblamelesskingwho,likea god,aintainsjustice;to whomthe blackearthbringsforthheatand barley,whosetreesarebowedwithfruit,

Andhis sheepnever failto bear,andthe sea giveshimfish_.'

There- Still grinder are the giftsofheavenwhichMusa_._andhiswardsand son3vouchsafeto the just ; they take them downinto the

1Hesiod,WorksandDays,23o. _Homer,Od,xix.Io9. sEnmolp..._

Immoral and impious o[n'nionsand kdiefs. 43

worldbelow,where they have the saints lyingon couchesRe_blicat a feast,everlastinglydrank,crownedwithgarhnds; their II.ideaseemsto be that an immortalityof drunkennessiS-t'fie,_¢_shighes__ Some extefi-ff_t-heh:-fe,_/a_dsyet punish-mentsoffurther,the posterity,as they say, of the faithfuland just anothershall surviveto the thirdandfourthgeneration. Thisis the life.style in which they praise justice. But about the wickedthere is another strain; they bury them in a sloughinHades, and makethem carry wate_so whilethey are yet living they bring themto infamy,and inflictuponthem thepunishmentswhichGlaucondescribedas theportionof the just who are reputed to be unjust; nothingelse does their inventionsupply. Such is their mannerofpraisingthe oneand censuringtheother.

Oncemore,Socrates,I willaskyoutoconsideranotherway Menareof speakingaboutjusticeandinjustice,whichisnot confined_.alwaysre- , /

364to the poets, but is foundin prose writers. The universalit_atin'gvoiceof mankindis always_decl_L_.stic_n-_;irtuei _) 5'_are h_evous andtoilsome; and that the andvi_e_C_p___n._.f-pleasuresof viceandinjusticeareeasyofattainment,andareonlycensuredby lawandopinion. Theysayalsothathonestyis for themostpart less_profitablethan dishonesty;andthey _.are quite ready to callwickedmen _y,-and to honourthembothinpublicandprivatewhentheyare richor in ann.y _"_---_ "other wayinfluential,whilethey desr)iseand overlookthose "<'":_(who fiiaybe weak and poor, even thoughacknowledging .."_v_¢_,themto be better than the others. But mostextraordinary {/of all is their modeof speakingaboutvirtueand the gods:they say that the gods apportion calamityand miser)'tomanygood men, and good and happinessto the wicked.And mendicantprophets go to.rich.men'sdoors and per-,suade_at_they__e _._l_93ycrcommittedto themlby thd igods_ofmakingan atonementfor a man's own]or his ancestor'ss_ _ b_oX__charms, with re-joicingsand feasts: and they promiseto harm an enemy,whether just or unjust, at a small cost; with magicartsand incantationsbindingheaven,as they say, to executetheir will. And the poetsare the authoritiestowhomtheyappeal, now smoothingthe path of vicewith the wordsofHesiod:--

_ '_ _- • _ / " _ : ,-j_ ,

_ .44 on {Aemindof youlA.

_ Re/,_blic Vicemaybe hadin abundancewithouttrouble; thewayisll. moothand herdwelling-placeis near. Butbeforevirtuethe_u,marr_ godshavesettoilI,,

and a tedious and uphill road: then citing Homeras awitnessthat the gods may be influencedby men; forhealsosays:--

' The gods,too,maybe turnedfromtheirpurpose; andmenprayto themandaverttheir wrathbysacrificesandsoothingentreaties,andbylibationsandtheodourof fat,whentheyhavesinnedandtransgressed_.'

l_ "raeyareAndtheyproducea host of bookswrittenbyMusaeusandtaughtthatOrpheus,whowere children of the Moonand the Muses--li sinsmaybe_.sily thatiswhatthey say--accordingto whichtheyperformtheir

li expiated,ritual, and persuadenot only individuals,but wholecities,/ | that expiationsand atonementsfor sin maybe madeby_ ] sacrificesand amusementswhich a vacant hour, arefill and

i: ! equallyat the serviceof the livingandthe dead; the lattersort theycall mysteries,and theyredeem us from thepains365ofhell, but ifwe neglectthemnoone knowswhatawaitsus.

TheeU_ts He proceeded: Andnowwhentheyounghear all thissaidofanthis aboutvirtue and vice,and the wayin whichgods and menupon theyoath_ regard them,how are their mindslikelyto be affected,mymind. dear Socrates,--thoseof them,I mean,who arequickwitted,

and,like bees on the wing,light _ and from• _._" • all that theyhear are prone to_. conclusionsas to what

r, _ ,_L_ _" J mannerof persons they shouldbe and in what waythey

-- _ -r.._/_/J_";_f'[-[__._+ shouldwalk if theywouldmake the bestof life? Probably"k_ theyouthwillsay to himselfin thewordsof Pindar_

_ 'CanI byjusticeor by crookedwaysof deceitascenda loftiertowerwhichmaybea fortresstomeallmydays?Forwhat men say is that, if I am reallyjust andam notalsothoughtjust, profitthere is none,but the pain and loss onthe other hand are unmistakeable.But if, thoughunjust,I acquirethe reputationofjustice,a heavenlylife ispromisedtoAil_']/ic_e-t__ers p,o._,,mppearancetyran-nizes over truthand is lord of happiness,to appearanceImust devote myself. I will describearound me a pictureand shadowofvirtue to be the vestibuleand exteriorof my

Hesiod,WorksandDays,a87. *Homer,Iliad,ix.495.

' La us make tlw 6est of botk worlds.' 45

house; behind I will trail the subtle and craftyfox, as Rel_licArchilochus,greatestof sages, recommends.But I hear H.someone exclaimingthat the concealmentofwickednessis ._,Et,_,_u_often difficult; to whichI answer,Nothinggreat is easy.Nevertheless,the argumentindicatesthis, if we wouldbehappy,to be thepathalongwhichweshouldproceed. Witha viewto concealmentwewill establishsecretbrotherhoodsanneal clubs. Andthereareprofessorsofrhetoricwhoteachthe artof persuadingcourtsand assemblies; and so,partly by persuasio_e,-I-s'h-Affmake un-lawfulgains and not be punished. Still I hear a voicesayingthat the gods cannot_be.O.e_c_eived,-neithercan-theybe _laat-if'-_here are no gods? or,supposethemto haveno care of humanthings--whyin eithercase

should we mind about concealment?And even if there/_eexist_are gods,and they do care aboutus, yetwe knowof them_,end°fthe'*godsisonlyonly from tradition and the genealogiesof the poets; and knowntothese are the very persons who say that theymay be in- usthrough

the poets,flueneedand turned by 'sacrificesand soothingentreatieswholike-

and by offerings.' Let us be consistentthen, andbelievewiseassureus that they

both or neither. If thepoetsspeak truly,whythenwe had maybe366betterbe unjust,andofferof thefruitsof injustice;forifwe bribedand

that theyare just, althoughwe mayescapethevengeanceof heaven,arevery

ready towe shall losethe gainsof injustice; but,if weareunjust,we for#re.shall keepthe gains, and by our sinningand praying,andpraying and sinning, the gods willbe propitiated,andwe /.,_ _=,:.,._._.,_.::shallnotbe punished. 'Butthere isa worldbelowinwhich - _ :" _,_either we or our posteritywill sufferfor ourunjustdeeds.' _:_........ /"Yes,myfriend,willbe thereflection,buttherearemysteries_5_,L._.;_and atoningdeities,and these have great power. That iswhat mightyeities declare; and the childrenof the gods,whoweretheir poetsandprophets,beara liketestimony.

Onwhatprinciple,then, shallweanylongerchoosejusticeratherthan theworst injustice? when,ifweon_ unitethelatterwitha deceitfu]r_to._m_..axances_ we shallfare to

_ t .. oo • • "

ourmindbothwith__sand men,m lifeandafterdeath,asthemostnumerousandth_ntms tellus. now-ingallthis,Socrates,howcana manwhohasanysuperiorityof mindor personor rank or wealth,be willingto honourjustice; or indeedto refrain fromlaughingwhenhe hears

{ j¢o-

,_ tlon/of.l 46 Tim im]_assionedgOerora A ddmantus.

Re_Mi,=justicepraised? Andevenif there/shouldbe someonewhoII. is ableto disprovethe truth ofmyxtords,andwhoissatisfied

._,_x_,_5.thatjustice is best,still he is not/angrywith theunjust,butAllthis, is veryreadyto forgivethem,becat_sehealso knowsthat menevenifnot

_ absolutely arenoJzjust___,h_;r__p_eradventure, theretrue,af- • •fordsgreatbe someonewhomth_l'ivlnitvW_t__,yhave mspwedex_sefor//witha hatredof in'us" _._ ,_ &aowtedgeofdoing/ , thetr_th_=_atrg_..ot4_a_n"He onlyblamesinjusticewho,._ wrong:.

i _3_ _ owingto cowardiceor age or someweakness,hasnotthepowerof beingunjust. And this is provedbythe fact thatwhenheobtainsthepower,heimmediatelybecomesunjustas

, : _ far_-_-e-canbe_J" The causeof all this,Socrates,was indicatedbyus at the

r;_ beginningof the argument,when mybrotherand I toldyou: L "z_ t[

_ _lJ' how astonishedwe were to find that of all the professing: _"S of justice--beginningwiththe ancientheroes of

.._ w_'6manymemorialhas been preservedto us, andending"_ -'_ with the men of our own time--no one has ever blamed

: injusticeor praisedjusticeexceptwith a viewto the glories,honours,and benefitswhichflowfrom them. No one has

:_ ever adequatelydescribedeither in verse or prose the trueessentialnature of either of them abidingin the soul, andinvisibleto anyhumanor divine eye; or shownthat of allthe thingsofa man's soulwhichhe haswithinhh'n,justiceis

Menshouldthe greatestgood,and injusticethe greatestevil. Had this367be taught been the universal strain,had you sought topersuadeusofthatjusticeisinitself this from our youth upwards,we shouldnot havebeen ontbegreatestthewatchto keepone another from doingwrong,but everygoodandinj_tice onewouldhavebeenhis ownwatchman,becauseafraid,if hetbegreatestdidwrong,of_ himselfthegreatestof evils. Ievil.

dare say that Thrasymachusand otherswouldseriouslyholdthe languagewhichI havebeenmerelyrepeating,andwordsevenstrongerthan these aboutjustice and injustice,grossly,as I conceive,pervertingtheir true nature. But I speak inthis vehement manner, as I must franklyconfess to you,becauseI want to hear from you the oppositeside; and Iwouldaskyouto shownot only the superioritywhichjusticehasover injustice,but whateffecttheyhaveonthe possessorof themwhichmakesthe one to be a goodand the ottleranevil to him. And please, as Glaueonrequestedof you, to

Tke genius of Glaucon and .4deimantus. 47

excludereputations;for unlessyou takeawayfromeachof Repubh'cII.them his true reputationand addonthe false,we shallsaythat you do not raise 'usfice but thea 12earanceof_; AD_,,_A_,we shall t_ink that you are onlyexhorting_s_o'_keeepin- so_,T_.justice dark, and thatyou reallyagree withThrasymachusin thinkingthatjustice is another'sgoodandthe interestofthe stronger,and that injusticeis a man's ownprofitandinterest,thoughinjurious to theweaker. Nowas you haveadmittedthat justice is one of that highestclass of goods iwhichare desiredindeedfor theiy_but in a fargreaterdegr_-_like sight or hearingor know-ledgeor health,or anyother realandnaturalandnotmerelyconventionalgood--I wouldaskyouin yourpraiseofjusticetoregardonepointonly: I meanthe essentialgoodandevilwhichjustice_a__tJ_pp_s__ca_ors _af_.Let oe'fh-b--_raisejustice and censureinjustice,magnifyingthe rewards and honoursof the oneandabusingtheother;that is a mannerof arguingwhich,comingfromthem,I amreadytotolerate,but fromyouwhohavespentyourwholelifein theconsiderationofthisquestion,unlessIhearthecontraryfromyour own lips,I expect somethingbetter. Andthere-fore, !_ not onlyprove to us thatjustice is bet_er-_injust'-"ice,but show what they either of them do to the/'--, _P_ --i w lc _akes the one to be a goodand _ _A._.._._the--6t'_f_n-_wheilaer seenor unseenbygodsandmen.

I had alwaysadmired the geniusof GlaueonandAdei-mantus,but on hearing these wordsI wasquitedelighted,

368and said: Sons of an illustriousfather,that wasnot a badbeginningof theElegiacverseswhichtheadmirerofGlaucon'madein honourofyouafteryouhaddistinguishedyourselvesat thebattleofMegara:_

'SonsofAriston,'he sang,'divineoffspringofanillustrioushero.'

The epithet isve_ri_ for thereis somethingtrulyG_,c_divine__ as'y_ou%iyedone for thesupe-=d Aa_i-rioHtyof injustice,and remainingunconvincedbyyourown abletoarguments. And I do believethat you are notconvinced--arguesowell.butthis I infer fromyour generalcharacter,for had I judgedun_on-onlyfromyour speechesI shouldhavemistrustedyou. But vineedtheirownbYnow, the greater my confidencein you, the greater is my arguments.

48 Tke individual a_l tke Stage.

_" Rt#_lic difficultyin knowingwhatto say. For I am in a strait

_ II. betweentwo on the one hand I feel that I am unequalsoc_T_ to thetask; andmy inabilityis broughthometo me bythe"_ x_ma,,_ factthatyou werenotsatisfiedwiththe answerwhichI made

to Thrasymachus,proving,as I thought, the superiority_i whichjustice hasover injustice. Andyet I cannotrefuseto_

help,whilebreathand speechremainto me; ,I am afraidthatthere wouldbe an impietyinbeingpresentwhen_ustice

_ AndthereforeI hadbestgivesuchhelp as I can.Glauconand therest entreatedmebyall means notto let

thequestiondrop,but to proce_l.xintheinvestigation. They_ wantedto arriveat the,J_th, _r_ aboutthenatureof justice

andinjustice,ands_#_onfliy,about theirrelativeadvantages.I toldthem,what I _'gIlythought,thatthe enquirywouldbeof a serious nature, and would require very good eyes.

Thelarge Seeing then, I said, that we are no great wits,I think thatlett_'s. we had better adopta methodwhichI may illustratethus;

supposethat ashort-sightedpersonhad beenaskedbysomeone toread smallletters froma distance; and it occurredtosome one else that they might be found in anotherplacewhichwas largerand in which the letters were larger--ifthey werethesameandhe couldread the larger lettersfirst,and thenproceedtothe lesser--thiswouldhavebeenthoughta rare pieceofgoodfortune.

Very true,saidAdeimantus; but howdoes the illustrationapplyto ourenquiry?

I will tell you, I replied; justice, which is the subje_ ofour enquiry_Lj_sgs_yjamknnw,__Sk_ 6V'_ theviffi_-of-'an individugL_amt-aometimes-asthe virtueof aSt_.-True, he replied.

And is not a Statelargerthanan individual?

J_t_ to Then in the larger the quantityof justice is likelyto bebeseenin largerandmoreeasilydiscernible. I proposethereforethattheStatemoretmaaywe enquireinto the natureof justiceand injustice,firstastlm.i,the they appearin the.State, an_'Tn_-ilfe_fi_vt_al, 369i_mvidma,pr6e_Ud_-'t'_-ni_d_egreaterto the lesser and comparing

them.

a

Tke origin of tke State• 49 ":

That,he said,isan excellentproposaA, xe_UcAnd ff we imaginethe State in processof creation,we 2L

Sock.dis.%shall see the justice and injusticeof the State in processaD_us.ofcreationalso.I daresay.When the Stateis completedtheremaybea hopethat the

objectof oursearchwillbemoreeasilydiscovered.Yes,far moreeasily.But oughtwe to attemptto constructone? I said; for to

do so,as I am inclinedtothink,willbe a veryserioustask.Reflecttherefore.

I have reflected,saidAdeimantus,and am anxiousthatyou shouldproceed.

A State, I saidt.,arises_as I eaneeive-outof the needsThe State...._'_ arises omof mankind; nooneis self-sufficing,butall of ushavemany"of-t-hl-_-:._,*,_wants. Cananyother originof a Statebe imagined? wantso% .

Therecan be noother. Sen_ _, _Then, as we have many wants, and manypersonsare

needed to supplythem,one takes a helper for onepurposeand another for another; and when these partners and(-helpers are gathered togetherin one habitationthebodyof ;inhabitantsis termeda State. ""

True,he said.And they exchangewithone another,and o_and

anotherreceives,underthe ideatl_atthe exchangewiII"b_Y6V-their good.

Very true.Then, I said, letus_'n ideaa ?tate - and

yet the true creator_her ofo_urinvention.

Of course,he r_.Nowthe_"_d greatestof necessitiesis food,which is Thefouror

theeonditf'6nof lifeandexistence, fivegreaterneeds of

Certainly..,t Ufe,andtheThe seeon_4gradwelling,and the third.thing and the ki_dsf°u_°rfi_eof

likTruef _i_nswhoeor-• respondto

And now let us see how our citywillbe able to supply them.this great demand: We maysuppose thatone man is ahusbandman,anothera builder,someone else a weaver_

E

I! 5° T]lg' t_t2Y8$_,_,,o_io_ of a Sga[£.

_! Rep,bllr shallwe add to them a shoemaker,or perhapssomeotherj_ II. purveyortoour bodilywants?

soc,,_s. Quite right.: _,,_us. The barestnotionof a Statemustincludefouror fivemen.

_, Clearly.-'-'-"__ Thedivi- And howwill theyproceed? Will each bring the result_,", sionof

_! labour, of his labours into a commonstock?--the individualhus-_: bandman,for example,producingfor four, and labouring

four timesas long and as muchas he needin theprovisionof foodwithwhichhe suppliesothers as well as himself; orwill he have nothingto do with others and not be at thetrouble of producingfor them,butprovidefor himselfalonea fourth of the food in a fourth of the time,and in the 370remainingthree fourthsof his timebe employedin makinga houseor a coator a pair of shoes,havingno partnershipwithothers,butsupplyinghimselfall his ownwants?

Adeimantusthoughtthat he shouldaim at producingfoodonlyandnot at producingeverything.

4 Probably,I replied,that wouldbe the better way; and._ when I hear yousay this,I am myselfremindedthatwe are

• _- notall alike; thereare diversitiesof naturesamongus which_. are adaptedtodifferentoccupations., Verytrue.• And willyouhavea work better done whenthe workman

,?_ has manyoccupations,or whenhehas onlyone?_ When he hasonlyone.x_

Further,there can be nodoubtthata workis spoiltwhen

._ not doneat the right time?No doubt.For businessis not disposedto wait until the doer of the

business is at leisure; but the doer must followup what heis doing,andmakethe businesshis firstobject.

He must.And if so, wemust inferthat all thingsare producedmore

plentifullyand easilyand of a better qualitywhen one mandoes one thing which is natural to him and does it at the

Thefirst right time,and leavesother things.citizens Undoubtedly.are:--_.a Then more than fourcitizenswill be required; for thehusband.man, husbandmanwill not makehis ownploughor mattock,or

More tAan four or five citizens are re_uircd. SI

otherimplementsofagriculture,iftheyaretobegoodforany- R_licthing. Neitherwill thebuildermakehis tools--andhe too Iz.needsmany;andin likemannertheweaverandshoemaker,so_,_,

True. _*"_u.abuilder,

Thencarpenters,andsmiths,andmanyotherartisans,will 3.aweaver,be sharersin ourlittleState,which is alreadybeginningto 4.ashoe-maker.grow? Tothese

True. mustbeadded:_Yet evenif we addneatherds,shepherds,andotherherds-s.acar-

men,in orderthatourhusbandmenmayhaveoxentoploughpenter06.asmith,etc.,with,andbuildersaswell as husbandmenmayhavedraught7.mer-cattle,andcurriersandweaversfleecesandhides,--stillour chants,Statewillnot bevery large. 8. retailers.

That is true; yetneitherwillit bea verysmallStatewhichcontainsall these.

Then,again,thereis thesituationofthecity--tofindaplacewherenothingneedbe importediswellnighimpossible.

Impossible.Then theremustbeanotherclassofcitizenswhowillbring

the requiredsupplyfromanothercity?Theremust.

37x But if the tradergoes empty-handed,havingnothingwhichthey require whowouldsupplyhis need,he willcomebackempty-handed.

That is certain.Andthereforewhattheyproduceat homemustbe notonly

enoughfor themselves,but suchbothin quantityandqualityas toaccommodatethosefromwhomtheirwantsare supplied.

Very true.Then morehusbandmenandmoreartisanswillberequired?They willNotto mentionthe importersandexporters,whoarecalled

merchants?Yes.Then we shallwantmerchants?We shall.And if merchandiseis to be carriedover the sea,skilful

sailorswillalsobe needed,andinconsiderablenumbers?Yes, in considerablenumbers.Then,again,withinthe city,howwill theyexchangetheir

E2

52 New wangs aud new classes.

R_llc productions? To securesuch anexchangewas,asyouwillI1. remember,one of our principalobjectswhen we formed

so¢_,_, theminto a societyand constituteda State.Clearlythey willbuy andsell.Then they will need a market-place,and a money-token

forpurposesofexchange.Certainly.

Theo_igin Suppose now that a husbandman,or an artisan, bringsof retailtrade, someproductionto market,and he comesat a time when

there is no one to exchangewith him,--is he to leavehiscallingand sit idlein the market-place?

Not at all; he willfindpeopletherewho,seeingthe want,

undertakethe officeof salesmen. Inwell-orderedstatestheyarecommonlythosewho are theweakestin bodilystrength,and thereforeof littleuse foranyotherpurpose, theirdutyis

I to be in the market,and togive moneyin exchangeforgoodsto those who desire to sell and to take money from thosewho desiretobuy.

This want,then, creates a class of retail-tradersin ourState. Is not ' retailer' the termwhichis appliedto thosewho sit in the market-placeengagedin buyingand selling,while thosewhowander fromone cityto anotherare calledmerchants?

Yes,he said.Andthereisanotherclassofservants,whoare intellectually

hardlyon the level of companionship; still theyhaveplenty, ofbodilystrengthforlabour,whichaccordinglytheysell,and

I arecalled,if I donotmistake,hirelingS,hire beingthe namewhichis givento thepriceof their labour.,True.Then hirelingswillhelpto makeupour population?Yes.

And now,Adeimantus,isourStatematuredand perfected?I thinkso.Where, then,is justice,and whereis injustice,and inwhat

part ofthe Statedid theyspringup?Probablyin-thedealingsof thesecitizenswithoneanother.372

I cannot imagine that they are more likelyto be foundanywhereelse.

I dare say thatyouare rightin yoursuggestion,I said;

A s3we had better think the matterout, andnot shrinkfromthe Repx_li¢enquiry. :_ I:.

Letus thenconsider,firy_,,_all, whatwillbe theirwayof SOCRAteS,G_UCoN.

life,nowthat wehave tlClsestablishedthem. Will theynot Apictureproducecorn, and wine,and clothes,and shoes,and build ofprimitivehousesforthemselves? Andwhentheyarehoused,theywill life.work, in summer,commonly,strippedand barefoot,but inwinter substantiallyclothedand shod. They will feed onbarley-mealand flour of wheat,bakingand kneadingthem,makingnoble cakesand loaves; thesetheywill serveupona mat of reeds or on clean leaves,themselvesrecliningthewhile uponbeds strewnwith yewor myrtle And theyandtheirchildrenwillfeast,drinkingofthewinewhichtheyhavemade, wearinggarlands on their heads, and hymningthe /praises of the gods, in happyconversewith on"_anoth.er.Andtheywilltakecare thattheirfamilie_not exceedtheirmeans; havingan eyeto povertyor war.

But, said Glaucon,interposing,you havenot giventhema relishto their meal.

True, I replied,I hadforgotten; of coursetheymusthavea relish--salt, andolives,andcheese,andtheywillboilrootsand herbs such as country peopleprepare; for a desse_we shall give them figs, and peas, and beans; and theywill roast myrtle-berriesand acornsat the fire,drinkinginmoderation. And withsuch a diet theymaybe expectedtolive in peaceand health to a goodold age,andbequeathasimilarlife to their childrenafterthem.

Yes, Socrates,he said,_and!fyouwereprovjdiag_foracityofpig_,'h_oW'__u_ed thebeasts?

But'wah_-wo_"you have,Glaucon? I replied.Why, he said, you should give them the ordinarycon-

veniencesof life. Peoplewho are to be comfortableareaccustomedto lieonsofas,anddineofftables,andtheyshouldhavesaucesandsweetsin themodernstyle.

Yes, I said, now I understand: the questionwhichyou Aluxuriou_Statemustwot_td.haveme consideris, not onlyhowa State,buthowa be_k_lu_uri s State is _ated ; and possiblythereis noharmin intoexist-thisr_gorin such a State we shall be "more!ikeiy to see enee,how_stlce and in'usticeor_nate. In"myopinionthe trueand healthyconstitutionorthe_"l_iteis theonewhichI have

il 54 Not a mere Slate 6ut a luxurious Stage.

_i Republicdescribed. But_fyouwish_l_ntn_ a Scarpa_-fever.heat,

i_ II. I haveno objection. For I suspect that manywill not be

ii SO_-_TE_.satisfiedwith the simplerwayof life. Theywillbe foradding373"i 6_,_. sofas,andtables,andotherfurniture; alsodainties,andper-

fumes,and incense,andcgurtesans,and cakes,all these noti of onesort only,but in everyvariety; we mustgobeyondthe_t necessariesof whichI wasat firstspeaking,suchashouses,

i , "N_Indclothes, and shoes: the arts of the painter and the_(" :kland all sortsof materialsmustbe procured.

_ True,he said.

q andinthi_'-__" Then we must enlarge our borders; for the originalm_.,yne_ healthy_t e is no o ' . owwill thecityhaveeasimgs

winbere-_to fiUand swe_ a multitudeof callingswhicharenotq quired.-_required by any natural want; such as the whole tYi_-of

huntersandactorsjo_ne large classhave todo w'_-fi_ ._ f0i:i_sandcolours; anotherwill be thevotariesof music--I "_- poetsandtheirattendanttrainofrhapsodists,players,dancers,:! _ contractors;alsomakersofdiverskindsof articles,including

\- women'sdresses. Andwe shallwantmore servants. Willi : "_"_:not tutors be also in request, and nurses wet and dry,! ,: _ tirewomenand barbers,as well as confectionersand cooks;

_ , andswineherds,too, whowerenot neededandthereforehad! "- _ no place in the formereditionof our State, butare needed

! _._._ _'-'_ now? They must not be forgotten: and there will be{ "_ ,-_7;"animalsof manyotherkinds,if peopleeat them.!-_._'_x_ "," "' Certainly.i .... And livinginthiswayweshallhavemuchgreater needof

•sj_ _ '\"_-"_'_physicianst an ore.Muchgreater.

_ And the countrywhichwasenoughto supporttheoriginali K _-_ inhabitantswillbetoosmallnow,andnotenough?

Quitetrue.Theterri- \¢ toryofour_ Thena shce of our neighbours'landwillbe wantedbyus

Statemust for p_u-r__nd tillage_ and t_y-_il _want a slice of ours,if,en- ".............! ee_lim; _g_; andlike_a's_l_res,_theyexe it of necessity,and give

ihft__ulatmn of wealth?• _._ wm themselvesup to the unl" _ ....arisewar "--T_t_"_bcrates,will_J_C_rl_,betweenus

: a_ our __Andso weshallgo to war,Glaucon. Shall wenot?neigh-_o._. Mostcertainly,he replied.

The origin of war. 55

Then,without determiningas yetwhetherwar doesgood _'ep,blicor harm, thus muchwe may affirm,that now we havedis-_ II.coveredwar to be derivedfrom causeswhichare also the so___,GLAUGOt_.causes of almostall the evils in States,privateas well aspublic.

Undoubtedly.AndourStatemustoncemoreenlarge; andthistimethe

enlargementwillbe nothingshortof a wholearmy,which .374willhave to goout andfightwiththe invadersforall thatwe "_

have,as wellas for the things and personswhomweweredescribingabove.

Why? he said; are theynot capableof defendingthem-selves?

No,I said; not if we were right in the principlewhichWarisanwas acknowledgedby all of us when we were framingthe art,andasno art call

State: the principle,as you will remember,was that one bepursommancannotpractisemanyartswithsuccess. - - withsue-Very true,h-e-sa]cl_............ ceSSaroan'sUnlessBut isnot waran art? wholeat-tentionisCertainly. devotedto

Andan art requiringasmuchattentionasshoemaking? it,a soldiercannot beQuitetrue. anowedtoAndtheshoemakerwasnotallowedbyusto bea husband-exercise

man,or a weaver,or a builder-inorderthatwemighthaveanycallingbut his

ourshoeswellmade; but to himandto everyotherworkerown.wasassignedoneworkforwhichhewasbynaturefitted,andat thathewasto continueworkingall hislifelongandatnoother; he was not to let opportunitiesslip, and then hewouldbecomea goodworkman.Nownothingcanbemoreimportantthanthat the work of a soldier shouldbe welldone. Butis waran art so easilyacquiredthatamanmayThewar-rior's artbe a warriorwhois alsoa husbandman,or shoemaker,or requiresaotherartisan; althoughnooneintheworldwouldbeagood longap-diceor draughtplayerwhomerelytookup thegameas a prentice-shipandrecreation,andhadnot fromhis earliestyearsdevotedhim-manyna-self to thisandnothingelse? No toolswillmakea mana tu_gifts.skilledworkman,or masterof defence,nor beof anyusetohimwhohasnotlearnedhowtohandlethem,andhasneverbestowedanyattentionuponthem. Howthenwillhewhotakesupa shieldor other implementof warbecomeagood

4

_ 56 The soldier skauld be like a wagck-dog,_| Re_,bllc fighterall in a day,whetherwithheavy-armedor anyother_ zz. kindof troops?_ soc_,_, Yes,he said,the toolswhichwouldteachmen theirownGLAreCON.

; usewouldbe beyondprice.And thehigher thedutiesof theguardian,I said, themore

time,andskill,andart,and applicationwillbeneededbyhim?No doubt,he replied.Willhe not alsorequirenaturalaptitudeforhis calling?Certainly.

Theselec- Thenit willbeour dutytoselect,if wecan, natureswhichtionofguardians,arefittedforthetaskofguardingthecity?

It will.And the selectionwillbe no easymatter,I said; butwe

I mustbe braveanddoour best.

il We must.] Is not the nobleyouthverylikea well-breddogin respect375

l of guardingandwatching?_. What doyoumean?,,_ I meanthat bothof themoughttobe quicktosee,andswifti! to overtakethe enemywhenthey see him; andstrong tooif,_ whentheyhavecaughthim,theyhaveto fightwithhim.i All thesequalities,he replied,willcertainlybe requiredby

them.Well, andyour guardianmust be brave if he is to fight

well?i Certainly.l And is he_likelyto be bravewho has no whether

horse-ordogor anyotheranimal? Haveyouneverobserved

i howinvincibleandunconquerableis spirit andhowthe pre-., senceof it makes the soul of any creatureto be absolutelyfearlessand indomitable?

,_ I have.Then nowwe have a clear notionof the bodilyqualities

whichare requiredin theguardian.! True.

! And also of the mentalones; his soul is to be full ofspirit9

Yes.

!I ( But are not these spiritednaturesapt to be savagewith_ne another,andwitheverybodyelse?1L

[.

geutle to friends, and dangerous goenemies. 57

A difficultybyno meanseasytoovercome,he replied. Rej_ublicWhereas, I said, they ought to be dangerousto their( II.

enemies,and gentle to their friends" if not, theywillde- _-_T=,;'GL&UCON.

stroy themselveswithoutwaitingfor theirenemiesto destroythem.True, he said.What is to he done then ? I said; how shallwe finda_.

gentlenaturewhichhas also a greatspirit,fortheone is the /contradictionof theother?

True.

He willnotbe a goodguardianwhoiswantingin eitherof Theguard-these twoqualities; andyetthecombinationofthemappear_1anmust \to be impossible; and hencewe mustinferthat tobe agoo_ unitethe__ , , opposite '

gu_possibb_l qualities of..... gentleness

I amafraidthatwhatyousayis true,he replied, andsl_nLHere feelingperplexedI beganto think overwhat had

preceded.--Myfriend, I said, no wonderthat we are in aperplexity; forwe havelost sightofthe imagewhichwe hadbeforeus.

What doyou mean? he said.I meanto say that there do existnaturesgiftedwiththose

oppositequalities.And wheredo youfindthem?Manyanimals,I replied,furnishexamplesof them; our Sucha

friendthedog is averygood one: you knowthatwell-bredcombina-tionmay

dogsareperfectlygentleto their familiarsandacquaintances,beobser_edand thereverse tostrangers, inthedog.

Yes, I know.Then there is nothingimpossibleor out of the orderof

nature in our findinga guardianwhohasa similarcombina-tionof qualities?

Certainlynot.Wouldnot he who is fitted to be a guardian,besidesthe

spiritednature, needtohavethe qualitiesofa philosopher?I donot apprehendyour meaning.

376 The trait of whichI am speaking,I replied,maybe alsoseen inthe dog,and is remarkablein theanimal.

WhattraiL? Thedog iWhy, ___fl_,wheneverhe seesa stranger,isangry; when distir_

an acquaintance,he weeomes lm, a t oug -'t_iTo_fi6-'"hasgui_hes _

58 Thedogapldtosoph_r..: A'e,_/_ neverdonehimanxharm,nor theothcr_ygood. Didthis

11. " ........ . .........

ii neverstrikeyo_rmus=_

i ! so_s, The matternever stlaackmebefore; but I quiterecognise_ G_,Jcow,_,_,_s. the truthof yourremark.

:l!l friendand And surely this instinctof the dog is very charming;-enemyby your dogis a truephilosopher.thecrite-2[- rionof Why?

:li_ andkn°wingnotWhy,becausehedistinguishesthe faceof a friendandofknowing:an enemyonlybyLh¢crRerio__nof JInm_.knowing.And mustnot an animalbe a loverof learningwho deter-

['if mineswhathe likes and dislikesby the test of knowledgeandignorance?

Mostassuredly.,_ wherebyhe And is not the love of learning_thcAoveof wi._dnm.

i;,_ isshown _ -..........i tobeaphi-is p_

They arethesame,he replied.1o e

t ! _.r_ -' Andmaywe not sayconfidentlyof manalso,thathe who_[ _ ! L_ is likelyto be gentle to his friendsand acquaintances,must

-_'r _/( '_" byna'SF_ebe a lov-ero wl nowe ge-._'_- "_._ ) That we maysafelyaffirm.j Thenhe who is to be a reallygoodand nobleguardianof

the State will require to uni.t_ein himself" !_ .=_ spiritandswiftn-_ andstren_h ?

Howam Then we have foundthe desirednatures; and nowthatourciti--I _-nstobe wehavefoundthem,howaretheytobe rearedandeducated?

rearedand ISnot this an enquirywhich maybe expectedto throwlight' edtt_tted?on the greater enquiry which is our finalend--How do

_! justiceand injusticegrowup in States? for we do not wanti_ either toomitwhatis to the point or to drawout theargu-•_ mentto an inconvenientlength._i Adeimantusthought that the enquirywouldbe of great_ servicetous.i:i Then, I said,mydearfriend,thetaskmustnotbegivenup,:il even if somewhatlong.

Certainlynot._.

l: Comethen, and let us pass a leisurehourin story-telling,1 and ourstoryshallbe the educationof our heroes._! Byall means.!_ Andwhatshallbe theireducation? Canwe find a better

Education of two kinds. 59

than the traditional sort?--and this has two divisions,Rep_bll¢gymnasticfor the body,andmusicfor the soul. II.

_e. - - soc_-r_s,AamMAlcrt_

Shall we begin educationwithmusic,and go on to Eductiongymnasticafterwards• dividedBy allmeans, intogym-

nasticforAndwhenyouspeakof music,doyou includeliteratureor thebody

not ? -_ ...... " and musicI do. forthesoul.

MusicAnd literaturemaybeeithertrueor false? includesYes. literature,

whichmay377 Andthe youngshouldbe trainedin bothkinds,andwe betrueor

begin-_- -" false,

I donot understandyourmeaning,he said.You know,I said,thatwe beginbytellingchildrenstories

which,thoughnotwhollydestituteof truth,are in the mainfictitious; andthese storiesaretoldthemwhentheyarenotof an ageto learngymnastics.

Verytrue.That wasmy meaningwhen I saidthat we mustteach

musicbeforegymnastics.Quiteright,he said.You knowalso that the beginningis the mostimportantThebegin-

partof anywork,especiallyin thecaseof ayoungandtenderningthe..... mostim-thing; for that is th___g.gL3_hiyolL.th_.gh_aracteris beingportantformedandtheedes-_rre-d_impressionismorerea_ciflytaken-, partof

Quitetrue. education.

And......shall!au.9...W_j'.,-+__._,.,_o_y-....... a.u_,,'-t'hiklrento hear anycasualtales which may be devisedby casualpersons,andto receive into-tbeir-.___ ]_i-t"theV_which we shouldwish themto havewhe"fft"heyare grownup?

We cannot.Then the firstthingwillbe to establisha censorshipof the Worksof

writers of fiction,and let the censors receiveany tale of avaontobeplacedfictionwhichis good,and reject thebad; andwewilldesire ,mde_mothersand nursesto telltheir childrentheauthorisedones censorship.only. Let themfashionthemiad_wj_.s.¢c_h_tale_evenmorefondlythan they mouldthe [email protected]_wj_h_h_ir_ands; .butmostofto_'J_ arenowin usemustbediscarded.

,,4

3,_i! 60 Homer and _lffesiod.

-_ Xep_/ic Of whattalesareyou speaking? he said.

iI! Ar. Youmayfinda modelof the lesserin the greater,I said;_ so_A_, for they are necessarilyof the sametype,and there is the" AI)F.._A_rtr_

. samespiritin bothof them.Verylikely,he replied; but I do not as yetknowwhatyouwouldterm thegreater.

Homerand Those,I said,whichare narratedby Homerand Hesiod,

' Hesiodare and therest ofthe poets,whohaveeverbeenthe great story-

")- tellersoft badlies, tellersof mankind.

it thatisto Butwhichstoriesdoyou mean,hesaid; andwhatfaultdo

• say,theygivefa_e you findwith them?r_senta- A faultwhichis mostserious,I said; the fault of tell_g ationsof thegods, lie, and,whatis more,a badlie.

u w enls Is au commi{_ed?\, Whenever...an--erro_-_ion .-ismade of the

_ " nature of gods and heroes,--as when a painter paints a" V portraYfnot navm__FffI[I_eness toTffeoriginal.

v Yes/he :a/d,:ka:_o_ ofXtrirTg_c-ei=_m_f_Fybla/hea-bie;butwhatare the storieswhichyoumean?

N_ _ Firstof all,I said,therewasthatgreatestofall liesin highk"

_[ places,which the poet told about Uranus,andwhichwas a

_/__t badlie too,--I meanwhat Hesiod saysthat Uranusdid, and_ howCronusretaliatedon him_. Thedoingsof Cronus,and378

thesufferingswhichin turn hisson inflicteduponhim,evenif

theyweretrue,oughtcertainlynot to be lightlytold toyoungi and thoughtlesspersons; if possible, they had better beburied in silence. But if there is an absolutenecessityfor

_ ,;. _ their mention,a chosen few._mjghL.._earthem in a mystery,' _ and theyshouldsalt a commo_inian] pig,but

:_ somehuge andunproeurablevictim; andthen the numberof_ the hearerswillbeveryfewindeed.

Why,yes,saidhe,thosestoriesareextremelyobjectionable.__ whichhav_ Yes,Adeimantus,theyarestoriesnotto be repeatedin our

a badeff_t[ onthe[ State; theyoungman shouldnot betoldthat in committing

mindso_ theworstof crimeshe is farfromdoinganythingoutrageous;___ youth"l andthatevenif he chastiseshis fatherwhenhe doeswrong,

"--"_ in whatevermanner,hewillonlybefollowingtheexampleof:_ the firstandgreatestamongthegods.

*q,, 1 Hesiod,Theogony,I54, 4_9"

The immorali_'es of mytAology. 6I

I entirelyagree with you, he said; in my opinionthose Republicstoriesarequiteunfittoberepeated. 1I.

Neither,ifwemeanourfutureguardianstoregardthehabitsoc_T_s,Av_

of quarrellingamongthemselvesasof allthingsthe basest,Thestoriesshouldanywordbesaidto themofthewarsinheaven,andof aboutthethe plots and fighT of the godsagainsto_e_'fiothe_,for quar_Isof

• the godsthe_**_._ No,weshallnevermention_ andtheirthe_, or--6F'/_thembe embroideredongarments,andwe e_lbe-haviourshall be silent about the innumerableotherquarrelsof gods tooneand heroes with their friendsand relatives. If theywould another

UH'_I_ areuntrue.onlybelieveuswe wouldtellthemthatquarrellingis __and that never up to this timehas there beenanyquarrelbetweencitizens; this iswhatoldmenandoldwomenshouldbeginby tellingchildren; andwhentheygrowup,thepoetsalso shouldbe told to composefor themina similarspirit1.But the narrativeof HephaestusbindingHere his mother,or howon anotheroccasionZeus sent himflyingfortakingher partwhenshewasbeingbeaten,andall thebattlesofthegodsin Homer--these talesmustnot be admittedinto_am"Andane-S3ate,whether they are supposedto have an allegoricalgoriealinterpreta-_ot. __p_ei:sbn c_fnriotjudgewhat is tionsofallegoricalandwhatis literal; anythingthat he receivesinto 'themarehis mindat that ageis likelytobecomeindelibleandunalte_-stoodn°tunder-by,able; and thereforeit is mostimportantthatthe taleswhic_at_ young.theyoungfirsthear shouldbe modelsofvirtuousthoughts.'

There youare right,he replied; butif anyoneaskswhereare such models to be found and of what tales are youspeaking--howshallweanswerhim?

379 I saidtohim,Youand I, Adeimantus,at thismomentarenot poets, but foundersof a State: now the foundersofa State ought to know the generalformsin whichpoetsshouldcast theirtales,andthe limitswhichmustbeobservedbythem,but to makethe talesisnot theirbusiness.

Very true,he said; but what are theseformsof theologywhichyou mean?

Somethingof thiskind,I replied:--Godis alwaysto be Godistoberepresentedas he truly is,whateverbe_the_-g(_.°etry, represented

_..he mfly_,_ _-_.o - .

epic,l_'_6_f_fa_Agte__e-Ve_esen tatt°nisgwen. ; t ;Right. r _ '

i Placing the comma after Vpm_'f,and not after7_Tvo#*'J,ot_. - _

62 The grea/er forms of tkeology:

R_ Andis henottrul_go___nd :='..'.:'_tha r.c.',bc _-cp_z,entedII. assuch?so_A_s. Certainly._s.

Andno goodthingis hurtful__?_No, inde_.Andthatwhichis nothurtfulhurtsnot? 7- /Certainlynot. /Andthatwhichhurtsnotdoesno evil? -'iNo.Andcanthatwhichdoesno evilbea causeof evil?Impossible.Andthegoodis advantageous?Yes.Andthereforethecauseof well-being?Yes.It followsthereforethat the good is not the causeof

allthings,butof thegoodonly?Assuredly.

God.ifhe Then God,if hebe good,is not the authorof all things,ashegood,is themanyassert,-bu-T_-C_gflid_ii_-ofa--fd-vTTh-ifigsonl_y_'andtheauthorofgood notof mostthingsthatoccurtomen. For fewarethegoodsonZy. of humanlife,and manyare theevils,andthe.e_goodis to be

attributedto G_O_; of the evils the causesare to besbT_i_elsewhere,andnotin him.

Thatappearsto metobe mosttrue,hesaid.Theat- ThenwemustnotfistentoHomeror toanyotherpoetwhotionsofthe is guiltyof thefollyof sayingthattwocaskspoets.

'LieatthethresholdofZeus,fullof lots,oneo._fgo_, theotherofe_Uots','andthathetowhomZeusgivesamixtureofthetwo'Sometimesmeetswithevilfortune,atothertimeswlthgood;'

butthathetowhomisgiventhecupofunmingledill,'Himwildhungerdriveso'erthebeauteousearth.'

Andagain-

'Zeus,whois thedispenserof g_and_us.'

I Andif anyone assertsthattheviolationofoathsand Wearies,

I Iliadxxiv.6_7.

I. God is good and tkc author ofgood: 2. God is lrue. 63

whichwas reallythe workof Pandarus1,wasbroughtaboutRelmbli¢byAthene andZeus, or that the strifeandcontentionofthe 11.

_/godswas instigatedby ThemisandZeus_,heshallnothave soc,A_ourapproval; neitherwillwe allowour youngmen to hear a,,,_,_r_.-7the wordsofAeschylus,that ,7:_,_+.xj_-

38o 'Godplantsguiltamongmenwhenhedesiresutterlytodestroy _.:z_,.__ahouse.' ._ _.._ ¢_.o_,(

And if a poetwritesof the sufferingsof Niobe--thesubject:,,_a_,t_of the tragedy in which these iambic verses occur--or/ fj _.-of the house of Pelops,or of the Trojan war or on any/similartheme, either we must not permithim to saythat

these are theworks ofGod, or if theyare of God,he must/devisesomeexplanationofthemsuchas weareseeking: he Onlythatmust say that God did what was just and right,and they evilwhiehis of the

were the better for beingpunished; but that thosewhoare natureofpunishedare miserable,and that God is the authorof their punish-meritto bemisery--the poet is not to be permittedto say; thoughhe attributedmaysaythat thewickedare miserablebecausetheyrequiretoGod.to be punished,and are benefitedby receivingpunishment "

fromGod; but that God beinggoodis the authorofevilto --_ ioanyone is to be strenuouslydenied,and not to be said or _ 1sungor heard in verse or prose byanyonewhetherold or _'young in anywell-orderedcommonwealth.Sucha fictionis _°suicidal,ruinous,impious. I.

I agree with you, he replied,and am readyto givemy bassent to the law.Let this then be oneofour rulesandprinciplesconcerning __ _ _

thegods,towhichour poetsand reciterswillbe expectedto ;'" : ;: ,__ _,.conform,--that God is not the author._.......of all things,but of.___ - __j_/_,...goodo__nJy...... =.

That willdo,he said. ..... _ ,/_._And whatdoyou thinkof asecondprinciple? ShallI ask ......__..'you whetherGod is a magician,and of a nature to appear . Tinsidiouslynow in one shape, and nowin another--some.... --_'timeshimselfchangingand passingintomanyforms,some-:_'_timesdeceivingus with the semblanceof such transforma-_ ,_'t,._,

tions; or is he one andthe sameimmutablyfixedinhis own L "}¢-'%_,_/properimage? _=_,

I Iliadii.69. 2Ib.xx. lr

64 The Divit_e nature i_a/iable of ckange.

R_ I cannotansweryou,hesaid,withoutmorethought.I2". Well, I said; butif we supposea changein anything,that

So_-_s, changemustbeeffectedeitherbythe thingitself,orbysomeADmmm-rvs.a_gs other thing?mustbe Mostcertainly.changed And thingswhichare at theirbestare alsoleastliabletoeitherbyanotheror be alteredor discomposed; for example,whenhealthiestandbythem- strongest,the humanframeis least liableto be affectedbyselves.

meatsanddrinks,andtheplantwhichis in thefullestvigouralsosuffersleast fromwindsor the heatof the sun or anysimilarcauses.

Of course.Andwillnot thebravestandwisestsoulbe leastconfused38x

or derangedby anyexternalinfluence?True.

And the sameprinciple,as I shouldsuppose,appliestoall compositethings--furniture,houses, garments:whengood and well made,they are least alteredby time andcircumstances.

Verytrue.Theneverythingwhichis good,whethermadeby art or

nature,or both,is leastliableto sufferchangefromwithout?True.

c _'_: But surelyGod and the things of God are in everyway: •:j : perfect? ...."-'Z52---_'°"_'_='_'_-_" "

_"_ t Of coursetheyare.Bt_tGod Thenhe can hardlybe compelledby externalinfluencetocannotbe takemanyshapes?.........................changedbyother;and He cannot.witlnotbe Butmayhe not changeand transformhimself?changedbyhimself. Clearly,he said,that must be the case if he is changed

at all.Andwillhe thenchangehimselfforthe betterandfairer,

or fortheworseandmoreunsightly?/ -If hechangeat allhe canonlychangefortheworse,forwe

cannotsupposehimto bedeficienteitherinvirtueor beauty.' Very true, Adeimantus; butthen,wouldanyone,whether

GOdor man,desireto makehimselfworse?Impossible.Thenit is impossiblethatGod shouldever bewillingto

The falsehoods of the ;boels. 65

chanffeAbeing,as is supposed,the fairestand best that is Repubticen_h_ceivable,every God remainsabsolutelyand for ever in II.his ownform. _ SO_RAT_,

That necessarilyfollows,he said,in myjudgment. A_Then, I said, mydearfriend,let none of the poetstell us

that

'The gods,takingthe disguiseofstrangersfromotherlands,walkupanddowncitiesinall sortsofformsi;, )and let no one slanderProteusandThetis,neither let anyone, either in tragedyor in any other kind of poetry,in-troduceHere disguisedin the likenessof apriestessaskingan alms /

' For the life-givingdaughtersof Inachustheriverof Argos;'--let us haveno more lies of that sort. Neithermust wehave mothers under the influenceof the poets scaringtheir children with a bad versionof these myths--tellinghow certain gods, as they say, 'Go about by night in ,_-the likenessof so many strangers and in divers forms;'but let them take heed lest the),make cowardsof their i"children, and att___. !,_the gods.

Heavenforbid,he said. !zBut althoughthe godsare themselvesunchangeable,still _•

by witchcraftand deceptionthey maymake us think thattheyappearinvariousforms? " --"-""_ !

....... iPerhaps,he replied.Well, but can you imaginethat Godwillbewillingto lie, Xorwillhe !

whether in word or deed, or to put forth a phantomof makeanyfalserepre- !"himself? sentation

382 I cannotsay,he replied, ofhimself.Do you not know, I said, that the true lie, if such an bi

expressionmaybe allowed,is hatedofgodsandmen? !,What doyou mean? he said. iI mean that no one iswillinglydeceivedin thatwhichis t_

the truest and high_-__ st _ _andhighestmatters-i there, aboveall,he is mostatraaclola /-'_'_ !°liehavingpossessionof him. ".............. il

-- . ....... J,i

F !,b

i

t 66 TI_ liein tk,e soul.

Re_l/c Still, he said,I do notcomprehendyou.II. The reasonis, I replied,that youattributesomeprofound

soo_, meaningtomywords; but I am onlysaying that deception,Amum_ros.or beingdeceivedor uninformedaboutthe highestrealitiesinthehighest of themselves,whichis thesoul,and in thatpart

i Q _ part of themto have and to hold the lie, is what mankind/ "_east like;--that, I say, iswhatthey utterlydetest._ r._ There is nothingmorehatefulto them.

:_ And, as I was just now remarking,th_ ignorancein the,_- _,_ _'_ soulof hi_._w_hn;¢ dccz__v_djga_.__becalled thetrue lie; To_--g'" "_ _ _ th_ words is only a kindo-6t'-imkauonand 'shadowy

_i; j imageof a previousaffectionof the soul, not pure unadul-terated falsehood. Am I not right? ,_Perfectlyfight.

Thetree The true lie is hated not only by the gods, but also bylieisequally men?hatedboth Yes.bygods Whereasthe lie inwords is in certain casesusefuland notandmen;there- hateful; in dealingwithenemies--thatwouldbe an instance;medialor or again,when those whomwe call our friends in a fit ofpreventivelieiscorn-madnessor illusionare going to do someharm, then it isparativelyusefuland is a sort of medicineor preventive"also in theinnocent,_t God talesof mythology,of whichwe were just nowspeaking--canhave becausewe do not knowthe truth aboutancienttimes,wenoneedof it. makefalsehoodas much like truth as we can,and so turn

it toaccount.Verytrue,he said.

But can any of these reasons apply to God? Can we

suppose that he is ignorantof antiquity,and thereforehas

_. recourseto invention?That wouldbe ridiculous,he said.Then the lyingpoet hasno placein our ideaof God?

_< Ishouldsaynot.°_ q [ Or perhaps he may tell a lie because he is afraid of

\ enemies?That is inconceivable.But he mayhavefriendswhoare senselessor mad?Butno mador senselesspersoncanbe a friendof God.

¢_ Then no motivecan be imaginedwhyGodshouldlie?

)_ 'd_ _-/J""r ._ None whatever.%

God is truth. 67

Then the superhumananddivineisabsolute of Repubacfalsehood.9 ...... -4/.Yes. Soc.A,_,Then is God perfectlysimpleand true both in word and A_E,_-_-_u_..

deed ; he changesno___ either bysignor gword,bydrea_'_ ....................... ./"_ _:'_"_-_. ,

383 Your thougti-_he sa'_, are the reflectionof myown. _-"_.You agree with me then, I said, that this is the second

typeor forminwhichweshouldwriteandspeakaboutdivinethings. The gods are not ma_icj_answhotransf_or_m_ _,selves,neitherdo theydeceiv_mankindinanyway.

I grant that.Then, although we are admirersof Homer,we do not Awaythen

admire the lying dreamwhichZeus sends toAgamemnon"withthe' falsehoodsneither will we praise the verses of Aeschylusin whichoftheThetissaysthat Apolllg._athernuptials poets!

' Wascelebratinginsongher fairprogenywhosedaysweretobelong,andto knownosickness.Andwhenhehadspokenofmy lot as in all thingsblessedof heavenhe raiseda noteoftriumphandcheeredmysoul. AndI thoughtthatthewordof _'Phoebus,beingdivineandfullof prophecy,wouldnotfail. And _t.nowhehimselfwhoutteredthestrain,hewhowaspresentat the _ !kbanquet,andwhosaidthis--heit iswhohasslainmyson_.' _i

These are the kind of sentimentsaboutthe godswhichwill arouse our anger; and he who utters them shallbe ,¢" f_.refused a chorus; neithershallwe allowteachersto makeuseof themin the instructionof the young,meaning,aswe" ,/_---.. I_.do, that our guardians,as far as men canbe,shouldbe true / _ ' .--, _i1worshippersof thegodsandlikethem. _ / -_k

I entirelyagree,he said, in these principless__andpromise _ . _/.tomakethemmy laws, "......... ' ' J

1 Omittingxm'_,/mrr_,_as. _Froma lost play. " ,

BOOK III.

-trepgblici SUCHthen, I said, are our principlesof theology--someSteph.//z. ] tales are to be told,and others are not to be told to our 386

So_,._,/disciples from their youth upwards,if we mean them toAoFam_rus_ honour the gods and their parents,and to valuefriendshipThe di.s- [ withoneanother.coura_nglessonsof Yes; and I think thatour principlesareright,he said.mythology. But if theyare to be courageous,musttheynot learnother

lessonsbesidesthese,andlessonsof such a kindas willtakeawaythe fear of death? Can anyman be courageouswhohas thefearofdeathin him?

Certainlynot, he said.And canhe befearlessof death,or willhe choosedeathin

battlerather thandefe_t_._-vc."y, ".:'kch___ -_belowto be real andterrible?

Impossie.b'l_'---"Thede- Then wemust assumea controloverthe narratorsof thisscription,class of tales as well as over the others,and beg them notof the world'

belowin simplyto revile, but rather to commendthe world below,Homer. intimatingto them th_ tlleir ae_cripfio-r_s-a_

willdoharmto ourfuturewarriors.That willbe our duty,he said.Then, I said,we shall have to obliteratemanyobnoxious

passages,beginningwith theverses,._ ' I wouldratherbe a serfonthe landof apoorandportionless

manthanruleoverallthedeadwhohavecometonoughti.,°_ ,_ We mustalso expungetheverse,which tellsus howPluto"A.

° feared,_ ' Lest the mansionsgrimand squalidwhichthe godsabhor_ shouldbeseenbothofmortalsandimmortals2.,

I Od.xi.489. 2I1.xx.64.

The teachinK of/he jOoets about Hades. 69

And again :-- ,eepubt/c'O heavens! verily in the house of Hades there is soul and II1.

$oc_rr_ghostlyformbut nomindat all1!, ._Nru_Again of Tiresias :-- _

' [To him evenafter deathdid Persephonegrant mind,]thathealoneshouldbe wise; but the other soulsare flittingshades22Again :--

' The soul flyingfromthe limbshad gone to Hades, lamentingher thte,leavingmanhoodand youth"_.'Again :--

387 ' And the soul,with shrillingcry,passedlike smokebeneaththeearth4., ._

And,-' As bats in hollowof mysticcavern,wheneveranyof themhas

dropped out of the stringand falls from the rock,fly shrilling Landclingtooneanother,sodidtheywithshrillingcryholdtogetheras they moved5., !And we must beg Homer and the other poets not to be Suchtales

tobere- _,angryif we strike out these and similar passages,not becausejected.they are unpoetical, or unattractive to the popular ear, but ,_because the greater the poetical charm of them, the less are °they meet for the ears of boys and men who are mgant_ob__b__e

who should fear slavery more than death. _Undoubtedly. - _Also we shall have to reject all the terrible and appalling :"

names which describe the world below--Cocytus and Styx,ghosts under the earth, and sapless shades, and any similarwords of which the very mention causes a shudder to pass _.through the inmost soul of him who hears them. I do not _i

say that these horrible stories may not have a use of somekind ; but there is a danger that the nerves of our guardians _may be rendered too excitable and effeminateby them. _._

There is a real danger, he said.Then we must haveno more of them. _"True. / _")_ 4Another and a nobler strain must be composed and sung _ ._?-__,=

byus.1 I1.xxiii.Io3. _Od.x.49b- s I1.xvi.856. " ._;,

* lb.xxiii,too. nOd.xxiv.6. ' _

...... 4

¢

i

i_ Rtl_ublic / Clearly.IIZ. t - . . .

. / Andshallwe proceedto get nd of theweepmgsandwall-!- _s°_E_:_.s]ingsof famousmen?

Theeffe-l Theywillgowith therest. 9i minateanp Butshallwe beright ingettingrid ofthem. Reflect: our:l strainspitiful ...... manof/principleis thatthegood wallnotconsiderdeathterrible_ famous[ toany othergoodmanwhois his comrade.

m_n_ond_ Yes ; that isourprincipleyethegods, Andthereforehe willnot sorrowfor hisdepartedfriendasmustalso thoughhe hadsufferedanythingterriblebebanish-ca. He willnot.

Suchan one, aswe further maintain,is sufficientfor him-selfand hisownhappifiess,and thereforeis leastin needofothermen.

True, he said.And for this reason the loss of a son or brother,or the

deprivationof fortune,is to himofall menleastterrible.Assuredly.

i And thereforehe will be least likely to lament,and will

bear withthegreatest equanimityanymisfortuneof thissortwhichmaybefallhim.

Yes,he willfeelsucha misfortunefar less thananother.Then we shallbe right in gettingrid of the lamentations

of famousmen,and makingthem over to women(and noteventowomenwho are good for anything),or to men of a 388basersort,that thosewhoarebeingeducatedbyus to be thedefendersoftheir countrymayscornto dothe like.

That willbevery right.Suchare Then we will once more entreat Homer and the otherthelamentspoets not to depictAchilles1,who is the son of a goddess,ofAchilles,andPriam,firstlyingonhis side,thenon his back,andthen onhis face;

then startingup and sailingin a frenzyalongthe shoresofthe barren sea; now taking the sooty ashes in both hishands_ and pouring them over his head, or weepingandwailing in the various modeswhichHomer has delineated.Nor should he describePriam the kinsmanof the godsasprayingand beseeching,

'Roilingin the dirt, callingeachman loudlybyhis nameS.'

1II.xxiv.Io. _lb.xviii,a$. sIb.xxii.414.

Thegodsweepingandlaughing. 7xStillmoreearnestlywillwe beg of himat all eventsnot to _?e_,,b?icintroducethegods lamentingandsaying, IlL

SOOtATES,'AlasI mymisery!Alas! thatI borethebra._ve@t0mysorrow_.'AD_l_J_rus.But if he must introducethe gods,at anyrate let himnot anaofZeusdare socompletelyto misrepresentthe greate'gV-6_t_-g_/_'ds,whenhebeholds

as to makehimsay-- thefateofHectoror'0 heavens! withmyeyesverilyIbeholdadearfriendofmineSarpedon.

chasedroundandroundthecity,andmyheartissorrowfulL'

Or again:J'WoeismethatI amfatedtohaveSarpedon,dearestofmento

me,subduedatthehandsof PatroclusthesonofMenoetiuss.,For if, my sweetAdeimantus,our youthseriouslylistentosuchunworthyrepresentationsof thegods,insteadof laugh-ing at themas theyought,hardlywillanyof themdeemthathe himself,beingbut a man,canbe dishonouredbysimilar _actions; neitherwillhe rebukeany inclinationwhichmay _arise in his mind to sayand do the like. And insteadof _havinganyshameor self.control,he willbe alwayswhining l!and lamentingon slightoccasions. / _.

Yes,he said,that is mosttrue. _Yes, I replied; but that surelyiswhatoughtnot tobe,as • ,

the argumenthas just provedto us ; and bythat proofwe -:mustabideuntilit is disprovedbya better. / :

It oughtnot tobe. _ • _Neitheroughtourguardianstobe giventolaughter. For Neitherare-f_ !

a fit of laughterwhichhas beenindulgedto excessalmostia_tstheguard-tobe :_-"_// _alwaysproducesa violentreaction, encouraged_--_"-.to laugh by - _'_"

So I believe, theexam-Then personsofworth,evenif onlymortalmen,mustnot pieofthe

berepresentedas overcomebylaughter,and still lessmust gods. ,_sucha representationofthegodsbeallowed. "__ -_ _!

Still lessof thegods,asyou say,he replied. - "_ _i389Then we shall not suffersuch an expressionto be used _

aboutthe godsas thatof Homerwhenhe describeshow ;._t' Inextinguishablelaughteraroseamongtheblessedgods,when _

theysawHephaestusbustlingaboutthemansionVOn yourviews,wemustnotadmitthem. ,!

' Ib. xxiL I68. s Ib. xvi. 433- * Ib. i. $99. _i 1t.xviii.54-

7_ The privilege of lying confined to the rulers.

Rtt_blic Onmyviews,if you like to father themon me; thatweIlL mustnot admitthemis certain.soc,ar_, Again,truth shouldbe highlyvalued; if,as wewere say-ADEIM._"rOS.

Ouryouthing, a li_ andusefulonl. as.a medicinemustbe to mm_een, [h_icines shouldberestrictedtruthful,..; to ph3;-s]ciansiprivatein_livid_es's with

Clearlynot, he said.; Thenif anyoneat all is to h__ _privilegeof lying,the

¢-- ,¢._, ] .,rulers ofthe_ shouldbe_" t_elr'tg_dealingseitherwithenerni,_or _;th theiro..o_wnciti_ be_"-,')l _/allowed t_ li_ BUtnobodyelseshould

_.__ _' --meddle_withanythingof the kind; and althoughthe rulersi_t_-_ _'_ _ havethis privilege,for a privateman to lie tothem in return

( is tobe deemeda more heinous fault thanfor thepatientorthe pupilof a gymna'A'_i-u-mnottoois__th abouthisownbodilyillnessesto the physicianor to thetrainer,o'7"/-6"(-fora sailornot to tell the captainwhat is happeningabouttheshipand the rest of the crew,andhowthingsaregoingwithhimselfor his fellowsailors.

Mosttrue,he said.If,then, the ruler catchesanybodybesidehimselflying in

theState, -_-__ ...............................'Any of the craftsmen,whetherhe be priestor physicianor

carpenterx,'hewillpunishhimfor introducinga practicewhichis equallysubversiveand destructiveofshipor State.

Mostcertainly,he said, if our idea of the State is evercarriedout 2.

andalso Inthe nextplaceouryouthmustbe temperate?temperate. Certainly.

Are not the chiefelementsof temperance,speakinggener-ally, obedienceto co.Enmandersand self-controlin sensualpleasures? ..........

True.Then weshall approvesuch languageas that of Diomede

in Homer,'Friend,sit stillandobeymyword_,'

t Od.xvii.383sq. *Or,'ifhiswordsareaccompaniedbyactions.'*I1.iv.4z2.

Some ignoble verses; also a beglerstrain heard. 73

and the verseswhichfollow, R_zi_lIl.

' TheGreeksmarchedbreathingprowesst,.... in silentawe oftheirleaders2,, soc**r_,_DEIMANTU_,

andother sentimentsof thesamekind.We shall.Whatofthisline,

'0 heavywithwine,whohasttheeyesofa dogandtheheartofa stag _,'

39oandof thewordswhichfollow? Wouldyou saythat these,or any similar impertinenceswhichprivate individualsaresupposedto address to their rulers, whetherin verse orprose,arewellor ill spoken?

They are ill spoken.Theymayverypossiblyaffordsomeamusement,but they

do not conduce to temperance. And thereforethey arelikelyto do harm to our youngmen--youwouldagreewithmethere?

Yes.Andthen,again,tomakethewisestofmensaythatnothingThepr_

inhis opinionis moregloriousthan ofeatinganddrink.' Whenthetablesare fullofbreadandmeat,andthecup-bearering,andthetaleofthe

carriesroundwinewhichhedrawsfromthebowlandpoursinto improperthecups4;, behaviourofZeusand

is it fit or conduciveto temperanceforayoungmarltohear Here,aresuchwords? Or theverse nottobe

repeatedto' Thesaddestoffatesis todieandmeetdestinyfromhunger_'? theyoung.

What wouldyou say again to the taleof Zeus,who,whileother gods and men were asleepand he the onlypersonawake,lay devisingplans,but forgotthemall in a momentthrough his lust, and was so completelyovercomeat thesight of Here that he wouldnot evengo into the hut,butwantedto liewith her on the ground,declaringthat hehadneverbeeninsucha state of rapturebefore,evenwhentheyfirst metoneanother

' Withouttheknowledgeoftheirparents_;'

Od.iii.8. ' Ib.iv.43L 3Ib.i.225.' Ib. ix. 8. 5 Ib. xii.34z. s Il. xiv.28I.

!

i_ 74 Bri3ery, insolence, lust, andothervices!_j Rtp_ic or that other tale of how Hephaestus,becauseof similar!_ IIL goingson,casta chainaroundAresandAphrodite'?:i_ AD_,,,_s.S°c_T_'Indeed,he said,I am stronglyof opinionthat theyought-:*_: Theinde-not to hearthatsortofthing._,:*_" centtaleof But any deeds of endurancewhichare done or toldby"_, Aresand famousmen, these they ought to see and hear; as, forAphrodite.

Theoppo-example,what issaid in the verses,_!_ sitestrain ' He smotehis breast,and thusreproachedhis heart,•_: ofendu-'_- rance. Endure,my heart;farworsehastthouendured_!'

;_. / Certainly,he said._ [ In thenextplace,wemustnot let thembe receiversof gifts:!! ]or loversof money.:_ / Certainlynot.

Neithermustwesing to themofLi 'Giftspersuadinggods,andpersuadingreverendkingss.,i- Condemna- Neitheris Phoenix,the tutor ofAchilles,to be approvedort tion ofI' Achilles deemed to havegiven his pupil goodcounselwhenhe told_ and Phoe- him that he shouldtake the giftsof theGreeks and assist} nix. them'; but thatwithouta gift he shouldnot layaside his

anger. Neitherwill we believe or acknowledgeAchilles_ himselfto have been such a lover of money that he took* Agamemnon'sgifts,or that when he had receivedpayment_ he restored the dead body of Hector, but that without,_ paymenthe wasunwillingtodo so_.

Undoubtedly,he said,these are not sentimentswhichcan 39_: be approved._: Loving Homer as I do6, I hardly like to say that in_ attributingthese feelingsto Achilles,or in believingthat

theyare truly attributedto him, he is guiltyof downrightimpiety. Aslittlecan I believethenarrativeof his insolenceto Apollo,wherehe says,

? 'Thouhast wrongedme, 0 far-darter,most abominableof_ deities. VerilyI wouldbe evenwith thee,if I had only the

power_;'

or his insubordinationto the river-god8, onwhosedivinityheis readyto layhands; orhisofferingto thedeadPatroclus

_-_ a Od. viii. 266. _ Ib. xx. 17.QuotedbySuidasasattributedtoHesiod. ' II.ix.5t5. sIb.xxiv.xTfi.

*CLinfra,r_595. *II.xxii.I5sq. s lb.xxi.I3O, 223sq.

kkould kave no place among the gods. 75/ of hisownhair1,whichhadbeenpreviouslydedicatedto the Xepubm

other river-godSpereheius,and that he actuallyperformed Izi.this vow; or that he draggedHector round the tombof so_,.,T_,AOEI_A_TUS.Patroelus_,and slaughteredthe captivesat thepyre_; of all The ira-this I cannotbelievethat he wasguilty,anymorethanI can piousbe-allowour citizens to believe that he, the wise Cheiron'shaviourofAchillesto

'-. pupil, the son of a goddessand of Peleuswho was the Apolloandgentlestofmenand third in descentfromZeus,wassodis- theriver-

gods ; hisordered in his wits as to be at one timethe slaveof two cruelty.seeminglyinconsistent passions,meanness,not untaintedby avarice,combinedwith overweeningcontemptof godsandmen.

You are quiteright,he replied.And let us equallyrefuse to believe,or allowto be re- Thetaleof '_

peated,thetaleof Theseusson of Poseidon,or ofPeirithousTheseusandPeiri-

son of Zeus, goingforth as they did to perpetratea horrid t_us.rape;or ofanyotherheroor sonofa goddaringto dosuch [ _.impiousanddreadfulthingsas theyfalselyascribeto theminourday: and letus furthercompelthepoetsto declareeither _":jthat theseactswere not donebythem,or that theywerenotthe sons of gods ;mboth in the samebreath theyshallnotbe permittedto affirm. We willnot have them tryingto !_persuadeouryouththat thegodsare theauthorsof evil,and /thatheroesareno betterthan men--sentimentswhich,as we [ _[weresaying,are neitherpious nor true,forwehav_provedthat evilcannotcomefromthegods.

Assuredlynot.And furtherthey are likelyto havea bad effecton thoseThebadeffectof

who hear them; foreverybodywillbegin toexcusehisown thesemy-vices when he is convincedthat similarwickednessesare thological

tales uponalwaysbeingperpetratedby_ the young.

' Thekindredofthegods,therelativesofZeus,whoseancestralaltar,thealtarofZeus,isaloftinaironthepeakofIda,'andwhohave

' thebloodof deitiesyet flowingin theirveins4.,And therefore let us put an end to such tales, lest they

39uengenderlaxityofmoralsamongtheyoung.i I1.xxiii.15I. _Ib.xxii.394. sIb.xxiii._75.

FromtheNiobeofAeschylus.

!

76 The styles of l_oetry.

Rt_ublic By allmeans,he replied.III. But nowthatwe are determiningwhat classesof subjects

m,_a_s.s°_a_'are or are not to l_spoken of, let us seewhetheranyhavebeenomittedbyus. _ inwhichgodsanddemigodsand heroesand theworldbelowshouldbe treated has been

f_T:_.., alreadylaid down.:/ \ Verytrue/ Mi_t_ \ And what shallwe say about men? That is clearly the[ i_ts _remainingportionof oursubject.t aboutmen.] Clearlyso.[ / But we are not in a conditionto answer this question\ /" at present,myfriend.

Why not?Because,if I am not mistaken,we shall have to say that

aboutmen poets and story-tellersare guiltyof makingthegravestmisstatementswhentheytellus thatwickedmen areoftenhappy,and the good miserable;and that injusticeisprofitablewhen undetected,but that justice is a man'sown loss and another's gain--these thingswe shall forbidthem to utter, and command them to sing and say theopposite.

To be surewe shall,he replied.But if you admit that I am right in this, then I shall

maintainthatyou have impliedthe principlefor whichwehavebeenall alongcontending.

I grant the truthofyour inference.

That suchthingsare or are not to be said aboutmenis a

questionwhichwecannotdetermineuntilwe havediscoveredwhat justice is, and how naturallyadvantageous to thepossessor,whetherhe seemto bejust or not.

Mosttrue, he said.f Enoughof the subjectsof poetry: let usnowspeakof the

style; and whenthis has beenconsidered,bothmatter andmannerwillhavebeencompletelytreated.

I donot understandwhatyoumean,saidAdeimantus.Then I mustmakeyouunderstand; andperhapsI maybe

I more intelligibleif I put the matter in this way. You are

aware,I suppose,that all mythol__narrationC\ of events,either past,present,or to come?

('_. / Certaini_' ,._, ,_I

D_fferencebetween Epic and Dramatic poetry. 77

And narrationmaybeeithersimplenarration,or imitation,Republicor a union ofthe two.9 III.

That again,he said,I donot quiteunderstand. So_T_.I fear that I must be a ridiculousteacherwhen I have

Analysisofso muchdifficultyinmakingmyselfapprehended.Likeabad thedrama-speaker,therefore,I willnot take the wholeof the subject,ticelementin Epicbut willbreaka pieceoffin illustrationofmymeaning.Youpoetry.knowthefirstlinesof theIliad,inwhichthepoetsaysthat

593ChrysesprayedAgamemnonto releasehis daughter,andthatAgamemnonflewintoa passionwithhim; whereuponChryses,failingof his object,invokedtheangerof theGodagainsttheAchaeans. Nowas farastheselines,

'Andhe prayedall the Greeks,butespeciallythe twosonsofAtreus,thechiefsofthepeople,'thepoetis speakingin hisownperson; henever leadsus tosuppose that he is any one else. But in what followshetakesthe personof Chryses,andthenhedoesall thathe canto makeus believethat the speakeris not Homer,but theagedpriesthimself. Andin thisdoubleformhe hascasttheentirenarrativeof the eventswhichoccurredat TroyandinIthacaandthroughouttheOdyssey.

Yes.And a narrativeit remainsboth inthe speecheswhichthe

poet recites from time to time and in the intermediatepassages.9

Quite true.Butwhenthepoetspeaksin thepersonofanother,maywe Epiepoetry

not say that he assimilateshis styleto thatofthepersonwho, hasanele-mentofas he informsyou,is goingto speak? imitation

Certainly. inthespeeches ;And this assimiliationof himselfto another,either by therestisthe use of voiceor gesture,is the imitationof the personsimplenax.......... ra,tive.whosecharacterhe assumes? -_'-- .....

Of course. __=:-Then in this ca_(lle naive of the poet maybe said

to proceedbywa_of imitafioni_j ........

V:ryfr epo appearsandneverconcealsuons_mhimself,then againthe imitationis dropped,and his poetry thebegin-ningof the

becomessimplenarration. However,in order that I may nhd.

78 The imitative arL

Re#_'c makemymeaningquitedear,and thatyou maynomoresay,I12. 'I don't understand,'I will show how the changemight

so_,,_, be effected. If Homerhadsaid, 'The priestcame,havinghisdaughter's ransomin his hands,supplicatingthe Achaeans,and aboveall the kings;' and then if, insteadof speakinginthe personof Chryses,he hadcontinuedin his ownperson,thewordswouldhavebeen,notimitation,butsimplenarration.The passagewould haverun as follows(I am nopoet, andthereforeI dropthe metre),'The priestcameandprayedthegodson behalfof the Greeksthat they mightcaptureTroyand return safelyhome,butbeggedthat theywouldgive himbackhis daughter,and take the ransomwhichhe brought,and respectthe God. Thushe spoke,and theother Greeksrevered the priest and assented. But Agamemnonwaswroth,andbadehimdepartand not comeagain,lest thestaffand chapletsof the God should be of no avail to him--thedaughter of Chryses should not be released,he said--sheshould grow old with him in Argos. And then he toldhim to go awayand not to provoke him, if he intendedto get home unscathed. And the old man went awayinfear and silence, and, when he had left the camp, he 394called upon Apollo by his many names, remindinghimofeverythingwhichhe haddone pleasingto him,whetherinbuildinghis temples,or in offeringsacrifice,and prayingthathis good deeds might be returned to him, and that theAchaeansmightexpiatehistearsbythearrowsofthegod,'--andso on. In thiswaythewholebecomessimplenarrative.

I understand,he said.Tragedy Or you may suppose the oppositecase--that the inter-andCom_mediatepassagesareomitted,andthedialogueonlyleft.dy arewho]tr Thatalso, he said,I understand; you mean,for example,imitative; as in tragedy.dithyram-bic and Youhaveconceivedmymeaningperfectly; andif I mistakesome not,whatyoufailedto apprehendbeforeisnowmadeclearto

other kinds

of0oetrr you, that poetryand mythologyare, in some cases,whollyaredevoidimitative--instancesof this are supplied by tragedy andof imita-*ion.ElSecomedy; there is likewisethe op_ot._le, in whichthepoetryisa poetis theonlyspeaker--ofthis the-_vran_b_affordsthebestti_ ofthe example; and the combinationof _ls _und in epic,andtwo. inseveralotherstylesofpoetry. Do I take.,youwithme?

The feebleness of imitators. 79

Yes,he said; I see nowwhatyoumeant. RepublicI willask you to rememberalsowhatI beganbysaying, 11I.

that we had done with the subjectand mightproceedto SO_AT_,the style. AD_,_u_ _'_

Yes,I remember.In sayingthis,I intendedto implythatwemustcometoan

understandingabout the mimeticart,--whetherthe poets, •in narratingtheir stories,are to beallowedbyus to imitate, ?"and if so, whetherin wholeor in part,and if the latter,in _'whatparts; or shouldall imitationbe prohibited? ii

You mean,I suspect,to askwhethertragedyandcomedy _"shallbe admittedintoour State? _.;_!*J

Yes,I said; butthere maybe morethanthis in question: AhintI reallydo not knowas yet,but whitherthe argumentmay aboutHomerblow,thitherwego. {ep.infra,

And gowewill,he said. bk.x.)Then, Adeimantus,let me askyouwhetherourguardiansOurguard-

ought to be imitators; or rather,hasnotthis questionbeen iansought _nottobedecidedby therule alreadylaiddownthatonemancanonly imitators.do one thing well, and not many; and that if he attemptforonenlan Call

many, he will altogether fail of gainingmuchreputationonlydoonein any? thingwell;

Certainly.And this is equallytrue of imitation;no one man can

imitatemanythingsas wellas he wouldimitatea singleone?He cannot.

395 Then the samepersonwillhardlybeabletoplaya serious '_part in life,andat thesametimetobe animitatorandimitatemanyother parts as well; for evenwhen two speciesof _°imitationare nearlyallied,the samepersonscannotsucceedin both,as, for example,the writersof tragedyandcomedy--did you notjust nowcallthemimitations?

Yes,I did; and you are right in thinkingthat the samepersonscannotsucceedinboth.

Anymorethantheycanbe rhapsodistsandactorsat once?

True. !i

Neitherare comicandtragicactorsthesame; yetall these ethingsare but imitations.

They areso.

And human nature, Adeimantus,appears to have been _ii11ji-

D:

_: 80 One man should not 2May many #arts.

i!i! ' d_//¢ coined into yet smaller pieces, and to be as incapable ofIII. imitatingmanythingswell,asof performingwellthe actions

:" _u_s°°_'_'ofwhichthe imitationsarecopies. .-------i hecannot Quite true,he replied.

_i' evenimi- If then we adher_e_to _ "_ in mind?" latemanythat ourguardians,settingaside everyotherbusiness,areto_'i": things._; dedicatethems_elveswholl2to the maiat.exmac.e__[_ the State,makingthis their craft,andengagingin no workt" whichdoes not bearon this end,theyoughtnotto practise_ or imitateanythingelse; if theyimitateat all, theyshould;_ , imitatefrom youdi"._eupW_rd characters which

telielielielielielie_ffl_ro_ssion--the!.'_ _3.__ _ are suitable to comte,[' _._ _ / holy, free, and'tlie-Ti_C;_btlt_theyshouldnot depictor be

(_¢._-+ . .-..t---- skilfulat imitatingany kind of illiberalityor baseness,lest_, _ from imitationthey shouldcome to be what they imitate., .f_ Did you never observehow imitations,beginningin early

youthandcontinuingfar intolife,at length growinto habits// and becomea second nature, affectingbody, voice, and'_-'?mind?

Yes,certainly,he said.Imitations Then, I said,we willnot allowthose forwhomwe professwhichaxeofthede- a care and ofwhomwe saythat they ought tobe goodmen,grading to imitatea woman,whetheryoung or old, quarrellingwithsort. her husband,or strivingand vauntingagainstthe gods in

conceitof her happiness,or when she is in affliction,orsorrow,or weeping; and certainlynot one who is in sick-

: ness,love,or labour.Veryright,he said.Neither must they represent slaves,male or female,per-

formingtheofficesof slaves?They mustnot.And surelynot bad men,whethercowardsor any others,

._ ] whodo the reverse ofwhatwe havejust beenprescribing,• _ __" whoscoldor mockor revileone another in drinkor outof

•," • drink, or who in any other mannersin againstthemselves_ "_!_L":re'_" and theirneighboursin wordor deed,as the mannerofsuch_:__x . q. is. Neithershouldtheybe trained to imitatethe actionor396_2z__.*'_,, speechofmen orwomenwhoare mador bad; formadness,i_ -_(v_ _/_ likevic_t not to be practisedor lmrtated.

Tkegoodmanwill notaxta part unworthyofhim. 8I iNeither may they imitate smithsor other artificers,or z'q_#c -$

oarsmen,or boatswains,or the like? IILSoc_ry.s,Howcan they,he said,whentheyarenotallowedtoapplyA_,s.

theirmindsto thecallingsofanyofthese? ........ -- _)Nor maytheyimita_e-tneneighingofhorses,thebellowing

of bulls,themurmurof riversandroll oftheocean,thunder,

andall that sort ofthing? I-Nay,he said,if madnessbe forbidden,neithermaythey _-icopythe behaviourof madmen. |!.

You mean,I said, if I understandyou aright,thatthere is i|!.

one sortof narrativestylewhichmay_d___y__ a t_!y__ li•goodmanW__..d Shat_zo*h_rsartwillbe_n ofano_laosit_ch_c.Leyandeducation.

And w-h_mhare thesetwosorts? he asked. _Suppose,I ans._swwered,that a just and goodman in the Imitations

course of a narrationcomeson somesayingor act_f whichmaybeen-another goodm'_,--I should_-m_g_{ne-that"h_ W_FIII(eto_coura_,

person_'fn'_"and will not be asha,med_of .thi_so_£___ _imitation:he will be most ready to play tlae-p'a_-'of-the _Jgoodman when he is actingfirmlyand wisely; in a less _"degreewhen he is overtakenbyillnessor loveor drink,or •_,has met with anyother disaster. Butwhenhe comesto a ]_;characterwhich is unworthyof him,he will not make a _L _'_ ,|_studyof that; he willdisdainsucha person,andwillassumehis likeness,if atall,fora momentonlywhenhe isperforming ;-_ /*somegoodaction; at other timeshe willbeashamedtoplay _... _Lk,a part which he has never practised,nor will he like to ".-zz./ .|_fashionand framehimselfafter the basermodels;he feels _"_jthe employmentof such an art,unlessin iest,tobe beneathhim,and his mindrevoltsat it. _ --_. - •

So I shouldexpect,he replied, cThen he willadopta modeof narrationsuchas wehave

illustratedout of Homer,that is tosay,hisstylewillbe bothimitativeand narrative; but therewillbe verylittleof theformer,anda greatdealofthe latter. Doyouagree?

Certainly,he said; thatis themodelwhichsucha speaker397mustnecessarilytake.

But there is anothersort of characterwhowillnarrateImitalions 1_anything,and, theworsehe is,themoreunscrupuloushewillw_ehtobepro-arebe; nothingwillbe toobadforhim: andhe willbereadyto hibited. ]i

G j:it:.!-j

._:_i 8_ Three styles, simple, lbantomimic, mixed.45'

_:, Re._tic [imitateanything,notas a joke,but in rightgoodearnest,and'.:_.... Iit. before a largecompany. As I was just nowsaying,he will_¢, s_, attemptto represent the roll of thunder,the noiseof windid_i _'_'_i and hail, or the creakingof wheels,and pulleys,and theti<_:', ivarious soundsof flutes,pipes, trumpets,and all sorts of_:_,: instruments: he willbark like a dog, bleat likea sheep,or::-:, crow like a cock; his entire art willconsistin imitationof:_ voiceand gesture,andtherewillbe very littlenarration.• , That, he said,willbe his modeof speaking.

These,then, are the twokindsofstyle?_- Yes.

Twokinds And youwouldagreewithmein sayingthat oneofthemisthe°fstyle--onesimpleand has but slight changes-,and ifthe harmonyandsimple,the rhythmare also chosenfortheir simplicity,the resultis thatothermul-thespeaker,if he speakscorrectly,is alwaysprettymuchthetiplex."there samein style,and he will keepwithin the limits of a singleisalso harmony(forthechangesare not great),and in like mannera thirdwhichisa lie willmakeuseof nearlythe samerhythm?eombina- That is quitetrue, he said.tionofthetwo. 1 Whereas the other requiresall sortsofharmoniesand all

sortsofrhythms,ifthe musicandthe styleare tocorrespond,becausethe stylehasall sortsofchanges.

That is alsoperfectlytrue,he replied.And do not the twostyles,or the mixtureof the two,com-

prehend all poetry,andeveryformof expressionin words?Noonecan sayanythingexceptin oneor otherofthemor inboth together.

Theyincludeall,he said.Thesimple And shallwe receiveinto our Stateall the threestyles,orstylealoneistobe one onlyof the two unmixedstyles? or wouldyou includeadmittedinthe mixed?

": thetheattrae-State;I should_preferonl toadmit...........thepureimitatorof virtue.tlonsof Yes, I said,Adeimantus.but themixed_style is alsoverythemixed

:,i styleare charming: andindeedthepantomimic,whichis theopposite', acknow- of the one chosen by you, is the mostpopular stylewith_, ledged,butchildrenand their attendants,and withtheworldin general._ it appears_ tobeex- I donot denyit.•_ cl_ea. But I supposeyouwouldargue thatsucha styleis unsuit-_!_ able to ourState,in whichhuman_ot twofoldor_: manifold,foronemanplaysonepart_tdy? _ -- -- -_

;[

The melody and rhythm are to follow the words. 83

Yes; quiteamsuitable. Ret_blic

And this is the reasonwhyinourState,andin ourState III. I_only,we shall find a shoemakerto bea shoemakerand not soc_m,Aamtm_crv_a pilotalso,anda husbandmanto beahusbandmanandnota G_uco_,.

dicastalso,anda soldiera soldierandnot a traderalso,andthe samethroughout?

True, he said.

398 Andthereforewhen anyone of thesepantomimicgentle-Thepanto-men, who are so clever that they can imitateanything,mimicartististoreceive

comes to us, and makes a proposal to exhibit himselfgreatand his poetry, we will fall downand worshiphim as honours. __butheistoa sweet and holy and wonderfulbeing; but we must besentout

also inform him that in our State such as he are not ofthe ,!_permittedto exist; the law willnot allowthem. And so eottntry. _

whenwe haveanointedhimwithmyrrh,andset a garland] f_"of woolupon his head,we shall send himawayto anothertcity. For we mean to employfor our souls'healththe_ !i_rougher and severer poet or story-teller,who will imitate _!

the style of the virtuousonly,andwill followthosemodelsj '_whichwe prescribedat firstwhen we beganthe education ,.:of our soldiers. _i

We certainlywill,he said,ifwehavethepower. _.

Then now,my friend,I said,that partofmusicor literary t _educationwhichrelates to the storyor mythmay be con- _sideredto befinished; for the matterandmannerhaveboth _jbeendiscussed, i[

I think so too, he said. _Next inorder willfollowmelodyandsong. i_That isobvious. I_

Everyone can see alreadywhatwe oughtto say about I!them,if weareto beconsistentwithourselves.I fear,saidGlaucon,laughing,that the word'everyone' i:Ehardlyincludesme, for I cannotat the momentsay what }:

theyshouldbe; thoughI mayguess, li

At any rate you can tell that a song or ode has threeparts--the wo_s_.___eme--he rhythm; that degreeofknowledgeI maypresuppose?

Yes,he said; somuchas thatyoumay. I!And as for the words,there will surelybe no difference l"betweenwordswhichare and whichare not set to music;

G2

|.

84 The harmonies or modes und thm'r e_ects.

Rel_bllc both will conformto the samelaws,and these have beenIIAalreadydeterminedbyus?

_' Yes.GLAveo_.Melody And themelodyandrhythmwilldependuponthewords?and Certainly.rhythm. We were saying,when we spoke of the subject-matter,

that wehadno needof lamentationandstrainsof sorrow?True.Andwhichare theharmoniesexpressiveof sorrow? You

aremusical,andcan tellme.

The harmonieswh_ich_, are the mixed_rLy._di__anand thefull-tonecLgx.h__ke.: These then, I said,-_mustbe-banished; even to women

who havea characterto maintainthey are of no use,andmuchless to men.

Certainly.In the nextplace,drunkennessandsoftnessandindolence

are utterlyunbecomingthe characterof ourguardians.Utterlyunbecoming.

There- Andwhichare thesoftor drinkin_armonies 9laxedme-lodiesor The Ionian,he repm'11_,-an-mit_e Lydian; they are termed399harmonies_relaxed.'_ -'_'_.- _--------_ia_enita_nand _Nell,and are these ofanymilitaryuse?theLydian./"Quitethereverse_he_d ifso theDorianandthetoThl_e_eare kPh_ia_n___l_ have e t. ---banish_/"" I answered: Ofthe harmoniesI knownothing,but I want

/ to have one warlike, to sound the note or accentwhicht a bravemanutters in thehour of dangerand stern resolve,

or when his cause is failing,and he is going to woundsor death or is overtakenby someother evil, and at every

such crisismeets the blowsof fortunewith firm step anda determinationto endure; and another to be used by him! in timesof peace and freedomof action,whenthere is no

pressureofnecessity,andhe isseekingto persuadeGod by! prayer,orman byinstructionand admonition,or on theother

hand, when he is expressinghis willingnessto yield topersuasionor entreatyor admonition,and whichrepresentshim when by prudentconducthe has attained his end, notcarriedawaybyhis success,butactingmoderatelyandwiselyunderthecircumstances,and acquiescingin theevent. These

Musical instruments ; rAytAms.

two harmoniesI ask you to leave; the_train_of necessityRq_ublicand the strainof freedom,the strainof the unfortunateand III.the strain of fh'__gfi'_s_ra'i_urage_ and the s_A__,,GlAUCON.

strainoftemp_s_,'T say,leave......And i_-_,_cI_-_t_e_n_ Phrygianhar, _ :'

moniesofwhichI wasjust nowsp_ak['_'_....._-_---___ ....Then, I said, if theseandtheseonlyare to beusedin our TheDo- r-)

songsan_..m_dies, we shallnot wantmultiplicityof notes rianand. - Phrygianor a lfanharmol_cscale? aretobeI supposenot. . ...... retained.Then we shall not maintainthe artificersof lyres with )

threecornersandeomm_xscales,or themakersofanyothermany-stringed_uriously-harmonisedinstruments?

Certainlynot. _-"But what do you say to flute-makersand flute-players? Musical

Would you admitthemintoour Statewhenyoureflectthat instru-ments-in this compositeuse of harmonythe flute is worsethan whichare

all the stringed instrumentsput together; even the pan- tobere-jectedandharmonicmusicis onlyan imitationoftheflute? which

Clearlynot. allowed?There remain then onlythe _in .

thecity,andthe shepherdsmayhavea pipein thecountry, s--_That is surely the conclusionto _ff_rom the _

argument.The preferringofApolloand his instrumentsto Marsyas

andhis instrumentsis notat allstrange,I said.Not at all, he replied.And so,bythe dogof Egypt,we havebeenunconsciously

purgingthe State,whichnot longagowetermedluxurious.Andwehavedonewisely,hereplied.Then letusnowfinishthepurgation,I said. Nextinorder

to harmonies,rhythmswillnaturallyfollow,and theyshouldhe subjectto the samerules,for we oughtnot to seekoutcomplexsystemsofmetre,or metresofeverykind,but ratherto discoverwhatrhythmsare theexpressionsofacourageous

4ooand harmoniouslife; and whenwe havefoundthem,weshall adapt the foot and the melodyto wordshavinga likespirit,not the wordsto the footand melody. To saywhatthese rhythmsare will be your duty--youmustteachmethem,asyouhavealreadytaughtmetheharmonies, j

ii

l

86 Tke_uestiou of rkyHrms referred to Damon.

Rep_i¢ But, indeed,he replied,I cannottellyou. I only knowIIz. thattherearesomethreeprinciplesof rhythmoutof which

soc_T_ metricalsystemsareframed,just as in soundstherearefournotes1out ofwhichallthe harmoniesarecompo_-t_F_Three

kindsof anobservationwhichI havemade. Butof whatsortof livesrhythmas theyareseverallytheimitationsI amunableto say.therearefournotes Then,I said,wemusttakeDamonintoourcounsels;andofthere- he will tell us whatrhythmsare expressiveof meanness,trachord.

or insolence,orfury,or otherunworthiness,andwhataretobe reservedfor the expressionof oppositefeelings. AndI thinkthat I have an indistinctrecollectionof his men-tioninga complexCreticrhythm;alsoa dactylicor heroic,andhe arrangedthemin somemannerwhichI do notquiteunderstand,makingthe rhythmsequalinthe riseandfallofthefoot,lonj._ndsh9_ alternating;and,unlessIammistaken,he spoke-'6Tan iambicas well asof a trochaicrhythm,andassignedto themshortandlong quantities*.Also insomecaseshe appearedto praiseor censurethe movementof thefootquiteas muchas the rhythm; orperhapsa combinationof the two; for I am not certainwhathe meant. Thesematters,however,as I was saying,hadbetterbe referredto Damonhimself,for the analysisof the subjectwouldbe difficult,youknow?

Ratherso, I shouldsay.But there is no difficultyin seeing_or the

absenceofgr_m.Noneat all.

Rhythm Andalsothatgoodandbadrhythmnaturallyassimilatetoandbar- a goodandbadstyle; andthatharmonyanddiscordin likemonyfonow mannerfollowstyle; for our principleis that rhythmandstyle,and harmonyare regulatedby the words, and not the wordsstyleisthee_ressJonby them.ofthesoul. Just so, he said, theyshouldfollowthewords.

And will not the words and the characterof the styledependon the temperofthe soul?

(_ : i._ thetour_o_e_i__Socratesexpresseshimselfcareleo_lyin accordancewith hisa_mmodigno-ranceofthedetailsof thesubje_. In thefirstpartof thesentenceheappearstobespeakingofpaeonlcrhythmswhichareintheratioof_ ; inthesecondpart,of dactylicand anapaesticrhythms,whichare in theratioof _; in the lastclause,of iambicandtrochaicrhythms,whicharein theratioof ½or_.

OtAer artists, and not only _oets,gobeunder tAeStale. 87

Yes. R_Andeverythingelseon thestyle.9 !I/.Yes, Soe_,Then beautyof style and harmonyand _od o=uco_

rhythm..... _.............. _'-__--_ . .... Simplicityoepen¢lon slmplloty,--Imeanthetrueslmphotyo[ thegreata ri htl a d nobl- orderedmindandcharacter,n_Lthat first_ng y _a nora oraerea m[na_anoo_ civle; "othersimplicitywhichis onlyaneuphemismforfolly? "--...._1"

Very true,he replied. ".....Andif ouryouthare todotheirworkin life,musttheynot .....

makethesegracesandharmoniestheirperpetualaim.9Theymust.---'---"-'- _-

4oi And surelythe art of the painterandeveryothercreativeandaprin-ciplewhichand constructiveart are fullof them,--weaving,embroidery,iswidelyarchitecture,and everykind of manufacture;also nature, spreadinanimaland vegetable,--inall of themthere is graceor the natureand

absence of grace. And uglinessand discordand inhar-_moniousmotionare nearlyalliedto illwordsandillnature,as grace and harmonyare the twinsistersof goodnessandvirtueandbeartheir likeness.

That is quitetrue,he said.But shall our superintendencego no further,and are the Ourciti-

poetsonly to berequiredbyus to express theimageof the zensm_tgrowuptogood in their works,on pain, if they do anythingelse,of manhoodexpulsionfromour State? Or is thesamecontroltobe ex- .amidstlmpres-tendedto othe_a_rr_ theyalsotobe prohibitedfrom sionsofexhibitingthe oppositeformsof viceand intemperanceand graceandbeautymeannessand indecencyin sculptureand buildingand the on_y;aUothercreativearts ; andis hewhocannotconformtothisrule uglinessandviceof ours to be preventedfrompractisinghisart in ourState, mustbelest the taste of our citizensbe corruptedby him? We excluded.wouldnot haveourguardiansgrowup amidimagesofmoraldeformity,as insomenoxiouspasture,andtherebrowseandfeed upon manya banefulherb and flowerday by day,littleby little,until they silentlygathera festeringmassofcorruptionin theirownsoul. Letourartistsratherbethose Iwhoaregifted to discernthe true natureofthebeautifuland !graceful; then willouryouthdwellina landofhealth,amidfair sightsand sounds,andreceivethe goodin everything;]andbeauty,theeffluenceoffairworks,shallflowintotheeye!7.andear, hkea health-givingbreezefroma purerregion,and|

88 Music ttte most #ote#t instrument of education.

Re_/c insensiblydrawthesoul fromearliestyearsintolikenessandIII. sympathywiththebeautyof reason.

soo__, There canbenonoblertrainingthanthat, hereplied."l'hepow_ And therefore,I said,Glaucon,musicaltrainingis a more ]ofim_rt- potentinstrumentthananyother,becauserhythmandhar- [inggra_is}monyfind theirwayinto the inwardplacesof the soul, on /possessedwhichtheymightilyfasten,impartinggrace,and makingthe/byhar-mony. soulof himwhois rightlyeducatedgraceful,or of himwho/

is ill-educatedungraceful; and also becausehe who hasreceivedthis trueeducationof the inner beingwill mostshrewdlyperceiveomissionsor faults in art and nature,

t andwitha true taste,whilehe praises and rejoicesoverand402

receivesintohis soul thegood,and becomesnobleandgood,he willjustlyblameandhate the bad,nowinthe days of hisyouth,even beforehe is able to knowthe reasonwhy; andwhen reason comeshe will recogniseand salute the friendwithwhomhis educationhas madehimlongfamiliar.

Yes,he said, I quiteagree withyou in thinkingthat ouryouthshouldbe trained in musicand on thegroundswhichyou mention.

Just as in learningto read, I said,we weresatisfiedwhenwe knewthe lettersof the alphabet,whicharevery few,inall their recurringsizes and combinations; not slightingthemas unimportantwhether theyoccupya space large orsmall, but everywhereeager to make them out; and notthinkingourselvesperfect in the art of reading until werecognisethemwherevertheyare found1:

True--Or, as we recognisethe reflectionof letters in the water,

or in a mirror,onlywhenwe knowthe letters themselves;thesameartand studygivingus the knowledgeofboth:

Exactly--Thetrue Even so, as I maintain,neither we nor our guardians,musicianwhomwehavetoeducate,can everbecomemusicaluntilwemustknowtheessen-and theyknowthe essentialformsof temperance,courage,t_forms liberality,magnificence,and theirkindred,as well as theofvirtueand_..e. contraryforms,in all their combinations,and canrecognise

themandtheirimageswherevertheyarefound,notslighting

I Cp.sup.a,II.$68D.

"._renslkulckra in cor)Oore#ulckro.' 89

themeither in smallthings or great,but believingthemall XetuZ4icto be withinthesphereof oneartandstudy. IlL

Mostassuredly. _.__ ........ so_,.,T,,And when a beautifulsoul harmonizeswith a beautifu!_Thebar._

form, and the two are cast in onemould,that willbe the]monyoffairestof sightsto himwhohasan eyetoseeit? / ,/soulandi bodytheThe fairestindeed, f_irestof

And thefairestisalsothe loveliest? . fights. ]

Thatmaybeassumed...... JAndthemanwhohas the spiritof harmonywillbemost

in lovewiththe loveliest; buthewillnot lovehimwhois ofartinharmonioussoul?

That is true,he replied,if the deficiencybein his soul; Thetruebutif therebe anymerelybodilydefectin anotherhe willnotlovermindwillbepatientof it,andwill loveallthesame. defectsof

I perceive,I said,thatyouhaveor havehadexperiencestheperson,ofthissort, andI agree. Butlet meask youanotherques-tion: Hasexcessof pleasureanyaffinityto temperance?

Howcanthatbe? he replied; pleasuredeprivesamanofthe useofhis facultiesquiteasmuchaspain.

Oranyaffinityto virtueingeneral?403 Nonewhatever.

Anyaffinityto wantonnessandintemperance? ...._Yes, thegreatest.And is there any greateror keenerpleasurethan that of

sensuallove?No, nora madder.Whereas true love is a love of beautyand order--tern-Trueloveistemperate

perateandharmonious? andhat-Quitetrue,hesaid. monious.Thenno intemperanceor madnessshouldbe allowedto

approachtruelove?Certainlynot.Thenmador intemperatepleasuremustneverbeallowedTrueloveisfree from

to comeneartheloverandhisbeloved; neitherofthemcan sensualityhaveanypart in it if theirloveisoftherightsort? and coarse-

No, indeed,Socrates,it mustnevercomenearthem. heSS.ThenI supposethatin thecitywhichwearefoundingyou

wouldmakea lawto theeffectthata friendshouldusenootherfamiliarityto his lovethana fatherwoulduse to his

L

90 TAegood soul iml_reoesthe body,_ot the 6ody tht soul.

R/e_//._ son, and then only for a noblepurpose,and he must firsthave the other'sconsent; and this rule is to limithim insoo_, allhis intercourse,and he is never tobe seen goingfurther,GLatmo_.

or, ifhe exceeds,he is to be deemedguiltyof coarsenessandbad taste.

I quiteagree,he said.Thusmuchofmusic,whichmakesa fairending; forwhat

shouldbe the endof musicif not the loveof beauty?oymms( k agree,he said.

Aftermusiccomesgymnastic,inwhichouryoutharenexttobe trained.

Certainly.Gymnasticaswellasmusicshouldbegininearlyyears; thetrainingin it shouldbecarefulandshouldcontinuethroughlife. Now my beliefis,--and this is a matteruponwhichI shouldlike tohaveyouropinioninconfirmationofmyown,butmyownbeliefis,--not thatthe gogd_..x._d_ a_nyexcel- * _'_u-_-h'_ - -_e-°_good soul, b .her o.wn...___i_p_r_es the bgdyasa_s thismaybe possible. What doyou say?

Yes,I agree.Thebody Then, to the mindwhen__/z__ shall beto be en- _ "trustedto rightin handingoverthe moreparticularcareof the body;themind.and in orderto avoidprolixitywe willnowonly give the

generaloutlinesofthe subject.Verygood.That theymustabstainfromintoxicationhas beenalready

t remarkedbyus ; forof all personsa guardianshouldbe thelast to getdrunkandnotknowwherein theworldhe is.Yes, he said; that a guardianshould requireanother

guardianto takecareof himis ridiculousindeed.Butnext, whatshallwe sayof theirfood; forthemenare

in trainingforthegreatcontestofall--are theynot ?Yes,he said.And will the habit of bodyof ourordinaryathletes be4o4

suitedto them?The,asual Why not?trainingof I amafraid,I said,thata habitof bodysuchas theyhavearbOres,cois but a sleepysortof thing,andratherperilousto health.gross andaeepy. Do you not observethat these athletessleep away their

Tke simplegymnastic twin sister of tke simplemusic. 9t

lives, and are liable to most dangerousillnessesif they Rq_/_depart, in ever so slighta degree,from their customary 1ILregimen? so_aT_,GLAUCO_,

Yes, I do.Then, I said, a finersort of trainingwillbe requiredfor

our warrior athletes,who are to be likewakefuldogs,andtosee and hearwith the utmostkeenness; amidthe manychangesof water and also of food, of summerheat aridwinter cold, which they will have to endurewhen on a _-_.-_-*campaign,they mustnot be liableto breakdowninhealth.

That is myview. _The reallyexcellentgymnasticis twinsisterof that simple

musicwhichwewerejust nowdescribing.Howso?Why, I conceivethat there is a gymnasticwhich,likeour Mmtary

music,is simpleandgood; and especiallythemilitarygym-gymn_tic.nastic.

What doyoumean?Mymeaningmaybe learnedfromHomer; he, youknow,

feedshis heroes at their feasts,whentheyare campaigning,on soldiers'fare; they have no fish, althoughtheyare onthe shores of the Hellespont,and they are not allowed

boiled meatsbut only roast, which is the foodmost con-1venient for soldiers, reqmrmgonly that theyshould light !a fire, and not involvingthe troubleof carryingaboutpots ,andpans.

True.And I canhardlybe mistakenin sayingthat sweetsauces

are nowherementionedin Homer. In proscribingthem,however,he is not singular; all professionalathletes arewellawarethat a manwho is to be ingoodconditionshouldtakenothingofthe kind.

Yes,he _nowing this,theyarequiterightinnottakingthem.

Then you wouldnot approveof Syracusandinners,and syraet_mdinner'sandthe refinementsofSiciliancookery? Corinthian

tour tezap-$I thinknot. 4Nor,if a manis tobe in condition,wouldyouallowhimtOhibited.arepro-

havea Corinthiangirlas his fairfriend?Certainlynot.

_z

9u Tim vanity of doctors and lawyers.

,e_/_ Neitherwouldyou approveof the delicacies,as they areZlL thought,ofAthenianconfectionary?

SOC_TES,Certainlynot.GLAUCON.

All such feedingand livingmaybe rightlycomparedbyTheluxuri-ousstyleof USto melodyand song composedin the panharmonicstyle,livingmay and inall therhythms.bejustlycompared Exactly.tothepan- There complexityengenderedlicence,and here disease;harmonic whereassimplicityinmusicwas the parent of temperanceinstrainofmusic, thesoul;andsimplicityingymnasticofhealthinthebody.

Mosttrue,hesaid.ButwhenintemperanceanddiseasesmultiplyinaState,4o5

hallsofjusticeandmedicinearealwaysbeingopened;andtheartsofthedoctorandthelawyergivethemselvesairs,findinghowkeenistheinterestwhichnotonlytheslavesbutthefreemenofacitytakeaboutthem.Ofcourse.

Everyman Andyetwhatgreaterproofcan therebe of a badanddis-shouldbe gracefulstate of educationthan this, that not onlyartisanshis own

doctorandandthemeanersortofpeopleneedtheskilloffirst-ratephy-lawyer.siciansandjudges,butalsothosewhowouldprofesstohavehadaliberaleducation? Isitnotdisgraceful,andagreat\signofthewantofgood-breeding,thatamanshouldhaveto '\go abroadfor his lawand physicbecausehe has noneof hisownat home,and must thereforesurrenderhimselfinto thehandsof other men whomhe makes lordsand judges overhim?

Ofall things,he said,the mostdisgraceful.Badasitis Would you say 'most,'I replied,when you considerthattogotoSaw,itis there is a furtherstageof the evilinwhicha manis not onlystillworsea life-longlitigant,passingall his days in the courts,eithertobealoverof as plaintiffor defendant,but is actuallyled byhis badtastelitigation, to pride himselfonhis litigiousness; he imaginesthat he is

a master indishonesty;able to takeeverycrookedturn, andwriggleintoand out of everyhole,bendinglikea withyandgetting out of the way of justice: and all for what?--inorder to gain small points not worth mentioning,he not

knowingthat so to order his lifeas to be able to dowithouta nappingjudge is a far higherand noblersort ofthing. Isnot that stillmoredisgraceful?

A sde_'us and Herodicus. 93 _:Yes, he said,that isstill moredisgraceful. RepubU_Well,I said,andto requirethehelpofmedicine,notwhen 1II.

a woundhas to be cured,or on occasionof an epidemic,but so_s,GLAUCON.

just because,by indolenceanda habitoflifesuc_ Badalsotobeen describing,men fill themselveswithwatersand winds, requiretheas if their bodieswere a marsh,compellingthe ingenioushelpofsons of A_clepiusto find m_i'__nam6g"fol:_t[s_ease_si'suchas medicine.flatulenceandcatarrh; isnot this,too,a disgrace?

Yes,he said, theydocertainlygiveverystrangeand new-fanglednamesto diseases.

Yes, I said, andI do not believethattherewereanysuch Inthetimediseasesin the daysofAsclepius"and this I inferfromthe ofAscle-, pillsand ofcircumstancethat the hero Eurypylus,after he has been Homerthewoundedin Homer,drinks a possetof_amnian winewellpractieeof...... medicine

406besprinkledwith barley-mealand gratedcheese,whichare wa_verycertainlyinflammatory,andyetthesonsofAsclepiuswhowere simple.at the Trojanwar do not blamethe damselwhogiveshimthe drink,or rebukePatroclus,whois treatinghis case.

Well, he said,that wassurelyan extraordinarydrinktobegivento a personin his condition.

Not so extraordinary,I replied,if you bear in mindthat Thenurs-in former days, as is commonlysaid, beforethe timeof ingofdis-easebegan

Herodicus,the guild of Asclepiusdid not practiseourpre- withHe-sent systemof medicine,which may be said to educaterod_eus.diseases. But Herodicus,beinga trainer,and himselfof asicklyconstitution,bya combinationof trainingand doctor-ing found out a way of torturingfirst andchieflyhimsel_andsecondlythe restof theworld.

Howwasthat? he said.By the inventionof lingeringdeath; forhe hadamortal

diseasewhichhe perpetuallytended,andas recoverywasoutofthe question,he passedhis entirelifeas avale_ .........he coulddo nothing but attenduponhimself,a_dhe wasin constanttormentwheneverhe departedin anythingfromhisusual regimen,and so dyinghard,bythehelpof sciencehe struggledonto oldage.

A rare rewardofhis skill!Yes, I said; a rewardwhicha manmightfairlyexpect

whonever understoodthat,if Asclepiusdid not instructhisdescendantsin valetudinarianarts, the omissionarose,not

ji

94 7_ sayingof PhocTlides.8_bza fromignoranceor inexperienceof sucha branchofmedicine,

III. but because he knew that in all well-orderedstateseverysoe_r_s, individualhas an occupationto which he must attend,andGtat_N

has thereforeno leisure to spend in continuallybeing ill.This we remark in the case of the artisan,but,ludicrouslyenough,do not applythe same rule to peopleof the richersort. o

Howdoyou mean? he said.The work- I meanthis : When a carpenteris ill he asksthephysicianing-man foraroughandreadycure; anemeticor a purgeor a cauteryhas no timefortediousor the knife,--thesearehis remedies. And if someonepre-rem_m, scribes for hima course of dietetics,and tells him that he

mustswatheand swaddlehis head,andall that sort of thing,he repliesatoncethathe hasnotimeto beill,andthat heseesnogoodin a lifewhichis spent in nursinghis diseaseto theneglectof hiscustomaryemployment; andthereforebidding

good-byeto this sort of physician,he resumeshisordinary ,_habits,andeither gets well and livesand does his business,or, if hisconstitutionfails,he diesandhas nomoretrouble.

Yes,he said, and a man in his conditionof lifeoughttouse theart ofmedicinethusfaronly.

Has he not, I said,an occupation; andwhat profitwould407therebe in his life ifhe weredeprivedof hisoccupation?

Quitetrue, he said.But withthe richmanthis isotherwise; of himwe donot

say that he has any speciallyappointedwork whichhe mustperform,if he wouldlive.

He is generallysupposedtohavenothingto do.Then youneverheardof the sayingof Phocylides,thatas

soonas a manhasa livelihoodhe shouldpractisevirtue.9Nay,he said, I think that he had better beginsomewhat

sooner.Theslow Letus not havea disputewithhimaboutthis, I said; butcure ratherask ourselves: Is the practiceof virtueobligatoryonequallyanimpedi- the rich man, or can he livewithoutit? And if obligatoryraenttotheon him, then let us raise a further question, whether thismechanicalarts.tothedieting of disorders,which is an impedimentto the ap-practiceof plicationof the mind in carpenteringand the mechanicalvirtue,

arts, does not equally stand in the way of the sentimentof Phocylides?

Ascle/n'usa statesman. 95Of that,he replied,therecanbe no doubt; suchexcessiveRepublic

careof thebod_,whencarriedbeyondtherulesofgymnastic, Ili.is mostinimicalto thepracticeofvirtue, so_,,,,GLAVCQ_,,

Yes, indeed,I replied,and equallyincompatiblewith the and to anymanagementof a house,anarmy,or anofficeof state; and, kindofwhatis most importantof all, irrecon_ileablewithanykindstudyorthought.of study or thought or self-reflection--thereis a constantsuspicionthat headacheand giddinessare tobe ascribedtophilosophy,andhenceall practisingor makingtrialofvirtuein the higher sense is absolutelystopped; for a man isalwaysfancyingthat he is beingmadeill,and is inconstantanxietyaboutthestate ofhis body.

Yes,likelyenough.And thereforeour politicAsclepiusmaybe supposedto Asclepius

haveexhibitedthe powerof his art only to personswho, wouldnotcuredis-beinggenerallyof healthyconstitutionandhabitsof life,had easedcon-a definiteailment; suchas these he cured by purgesand stitutionsbecauseoperations,and bade them liveas usual,hereinconsultingtheywerethe interests of the State; but bodieswhich diseasehad ofnousetuthe State.penetrated through and through he would not have at-temptedto cure bygradualprocessesof evacuationandin-fusion: he did not want to lengthenout good-for-nothinglives,or to have weakfathersbegettingweakersons;--if aman was not able to live in the ordinarywayhe had nobusinessto cure him; for sucha curewouldhavebeenofnouse eitherto himself,or to theState.

Then, he said,you regardAsclepiusasa statesman.Clearly; andhischaracteris furtherillustratedbyhissons. TheeaseofMenelaus,

408Notethattheywereheroesinthedaysofoldandpractisedthe whowasmedicinesofwhichI amspeakingatthesiegeof Troy: Youattendedwillrememberhow,whenPandaruswoundedMenelaus,theybythesonsof Ascle-

' Suckedthe bloodoutof the wound,andsprinkledsoothingpius.remedies_,'

buttheyneverprescribedwhatthe patientwasafterwardstoeat or drinkin the caseof Menelaus,anymorethaninthecaseof Eurypylus; the remedies,as theyconceived,wereenoughto heal anymanwho beforehe was woundedwas

i MakingtheanswerofSocratesbeginati¢_l7_f_ _._-.x.Iliadiv._x8.

96 Distinction between tke lkhysia'an and the judge.

Re#_tic healthyand regular in his habits; and eventhoughhe didIIL happento drink a possetof Pramnianwine, he mightget

so¢_._, wellall the same. But theywould havenothingto dowithG_ucoN.unhealthyand intemperatesubjects,whose liveswere of nouse eitherto themselvesor others; the art of medicinewasnot designedfor their good,and though theywere as richas Midas, the sons of Asclepiuswould have declined toattendthem.

Theoffence Theywereveryacutepersons,thosesonsof Asclepius.ofAsele- Naturallyso, I replied. Nevertheless,the tragediansandpins.

Pindar disobeyingour behests,althoughthey acknowledgethat Asclepiuswas the son of Apollo,sayalso that he wasbribedintohealinga richmanwhowasat the pointof death,and for this reason he was struck bylightning. But we,in accordancewith the principlealreadyaffirmedbyus, willnot believethemwhen theytell us both;--if he wasthe sonof _ maintainthat he was not avaricious; or, if hewasav__as not the son ofa god.

All that, Socrates/is excellent;but I should like to puta questionto you: Oughtthere not tobe goodphysiciansina State, and are not the best those who have treated thegreatestnumberof constitutionsgoodand bad? andare notthe best judges in like manner those who are acquaintedwithall sortsof moralnatures?

Yes, I said, I too would have good judges and goodphysicians. But do you knowwhom I think good?

Willyoutell me?I will,if I can. Let me howevernote that in the same

questionyoujoin twothingswhicharenot the same.Howso? he asked.

#ysi- Why, I said, you join physiciansand judges. NowtheclanshouldImveexpe-mostskilfulphysiciansarethosewho,fromtheiryouthrienceof upwards,havecombinedwiththeknowledgeoftheirartmnessin thegreatestexperienceofdisease;theyhadbetternotbehisownI_rson;robustinhealth,andshouldhavehadallmannerofdiseases

intheirown persons.Forthebody,asIconceive,isnottheinstrumentwithwhichtheycurethebody;inthatcasewe couldnotallowtheme___.y_ beensickly;buttheycurethebodywiththemind,andthemindwhichhas becomean mm can cu

The simiOlemedz'cineand simible law. 97

Thatisvery true,he said. Republic4o9 Butwiththe judge it is otherwise; sincehe governsmind II1.

bymind; he oughtnot thereforetohavebeentrainedamongso_A,_s,Gt_vcoN.viciousminds,and to haveassociatedwiththemfromyouth ontheupwards,and to havegone throughthe wholecalendarof otherhand,crime, only in order that he mayquicklyinfer the crimes thejudgeshouldnotof others as he might their bodilydiseasesfromhis own learntoself-consciousness; the honourablemindwhich is to form knowevilbythea healthyjudgmentshouldhavehad noexperienceor con-practiceoftaminationof evilhabitswhenyoung. Andthisis thereason _t.butbywhy in youth goodmenoften.appearto be siin?e,and are longobser-vationofeasilypractiseduponbythe_dishonest,becausethe2_haveno evilinexamplesofwhatevilis in theirownsouls. _Bffiers.

Yes,hes ". _- _ ..... __Therefore, I said, the judge shouldnot be young; he

shouldhave learnedtoknowevil,notfromhis ownsoul,butfromlateandlongobs-_rvarionot tlaenatureofevilmotnef_--_knowledgeshouldbe his guilt,-notpersonatexperience.:

Yes,he said, thatis the idealof_Yes, I replied,and he willbe a goodman(whichis my Sucha

answerto your question)"for he is goodwhohas a goodknowledgeof humansoul. But the cunningandsuspiciousnatureof whichwe naturefar

spoke,--hewho has committedmanycrimes,and fanciesbetter andtruerthanhimselfto be a master in wickedness,whenhe is amongstthatofthehis fellows,is wonderfulin the precautionswhichhe takes,adeptinCl'/me.

becausehe judgesofthembyhimself:butwhenhe getsintothe companyof men of virtue,who havethe experienceofage,he appearstobe a foolagain,owingtohisunseasonablesuspicions; he cannotrecognisean honestman,becausehehas no patternof honestyin himself;at thesametime,asthe bad are more numerousthan the good,and he meetswith them oftener,he thinks himself,and is by othersthoughtto be,ratherwise than foolish.

Mosttrue, he said.Thenthe goodandwisejudgewhomwe areseekingisnot/

thisman,but theother; forvicecannotknowvirtuetoo,but_ _')a virtuousnature,educatedbytime,willacquireaknowledgeI "bothof virtueand vice: the virtuous,and not the viciousjmanhaswisdom--inmyopinion.

Andin minealso.H

98 Thetrueaimof musicandgymnastic.

8epu_ / This is the sort of medicine,and this is the sort of law,I[I. [whichyou willsanctioninyour state. Theywillministerto

soc_T_,]better natures,givinghealthboth of soul andof body; but 4Io_LA_o_|those whoare diseasedin their bodiestheywillleaveto die,

land the corrupt and incurablesouls theywill put an endtothemselves.

That is the best bothforthe patientsandforclearly thing

the State./_ And thus our youth, having been educatedonly in that

implemusicwhich,as we said, inspires temperance,will beeluctanttogo to law.Clearly.And themusician,who,keepingto the sametrack,iscon-

tent to practisethesimplegymnastic,willhavenothingto dowithmedicineunlessin someextremecase.

That I quitebelieve.The very exercisesand toils which he undergoes are

intended to stimulate the spirited elementof his nature,and not to increasehis strength; he will not,like commonathletes,useexerciseandregimento developehis muscles.

Veryright,he said.Musieand Neitherare the two arts of music and gymnasticreallygymnasticdesigned,as is oftensupposed,the one for the trainingofare equallydesignedthesoul,theotherforthe trainingofthe body.fortheim- Whatthen is the realobjectof them?provementofthe I believe,I said, that the teachersof both have in viewmind. chieflythe impr_ul.Howcanthat be? he asked.

Didyouneverobserve,I said,the effecton theminditselfof exclusivedevotionto gymnastic,or the oppositeeffectofan exclusivedevotionto music?

In whatwayshown? he said.Themere The oneproducinEa temperof hardnessand f_rocity,theathletemustbe otherof softnessand effeminac.cy2,I reElied.softened, Yes, he sm-V'd_Tam qutte aware that the mere athleteandthe becomestoo muchof a savage,andthat themeremusicianisphilosophicnaturevre- meltedandsoftenedbeyondwhatis goodfor him.vented Yet surely,I said, this ferocityonly comesfrom spirit,frombe-coming which,if rightlyeducated,would give courage,but, if tootoosoft. muchintensified,is liableto becomehardand brutal.

The _r..cessof music and gymnastic. 99

That I quitethink. _epubticOn theotherhand the philosopherwillhavethequalityof HI.

gentleness. And this also, when too much indulged,will so_Ar,_,Gtatuo0x.turn to softness,but, if educatedrightly,willbe gentleandmoderate. "-------

True.And inour opiniontheguardiansoughttohaveboththese

qualities?Assuredly.Andbothshouldbe inharmony?Beyondquestion.

4_ And the harmonioussoul is both temperateand coura-geous?

Yes.And the inharmoniousis cowardlyandboorish?Verytrue.And, when a man allowsmusicto play upon him and Music,if

to pour into his soul throughthe funnelof his ears thoseearnedtoofar, renderssweetandsoftandmelancholyairsofwhichwewerejustnow theweakerspeaking,and his wholelife is passed in warblingand the natureeffe-minate,thedelightsof song; in thefirststageof theprocessthePassio_nstrongeror spirit whichis in him is temperedlike iron, and madeirri,-ble.useful,instead of brittle and useless. But,if he carriesonthe softeningand soothingprocess,in the next stage hebeginsto meltandwaste,untilhe haswastedawayhisspiritand cut outthe sinewsof his soul; andhe becomesa feeblewarrior.

Very true.If the elementofspiritis naturallyweakin himthechange

isspeedilyaccomplished,butif he havea gooddeal,thenthepowerof musicweakeningthe spirit rendershimexcitable; I--on the least provocationhe flamesup at once,and isspeedilyextinguished; instead of havingspirit he growsirritableandpassionateandisquiteimpracticable.

Exactly. "------_Andso in gymnastics,if a mantakesviolentexerciseand Andintikemannerthe

j_sagreat t'e_e_r,and the reverseof a greatstudentofmusicwell-fed.(Lap_philo_ at first the high condi__' e_o

: ;_e andspirit,andhebecomestwicethemanthat education,he was.

H 2

?

IOO The two corresponding elements in human nature.

R,lmMic Certainly.III. Andwhat happens? if he do nothingelse,and holdsno

so¢_, conversewith the Muses,does not even that intelligenceGta,vcoN.whichthere maybe in him,havingno taste of anysortofdegener-atesintoa learningor enquiryor thoughtor culture,growfeebleand

wadbeast,dull and blind,his mindnever wakingup or receivingnourishment,andhissensesnotbeingpurgedof theirmists?

True,hesaid.Andheendsbybecominga haterofh_ophy, uncivilized,

never using the weapo__uasion,_-_ld .beast,allviolenceandfierceness,andknowsnootherwayof Idealing;and he lives in all ignoranceand evil conditions,tandhasno senseof proprietyandgrace.

Thatis quitetrue,he said.Andas thereare_9)principles of humannature,one the

spiritedand the other the philosophical,some God, as Ishou'_'U-I'dsay,has givenmankind_sweHn t_hem(andonlyindirectlyto thesoulandbody),in orderthatthesetwo principles(like the strings of an instrument)maybe412relaxedor drawntighteruntiltheyare dulyharmonized.

Thatappearsto betheintention.Musicto And he who minglesmusicwithgymnasticin the fairest_bemingledproportions,and best attempersthem to the soul, maybe Ibothnastie'withgym-at_andrightlycalledthetruemusicianandharmonistin a farhigherJ

sensethanthetunerof_strings.tempered quiten_'t, SocrateS.°to the indi- YOUarevid_sod. And sucha presi_g geniuswillbe alwaysrequiredin our

State ifthe governmentis to last.Yes, he willbe absolutelynecessary.Such,then, are our principlesof nurtureand education:

_gh of Wherewouldbe the use of going intofurtherdetailsaboutprinciplesthedancesofourcitizens,or abouttheirhuntingandcoursing,ofeduca-tion: whotheirgymnasticandequestriancontests? Fortheseall followamtobe the generalprinciple,and havingfound that,we shall haveourrulers?

nodifficultyin discoveringthem.I daresay thattherewillbe no difficulty.Verygood,I said; thenwhatis the nextquestion? Must

we notaskwhoare tobe rulersandwhosubjects?Certainly.Therecanbe nodoubtthattheeldermustruletheyounger.

Sdection and prokation of tke guardians, xoz

Clearly. XepubticAnd that thebest ofthesemustrule. Ili.Thatisalsoclear, so_,_,T_,Gt.AUCON.Now, are not the best husbandmenthosewhoare most The elder

devotedto husbandry? mustmaleYes. andthe

And as we are to havethe best of guardiansforourcity, serve,youngermust they not be those who have most the characterofguardians.9

Yes.Andto thisendtheyought to bewiseandefficient,andto

havea specialcareofthe State.9True.

And a manwillbe mostlikelyto careaboutthatwhichhe Thoseareto be ap-

loves? pointedTo be sure, rulerswhoAndhewillbemostlikelyto lovethatwhichhe regardsas havebeentestedinall

havingthe samejntere-sts'-wit}_-himse-if,-andt-hat_Of_e'liictFthethestagesgoodor evil fortuneissupposed by _ at anyffrfi$inost oftheirlife;to affecthis own?

Verytrue, he replied.Then theremustbe a selection. Letus note amongthe

guardians those who in their wholelife showthe greatesteagernessto dowhatis forthegoodof theircountry,andthe.....greatestrepugnanceto dowhatis againsther interests.

Thoseare the rightmen.And theywillhave to be watchedat everyage,in order

that we maysee whethertheypreservetheir resolution,andnever, under the influenceeitherof forceor enchantment,forgetor castofftheirsenseofdutyto theState.

Howcastoff?he said.

I willexplainto you, I....replied. A_9u._ t--;_w" • "" 7_------'-.-,._,ofa man'smindeithe_ h_ w'_H_r _gmn_th _ ___.._4x3his willWh"Cff'_ rid of a falsehoodand learnsbetter, _.r

again_g,his will.whenever___._heisdeprivedofa tru.t__I understand,he said,thewillinglossof a resolution; the

meaningof the unwillingI haveyettolearn.Why, I said, do you not see that men are unwillingly

deprivedof good,andwillinglyof evil? Is notto havelostthetruthan evil,and to possessthe trutha good? andyou

.v

lou Tke guardians of tke Slate

RtI_blic wouldagreethat to conceivethingsas they are is to possess1II. the truth?

so_T_, Yes, he replied" I agreewith you in thinkingthat man-GL_UCON.

kindare deprivedoftruth againsttheir will.And is not this involuntarydeprivationcaused either by

theft,or force,or enchantment?Still,he replied,I donot understandyou.

andwho I fear that I must havebeen talkingdarkly,likethe trage.are un-changed bydians. I onlymeanthatsomemenare changedbypersua-"_theinflu- sionandthatothersforget; argumentstealsawaythehearts?eneeeitherof one class, andtimeof the other; and this I calltheft.of pleasure,oroffear. Nowyouunderstandme?

Yes.Those againwho are forced,are thosewhomtheviolence

of somepainorgriefcompelsto changetheiropinion.I understand,he said,andyouarequiteright.

or ofen- Andyou wouldalso acknowledgethat the enchantedarechant- those who changetheir mindseither under the softer in-merlts.

fluenceofpleasure,or the sternerinfluenceoffear?Yes,hesaid; everythingthat deceivesmaybesaidtoen-

chant.Therefore,as I wasjustnowsaying,we mustenquirewho

are thebestguardiansof their_viction thatwhattheythinkthe interestof_ is to bethe rui'eof theirlives.We mustwatchthemfromtheiryouthupwards,andmakethemperformactionsin whichtheyare mostlikelytoforgetor to bedeceived,andhewhoremembersandis notdeceivedis to be selected,and he whofails in the trialis to be re-jected. Thatwillbe theway?

Yes.Andthereshouldalsobe toilsandpainsandconflictspre-

scribedforthem,in whichtheywillbe madeto givefurtherproofofthe samequalities.

Veryright,hereplied.And then,I said,we musttry themwith enchantments--

that is the third sort of test--andsee whatwill be theirbehaviour: like thosewho takecoltsamidnoiseandtumultto see if they are of a timidnature,so must we take ouryouthamidterrorsof somekind,and againpass themintopleasures,and provethemmore thoroughlythangold is

must _e guardians of tttemselves. Io3

proved in the furnace, that we may discover whether th_ Republicare armed against aH enehanT_eh-_,__ring _'"II1.always, gtood_ruar_;_,,_,_f themse!ve.s_andof_ihem_sic which so_....'" ' GLAUCO_.they have learned, and retaining under all circumstances arhythmical and harmonious nature, such as will be mostserviceable to the individual and to the State. And he If theywho at every age, as boy and youth and in mature li'_"fi'ggstand,the

_ . , ......... _ test theycome out ot the trlat vlctol_l_u[_nte(:_are tobe

414a ruler and guar_c],_n-'o_t]i_-'__'_a_i-e-_m ihn°_i_eua_lndlife and death, and shall receive sepulture and other me- afterdeath.morials of honour, the greatest that we have to give. Buthim who fails, we must reject. I am inclined to think thatthis is the sort of way in which our rulers and guardiansshould be chosen and appointed. I speak generally, and notwith any pretension to exactness.

And, speaking generally, I agree with you, he said.And perhaps the word '_in the fullest sense Thetifloof

ought to be applied to this highergclassbn-n-lV-w-hoypreserve us guardiansagainst foreign enemies an_d__mainta_Jn_pea_.___gn_our sertedfor _-_-_citizens at home, that the one mav not have the will,or the th_elders, J,

- _ .................... -.......................the_youngothers the power, to harm us. The young men whom we mehtobe !before called guardians may be more properly designated call_aux- //

ilia s.r_.._ _auxiliaries and supporters of the p_les of the rulers.

I agree wl.n you, he s_--How then may we devise one of those needful falsehoods

of which we lately spoke--just one royal lie which maydeceive the rulers, .if that be possible, and at any rate therest of the city?

What sort of lie ? he said.Nothing new, I replied ; only an old Phoenician_ tale of ThePhoe-

what has often occurred before now in other places, (as the niciantale.

poets say, and have made the world believe,)though not inour time, and I do not know whether such an event couldever happen again, or could now even be made probable, ifit did.

How your words seem to hesitate on your lips !You will not wonder, I replied, at my hesitationwhen you

have heard.Speak, he said, and fear not.

t Cp.Laws,663E.

xo4 Tke-lbara&leof tke metals.

,¢e_'c Well then,I will speak,althoughI really knownot how1"/I. to lookyou in the face,or ir_whatwordsto utter theauda-

so¢_,_, eiousfiction,whichI proposeto communicategradually,firstG_vcoN.to the rulers,then to the soldiers,and lastlyto the people.Thecitizens

tobetold Theyare to be to__heir outhwas a dream,and thethatthey educationand traininffwhich they receivedtrom_-_us,an ap-are really _ _ _ . -.................auto- pearanc_the _we-r_emgchmonous,formedandfedin tli_f-the earth,wheretheythem-sentupoutoftheearth,selvesandtheirarmsandappurtenancesweremanufactured;

when theywere completed,the earth,their mother,sentthemup ; andso, thexrcountrybeingtheirmotherandalsotheirnurse,theyare boundtos aady!sefforbetg_d, andtodefendher again'_att-K'a_acs, andhercitizenstheyareto regardaschildrenof the earthandtheirownbrothers.

You had goodreason,he said,to be ashamedof the liewhichyouweregoingtotell•

andcorn- True, I replied,but there is morecoming; I haveonly4x5posedofmetalsof toldyouhalf. Citizens,weshall say tOthemin our tale,_ou

yet_ h_ :fra ed ou differentl. Somevarious are brothers, ........ _'-..................quality, ofyou havet'_ powerofcommand,andin thecompositionof

these he has mingledgold, whereforealso they have thegreatest honour; others he has madeof silvert___o_ auxil-iaries; othersagain who are to be husbandmenand crafts-men he has composedof brassand iron; and the specieswill generallybepreservedm_en.of the same__oriinal stock_ .will_s_-_etimeshavea silverson. or a silverparenta goldenson. AndGodproclaimsas _lers-_ andaboveallelse,

I.._/_ that there is nothingwhich they shouldso anxiouslyguard,or of which they are to be such goodguardians,as of the(.f'_, T_obie purity _£_therace They should observewhat elements

_'_ _Tt_°e m_gle in their offspring;for if the son of a goldenor silver

_ state,the parenthas anadmixtureof brassandiron,then natureordersignobleto a transpositionofranks, andthe eye ofthe rulermustnot bedescend.pitiful towardsthe child becausehe has to descendin thescaleand becomea husbandmanor artisan,just as theremaybe sonsofartisanswhohavingan admixtureof goldor silverin them are raised to honour, and becomeguardiansorauxiliaries. For an oraclesays that when a man of brassor iron guards the State,it willbe destroyed. Such is the

The auxiliaries must _ watcA-doffs,not wolves, io5

tale; is there anypossibilityof makingour citizensbelieveRepublicin it? HL

Notin the presentgeneration,he replied; there isnoway SO_AT_,GLAUCON.

ofaccomplishingthis; but theirsonsmaybe madeto believeIs suchain the tale,and theirsons' sons,andposterityafterthem. fietione_e-

I see the difficulty,I replied" yet the fosteringof such dible?--' Yes,ina beliefwillmakethemcare morefor the__future ge-another. Enough,however,of the fiction,whmhmaynow neration;notin thefly abroad upon the wings of rumour,whilewe arm our present.e_ themforthunderthe...cxztnl_d _.__of their rulers. Let-t-hemlook round and select a spot Theselee-whence they can best suppress insurrection,if any prove tionofasitefortherefractorywithin,andalsodefendthemselvesagainstenemies,waniors'wholikewolvesmay comedownon the foldfromwithout;camp.there let themencamp,andwhen they haveencamped,letthemsacrificeto theproperG_r_r dwell_n

Just so, he said.And their dwellingsmust be such as will shieldthem

againstthe coldof winterandthe heatofsummer.I supposethat youmeanhouses,he replied.Yes, I said; but theymustbe the housesof soldiers,and

not ofshop-keepers.What is thedifference? he said.

4t6 That I will endeavourto explain,I replied. To keepThewar-riorsmustwatch-dogs,who,fromwantof disciplineor hunger,or somebehuman-evil habitor other,wouldturn uponthe sheepandworryizedbyedu-them,and behavenot likedogsbutwolves,wouldbea foul cation.and monstrousthingin a shepherd?

Trulymonstrous,he said.Andthereforeeve caremustbetakenthatourauxiliaries,

being stronger thanoure!t!zens.__99_ .....muchfor themandbecomesavagetyrantsinsteadoffriendsandallies? _'(7

Yes,greatcareshouldbetaken. _ef_-_¢e_'_'_,.And wouldnot a reallygoodeducationfurnishthe best ¢

safeguard? "-'" )But theyarewell.educatedalready,he replied. /

i I cannotbe so confident,mydearGlaucon,I said; I ammuchmore certain that theyought to be, and that true

: education,whateverthat may be, will have the greatest)

Io6 Tke auxiliaries musl ke soldiers, nat kousekolders.

Ret_btlc tendency to eivilize_andhumanizethemin their relationsIlL to oneanother,andto thosew-Wl_i_eundx,W_l_f p,ot6cdtm.

soc__s, Verytrue, he replied.GLAUCOI_.And notonlytheir education,but theirhabitations,and all

that belongsto them,shouldbe such as willneither impairtheir virtueas guardians,nor temptthem to prey upon theother citizens. Any man ofsensemustacknowledgethat.

He must.Their way Then now let us considerwhatwillbe theirwayof life,be°flifethatWillofif they are to realizeour idea of them. In the _e,a camp. none of themshould_have any propertyof his_o_...._

what is absolutelynecessary; nekher snould they havea privatehouseor store closed ainst an o e s amind to enter; tTneirpl"o_vision_.s.houldbe only_suchasare requiredbytrainedwarriors,whoare menoftemperanceand courage; theyshould.d..E_eeto receivefromthe citizensafixedrateofpay,enoughto meet the expeiL_gf th_arand no more; and theywill_o to messandlivetogetherlikesoldiers in a camp. Gold and si_Jverwe will tell themthattheyhave fromGod; the di_ is within them,and they have therefore no need of the dross which iscurrentamong men, and ought not to pollute the divinebyanysuchearthlyadmixture; for thatcommonermetalhas417been the source of many unholydeeds, but their own isundefiled. And theyalone of all the citizensmaynot touchor handlesilver or gold,or be under the same roofwiththem, or wearthem, or drink from them. And this will ]be theirsalvation,and theywillbe the savioursofthe State. l

TheymustBut should they ever acquire homes or lands or moneyshave no

homesor of theirown,theywill'becomehousekeepersand husbandmenpropertyofinsteadof guardians,enemiesand tyrantsinstead0_/"alliesoftheirown. the other citizens; hating and being hated, plottingand]

beingplottedagainst,theywillpass theirwholelifein much/greater terror of internalthanof externalenemies,and thehour of ruin, bothto themselvesand to the restof the State,willbe at hand. For allwhichreasonsmaywenot saythat"_thus shall our State be ordered, and that these shall be }

(the regulationsappointedbyus for ourguardiansconcerning/xx..theirhousesand allothermatters? //Yes,saidGlaueon.

BOOK IV.

Steph. HEREAdeimantusinterposeda question: Howwouldyou l_epubtir419 answer,Socrates,said he, if a personwereto say thatyou I_:

ADEIMAN_dS_are making1these peoplemiserable,andthat they are the So......causeof their own unhappiness; thecityin factbelongsto Anobjec-them,but theyare nonethebetterfor it; whereasothermen tionthatSocratesacquirelands,and build large and handsomehouses,and ha_madehave everythinghandsomeabout them,offeringsacrificeshiscitizensto thegodson theirownaccount,and practisinghospitality; poorandmiserable:moreover,as you were sayingjust now, they have goldand silver,and all that is usual amongthe favouritesoffortune; but ourpoorcitizensarenobetterthanmercenarieswho are quartered in the city and are alwaysmountingguard?

42o Yes, I said; and you may add that they are onlyfed, andworstand not paidin additionto their food,-like other men"and ofall.adds' Socrates,therefore they cannot, if they would, take a journey of theyhavepleasure; theyhavenomoneytospendona mistressor any nomoney.

otherluxuriousfancy,which,as theworldgoes,is thoughttobe happiness; and manyother accusationsof the samenature mightbe added.

But,said he, let ussupposeall this to be includedin thecharge.

Youmeantoask, I said,whatwillbe ouranswer?Yes.If we proceedalongthe old path, my belief,I said,is Yetvery

that weshall findtheanswer. Andour answerwillbe that, likelytheymaybetheeven as theyare, our guardiansmayvery likely be the happiestofhappiestof men; but thatouraiminfoundingtheStatewas mankind.not the di r ,,,-*;_,-_tehapDine._of an oneclass,butthe

en__ - " _ _ State.....great s of thewhole_t_at in a ____i Or, ' that for theirowngoodyouaremakingthesepeoplemiserable.'

xo8 _tw State must tm regarded as a wkole.

R_/c which is orderedwith a viewto the good_v. shouldbe most likely to fi_iU-ordered

Am_mx_,Stateinjustice: and,havingfoundthem,wemightthendecideSOOmTES.

whichof thetwois the happier. Atpresent,I takeit,wearefashioningthe happyState,notpiecemeal,or witha viewofmakinga fewhappycitizens,butas a whole; and by-and-by

The State,we willproceedto viewthe oppositekindof State. Supposelikea thatwe werepaintinga statue,andsomeonecameup to usstatue,mustbe. and said,Why do you notput the mostbeautifulcoloursonjudgedof the mostbeautifulparts of the body--theeyes ought to beasa whole.

purple, but you have made them black--to him we mightfairlyanswer,Sir, youwouldnot surelyhave us beautifytheeyes to sucha degreethatthey areno longereyes; considerrather whether,by givingthis and the other featurestheirdue proportion,we make the whole beautiful. And so Isay to you, do not compelus to assign to the guardiansa sort of happinesswhich will makethem anythingbutguardians; forwe too can clotheourhusbandmenin royalapparel,andsetcrownsof goldon theirheads,andbidthemtill the groundas muchas they like,and no more. Ourpottersalso mightbe allowedto repose on couches,andfeastby the fireside,passing round the winecup,while theirwheel is conveniently,at hand,and workingat potteryonlyas muchas they like; in thiswaywemightmakeeveryclasshappy--and then, as you imagine,the whole State wouldbe happy. But do not put this idea into our heads; for,if we listen to you, the husbandmanwill be no longer a 42Ihusbandman,the potterwillceaseto be a potter,and noonewill have the characterof any distinctclass in the State.Nowthisis notof muchconsequencewhere the corruptionof society,andpretensionto be whatyou are not, isconfinedto cobblers; butwhentheguardiansof the laws and of the \governmentare only seemingand not real guardians,thensee howtheyturn the Stateupsidedown; and on the other \hand theyalonehave thepowerofgivingorderand happiness

Thegnard-to the State. We mean our guardiansto be true savioursiansmust and notthe destroyersof the State,whereasouropponentisbeguard-iam,not thinkingof peasants at a festival,who are enjoyinga lifebooncom-of revelry,not of citizenswho are doing their duty to the

State. But, if so, we mean differentthings, and he is

Two sources of evil: Weallk and PoverO,. Io9

sp_aklngof somethingwhichis nota State. And thereforeRejO_ddicwe must considerwhether in appointingour guardianswe Iv.wouldlooktotheirgreatesthappinessindividually,orwhetherA_,_,_,SootArts.this principleof happinessdoes not rather reside in theState as a whole. But if the latter be the truth,then theguardiansand auxiliaries,and all othersequallywiththem,mustbe eompelledor inducedto do theirownworkin thebestway. Andthus thewholeStatewillgrowup ina nobleorder, and the several classeswill receivethe proportion 1of happinesswhichnatureassignsto them•

I thinkthatyou arequiteright.I wonder whether you will agree with anotherremark

whichoccursto me.Whatmaythatbe.9Thereseemto be twocausesof the deteriorationof the

arts.Whatarethey?Wealth, I said,andpoverty.Howdo theyact.9 °The processis as follows: When a potterbecomesrich,Whenan !o

will he, think you, any longer take the same painswith artisangrowsrich, ihisart_ hebecomes

• careless:ifCertainlynot. heisvery lHe willgrowmoreandmoreindolentandcareless? poor,he ihasnoVery true. moneytoAndthe resultwillbe thathe becomesaworsepotter.9 buytoolsYes; hegreatlydeteriorates, with.ThecityshouldBut, on the other hand,if he has no money,and cannotbeneither

providehimselfwithtoolsor instruments,he willnotwork poornorequallywellhimself,norwillhe teachhissonsorapprenticesrich.to workequallywell.

Certainlynot.Then,under the influenceeitherof povertyor ofwealth,

workmenandtheirworkare equallyliabletodegenerate.9Thatisevident.Here, then, is a discoveryof newevils,I said,against

which the guardianswillhave to watch,or theywillcreepintothe cityunobserved.

'Whatevils?422 Wealth, I said, andpoverty; the one is the parentof

?

I Jo Can our Slate go to war witk otlzer States ?

Xepublicluxuryandindolence,and theother ofmea_nd vicious-hess,and bothof dmcontent.

Soc..T_s, That is very true, he replied" but still I should like toADEIMANTL_S.

Buthow, know,Socrates, how our city will be able to go to war,beingpoor,especiallyagainst an enemy who is rich and powerful,ifcanshe deprivedof thesinewsof war.contendagainsta Therewouldcertainlybe a difficult)5I replied,in goingtowealthy war with one such enemy; but there is no difficultywhereenemy? thereare two ofthem.

How so? he asked.Ourwiry In the first place,I said, if we have to fight,ourside willsoldiers be trainedwarriorsfightingagainstan armyofrichmen.willbemorethan That is true, hesaid.amatchfor And do you not suppose,Adeimantus,that a single boxertheirfatneigh- who wasperfect in his art wouldeasilybe amatchfor twotours, stoutandwell-to-dogentlemenwhowerenot boxers?

Hardly,if theycameuponhimat once.What, not, I said,if he were able to run away and then

turn and strike at the one who first cameup ? And sup-posing he were to dothis severaltimesunder the heatof ascorchingsun, mighthe not, beingan expert,overturnmorethanonestout personage?

Certainly,he said, there wouldbe noth!ngwonderfulinthat.And yet richmen probablyhave a greatersuperiorityin

the scienceand practiseof boxingthan theyhavein militaryqualities.

Likelyenough.Then wemayassumethatour athleteswillbeable to fight

with twoor three timestheirownnumber?I agreewithyou, for I thinkyou right.

Andthey And suppose that, beforeengaging,our citizenssend anwillhave embassyto one of the two cities, telling them what is theallieswhowillreadilytruth : Silverandgoldweneitherhave nor are permittedtoioi,oncon-have,but you may" do you thereforecomeand help us inditionofreceivingwar,and take the spoilsof the other city: \Vho,on hearingthespoil, these words,wouldchoose to fightagainst lean wirydogs,

rather than, with the dogs on their side, against fat andtendersheep?

That is not likely; andyet theremightbe a dangerto the

The )Oropersize of the Stale. I I I

poor State if thewealthof manyStateswereto be gatheredz'etubZicintoone. It:SOCRATES,Buthowsimpleofyouto use the termStateat allof anyA....A_T_'_but ourown!

Why so?Yououghtto speakof other Statesin thepluralnumber; Butmany

notone of themis a city,but manycities,as theysay in the creeswill- conspire?game. For indeedany city,howeversmall,is in factdMded xo: theyinto two,onethe cityofthe_ otheroftherich; these aredlvided...... jn them-

4-'23are at warwith one anot.heri and in either thereare manysdve_.smallerdivisions,andyouwouldbealtoge(l_-b-e_r_3¥'l_-'-ifyou treatedthemallas a singleState. But ifyoudealwith ._Ia_ythemas many,andgivethewealthor poweror personsof the statesarecontainedone to the others,youwillalwayshavea greatmanyfriendsinoneand not manyenemies. And yourState,whilethewiseorderwhichhas now beenprescribedcontinuestoprevailin her,willbethe greatestofStates,I donotmeantosay in reputa-tionor appearance,but indeedandtruth,thoughshenumbernot more than a thousanddefenders. A singleStatewhichis her equalyouwill hardlyfind,eitheramongHellenesorbarbarians,thoughmanythatappeartobeas greatandmanytimesgreater.

That is mosttrue,he said.Andwhat,I said,willbethebestlimitforourrulersto fix Thelimit i

when they are consideringthe size of the Stateand the tothe slzeoftheState ,_amountof territory whichthey are to include,andbeyondth_po_-

bilityofwhichtheywillnotgo? umty,

What limitwouldyoupropose?I wouldallowthe State to increaseso faras is consistent l'

withveryUnity;good,that,hesaid.Ithink,is theproperlimit. _iHere then, I said, is anotherorderwhichwillhaveto beconveyedto ourguardians: Letourcitybeaccountedneither [Ilargenorsmall,butoneandself-sufficing.

And surels;said he, this is not averysevereorderwhichweimposeuponthem.

And theother,said I, ofwhichwewerespeakingbeforeis "thedutylighterstill,--I meanthe dutyo£degradingt_f ofad.lust-theguardianswheninferior,and__f zensingthetotheCit"guardians the offspring___er class.e.s_.kx-hen__naturall_yrankfor

I i2 Ed_a2i_ tt_ onegreat#rind#le.

Rt/m_//_s_ci,or. The intentionwas,that,in the caseof thecitizens IIV. generally,each individualshouldbe put tothe useforwhich

soctsT_s,nature intendedhim,one to onework,and then _ery m-an]_,M,_ _ do his own business,and be one and not many; ands/whichna-turein- so thewholecitywouldbe oneandnotmany.t_nm_ Yes,he said; thatis notsodifficult.them. The regulationswhichwe are prescribing,mygoodAdei-

mantus,are not, as mightbe supposed,a numberof greatprinciples,but triflesall,if carebe taken,as the sayingis, oftheonegreatthing,ma thing,however,whichI wouldrathercall,not,great,but sufficientfor ourpurpose.

Whatmaythatbe? he asked.Education,I said, and nurture: If our citizensare well

educated,and grow into sensiblemen, theywill easilyseetheirwaythroughall these,as well as othermatterswhichIomit; such, for example,as marriage, the possessionofwomenand theprocreationof children,whichwillall follow424the generalprinciplethat friendshaveall thingsincommon,as theproverbsays.

Thatwillbe the bestwayofsettlingthem.Goodedu- Also, I said, the State, if once startedwell.moveswithcationhas accumulatingforcelike_ whe@_ For goodnurtureand edu-a cumula-tiveforce cationimplantgoodconstitutions,andthesegoodconstitutionsaMaffectstakingrootina goodeducationimprovemoreandmore,andthebreed.

this improvementaffectsthe breed in man as in otheranimals.

Verypossibly,hesaid.Noinnova- Thentosumup: This is thepointto which,aboveall,thetionstobe attentionof our rulersshould be directed,--thatmusicandmadeeitherinmusicorgymnasticbe preservedin theiroriginalform,andno innova-)gymnastic,tion made. They mustdo their utmostto maintainthem

intacL And whenany onesaysthatmankindmostregard'The newestsongwhichthesingershave1,,

theywill be afraid that he maybe praising,not new songs,buta newkindof song; and thisoughtnot to be praised,orconceivedto be the meaningof the poet; for any musica_xinnovationis full of dangerto thewholeState,and ought

Damon. be prohibited. So Damontells me,andI can quitebelieve

OcLL5_2.

The growth of licence. I I3

him;--he says thatwhenmodesof musicchange,the funda-Repu_mentallawsofthe Stateal_rayschangewid_diem. /_:'

Yes,s_iidAdeimantus; andyou may add my suffrageto so¢_,ADEIILt_F_Damon'sandyourown.Then, I said, our guardiansmust lay the foundationsof

theirfortressin music?Yes, he said; the lawlessnessof whichyou speak too

easilystealsin.Yes, I replied, in the formof amusement;and at first

sightit appearsharmless.Why,yes, he said,and there isno harm; were it not that Thespirit

littleby littlethisspirit of licence,findinga home,impercep-oflawless-ness, be-tihlypenetratesinto mannersand customs;whence,issuing ginninginwithgreater force,it invadescontractsbetweenmanandman, music.

graduallyandfromcontractsgoes o-nto lawsand constitution%in utter p_rvadesrecklessness,endingat last,So_rat'es,by anoverthrowof all thewholeof life.rights__ell as pubte.lTC_Is that true? I said.

That is mybelief,he replied.Then, as I wassaying,ouryouth shouldbe trainedfrom

the firstinastrictersystem,forifamusementsbecomelawless,425and the youths themselvesbecomelawless,they can never

growupintowell-conductedandvirtuouscitizens.Very true,he said.Andwhen theyhavemade a goodbeginningin play,and Thehabit

'bythe help of musichave gainedthe habitof goodorder, oforderthebasis ofthen this habitoforder,in a mannerhow unlikethe lawlesseducation.

playof the others! willaccompanythemin all theiractionsand be a principleof growth to them,and if there be anyfallenplacesin the Statewillraisethemupagain.

Verytrue, hesaid.Thuseducated,theywill inventforthemselvesanylesser Iftheeiti-

ruleswhichtheirpredecessorshavealtogetherneglected, zenshavethe root ofWhatdo youmean? the matterI meansuchthingsas these:--whenthe youngareto be inthem,

they willsilent beforetheir elders; howthey areto showrespectto supplythethembystandingandmakingthemsit; whathonouris due detailsfortOparents; what garmentsor shoes are to be worn; the themselves.mode of dressingthe hair; deportmentand manners ingeneral. Youwouldagreewithme?

I

I14 "2Veque vitia negue remedia eorum:

Ret,,_¢i_ Yes.Iv. But there is, I think, smallwisdomin legislatingabout

So_AT_ suchmatters,--Idoubtif it is everdone; nor areanypreciseADEIMANTU$.

writtenenactmentsaboutthemlikelytobe lasting.Impossible.It would seem,Adeimantus,that the direction in which

educationstartsa man,will determinehis futurelife. Doesnot likealwaysattractlike?

To be sure.Until some one rare and grand result is reachedwhich

maybegood,andmaybe the reverseof good.9Thatisnot to bedenied.Andfor'thisreason,I said,I shall notattemptto legislate

furtheraboutthem.Naturallyenough,he replied.

Theme.re Well,and aboutthe businessof the agora,and the ordi-routineof narydealingsbetweenman and man,or againabout agree-adminis-

trationmayments with artisans; about insult and injury, or thebeoraitteclcommencementof actions, and the appointmentof juries,by uS.

whatwouldyou say? there mayalso arise questionsaboutany impositionsand exactionsof market and harbourdueswhichmaybe required,and in generalabout theregulationsofmarkets,police,harbours,andthe like. But,oh heavens!shallwe condescendto legislateon anyoftheseparticulars?

I think, he said,that there is noneedto imposelawsaboutthemon goodmen; whatregulationsarenecessarytheywillfindoutsoonenoughforthemselves.

Yes, I said, myfriend,if God willonly preserveto themthe lawswhichwe havegiventhem.

Andwithoutdivinehelp, saidAdeimantus,they'willgo onfor evermakingand mendingtheir lawsand their livesin thehope ofattainingperfection.

Illustration You wouldcomparethem, I said, to those invalidswho,ofre- having no self-restraint,willnot leaveoff their habitsof in-formersofthelaw temperance?takenfrom Exactly.invalidswhoare Yes, I said; andwhatadelightfullife theyleadI theyare426_aways alwaysdoctoringand increasingandcomplicatingtheir dis-doctoringthem_lves,orders,and alwaysfancyingthat theywill be curedby anybutwitt nostrumwhichanybodyadvisesthemtotry.

Culling off the heads of a hydra. I x5

Sucheasesareverycommon,he said,with invalidsof this Re[Jublicsort. IV.

Yes, I replied; and thecharmingthing is thatthey deem So_T_,AD*,_wrv_.him their worst enemywho tells them the truth, whieh is neverlistensimplythat,unless they give up eatingand drinkingand tothe

wenchingand idling,neitherdrug norcauterynor spell nor truth.amuletnor anyotherremedywillavail.

Charming!he replied. I see nothingcharmingin goingintoa passionwitha manwhotellsyouwhatis right.

Thesegentlemen,I said,donot seemto be in yourgoodgraces.

Assuredlynot.Norwouldyou praisethe behaviourof Stateswhichact

likethe menwhomI wasjustnowdescribing.Forare therenot ill-orderedStates in whichthe citizensare forbiddenunderpainofdeathto altertheconstitution; andyethewhomost sweetlycourtsthosewholive underthis regimeandindulges them and fawns upon them and is skilful inanticipatingand gratifyingtheir humours is held to be agreat and good statesman--donot these States resemblethe persons whom I was describing?

Yes,he said; theStates areas badas themen; and I amveryfar frompraisingthem.

But doyou not admire,I said, the coolnessand dexterity'_of these readyministersofpoliticalcorruption? ..I

Yes,he said,I do ; but not of all of them,for there are Dema-somewhom the applauseof the multitudehas deludedinto gogu_trying theirthe belief that theyare reallystatesmen,and these are not hanasatmuchto be admired, legislation

may beWhat doyou mean? I said; youshouldhavemorefeelingexcused

for them. When a man cannotmeasure,and a great manyfortheirignoranceotherswho cannotmeasuredeclarethat he is four cubitsof the

high,canhe help believingwhatthey say? world.Nay,he said, certainlynot in that case.Well,then, do not be angrywith them; for are they not

as good as a play, trying their hand at paltry reformstsuch as I was describing; they are always fancyingthatbylegislationthey willmake an end of fraudsin contracts,_/and the other rascalitieswhichI was mentioning,not know-_ingthat they are inrealitycuttingofftheheadsof a hydra?

I2

xI_6 Wkereis jusKce_'

R_btic Yes, he said; thatis just whattheyaredoing. O7IV. I conceive,I said,that the true legislatorwill nottrouble

So,Am, himselfwith this class of enactmentswhetherconcerningA_I_It_t_NTtYS,G_,,co_ lawsorthe constitutioneitherin an ill-orderedor in a well-

orderedState; forin the formertheyare quiteuseless,andin the latterthere will be no difficultyin devisingthem;and manyof themwill naturallyflowout of ourpreviousregulations.

What,then,he said,is stillremainingto us of the workoflegislation?

Nothingto us, I replied; butto Apollo,the godofDelphi,thereremainsthe orderingof the greatestand noblestandchiefestthingsof all.

Whicharethey? he said.Religionto The institutionof templesand sacrifices,and the entirebeleftto serviceof gods, demigods,and heroes; also the orderingtheGodofDelphi. of the repositoriesof the dead, and the rites whichhave

to be observedbyhimwhowouldpropitiatethe inhabitantsof theworldbelow. These are mattersof whichwe areignorantourselves,and as foundersof a citywe shouldbeunwisein trustingthemto anyinterpreterbutourancestraldeity. He is the god whosits in the centre,on thenavelof the earth,and he is the interpreterof religionto allmankind.

Youareright,andwe willdo asyoupropose.Butwhere,amidall this,is justice? son of Ariston,tell

me where. Now that our city has been madehabitable,light a candleandsearch,andget your brotherand Pole-marchusand the rest of our friendsto help, and let ussee where in it we can discoverjusticeand whereinjustice,andinwhatthey differfromoneanother,andwhichof themthe man whowouldbe happyshouldhavefor his portion,whetherzeenor unseenbygodsandmen.

Nonsense,saidGlaucon:didyounotpromisetosearch_o_x_if,_a_xx_tixatforyou xxotto he[__xx_ticeitxher t_eedwouldbean impiety?

I do notdenythatI saidso; andasyouremindme,I willbeas goodas myword; butyoumustjoin.

Wewill,hereplied.Well, then, I hopeto makethe discoveryin this way:

T/_ _,el]todof re_-'_t_s. II7

Imeantohe.withtheassumptionthatourState,ifrightlyxe:_l_ordered,is _ . "/ Iv.

That ismoOr'-certain. ( so¢_,_,._.Gu_ucos.And beingperfect,is thereforewiseandvaliantand tem-

perateandjust.Thatis likewiseclear.Andwhicheverof thesequalitieswe find in the State,the I"2

onewhichis not foundwillbe the residue? ),428 Verygood.

If therewere fourthings,andwe were searchingfor oneof them,whereverit mightbe,the one soughtformightbeknownto us fromthe first,andtherewouldbe no furthertrouble; orwe mightknowtheotherthreefirst,andthenthefourthwouldclearlybe theone left.

Verytrue,he said.Andisnotasimilarmethodto bepursuedaboutthevirtues,

whicharealso fourin number?Clearly.Firstamongthevirtuesfoundin the State,wisdomcomes Theplace

intoview,andin this I detecta certainpeculiarity, ofthevirtuesinWhat is that? theState:The State whichwe have been describingis said to be (x)Thewis-domofthe

wiseas beinggoodin counsel? statesmanVery true. addses,not

aboutpar-Andgood counselis clearlya kind of knowledge,fornot ticularambyignorance,butbyknowledge,domencounselwell? orpursuits,

Clearly.And the kinds of knowledgein a State are many and

diverse?Of course.There is the knowledgeof the carpenter; but is thatthe

sort of knowledgewhichgives a city the title of w/seandgoodincounsel?

Certainlynot ; that wouldonlygive a city the reputationof ski_iin carpentering.

Then a city is not to be calledwise becausepossessinga knowledgewhich counsels for the best about wooden"implements?

Certainlynot.Norby reasonof a knowledgewhichadvisesaboutbrazen

II8 T]_ _/_ur_ (1) of _$do_, (2) of co,¥_eo'_.

R_,_/_c pots, he said, nor as possessingany other similar know-Iv. ledge?

so_A_, Not byreasonof anyof them,he said.O_ueoN.Nor yet by reasonof a knowledgewhicheultivatesthe

earth; thatwouldgivethecitythe nameofagricultural?Yes.

butabout Well, I said,and is there anyknowledgein ourrecently-thewhole foundedState among anyof the citizenswhichadvises,notState.

aboutanyparticularthinginth¢ State,butaboutthe whole!andconsidershowa Statecanbest dealwithitselfandwithotherSta.tes-_."-'--_-"-'-_ ..... .....

Therecertainlyis.Andwhatis thisknowledge,andamongwhomis it found?

I asked.It is the knowledgeof the guardians,he replied,and is

foundamongthose whomwe werejust nowdescribingasperfectguardians.Andwhatisthenamewhichthecityderivesfromthe

possessionofthissortc_fknowledge?Thenameofgoodincounselandtrulywise.

Thestates-Andwilltherebeinourcitymoreofthesetrueguardiansmenor or moresmiths?guardiansarethe The smiths,he replied,willbe farmorenumerous.smallestof Will not the guardiansbe the smallestof all the classesat1classesiatl_State,who receivea name from the professionof somekind of

knowledge?Muchthe smallest.And soby reason of the smallestpart or class,and of the

knowledgewhichresides in thispresidingandruling partofitself, the whole State, being thus constituted accordingto nature,willbe wise; and this,whichhas the onlyknow-429ledge worthy to be calledwisdom,has been ordained bynatureto be of allclassesthe least.

Mosttrue.Thus, then, I said, the natureand placein the State of

one of the fourvirtueshas somehowor other beendis-covered.

And,in myhumbleopinion,verysatisfactorilydiscovered,he replied.

Again,-Isaid,thereis nodifficultyin seeingthenatureof

Tke nature of courage. I19

courage,and in whatpart thatqualityresideswhichgivesthe _'epug/cnameof courageousto the State. It-'.How doyoumean? soo..,_,GLavco_.Why,Isaid,everyonewhocallsanyStatecourageousor (2)The

cowardly,willbe thinkingof the partwhichfights andgoes courageout to waron the State'sbehalf, whichmakesthe

Noone,he replied,wouldever thinkofanyother, cityco,.The rest of the citizensmay be courageousor may be rageousisfound

cowardly,buttheircourageor cowardicewillnot,as I con-chieSyinceive,havethe effectofmakingthecityeithertheoneorthe thesomier.other.

Certainlynot.The citywillbe courageousin virtueof a portionof her- Itisthe

self whichpreservesunderall circumstancesthatopinionqualitywhichpre-aboutthe natureof thingsto be fearedand not to be feared servesrightin whichour legislatoreducatedthem; and thisiswhatyou opinionabouttermcourage, thingsto

I shouldliketo hear whatyou are sayingoncemore,for I befearedandnottodonot think thatI perfectlyunderstandyou. be feared.

I meanthatcourageisa kindof salvation.Salvationofwhat?Of the opinionrespectingthings to be feared,what they

are and of what nature, which the law implantsthrougheducation; and Imeanbythewords'underallcircumstances'to intimatethat inpleasureor inpain,or underthe influenceof desire or fear,a man preserves,and does not lose thisopinion. Shall I giveyouan illustration?

If you please.You know,I said,that dyers,whentheywantto dyewool IUustration

for makingthe truesea-purple,beginbyselectingtheirwhite fromtheartof dye-colourfirst; this theyprepareand dresswithmuchcareand ing.pains,in orderthatthe whitegroundmaytakethepurplehuein fullperfection. Thedyeingthenproceeds; andwhateveris dyedin thismannerbecomesa fastcolour,andnowashingeitherwith lyes or withoutthemcan take away the bloom.But,whenthe ground has not been dulyprepared,youwillhave noticedhowpooris thelookeitherof purpleor of anyothercolour.

Yes, he said; I knowthat they have a washed-outandridiculousappearance.

I2o Temperance, or tke mastery of self.

gel_bli¢ Thennow,I said,youwillunderstandwhatourobjectwasIv. in selectingour soldiers,and educatingthem in musicand430

so_. gymnastic;wewerecontrivinginfluenceswhichwouldprepareGL_UCON.themto takethedyeof the lawsin perfection,andthe colourOursol-

diewsmustof theiropinionaboutdangersand of everyotheropiniontakethe wasto beindeliblyfixedbytheirnurtureandtraining,nottodye of thelaws. be washedawayby suchpotentlyes as pleasure--mightier

agent far in washingthe soul thananysoda or lye; or bysorrow,fear,anddesire,themightiestof all other solvents.Andthis sort of universalsavingpowerof true opinioninconformitywith lawaboutrealandfalsedangersI callandmaintaintobecourage,unlessyoudisagree.

ButI agree,he replied; for I supposethatyou meantoexcludemereuninstructedcourage,such as that of a wildbeastor ofa slave--this,inyouropinion,is not the couragewhichthe lawordains,andoughtto haveanothername.

Mostcertainly.ThenI mayinfercourageto besuchasyoudescribe?Why,yes,said I, you may,and if you add thewords' of

a citizen,'youwill notbe farwrong;--hereafter,if you like,we willcarrythe examinationfurther,butat presentweareseekingnot forcouragebutjustice; andfor the purposeofour enquirywe havesaidenough.

Youareright,hereplied.Twoother Two virtues remainto be discoveredin the State--first,virtues, temperance,and thenjusticewhichis the endof oursearch.temperanceandjustice, Very true.

whichmust NOW,canwe findjusticewithouttroublingourselvesaboutbe con-sidered in temperance ?theirproperI do not knowhowthat canbe accomplished,he said,norOrder.

doI desirethatjusticeshouldbe broughtto lightandtemper-ance lost sight of; and thereforeI wish that youwould domethe favourof consideringtemperancefirst.

Certainly,I replied,I shouldnot be justifiedin refusingyourrequest.

Then consider,he said.Yes, I replied; I will; and as faras I canat presentsee,

the virtueof temperancehas moreof the natureof harmonyand symphonythanthe preceding.

Howso? he asked.

__, - L. " _5_.=:,%__:S.....

Sla/es, like individuals, may be /eml#erate. 12t

Temperance,I replied,is the orderingor controllingof R_I_certainpleasuresand desires;this is curiouslyenoughim- Iv.plied in the sayingof'a man beinghis own master;' and sock,s,Gt.AVCO_.other tracesof thesamenotionmaybefoundin language.

No doubt,he said.There is somethingridiculousin the expression'masterof The tern-

431himself;' for the masteris alsothe servantand the servant perateismaster ofthe master; and in all these modesof speakingthe same himself.butpersonisdenoted, the same

Certainly. person.when in-The meaningis, I believe,that in thehumansoul there is temperate.

is also thea better_ng__!.so_h_Gplc ; an w en e e er has slaveofthe worseunder control,thena man issaid to be masterof Mmsdf.

himself;and this isa termof praise: butwhen,owingto evil ]/,.. __educationor association,the betterprinciple,whichis also [thesmaller,isoverwhelmedbythe greatermassof theworse--in thiscasehe is blamedandis calledtheslaveof selfandunprincipled.

Yes,there is reasonin that.Andnow,I said,lookatournewly-createdState,andthere

you will find one of these two conditionsrealized; for theState,as you wilt acknowledge,maybe justly calledmasterof itself,if the words ' temperance'and ' self-mastery'trulyexpressthe ruleof thebetter partover theworse.

Yes,he said, I see that whatyousayis true.Let me further note that the manifoldand complex

pleasures and desires and pains are generally found inchildren and womenand servants,and in the fceeme_call_c_dwho areof the lowestand morenumerousclass.

Certainly,he said."Whereasthe simpleand moderatedesireswhichfollow

reason,andare underthe guidanceof mindand t " ion,are to be found__t born andbesteducated.

Verytrue.These two,as you mayperceive,havea placein ourState; TheState

and the memaerdesires of the manyare held downbythe whichhasthevirtuousdesiresandwisdomof thefew. sionsandThatI perceive,he said. desiresof

the manyThen if there be any city which may be describedas controned

122 Temt_rancein Sta_s is tke l_ar_nonyof dasseso8_a masterofits ownpleasuresand desires,and masterof itself,Iv. oursmayclaimsucha designation?Soc_T_ Certainly,he replied.t_ia_vcom

It mayalso becalledtemperate,andfor the samereasons?by the fewmaybe Yes.rightly And if therebe anyState in whichrulersandsubjectswillcalledtern-Ise-ate. be agreedas to the questionwhoare to rule,that againwill

be ourState?Undoubtedly.And the citizensbeingthus agreedamongthemselves,in

whichclass will temperancebe found--in the rulers or inthe subjects?

_/ In both,as I shouldimagine,he replied.

Do you observethat wewere not farwrongin our guess,/ thattemperancewasa sort ofharmony?

Why so?Why, becausetemperanceis unlike _om,

/antere_ each of which_sicles _-_a ____ the one making_ie/ sidesin' State wise _d_l_e other valmnt;not so tempe_ane_,wI_mh43_

extendsto thewl_'an'cl _x_ns'throug_ia_[tti__i_t_scale,:_n_d-p_ro__mon_y o_ the weake_'rarid the

I strongerand the middle class, whetheryou supposethem/ to be stronger or weaker in wisdomor poweror numbers

orwealth,or anythingelse. Mostt_]yl then maywe deem

o_ t_mperanceto bethea_reementof thenaturally§uperiorand_r, a:stothe right to rule of either, both in stat6_'d

I entirelyagreewithyou.And so, I said, we may considerthree out of the four

virtues to have been discoveredin our State. The last ofthose qualitieswhichmake a statevirtuousmust be justice,if weonlyknewwhatthat was.

Theinferenceisobvious.jusOceis Thetimethen has arrived,Glaucon,when,likehuntsmen,notfaroff.

we should surroundthe cover,and looksharp that justicedoesnot stealaway,and passout ofsightandescapeus; forbeyonda doubt she is somewherein this country: watchtherefore and strive to catch a sight of her,and it"you seeher first,letme know.

Would that I could! butyou shouldregard me rather as

"+'_" ............. __ _.L-_TZ;[-Z.7_Z's-=TZ'Z._WT-+.__£_--_..TL+_7_.].TE2"_-_._]7]" ]....... -7 ..... ; 7"--.=; ......... =L.........

_gg_Ce iS eOggyt_zn doiffg _is _ _'n_s. I2 3

a followerwho has just eyes enoughto seewhatyou show Re/_l/ehim--thatisaboutasmuchasI amgoodfor. Iv.

Offerupa prayerwithmeandfollow, so_.GtAt:co_I will,butyoumustshowmetheway.Here is no path,I said,and thewoodis darkand per-

ptexing;stillwemustpushon.Let uspushon.HereI sawsomething: Halloo! I said,I beginto perceive

a track,andI believethatthequarrywillnotescape.Goodnews,hesaid.Truly,I said,we arestupidfellows.Why so?Why,mygoodsir,atthebeginningofourenquiry,ages

ago,tl-mrewasjusticetumblingoutatourfeet,andweneversawher;nothingcouldbemoreridiculous.Likepeoplewhogoaboutlookingforwhattheyhaveintheirhands--thatwasthewaywithus--welookednotatwhatwcwereseeking,butatwhatwasfaroffin thedistance;andtherefore,Isuppose,we missedher.Whatdoyoumean?Imeantosaythatinrealityforalongtimepastwehave

beentalkingofjustice,andhavefailedtorecogniseher.Igrowimpatientatthelengthofyourexordium.

433 Wellthen,tellme,Isaid,whetherIamrightornot:You WehadremembertheoriginalprinciplewhichwewerealwayslayingalreadyfoundherdownatthefoundationoftheState,thatoneman shouldwhenwepractiseonethingonly,thethingtowhichhisnaturewasspokeofone m_n

bestadapted;--nowjusticeisthisprincipleorapartofit. doingoneYes,weoftensaidthatonemanshoulddoonethingonly.tbJngon_/.Further,we affirmedthatjusticewasdoingone'sown

business,andnot being a busybody;we said so againandagain,andmanyothershavesaidthesametous.

Yes,wesaidso.Then to do one'sown businessin a certainwaymaybe

assumedto bejustice. Can youtellmewhenceI derivethisinference?

I cannot,butI shouldliketobetold.BecauseI think thatthis is theonlyvirtuewhichremainstVrom

in theStatewhentheothervirtuesof temperanceandcourageanotb_-rpoint ofand wisdomare abstracted; and, that this is theultimate_wj_ice

124 The four virtues in relaX'anto the Stale.

Ret_l_ causeandconditionof the existenceof allof them,andwhileIV. remainingin them is also their preservative; andwe were

so_A_-.,,sayingthat if the threewerediscoveredbyus,justicewouldGt.Jm_oN.be the fourthor remainingone.i_theresi-

dueof That followsof necessity.thethr_ If we are askedto determinewhichof thesefourqualitiesothers.

by its presence contributesmost to the excellenceof theState,whethertl_reement of rulers and subjects,or the

/__._rese_e o ini n w " h the law: orda_ns-'g-'fi'_uttheirs, o_l--0-m and

iarflmention_g,and whichis foundoiR_ff "_dldwom__en,slave and freeman,artisan, ruler, subject,--thequality,I /mean, of everyone_rk, and not being a f'busybody,wouldclaimthep_bn is notso-'6_ily _ l_x_'__answered. '-_ _ Aj/¢_

Certainly,he replied,therewouldbe a difficultyin sayingwhich.

Then the powerof each individualin the Stateto do hisownwork appearsto competewith theother politicalvirtues,wisdom,temperance,courage.

Yes,he said.And the virtue which enters into this competitionis

justice?Exactly.

Ourideais Let us look at the questionfrom another pointof view:confirmedbythead- .Are not the rulers in a State those to whomyou wouldministra-entrusttheofficeof determiningsuitsatlaw?tionof_ z-Certainly.ticeintaw- / . . .suits.No / And are suitsdecidedon any othergroundbut thata manmanisto/may neither takewhat is another's,nor be deprivedof whatnavewlmtl • (.isnothis/ ishis own.own. L Yes ; thatis theirprinciple.

Whichis a just principle?Yes.Then on thisviewalsojusticewill be admittedto be the _

havinganddoingwhatisa man'sown,and belongsto hiVery true. 434

Intmra- Think,now,and say whetheryou agreewithme or not.tion:_, Supposea carpenterto be doingthe businessof a cobbler,

The just man and the just State. xu5

or a cobblerof a carpenter; and supposethemto exchange Re2_ublictheir implementsor their duties,or the same personto be Iv.doingthework of both,or whateverbe the change"do you So_,r,s,' G_c_.

thinkthatanygreatharmwouldresultto the State? likeindi-Notmuch. viduats.But when the cobbleror any other man whom nature shouldnotmeddle

designedto be a trader,having_ up byweal__thwithoneor strengthor the numberoT'_isfollowe.r_,Or_y_'-_Iik"_'_-another's

occupa-vantage,attemptsto forggr._s wayinto the classof warriors, tions.or a warriorinto that of legislatorsandguardians,for whichhe isunfitted,andeitherto take the implementsor the dutiesof the other; or when one man is trader, legislator,andwarrior all in one, then I think you will agree with me insaying that this interchangeand this meddlingof onewithanother is theruin ofthe State.

Mosttrue.Seeing then, I said, that there are three distinctclasses,

any meddlingof onewithanother,or the changeofone intoanother,is the greatestharm to the State,and maybe mostjustlytermedevil-doing?

Precisely.And the greatest degree of evil-doingto one's own city

wouldbe termedbyyou injustice?Certainly.This then is injustice; and on the other hand when the

trader, the auxiliary,and the guardianeach do their ownbusiness,that is justice,and willmakethe cityjust.

I agree withyou.We willnot,I said,be over-positiveas yet; but if,on trial, Fromthe

larger ex-

this conceptionof justicebeverifiedin the individualaswell ampleofas in the State, therewillbe nolongeranyroomfor_R_bt; theStateif it be notverified,we musthavea freshenquiry._ let _vewinnt_v retul_

us completethe oldinvestigation,whichwe began,as you totheindi-remember,underthe impressionthat,if we couldpreviouslyvidu_.exam_e larger scale,therew6uld_be lessdifficultyin discerningher in the malvidual, l hat largerexampleappearedto be the State,andaccordinglywe con-structedasgooda oneas we could,knowingwellthat inthegoodStatejusticewouldbe found. Let thediscoverywhichwe madebe now appliedto the individual--ifthey agree,

x26 The sam prlnciples guid¢ i_ddual and State.

/_ep_'¢ we shallbe satisfied; or, if there be a differencein theIv. individual,wewillcomebackto the Stateand haveanother

s_. trial of the theory. The friction of the two when rubbed435together may possiblystrike a light in which justice willshine forth,and the visionwhich is then revealedwe willfix inour souls.

That willbe inregular course; let usdo as yousay.I proceededto ask: When twothings,agreaterand less,

arecalledbythe samename,are theylikeorunlikeinso faras theyarecalledthe same?

Like,he replied._f" The just manthen,if we regardthe ideaof justiceonly,

___ willbe likethejustState?Hewill.Anda Statewas thoughtbyus tobe just whenthe three

classesin the State severallydid theirownbusiness; andalso thought to be temperateand valiantand wise byreasonof certainotheraffectionsandqualitiesof thesesameclasses?

True,he said.Andso of the individual; we mayassumethathe hasthe

sane three principlesin his ownsoul whichare foundinthe State; and he may be rightlydescribedin the sameterms,becausehe is affectedin the samemanner?

Certainly,he said.Howcan Oncemorethen,0 myfriend,we have alighteduponan

d_e easy.question--whetherthe soul has these threeprincipleswhetherornothesoreor not?hasthree An easy questionI Nay, rather,Socrates,the proverbdistinctpm_h_es_holdsthathardis the good.Our Verytrue,I said; and I do not think that the methodmethod_ whichwe are employingis at all adequateto the accurate",_aequate.andfora solutionof this question; thetruemethodisanotherand abeu_rand longerone. Still we mayarriveat a solutionnotbelowthelongeronewehavenotlevelof the previousenquiry.atpresent Haywe not be satisfiedwiththat? he said;--underthetime,

circumstances,I amquitecontent.I too,I replied,shallbe extremelywellsatisfied.Thenfaintnotin pursuingthespeculation,he said.Mustwe notacknowledge,I said,thatin eachof us there

J

Are these principks atw or many _ I27¢

theme #nciples there areintheState; and that from the"_n "_,"_mto the 2v.State?--how else can they cornethere? Take the quah'_"_G_"of passion or spirit;--it would be ridiculous to imaginethat this quality,when foundin States,is not derivedfromthe individualswho are supposed to possess it, e.g. theThracians,Scythians,and in general the northernnations;and thesamemaybe saidof the loveof knowledge,whichisthe specialcharacteristicof our part of the world,or of the

436loveof money,whichmay,withequaltruth,be attributedtothe Phoeniciansand Egyptians.

Exactlyso, he said.There isno difficultyin understandingthis.Nonewhatever.But the questionis not quite so easywhen we proceed AcUgr_

to askwhetherthese principlesare three or one; whether, sioninwhichanthatistosay,we learnwithonepartofournature,areattemptisangrywithanother,andwitha thirdpartdesirethesatis-madelo_t_infactionofournaturalappetites;orwhetherthewholesoullogic_comesintoplayineachsortofaction--todctcrmmcthatisc_n_s.thedifficulty.Yes,hesaid;thereliesthedifficulty.Thenletusnowtryanddeterminewhethertheyarethe

sameordifferent.How canwe?heasked.Irepliedasfollows:ThesamethingclearlycannotactThec_-teflono_

orbeacteduponinthesamepartorinrelationtothesametruth:No-thingatthesametime,incontraryways;andthereforeLhingcanwheneverthiscontradictionoccursinthingsapparentlythebeandno_beat the

same, we know that they are reallynot the same, but sametimeinthesamedifferent, rdatio,,.

Good.For example,I said,can the same thing be at restand in

motionatthesametimein the samepart?Impossible.Still, I said,letus havea moreprecisestatementof terms,

lest we shouldhereafterfall out bythe way. Imaginethecaseof a manwhois standingandalso movinghis handsand his head,and supposea personto say thatone andthesamepersonis inmotionandat restat thesamemoment

I_8 The uuture of contraries.

Re_#c --to such a mode of speech we should object,and shouldIu. rathersay thatonepartof himis in motionwhileanother is

s,_,_, at rest.Verytrue.

Antieipa- And suppose the objectorto refine still further, and totionof drawthe nice distinctionthat not only parts of tops, butobjections

tothis'lawwhole tops,when they spin roundwith their pegs fixed onofthought.'the spot,areat restand in motionat the sametime(and he

may say the same of anythingwhichrevolvesin the samespot), his objectionwould not be admitted by us, becausein such cases things are not at rest and in motionin thesame parts of themselves; we shouldrather say that theyhave both an axis and a'circumference; and that the axisstands still, for there is no deviation from the perpen-dicular; and that the circumferencegoes round. But if,while revolving,the axis inclineseither to the right or left,forwardsor backwards,then in no point of viewcan theybeat rest.

Thatis thecorrectmodeofdescribingthem,hereplied.Thennoneof theseobjectionswillconfuseus, or incline

us to believethat the same thingat thesametime, in thesamepart or in relationto the samething,can actor be437acteduponin contraryways.

Certainlynot,accordingto mywayof thinking.Yet, I said,thatwe maynot becompelledto examineall

such objections,and proveat lengththatthey are untrue,letus assumetheir absurdity,and go forwardon the under-standing that hereafter,if this assumptionturn out to beuntrue, all the consequenceswhich followshall be with.drawn.

Yes,he said,that willbe the bestway.and Well,I said,wouldyou not allowthatassentanddissent,

dislikesexistin desireandaversion,attractionandrepulsion,are allof themmany opposites,whether they are regardedas activeor passiveforms. (forthat makesno differencein the factof theiropposition)?

Yes, he said,they are opposites.Well, I said, and hunger and thLrst,and the desires in

general,andagainwillingand wishing,--altthese youwouldrefer to the classesalreadymentioned. You wouldsay--wouldyou not?--that thesoulof himwhodesiresis seeking

Rdatlve ierms. 129

after the objectof his desire ; or tt_athe is drawingto himself Rt/_the thing which he wishes to possess: or again, when a Iv.person wants anything to be given him, his mind, longing for so_aT_.the realization of his desire, intimates his wish to have it by cua_co_.a nod of assent, as if he had been asked a question ?

Very true.And what would you say of unwillingness and dislike and

the absence of desire ; should not these be referred to theopposite class of repulsion and rejection ?

Certainly.Admitting this to be true of desire generally, let us suppose

a particular class of desires, and out of these we will selecthunger and thirst, as they are termed, which are the mostobvious of them ?

Let us take that class, he said.The object of one is food, and of the other drink ?Yes.

And here comes the point: is not thirst the desire which Theremaythe soul has of drink, and of drink only; not of drink qualified besimplethirst orby anything else; for example, warm or cold, or much or qualifiedlittle, or, in a word, drink of any particular sort : but if the thirst.

havingre-thirst be accompanied by heat, then the desire is of cold specti_yadrink ; or, if accompanied by cold, then of warmdrink ; or, simpleor

a qualifiedif the thirst be excessive, then the drink which is desired will obj_t.be excessive ; or, if not great, the quantityof drink will alsobe small : but thirst pure and simple will desire drink pureand simple, Whichis the natural satisfactionof thirst, as foodis of hunger ?

Yes, he said ; the simple desire is, as you say, in everycase of the simple object, and the qualified desire of thequalified object.

438 But here a confusion may arise ; and I should wish to Exception:guard against an opponent starting up and saying that no Thetermgoodex-man desires drink only, but good drink, or food only, but presses,notgood food; for good is the universal object of desire, and a particu-lar,butanthirst being a desire, will necessarily be thirst after good uni_drink; and the sameis true of every other desire, relation.

Yes, he replied, the opponent might have something tosay."

Nevertheless I should still maintain, that of relativessomeK

x30 Simlble and camibaundterms.

R,/_/-,_ havea qualityattachedtoeither termof therelation; others1/7.are simpleandhave theircorrelativessimple.

soe_s, I do not knowwhatyoumean.GtAvcot_.

InustrationWell,you knowofcoursethatthegreateris relativeto theoftheargu- less?meritfrom Certainly.the use oflanguage And the muchgreaterto the muchless ?about cor- Yes.relativeterms. And the sometimegreater to the sometimeless, and the

greater that is to be to the less that is to be?Certainly,he said.And so of more and less, and of other correlativeterms,

suchas thedoubleand thehalf,or again,theheavierandthelighter,theswifterand theslower; andof hotandcold,andofanyother relatives;--is notthis trueof allof them?

Yes.

And does not the same principlehold in the sciences?The objectof scienceis knowledge(assumingthat to be thetrue definition),but the objectof a particularscienceis aparticularkind of knowledge; I mean,forexample,that thescienceof house-buildingis a kind of knowledgewhich isdefinedand distinguishedfromotherkindsand is thereforetermedarchitecture.

Certainly.Becauseit hasa particularqualitywhichnoother has?Yes.

And it has this particularqualitybecauseit has an objectof a particularkind; and this is true of the other arts andsciences?

Yes.

Recapitu- Now, then,if I have mademyselfclear, you will under-lation, stand my original meaningin what I said about relatives.

Mymeaningwas,that ifone termofa relationis takenalone,the other is taken alone; if one term is qualified,the other

Antlcipa-is also qualified. I do not mean to say that relativesmaytion of apossible notbe disparate,or thatthe scienceof healthishealthy,orconfusion,of diseasenecessarilydiseased,orthat the sciencesof good

andevilarethereforegoodandevil; butonlythat,whenthetermscienceisno longerusedabsolutely,buthasa qualifiedobjectwhichin thiscaseis the natureof healthanddisease,

The first have simple, the second qualified objects. I aI

it becomesdefined,and is hencecallednot merelyscience, Reflublicbut thescienceof medicine. Iv.

I quiteunderstand,andI thinkasyoudo. so_,_GxavcoN.439 Wouldyou not saythat thirst is one of these essentially

relativeterms,havingclearlya relation--Yes, thirst is relativeto drink.And a certainkindof thirstis relativeto a certainkindof

drink ; but thirst taken aloneis neither of muchnor little,nor of goodnor bad,norof anyparticularkindof drink,butof drinkonly?

Certainly.Then the soul of the thirsty one, in so far as he is

thirsty,desiresonlydrink; for this he yearnsand tries toobtainit?

That is plain.And if you supposesomethingwhichpulls a thirstysoul Thelawor

awayfrom drink, that must be different from the thirsty contradic-tion.principlewhichdrawshim likea beast to drink ; for, as weweresaying,the samethingcannotat the sametimewiththesamepartof itselfact incontrarywaysaboutthe same.

Impossible.Nomore than you can say that the handsof the archer

pushandpull the bowat the sametime,but whatyousay isthatonehandpushesand theother pulls.

Exactlyso,he replied.And mighta manbe thirsty,andyetunwillingtodrink?Yes,he said,it constantlyhappens.And in such a casewhat is one to say? Wouldyou not

saythat there was somethingin the soulbiddinga man todrink,and somethingelse forbiddinghim,whichis otherandstrongerthantheprinciplewhichbidshim?

I shouldsayso.And the forbiddingprincipleis derivedfromreason,and Theoppo-

that which bids and attracts proceedsfrom passion and sitionofdesireanddisease? reason.

Clearly.Then wemayfairlyassumethat they aretwo,andthatthey

differfromone another; the onewithwhicha manreasons,we may call the rationalprincipleof the soul, the other,withwhichhe lovesand hungers and thirsts and feelsthe

K2

l 3u The story of Leone'us.

R_u_ flutteringsof anyother desire,maybe termedthe irrationalIV. or appetitive,theallyofsundrypleasuresand satisfactions?

_, Yes,he said,we mayfairlyassumethemto bedifferent.Gu_vc_.Then letus finallydeterminethat.therearetwoprinciples

existingin the soul And_hat Of passionr or spirit? t,sit a thirda6r _Ikinto oneof thenreeeding?

I shouldbe inclinedtosay--akin.Thethird Well, I said,there is a storywhich I remember to haveprincipleof heard,andin whichI put faith. Thestory is,that Leontius,_irit or

passion the son of Aglaion,comingup one day from the Piraeus,mustratedunder the north wall on the outside, observed somedeadbyan ex-

ample, bodieslyingonthegroundat theplaceofexecution. He feltadesireto seethem,andalso a dreadandabhorrenceof them;for a time he struggledand coveredhis eyes,but at length440the desiregot the betterof him; andforcingthem open,heran up to the dead bodies,saying,Look,ye wretches,takeyourfillof the fairsight.

I haveheard the storymyself,he said.The moralof the tale is, that anger at timesgoes to war

withdesire,as thoughthey weretwodistinctthings.Yes ; that is the meaning,he said.And are there not manyother casesinwhichwe observe

thatwhen a man'._desiresvinlon_lypreyaHore(_he revileshimself,andis angryat theviolencewith_n-h-im,andthat inthisstruggle,whichis like thestruggleoffactions

Pa__.on ina State,h_is on the s" " on ;--but forthenevertakespassionateor spiritedelementto take part with the desirespartwithdesire whenreasondecidesthat she should not be opposed1, isagainst a so_-"Xff-th_g_ivhichI believethat you never observedr_ason, occurringin yourself,nor,as I shouldimagine,ip anyone

else?Certainlynot.

Righteous Supposethata manthinkshe hasdoneawrongtoanother,neverindignationfelt the noblerhe is the less able is he to feel indignantat anybyapersoasuffering,such as hunger,or cold,or any other pain whichofnoble the injuredpersonmayinflictuponhim--thesehe deemstobecharacterwhenhe just,and, as I say,his anger refusesto be excitedbythermdeservedlyTrue, he said.suffers.

Butwhen he thinks that he is the suffererof the wrong,a Reading,_/_Tr _r_p_.v-rew,withouta commaaftert_,.

Paso4_mor s_Oiritoib2kosedto desire, r33

then he boils and chafes,and is on the side of what he Republicbelievestobejustice; andbecausehe suffershungeror cold Iv.or otherpainhe isonlythe moredeterminedto persevereand soc_s.

O_uco_.conquer. His noblespiritwillnot be quelleduntilhe either /slaysor is slain; or until he hears thevoiceofthe shepherd,/that is, reason biddin " morereason biddin " o .

The illustrationis perfect,he replied; and inour State,aswewere saying,the auxiliariesweretobe dogs,and to hearthevoiceof_ho ar theirs__

I perceive_ quiteunderstandme; there is,however,a furtherpointwhichI wishyou toconsider.

What point?Yourememberthatpassionor spirit appearedatfirstsight

to be a kind of desire,but nowwe shouldsayquite the con-trary; forin the_so 1s iritis arrayedon the

Most assuredly.But a further questionarises: Is passion differentfrom Nottwo.

but three

reason also,or onlya kind of reason; in which lattercase, principlesinsteadof threeprinciplesin thesoul,therewillonlybe two, inthesotfl,

44Ithe_ the eoncuniscent; or rather,asthe Statewas asin the....... State.

composedofthree classes_trade_, auxilia._fies,counsellors,somaytherenot be in the individualsoula thirdelementwhichis passionor spirit,and whennotco_u_tedbybadeducationis thenaturat_a_o.f.g:¢_.son ?

Yes,he said, theremustbea third.Yes, I replied,__ beenshown

to be differentfromdesir_out also tobe differentfromreason.

"B'utthat iseasilyproved:--We mayobserveevenin youngchildren that they are full of spirit almostas soonas theyare born,whereassomeof themneverseemto attainto theuseof reason,andmostofthemlateenough.

Excellent,I said,andyou maysee passionequallyin bruteanimals,whichisa furtherproofof the truthof whatyouaresaying. And we may once more appeal to the words of avizaltoHomer,whichhavebeenalreadyquotedbyus, Homer.

'He smotehis breast,and thusrebukedhis soult;,

t Od.xx.tT,quotedsupra,III.39°D.

/ : .....

134 Tl_ indi_htual like the Stale.

R_'c forin thisverseHomerhasclearlysupposedthepowerwhichIv. reasonsabout the betterandworseto be differentfromtheSQe_T_.unreas_-ningangerw e mre u e y i.OI.A_¢OI_.

Verytrue,he said.Thecon- Andso,aftermuchtossing,we havereachedland,andarethedUsi°nthatsamefairly_g-r.s-edthatthesam "ncileawh_inthe_ Statethreepain-exist-also ]'n t'he individu_g0_clthatthey___fndpm_st number.both in theState and -'E'_ctly.intheindi- Mustwe nottheninferthatthe individualis wise in theviduat ap-plied to sameway,andin virtueof thesamequalitywhichmakestheeachof Statewise?them.

Certainly.

I Alsothat the samequalitywhichconstitutescouragein the

State constitutescouragein the individual,andthat boththeState and the individualbear the same relation to all theother virtues?

Assuredly.And the individualwill_be_d by us to bejust

in the samewayinwhichth'b-'s_e is just ?Thatfollowsofcourse. ..._ZT'_

.,-_" We cannotbut rememberthatth_'j-ustice_ theState con °

_sisted in eachof thethreeclassesd_he workofits own_class?/ We arenotverylikelytohaveforgotten,hesaid._d emustrecollectthattheindividualinwhomtheseveral

tiesofhisnaturedotheirownworkwillbejust,andohis ownwork? _ ......

Yes, he said,we mustrememberthattoo.And oughtnot the r " --" ich is " nd

has the careo_.to_rmle,_md_e pas"o_9__teor" _ _ spiritedprincipleto be the subje_. andally_Certainly.

Wl_ear_X And, as we were saying, the united influence of music and

gymnasticgymnasticwillbring themintoaccord,nervingandsustainingwiUhax-moaize the reasonwith noblewords and lessons,and moderatingvas_oa and soothing and civilizingthe wildness of passionby442andtea.son.Thesetwo harmonyandrhythm?_bined Quitetrue, he said.will control_, And these two, thusnurturedand educated,and having

TAw alliance of passion and reason. 135

learnedtruly to knowtheir ownfunctions,willruleJover the R6_u/cconcupiscent,whichin eachof us is the largestpart of the Iv.soul and bynature mostinsatiableof gain; over this they so,_,• O_uco_.willkeepguard,lest,waxinggreatandstrongwiththefulnessofbodilypleasures,as theyare termed,thce_cupm"m_-fr, i)-u__5no longer confinedto her own sphere,-- _ -"-'-_--"s'hom_attempt toenslaveandrule thosewhoare not her natural-bornsubjects,andoverturnthewholelifeofman?

Very true,he said.Both togetherwill theynot be the best defendersof the andwillbe

the bestwholesoulandthewholebodyagainstattacksfromwithout; defendersthe onecounselling,ando_the._ht_ng undea=hisAe&de_bothofand c_ecuting his commandsandcounsels? boayandsoul.

True. " . _ ........And he is to be deemedcgur_.o.se sp.j£!tretains Theeour-

in pleasurean_ds of reasonabout_at ag_as.he oughtor oughtnotto fear? .... "----"--'--

Right,he fdpI_d............ _......And himwe callwisewhohas in himthat littlepartwhich _'ew_

rules, and whichproclaimsthese commands; that part toobeing supposed to have a knowl._dgeof what is for the._ /_"interestofeach_arts andof thewhole9....

Assuredly.And wouldyou not say thathe is temperatewhohas these Thetem-pe .

sameelementsin friendlyharmony,in whomtheone ruling _a_..a.__l_. o• . _- , . .principleof reason, and--_e two subjectones of spirit and , ....

desire ar_UaLly_eed'_'that_reason oughtto rule,and do..__'/J /"not rebel? -'_f""_

Certainly,he said,that is the true accountof temperance .,,._ ,Sv"_'_'e-"'- /whetherin theStateor individual. "¢_t.-¢ "

And surely, I said, we have explainedagain and again Thejust.howandbyvirtueofwhatqual__ __j _ _"--_.

That isverycertain., tAnd is justice dimmerin the individual_and is her form _'_-x__

different,or isshe thesamewhichwe foundher tobe in the _ "Tr---_.State? C._,_'_

I Reading _poova'r/_m'oJ, with Bekker; or, if the reading 7poo_a't,ve*,, _r_which is found in the MSS., be adopted, then the nominative must be supplied ,b,

firomthe previous sentence: ' Music and gymnastic will place in authority _ -1"_7._over...' This is very awkward, and the awkwardness is increased by theaeeessityofchangingthesubjectat¢.#_o'erm,.

I36 _ustlce in t/w gnat's'dual and in the Stale.

R_Ik Thereis no differencein myopinion,he said.IV. Because,if anydoubtis still lingeringin ourminds,a few

soau_, commonplaceinstanceswill satisfyus of thetruthofwhatIamsaying.TI_ nature

otj_tiee Whatsortofinstancesdoyou mean?illustrated If the case is put to us, mustwe not admitthat the justby eom-mortiCe State,or themanwho is trainedin the principlesof sucha 443imt_ces.State,willbe less likelythan the unjustto makeawaywith

a depositofgoldorsilver? Wouldanyonedenythis?Noone,he replied.Will the justmanor citizenever beguiltyof sacrilegeor

theft,or treacheryeither to his friendsor to his country?Never.

_o Neither will he ever break where there

faith have been

athsor agreements? _)Impossible.No one will be less likelyto commita r to dis-

honour his father and mother, or to-i_ in his religiousduties?

No one.And the reasonis thateachpartof him is doingits own

business,whetherin rulingor beingruled?

Exactlyso.Are you satisfiedthen that the ich makessuch

_: /_ men andsuch_states is;_sfi " at-An- pe t° disc°ver.v_._"i._r .:; someNototherI, indeed.?_/_/'_ I Weh_w Then our dream has been realized; and the suspicion

realizedthewhichwe entertainedat the beginningof ourworkof con-hopeenter-tainedin struction,that some_divinepc_werml_t hax7e _conductedustoconstrue-thefirst a primaryformof "ustiee.• "fled_ti_dt_ Yes,certainly.state. And the divisionof labourwhichrequiredthe carpenter

andthe shoemakerandthe restof thecitizensto bedoingeachhis ownbusiness,and notanother's,was a shadowofjustice,andforthatreasonit wasofuse?

Clearly.•r_ three But in _ce was such as we were describing,v_i_ being concernedhowevei',not._t_ _-h__,,'_--_ardw_n, butlmrmoai_inone. with the inward,whichis the---_,,ues_l_and concernmentof

The trueconceplionof thejust and u_jusl. 137man: for the just man doesnotpermitthe severalelementsRtp_tt_withinhim to_Y6--r_rewithone another,or anyof them to /v.do thework of others,--he sets in order his own inner life, Sock,s.Gt.Auco_.

and ishis ownmasterandhis ownlaw,_n-dat_n him-self; andwhen he has bound togetherthe t_iples Thehar-within him, whichmay be comparedto the higher, lower,)monyof--'( hum_liehumanlira.andmiddlenotesof thescale,andthe intermediateintervals__ f.whenhe hasboundallthesetogether,andisno longermany, 7buthasbecomeoneentirelytemperateandperfectlyadjustednature,then he proceedsot_aL_,ifhe has to_"act,whetherin amatterof property,or in the treatmentof the body,or insomeaffairof politicsor privatebusiness; alwaysthinkingand callingthat whichpreservesand co-operateswith thisharmoniouscondition,just and good action,and the know-ledgewhichpresidesover it, wisdom,and thatwhichat any

444timeimpairsthiscondition,he willcallunjustaction,and theopinionwhichpresidesover it ignorance.

Youhavesaidtheexacttruth,Socrates.Very good; and if we were to affirmthat we had dis-

coveredthe _"st man and the lust St_te-and.the n_h,r,_'_¢ ....justice ineac_hould not betellingafalsehood.9

Mostcertainlynot.Maywesayso, then?Let ussay so.Andnow, I said,injusticehas to be considered.Clearly. "--"-/if'fiStnoti_ a strifewhicharisesamongthethree Injusticethe oppo-

principles--ameddlesomeness,andinterference,andrisingup siteofjus-of"a part ofthe soulagainstthewhole,an assertionofunlaw-rice.fillauthority,which is made by a rebellioussubjectagainsta trueprince,of whomhe is the naturalvassaI,--whatis allthis confusionand delusionbut injustice,and intemperance ._..___andcowardiceand ignorance,andevery fo_ .....

Exactlyso. - --_amdif the natureof justiceandinjusticebe known,then

themeaningofactingunjustlyandbeingunjust,or,again,ofactingjustly,willalsobeperfectlyclear.9 .\

Whatdoyoumean.9he said. )Why, I said,theyarelikediseaseandhealth; beinginthesouljustwhatdiseaseandhealtharein thebody. J

x38 _euslicea nalural sdf-governmenl.

Re_llc Howso? he said.IV. Why, I said,thatwhich is healthycauseshealth,and that

So_T_ whichis unhealthycausesdisease.GtaLuco_. Yes.Analogyofbodyand And just actions cause justice, and un_actions cause

HeaUh: That is certain.disease::justice: And the creationof h ]th is the institutionof a naturalinjustice,order and government_Ame-t_another in _o--__e e3

body;andthecreationofdise 3 / /j of thingsat variancewith thisnaturalorder? " g i

e _sf' 3;_k_l_IS not the ereaUonof justice the msUtuUonof ac3_ # naturalorder andgovernmentofone byanother in the parts

_. _._ _ ofthe soul,and the creationof injusticethe productionofa,_ _ stateof thingsat variancewith the naturalorder?

_ ,_/ . Exactlyso,he said._ "_'__}._ Z Thenvirtue is thehealthandbeautyandwell-beingof the

_._r -_n,_/_ --(soul,andvicethe diseaseandweaknessanddeformityof the /i "-"Y_ --same ?

True.And donot goodpracticeslead to virtue,and evilpractices

tovice?Assuredly.

Theold Still our old question of the comparativeadvantageof445question,justice and injusticehas not been answered: Which is thewhetherthejustor more profitableto be "us _jtt_l ractise_ /.._eunjustis whetherseenor unseen st and /lhehappier, . . --'n.-'_',_hasbeeomeact u__'- u_refo_e_?_ai_us. / In my judging, the questionhas nowbecome

ridiculous. We knowthat, when the bodilyconstitutionis

gone,life is no longerendurable,thoughpamperedwith allkinds of meats and drinks, and havingall wealth and all

._ power; and shall we be told that when the very essenceof the vital principle is underminedand corrupted,life isstillworthhavingto a man,if onlyhe beallowedtodo what-ever he likes with the single exceptionthat he is not toacquirejustice and virtue,or to escape from injusticeandvic_; assumingthem both to besuchaswe havedescribed?

Yes, I said, the questionis,as you say,ridiculous. Still,

Oneform of virlue, four of vice. 139

as weare near the spotat whichwe maysee the truth in the Republicclearestmannerwith our own eyes,let us not faint by the lt_:way. so_,ar_.GI..*-ocoN,

Certainlynot,hereplied.Comeup hither,I said,and beholdthe variousformsof

vice,thoseof them,I mean,whichareworthlookingat.I amfollowingyou,hereplied: proceed.I said, The argumentseems to have reacheda height

fromwhich,as fromsometowerof speculation,a manmayf "lookdown and see that virtueis one,but that the formso

viceare innumerable; there beingfour specialones'_vhlcfi......"_'_aredeservingofnote.

What doyoumean.9he said.I mean,I replied,that thereappearto be as manyformsof Asmanyformsof

thesoulas thereare distinctformsofthe State. thesoulHowmany? asoftheTherearefiveoftheState,andfiveofthesoul,I said. State.

Wha/t._t_,_ th_Th_fir_p I said,is that whichwe havebeen describing,

and v_hfchmaybe said to have two names,nn_y andaristocracy,accordinglyas rule is exercisedby one distin-guishedmanor bymany.

_T"_e,he repli_e_l.--'_But I regard the twonamesas describingone formon!y;

forwhetherthegovernmentis in the handsof oneor many,if the governorshavebeen trained in the mannerwhichwehave supposed,the fundamentallaws of the State will bemaintained. _'_-'--'_'--'"--"--

That is true,he replied.

BOOK V.

Re21_bH¢ SUCHis the goodandtrue Cityor State,andthe goodandSteph.v. true man is of the same pattern; and if this is rightevery 449

Soc_r_, otheris wrong; and the evil is onewhichaffectsnot onlyGLAUCON_

AD_,,_,,_.the ordering of the State, but also the regulationof theThecorn- individualsoul,andis exhibitedin fourforms.munityof What are they? he said.womenandchildren, I was proceedingto tell the order inwhich the fourevil

formsappearedto me to succeedone another,when Pole-marchus, who was sitting a little way off, just beyondAdeimantus,began to whisper to him: stretchingforthhishand, he took hold of the upper part of his coat by theshoulder,anddrewhimtowardshim,leaningforwardhimselfso as to be quite closeand saying somethingin his ear, ofwhich I only caught the words, ' Shall we let him off, orwhatshallwedo?'

Certainlynot, saidAdeimantus,raisinghis voice.Who is it, I said,whomyou arerefusingto let off?You,he said.I repeated', Why am I especiallynot to be let off?

The saying Why, he said, we think that you are lazy,and mean to'Friends cheat us out of a wholechapterwhich is a very importanthaveallthingsin part of the story; and you fancy that we shall not noticecommon' your airy way of proceeding; as if it were self-evidenttoisan in-sufficient everybody,that in thematterofwomenandchildren' friendssolutionof haveall things in common.'thepro-blem. And wasI not right,Adeimantus?

Yes, he said; but what is right in this particular case,like everything else, requires to be explained; for com-munity may be of many kinds. Please, therefore, to saywhat sort of communityyou mean. We have been long

IReading_-_t_y&_Ifo_,.

Thedicultyof ehesubject. I4Iexpectingthat youwould tell ussomethingaboutthe familyRejVabliclife of your citizens--howtheywill bring childreninto the v.world, and rear them when they have arrived, and, in soc_r_.ADEIMANTUS_general,whatis the natureof thiscommunityof womenand c_,_co_.children--for we are of opinion that the right or wrong a',_s_M^-CHLL_.managementof suchmatterswillhavea greatandparamountinfluenceon the State for goodor forevil. And now,sincethe questionis still undetermined,and you are taking inhand another State, we have resolved,as you heard, not

450to let yougountilyougivean accountof all this.To that resolution,said Glaucon,you may regardme as

sayingAgreed.And withoutmore ado,said Thrasymachus,youmay_con-

sider us all to be equallyagreed.I said,You knownot whatyou are doingin thusassailing

me: What an argumentare you raisingabout the State!Just as I thoughtthat I had finished,and was onlytoo glad Thethat I had laidthis questiontosleep, andwas reflectinghow feignedsurprise offortunateI was in your acceptanceof whatI then said,you Socrates.ask me to begin again at the very foundation,ignorantofwhat a hornet's nest of words you are stirring. Now Iforesawthisgatheringtrouble,andavoidedit.

For what purpose do you conceivethat we have come Thegood-here, saidThrasymachus,--tolookfor gold, or to hear dis- humourofThrasyma-course ? chus.

Yes, butdiscourseshouldhavea limit.Yes,Socrates,said Glaucon,and the wholeof life is the

only limit which wise men assign to the hearingof suchdiscourses. But never mind aboutus; take heart yourselfand answer the question in your own way: What sort ofcommunityof womenand childrenis thiswhichis to prevailamongourguardians? and howshallwe managetheperiodbetweenbirth and education,which seems to require thegreatestcare? Tellus howthesethingswillbe.

Yes, my simplefriend, but the answeris the reverseofeasy; many more doubtsarise about this than about ourpreviousconclusions. For the practicabilityof whatis saidmay be doubted; and lookedat in anotherpoint of view,whetherthe scheme,if everso practicable,wouldbe for thebest,is alsodoubtful. HenceI feela reluctancetoapproach

I42 He Mat h'lls tke truth is a murderer.

Re_bt_ the subject,lest our aspiration,my dear friend,should turn_: out to bea dreamonly.

soc_T_ Fear not, he replied,for your audiencewillnot be hardGtaucoN.uponyou; they arenot scepticalor hostile.

I said: My good friend, I suppose that you mean toencouragemeby thesewords.

Yes,he said.Afriendly Thenlet metellyou that you are doingjust thereverse ;audience theencouragementwhichyouofferwouldhavebeenall veryis moredangerouswell hadI myselfbelievedthatI knewwhatI was talkingthanahos-about: to declare the truth aboutmattersof high interesttileone.

whicha manhonours and lovesamongwise men who lovehimneed occasionno fear or falteringin his mind; but tocarryon an argumentwhenyouare yourselfonlya hesitatingenquirer,whichis my condition,is a dangerousand slippery45tthing; and the danger is not that I shall be laughed at(ofwhichthefearwouldbe childish),butthat I shallmissthetruthwhereI have mostneed tobe sure of myfooting,anddrag myfriendsafter me in my fall. And I prayNemesisnot tovisit uponme the wordswhichI am going to utter.For I doindeedbelievethat tobe an involuntaryhomicideisa less crime than to be a deceiveraboutbeautyor goodnessor justicein the matterof laws1. And that is a risk whichI wouldrather run amongenemiesthan amongfriends,andthereforeyoudowellto encourageme_.

Glauconlaughed and said: Well then, Socrates,in caseyou andyourargumentdous anyseriousinjuryyoushallbeacquittedbeforehandof thehomicide,and shall notbe heldto be a deceiver; takecouragethenandspeak.

Well, I said,the lawsaysthat when a manis acquittedheis freefromguilt,andwhatholdsat lawmayholdin argument.

Then whyshouldyoumind?Well, I replied,I supposethatI mustretracemy stepsand

saywhat I perhapsought to havesaid before in the properplace. The partofthemenhas beenplayedout,andnowpro-perlyenoughcomestheturn ofthewomen. OfthemI willpro-ceedtospeak,and the morereadilysinceI aminvitedbyyou.

t OrinsertingK_dbefore_oplp_r: ' a deceiveraboutbeautyor goodnessorprinciplesofjusticeorlaw.'

ReadingJ_r_ _ p_ *r_t_7.

'Women are but lesser men.' i43

For men born and educatedlike our citizens,the only A'eibublicway,in my opinion,of arrivingat a right conclusionabout v.the possessionand use of womenand childrenis to followsoo_m,G_uco_a.the path on which we originallystarted, when we saidthat the men were to be the guardiansand watchdogsofthe herd.

True.

Letusfurthersupposethebirthandeducationofourwomento be subjectto similar or nearly similarregulations; thenweshall see whethertheresultaccordswithour design.

What doyoumean?What I mean maybe put into the form of a question,I Nodistinc-

said: Are dogsdividedinto hes and shes, or do they both tionamongthe animalsshare equallyin hunting and in keepingwatch and in the suchasisother dutiesofdogs? or doweentrust to themalesthe entire madebetweenand exclusivecareof theflocks,whilewe leavethefemalesat menandhome, under the idea that the bearingand sucklingtheir women.puppiesis labourenoughfor them?

No,he said,theysharealike; the onlydifferencebetweenthem is that the males are stronger and the femalesweaker.

But can you use differentanimals for the samepurpose,unlessthey arebred andfedin the sameway?

Youcannot.Then, if womenare to havethe same dutiesas men,they

452musthave thesamenurtureandeducation?Yes.

The educationwhichwasassignedto themen wasmusicand gymnastic.

Yes.

Thenwomenmustbe taughtmusicandgymnasticandalso Womenthe art of war,whichtheymustpractiselikethe men_ mustbe• taught

That is the inference,I suppose, music,I shouldratherexpect,I said,thatseveralof ourproposals,gymnastic,and mill-

if they arecarriedout,beingunusual,mayappearridiculous,taryexer-Nodoubtof it. cisesYes,and themost ridiculousthing of allwillbe thesight equa3Jywith men.

of womennakedin thepalaestra,exercisingwith the men,especiallywhen they are no longeryoung; they certainlywillnot be a visionof beauty,anymorethanthe enthusiastic

5

i x44 Tim jesls of Ik. wits.

i Rq,b//e oldmenwho in spiteof wrinklesanduglinesscontinuetoV. frequentthegymnasia.

i soc_T_s. Yes, indeed,he said: accordingto present notionsthe: proposalwouldbe thoughtridiculous._, But then, I said, as we have determinedto speak our: minds,we must not fearthe jestsof thewits whichwill be

directedagainstthissortofinnovation; howtheywilltalkofi women'sattainmentsbothin musicandgymnastic,andabove

allabouttheirwearingarmourandridinguponhorsebackl: Verytrue, he replied.: ConventionYethavingbegunwe mustgo forwardto the roughplaces

shottldnotofthe law; at the sametime beggingof thesegentlemenforbeper-miredto oncein their life to be serious. Not long ago,aswe shallstandin remindthem,the Helleneswereof theopinion,whichisstill

i thewayofa higher generally receivedamongthe barbarians,thatthe sight of

! good. a naked manwasridiculousand improper; andwhen firstthe Cretansand then the Lacedaemoniansintroducedthecustom,thewitsof thatdaymightequallyhaveridiculedtheinnovation.

No doubt.Butwhenexperienceshowedthatto let all thingsbe un-

coveredwas far better than to cover them up, and theludicrouseffectto theoutwardeyevanishedbeforethebetterprinciplewhichreasonasserted,thenthemanwas perceivedto bea foolwhodirectsthe shaftsof hisridiculeat anyothersightbutthatof follyandvice,or seriouslyinclinesto weighthebeautifulby anyotherstandardbutthatofthegood1

Very true,hereplied.First,then,whetherthe questionis to be putinjest orin

earnest,let us cometo anunderstandingaboutthenatureof 453woman: Is she capableof sharingeitherwhollyor partiallyin the actionsof men,or not at all? And is theart of warone of those arts in whichshe canor can notshare? That

i_ will be the best wayof commencingthe enquiry,andwillprobablyleadto thefairestconclusion.

:,i Thatwillbe muchthebestway._ Shallwe takethe otherside first and begin by arguingii: againstourselves;in this manner the adversary'sposition_: willnotbe undefended.::" _ _ withParisA. KdKo.,Xo_...

*t< -

The seemi#g contradiction of tke argumenL I45

Whynot? he said. RepublicThenletus put a speechintothe mouthsof ouropponents, v.

They willsay : ' Socratesand Glaucon,no adversaryneed so_s,G_U_N.

convictyou, foryouyourselves,at the first foundationof the Objection:State,admittedthe principlethat everybodywas to do the Wewet*onework suited to his ownnature.' And certainly,if I am sayingthateveryonenotmistaken,such an admissionwasmadeby us. 'And do shoulddonot the natures of men and womendiffervery much in- hisown

work :

deed?' .Amdwe shall reply: Of coursetheydo. Thenwe Havenotshall be asked, ' Whetherthe tasks assigned to men and womenand

men Sever_

to womenshouldnot be different,and such as are agree- allyaworkable to their different natures?' Certainly they should, of their

' Butif so,haveyou notfallenintoaseriousinconsistencyin own?sayingthat men andwomen,whosenatures are so entirelydifferent,ought to perform the sameactions? '--What de-fencewill you make for us, my good Sir, againstany onewhoofferstheseobjections?

That is not an easy question to answer when askedsuddenly; and I shalland I do begof you to drawout theease onourside.

These are the objections,Glaucon,and there are manyothersof a like kind,whichI foresawlongago; theymademe afraidand reluctantto take in hand any law about thepossessionand nurtureof womenandchildren.

By Zeus,he said,theproblemto be solvedisanythingbuteasy.

Why yes, I said, but the factis that whena man is out ofhis depth,whetherhe hasfallenintoa little swimmingbathor intomidocean,he has to swimall the same.

Very true.And mustnotwe swimandtry toreach theshore: wewill

hope that Arion's dolphinor some other miraculoushelpmay save us?

I supposeso, he said.Well then, let us see if anywayof escapecan be found.

We acknowledged--didwenot? thatdifferentnaturesoughtto have differentpursuits, and that men's and women'snaturesare different. And nowwhatarewe saying?--thatdifferentnatures ought to have the samepursuiL%--thisisthe inconsistencywhichischargeduponus.

L

"1

x46 Is t/zere an esse_tlialor only an accidental!:_ Rtl_lk Precisely.ii /t. Verily,Glaueon,I said,gloriousis the powerof the art of454iI so_Tn, contradiction!!_ Gt.Avcm_.•: Why do yousayso?,, Theseem- BecauseI think that manya manfalls into the practice

ingi_on- against hiswill. When he thinks that he is reasoninghe issistency_ ariseso.t reallydisputing,just becausehe cannotdefine and divide,• ofaverbalandsoknowthatofwhichhe is speaking-andhe willpursueopposition. )

a merelyverbaloppositionin thespiritof contentionandnotoffairdiscussion.

Yes,he replied,suchisveryoftenthe case; but whathasthat todo withus andour argument?

A greatdeal; forthereis certainlya dangerof ourgettingunintentionallyintoa verbalopposition.

In whatway?Whenwe Why we valiantlyand pugnaciouslyinsistuponthe verbalassignedtoaif_em truth, that differentnaturesoughtto havedifferentpursuits,natnres butwe neverconsideredat allwhatwasthe meaningof same-diffm'ent ness or differenceof nature,or whywe distinguishedthempursuits,wemeantwhenwe assigneddifferentpursuitsto differentnaturesandonlythose the sameto the samenatures.diffexencesornature Why, no,he said,thatwasneverconsideredbyus.whichaf- I said : Supposethatbywayof illustrationwewereto askfeetedthepursuits, the questionwhetherthere is not an oppositionin naturebe-

tweenbaldmenandhairymen; and ifthis isadmittedbyus,then, if bald men are cobblers,we shouldforbid the hairymen to be cobblers,andconversely?

Thatwouldbe ajest, he said.Yes, I said, a jest; and why? becausewe never meant

whenwe constructedthe State,that the oppositionof naturesshould extend to everydifference,but only to thosediffer-enceswhichaffectedthe pursuit in which the individualisengaged;weshouldhaveargued,forexample,that aphysicianand onewhois inminda physician1maybe saidto havethesamenature.

True.Whereas the physicianand the carpenter have different

natures?Certainly.

1Readingl_'a_'.a_J,xtdlav_.xbt,_r_t,_t,X_p,5r,rg.

difference I_etweenmen and women .e z47

And if, I said,the maleand femalesexappear todifferin Rei_Alictheir fitnessfor anyart or pursuit,we shouldsaythatsuch V.pursuit or art ought to be assignedto one or the other of Soc_,T_s,GL^ucoN.them; but if the differenceconsistsonly in womenbearingandmen begettingehildren_thisdoesnot amountto a proofthat a womandiffersfrom a man in respectof the sort ofeducationsheshouldreceive; andweshallthereforecontinueto maintainthat ourguardiansand theirwivesoughtto havethe samepursuits.

Very true, he said.Next,weshallask our opponentho% inreferencetoany

455of the pursuits or arts of civiclife,the nature of a womandiffersfromthat of a man?

That willbe quitefair.And perhaps he, like yourself,will reply that to give a

sufficientansweron the instant is not easy; but aftera littlereflectionthere isno difficulty.

Yes, perhaps.Supposethen that we invitehim to accompanyus in the

argument,and then we mayhopeto showhimthat there isnothingpeculiarin the constitutionof womenwhichwouldaffecttheminthe administrationofthe State.

By allmeans.Let us say to him: Comenow, and we will ask you a Thesame

question:--when you spokeof a nature giftedor not gifted natural• giftsareIn any respect,did you mean to say that one man will foundinacquire a thing easily, another with difficulty; a little bothsexes,buttheylearningwilllead the one to discovera greatdeal; whereas arepos-

theothers aftermuchstudyandapplication,no soonerlearns sessedinahigherthanhe forgets; or again,did you mean,that the one hasa degreebybodywhichis a goodservant tohis mind,while the bodyof menthanthe other is a hindrance to him?--wouldnot thesebe the women.sortof differenceswhichdistinguishthemangiftedbynaturefromtheonewho isungifted?

Noonewilldenythat.And can you mentionany pursuitof mankindin which

the matesexhas not all thesegiftsand qualitiesina higherdegree than the female? Need I waste time in speakingof the art of weaving,and the managementof pancakesandpreserves, in whichwomankinddoes really appear to be

L2

i x48 Tke same gualities in men and women.

_ R_tic great,and inwhichfor herto be beatenbya manis of allv. thingsthemostabsurd?

i_ sooa_s. Youarequiteright,he replied,in maintainingthegeneralo_,uco_ inferiorityof thefemalesex: althoughmanywomenarein

_; manythings superiorto manymen,yet on thewholewhati! yousayis true.7 And if so, myfriend,I said,there is no specialfacultyofi_ administrationina statewhicha womanhasbecauseshe is_ a woman,or whicha manhas byvirtueof his sex,but the

giftsof naturearealikediffusedin both; all thepursuitsofmen are thepursuitsof womenalso, but in all of themawomanis inferiorto a man.

Verytrue.Menand Then are we to imposeall our enactmentson men andwoln_naretobe noneofthemonwomen?gOvernea Thatwillneverdo.bythesameOnewomanhas a gift of healing, anothernot ; one is456taws and to

ha,ethe a musician,andanotherhasno musicin hernature?samepar- Very true.Suits.

And one womanhas a turn for gymnasticand militaryexercises,andanotheris unwarlikeandhatesgymnastics?

Certainly.Andonewomanis a philosopher,andanotheris anenemy

of philosophy; onehasspirit,andanotheriswithoutspirit?Thatis alsotrue.Then onewomanwill have the temperof a guardian,and

: another not. Was not the selectionof the maleguardiansdeterminedby differencesof thissort?

Yes.

Men and womenalike possessthe qualitieswhichmakea guardian; theydifferonlyin theircomparativestrengthorweakness.

! Obviously.Andthosewomenwhohavesuchqualitiesaretobe selected

: as the companionsandcolleaguesof menwhohave similar_ qualitiesandwhomtheyresembleincapacityandincharacter?_ Very true._: Andoughtnotthe samenaturestohavethesamepursuits?::_r Theyought.I_:' Then,as weweresayingbefore,thereis nothingunnatural

_ _:= .

The.a tl_a'r ed_caLio_skould be �he same. x49

inassigningmusicandgymnasticto thewivesoftheguardians_'e/_l,_--to that pointwecomeroundagain. _"

Certainlynot. SOC*aTKS,GLAUCON.

The lawwhichwe then enactedwas agreeabletonature,and therefore not an impossibilityor mere aspiration; andthe contrarypractice,whichprevailsat present, is in realitya violationof nature.

That appearsto be true.We had to consider, first, whetherour proposalswere

possible,and secondlywhethertheywerethemostbeneficial?Yes.

And thepossibilityhasbeenacknowledged?Yes.The verygreatbenefithas nextto be established?Quiteso.Youwilladmitthat thesameeducationWhichmakesa man Thereare

a goodguardianwillmakea womana good guardian; for d_erentdegreesoftheir originalnatureis the same? goodnec,s

Yes. bothinwomenand

I shouldliketo askyou a question, inmen.Whatis it?Wouldyou saythatall menare equalin excellence,or is

onemanbetterthananother?Thelatter.Andin thecommonwealthwhichwe werefoundingdoyou

conceivetheguardianswhohavebeen broughtup on ourmodelsystemto bemoreperfectmen,orthe cobblerswhoseeducationhasbeencobbling?

Whata ridiculousquestion!Youhaveansweredme, I replied: Well, and maywe not

furthersaythatourguardiansarethebestofourcitizens?Byfarthebest.Andwillnottheirwivesbe thebestwomen?Yes,byfarthe best.And can therebe anythingbetterfor the interestsof the

State than that the men andwomenof a State shouldbe asgoodas possible?

There can be nothingbetter.457 Andthis iswhat theartsof musicandgymnastic,whenpre-

sent in suchmanneras we havedescribed,willaccomplish?

i50 Thefirst andsecondwaves.Re,_tic Certainly.

g. Thenwe havemadean enactmentnot onlypossiblebut inSonATas,thehighestdegreebeneficialtotheState?G_UCON.

True.Then let thewivesof our guardiansstrip,for their virtue

willbe their robe,and let themshare in the toilsofwar andthe defenceof their country; only in the distribution oflaboursthe lighterare to be assignedto thewomen,whoaretheweakernatures,but in other respectstheir dutiesare tobe the same. And as for the man who laughs at nakedwomenexercisingtheir bodiesfrom the best of motives,inhis laughterhe isplucking

'A fruitof unripewisdom,'

andhehimselfis ignorantof whatheis laughingat,or whatheis about;--forthatis,andeverwillbe,thebestof sayings,

The noble Thattheusefulis thenobleand thehurtfulis thebase.saying. Very true.

Here,then,is onedifficultyinourlawaboutwomen,whichwe maysay that we havenow escaped; the wavehas notswallowedus up alive for enactingthat the guardiansofeithersex shouldhaveall theirpursuitsin common; to theutilityand also to the possibilityof this arrangementtheconsistencyofthe argumentwithitselfbearswitness.

Yes, thatwasa mightywavewhichyouhaveescaped."r_second Yes, I said,buta greateris coming; you will not thinkandgreatermuchof thiswhenyousee the next.Wa,¥e.

Go on; let mesee.The law,I said,whichis the sequelof thisandof all that

has preceded,is to the followingeffect,--'thatthewivesofourguardiansaretobecommon,andtheirchildrenare to becommon,and no parentis to knowhis ownchild,nor anychildhisparent.'

Yes, he said,thatis a muchgreaterwavethanthe other;andthepossibilityaswell as theutilityof sucha laware farmorequestionable.

I do notthink,I said,thattherecanbe anydisputeabouttheverygreatutilityofhavingwivesandchildrenincommon;thepossibilityisquiteanothermatter,andwillbe verymuchdisputed.

Tt_daydrea_. 15I thinkthata goodmanydoubtsmayberaisedaboutboth. Rt_bl/cYou implythat the two questionsmustbe combined,I v.

replied. Now I meant thatyou shouldadmitthe utility-soe_s,' C-'LAUCON.and in this way, as I thought, I should escapefrom one

The utilityof them,and thentherewouldremainonlythe possibility, andpossi-

But that little attemptis detected,and thereforeyou will bilityofacommunitypleasetogivea defenceof both. ofwives

Well, I said, I submitto my fate. Yet grantme a little andchil-458favour: letmefeastmymindwiththe dreamas daydreamersdren.

are in thehabitoffeastingthemselveswhentheyarewalkingalone; for beforetheyhavediscoveredanymeansofeffectingtheir wishes--thatis a matterwhichnever troublesthem--they would rather not tire themselvesby thinking aboutpossibilities;but assumingthatwhat they desire is alreadygrantedto them,they proceedwith theirplan,and delightindetailingwhat they mean to do when their wish has cometrue--that is awaywhich theyhaveof not doingmuchgoodto a capacitywhich was never good for much. Now I TheutU_ymyselfam beginningto lose heart, and I should like,with tobecon-sideredyour permission,to pass over the questionof possibilityat f_t,thepresent. Assumingthereforethepossibilityof the proposal,possibilityafterwards.I shall nowproceedto enquirehowthe rulers willcarryoutthese arrangements,and I shall demonstratethatour plan,ifexecuted,wiltbeofthegreatestbenefitto theStateand to theguardians. First of all,then,if you haveno objection,I willendeavourwithyour help to considerthe advantagesof themeasure; andhereafterthequestionofpossibility.

I haveno objection; proceed.First, I think that if our rulersand their auxiliariesare to

be worthy of the name which they bear, there must bewillingnessto obeyin the oneand the powerof commandinthe other; theguardiansmust themselvesobeythe laws,andthey mustalso imitatethespirit of themin anydetailswhichare entrustedto their care.

That is right,he said.You, I said, who are their legislator,havingselectedthe The

men,willnowselectthewomenandgivethemto them;--they _atorwinselect

mustbe as far as possibleof like natureswiththem; and guard,stheymustlivein commonhousesandmeetat commonmeals, m_eandfemale,None of them willhave anythingspeciallyhis or her own; whowin

I52 Tke breeding of animals.

_#_ theywill be together,and willbe broughtup together,andv. will associate at gymnasticexercises. And so they will

so_a_, be drawnbya necessityof their naturesto have intercourseGLA_CON.-witheachother--necessityisnot too stronga word,I think?meetat

common Yes,he said;--necessity,not geometrical,but anothersortmealsand of necessitywhichloversknow,andwhichis far more con-andwinbe vincingandconstrainingto the massof mankind.th'awnto True, I said; and this, Glaucon,like all the rest, mustonean- proceedafter an orderlyfashion; in a city of the blessed,otherbyanirresist-licentiousnessis an unholythingwhichthe rulerswillforbid.ibleneces- Yes,he said,and it oughtnot tobe permitted.sity.

Then clearlythe next thing will be to make matrimonysacred in the highestdegree,andwhatis most beneficialwillbedeemedsacred?

Exactly. 459Thebreed- Andhowcan marriagesbe made mostbeneficial?--that ising ofhuman a questionwhich I put to you,becauseI see in your housebeings,as dogsfor hunting,andof the noblersort of birdsnota few.ofanimals,Now_ I beseechyou, do tell me, have you ever attendedto be fromthebe_ totheirpairingandbreeding?and_m In whatparticulars?those whoareofa Why, in the firstplace,althoughthey are all of a_goodripeage. SOrt, are notsomebetter thanothers?

True.

And do you breed from them all indifferently,or do youtakecare to breedfromthe best only?

From the best.Anddoyou take the oldestor the youngest,or onlythose

of ripeage?I chooseonlythoseof ripeage.And if carewas not taken in the breeding,your dogsand

birdswouldgreatlydeteriorate?Certainly.And the sameof horsesandof animalsin general?Undoubtedly.Goodheavens! my dear friend, I said, what consummate

skillwill our rulers need if the same principleholds of thehumanspecies!

Certainly,the sameprincipleholds; but why does thisinvolveany particularskill?

....... 7-

ttymeneal f esgivals, z53

Because,t said, our rulers wilt often have to practise Relbubllcupon the body corporatewith medicines. Now you know v.thatwhen patientsdo not require medieines,but have only soo_,to be put under a regimen,the inferiorsort of practitionerusefulis deemedto be goodenough; but whenmedicinehas to be .verygiven,then the doctorshouldbemoreofa man. honestknaveries.'

That is quitetrue, he said; but towhatareyoualluding?I mean,I replied,that our rulers willfind a considerable

doseof falsehoodanddeceitnecessaryfor the goodof theirsubjects: we were saying that the use of all these thingsregardedas medicinesmightbe of advantage.

And we wereveryright.And this lawfuluse ofthemseemslikelytobe oftenneeded

in theregulationsofmarriagesand births.Howso?Why, I said, theprinciplehas beenalreadylaiddownthat Arrange-

the bestof eithersexshouldbe unitedwith thebest as often, meatsfortheira-and the inferiorwiththe inferior,as seldomas possible; and provementthat they shouldrear the offspringof the onesort of union, ofthebreed;but not of the other, if the flockis to be maintainedinfirst-ratecondition. Nowthese goingson must be a secretwhichthe rulersonlyknow,or therewillbea furtherdangerof our herd, as the guardiansmay be termed,breakingoutintorebellion.

Very true.Had wenot betterappointcertainfestivalsat whichwewill andforthe

bring togetherthe bridesandbridegrooms,andsacrificeswill regulationofpopula-46Obe offeredand suitablehymenealsongscomposedby our tion.

poets: the numberof weddingsis a matterwhichmustbelei_to the discretionof the rulers,whoseaim will be topreservethe averageof population? Therearemanyotherthingswhichtheywillhaveto consider,suchastheeffectsofwars and diseasesand any similaragencies,in order asfar as this is possibleto prevent the State from becomingeither toolargeor too small.

Certainly,he replied.W'eshallhaveto inventsomeingeniouskindof lotswhich Palring

the less worthymay drawon each occasionof ourbringing bylot.them together,and then they willaccuse their own ill-luckand not therulers.

i54 Tke marriageakleage.Xet_llc To be sure,hesaid.

v. And I thinkthat our braverandbetteryouth,besidestheirsoe_T_s,other honours and rewards, might have greater facilitiesGL._,UOO,N.

of intercoursewithwomengiven them; their braverywillThebrave_tbe be a reason,andsuchfathersoughtto haveasmanysons asf,dr. possible.

True.

And the proper officers,whethermaleor femaleor both,forofficesareto be heldbywomenaswellasbymen--

Yes--Whatisto The properofficerswill takethe offspringof the goodbedone parents to the pen or fold,and there theywill depositthemwith thechi]dr_?withcertainnurseswhodwellin a separatequarter;butthe

offspringofthe inferior,or ofthe betterwhenthey chancetobe deformed,will be putawayin somemysterious,unknownplace,as theyshouldbe.

Yes,hesaid,thatmustbedoneif thebreedof theguardiansis tobe kept pure.

They will provide for their nurture, and will bring themothers to the fold when they are full of milk, takingthegreatest possiblecare that no mother recognisesher ownchild; and other wet-nursesmay be engagedif more arerequired. Carewillalsobetakenthattheprocessofsucklingshallnot be protractedtoo long; and the motherswillhavenogettingupat night or other trouble,but willhandoverallthissort of thingto thenursesandattendants.

You supposethewivesof ourguardiansto havea fineeasytimeof itwhenthey are havingchildren.

Why, said I, and sothey ought. Let us,however,proceedwithour scheme. We weresaying that the parents shouldbe in the primeof life?

Very true.Andwhatis the primeof life? Mayit not be definedas a

period of about twentyyears in a woman'slife,and thirtyin aman's?

Whichyearsdoyoumeanto include?Awoman A woman,I said,at twentyyearsof age maybeginto beartot,_r childrentothe State,and continueto bear themuntilforty;chikirenfrom a manmaybeginat five-and-twenty,whenhe has passedthe

The tame of proMbited degrees, r55

pointat which the pulse of lifebeats quickest,and continueXe:ubUcto begetchildrenuntilhe be fifty-five, v.

46I Certainly,he said,bothinmenandwomenthoseyearsare SocrAtes,GLAUCO_.

the primeofphysicalas wellas of intellectualvigour. twentytoAnyoneaboveor belowtheprescribedageswhotakespart forty;a

in the publichymenealsshallbe saidto havedonean unholy mantobe-and unrighteousthing; the childof whichhe is the father,if getthemfromit steals into life, willhave been conceivedunder auspicestwenty-fiveveryunlikethesacrificesandprayers,whichat eachhymeneal to_fty-five.priestessesand priestsand the wholecity will offer, thatthe new generationmay be better and more useful thantheir good and useful parents, whereas his child will betheoffspringof darknessandstrangelust.

Very true,he replied.Andthe samelawwillapplytoanyoneof thosewithinthe

prescribedage who formsa connectionwithany womaninthe prime of life without the sanctionof the rulers; forwe shall say that he is raisingup a bastard to the State,uncertifiedandunconsecrated.

Very true,he replied.This applies,however,only to those who are within the Afterthe

specifiedage: after that we allow them to range at will, prescnbeaagehasexcept that a man may not marry his daughter or his beendaughter'sdaughter,or his motheror his mother's mother; passed,ITIOI_

andwomen,on the otherhand, areprohibitedfrommarryinglicenceistheirsons or fathers,or son's son or father'sfather,and so _alowed:butall whoon in either direction. And wegrant all this,accompanyingwerebornthe permissionwith strict orders to prevent any embryoaftereextain

hymenealwhichmay comeinto being fromseeing the light; and if festivalsatany forcea way to the birth,the parentsmustunderstandwhich their

thatthe offspringofsuchanunioncannotbemaintained,and parentsor grand-arrangeaccordingly, parents

That also,he said, is a reasonableproposition. Buthow cameto-getherrnustwillthey knowwho arefathersanddaughters,and soon? bekept

They will never know. The way will be this:---datingseparate.fromtheday ot the hymeneal,the bridegroomwhowas thenmarriedwillcall all the male childrenwho are born in theseventh and the tenth monthafterwardshis sons, and thefemalechildrenhis daughters,and theywiltcall him father,and he will call their childrenhis grandchildren,and they

156 'Meu_ am_t guum.'

R_lic willcallthe eldergenerationgrandfathersandgrandmothers./7.All who were begottenat the timewhen their fathersand

soc_.T_ motherscame togetherwill be called their brothers andGt_uCoN.sisters,andthese,asI wassaying,will be forbiddento inter-marry. This,however,isnottoheunderstoodasanabsoluteprohibitionof themarriageofbrothersandsisters; if the lotfavoursthem,and they receivethe sanctionof the Pythianoracle,the lawwillallowthem.

Quiteright,hereplied.Such is the scheme,Glaucon,accordingto which the

guardiansof ourState are tohave theirwivesandfamiliesin common. And nowyou would have the argumentshowthat this communityis consistentwiththe rest of our polity,and alsothat nothingcan be better--wouldyounot ?

Yes,certainly. 462Shallwe try tofinda commonbasisbyaskingofourselves

whatought to be the chief aim of the legislatorin makinglawsandin theorganizationof a State,--what is the greatestgood,andwhatis thegreatestevil,andthen considerwhetherour previousdescriptionhas the stamp of the good or ofthe evil?

Byall means.Thegreat- Canthere be anygreaterevil than discordand distractionestgoodofStates, and pluralitywhere unity ought to reign? or any greaterunity;the goodthan thebondof unity?gr_test There cannot.evil.dis-cont. And there isunitywhere there is.communityof pleasuresTheone andpains--whereall the citizensareglad or grievedon thetheresultofpablic,sameoccasionsofjoy andsorrow?theother Nodoubt.ofprivatefedi_s. Yes; and wherethere is no commonbut only private

feelinga State is disorganized--whenyou have one halfof the worldtriumphingand the otherplungedin griefatthesameeventshappeningto thecityor thecitizens?

Certainly.Such differencescommonlyoriginatein a disagreement

abouttheuse of the terms'mine' and 'notmine,''his' and'nothis.'

Exactlyso.Andisnotthatthebest-orderedStateinwhichthegreatest

Contrast of t/t_ ideal a_d actual Slate. 157

numberofpersonsapplythe terms'mine' and _notmine' in Rcp_/athe samewaytothe samething? v.

Quitetrue. Soc_TEs,GLAOCON.

Or that againwhichmostnearlyapproachesto the con- TheStateditionof the individual--asin thebody,whenbutafingerof likealivingoneofus is hurt,thewholeframe,drawntowardsthesoulas beingwhichfeelsalto-a centreand formingone kingdomunderthe rulingpowergethertherein,feelsthe hurtand sympathizesall togetherwiththe whenhurtpart affected,and we say that the man hasa pain in his inanypart.finger; and the same expressionis used aboutanyotherpartof thebody,whichhasa sensationofpainat sufferingorofpleasureat the alleviationof suffering.

Very true,he replied; and I agree with you that in thebest-orderedState there is the nearest approach to thiscommonfeelingwhichyoudescribe.

Thenwhen anyone of the citizensexperiencesanygoodor evil,the whole State willmakehis case their own,andwilleither rejoiceor sorrowwithhim?

Yes, he said, that is whatwill happenin a well.orderedState.

It will nowbe time,I said,for us to returnto ourState Howdif-ferentareand see whetherthis or someother form is mostin ac- thetermseordancewiththesefundamentalprinciples, w_chare

Verygood. appliedtotherulers463 OurState likeeveryotherhasrulersandsubjects? inother

True. Statesandin our own !Allof whomwillcalloneanothercitizens?

Of course.Butis there notanother namewhichpeoplegive to their

rulers in other States?Generallytheycall themmasters,but in democraticStates

theysimplycallthemrulers.And in ourStatewhatothernamebesidesthatof citizens

do the peoplegivethe rulers?They arecalledsavioursandhelpers,he replied.Andwhatdo therulers call the people?Their maintainersandfoster-fathers.And whatdo theycallthemin otherStates?Slaves.Andwhatdotherulerscalloneanotherin otherStates?

158 The community of property and of

Rel_ic Fellow.rulers.F. Andwhatin ours?

so_v_s. Fellow-guardians.GI.AUCOs.

Did you ever knowan examplein any other State of arulerwhowouldspeakof one of his colleaguesas his.friendand ofanotheras not beinghis friend?

Yes,veryoften.And the friend he regards and describesas one in whom

he has an interest,and the other as a strangerin whomhehas nointerest?

Exactly.But wouldany of your guardians think or speak of any

other guardianas a stranger?Certainlyhe wouldnot; for exreryone whomthey meet

will be regarded by them either as a brother or sister, orfather or mother, or son or daughter, or as the ehild orparent ofthosewhoare thusconnectedwithhim.

TheState Capital,I said; but let me askyou oncemore: Shalltheyonefamily,bea familyin nameonly; or shall they in all their actionsbe

true to the name? For example,in the use of the word'father,'wouldthe careof a fatherbe impliedand the filialreverenceand duty and obedienceto him which the lawcommands; andis theviolatorof thesedutiestobe regardedas an impiousand unrighteousperson who is not likelyto receivemuchgoodeither at the handsof Godor of man?Are these to be or not tobe the strainswhich the childrenwillhearrepeatedin their earsby all the citizensaboutthosewhoare intimatedto themto be their parentsand the restoftheirkinsfolk?

Usingthe These, he said, and none other; for what can be moresame ridiculousthan for themto utter the namesoffamilytieswithterms, they

_.nhave thelipsonlyandnotto actin the spiritofthem?thesame Thenin ourcity the languageof harmonyand concordmodesofthinkingwillbemoreoftenheardthaninanyother.As Iwasandacting,describingbefore,whenanyoneiswellorill,theuniversalandthisistobe wordwillbe'withme itiswell'or'itisill.'attrihated Mosttrue. 464maialytothecorn- And agreeably to this modeof thinking and speaking,nnmttyor were we not sayingthat they will have theirpleasures andwomenand pains in common?children.

women and children lends to harmony and 20cadre. 159

Yes,andso theywill. R_//cAndtheywill have a commoninterestin the samething IT.

whichtheywillalikecall 'myown,'andhavingthiscommonso_r_,Gt.AUCON.interesttheywillhavea commonfeelingofpleasureandpain?

Yes,far moresothan in otherStates.And the reason of this,overand abovethe generalcon-

stitutionof the State, will be that the guardianswillhavea communityof womenand children?

That willbe the chiefreason.And this unityof feelingwe admittedto be the greatest

good,as wasimpliedinourowncomparisonofawell-orderedState to the relation of the bodyand the members,whenaffectedbypleasureor pain?

Thatweacknowledged,andvery rightly.Then the communityof wives and childrenamong our

citizens is clearly the source of the greatestgood to theState?

Certainly.And this agreeswith the other principlewhichwe were

affirming,--thatthe guardianswere not to have housesorlandsorany otherproperty; their paywas tobe their food,whichtheywereto receivefrom the othercitizens,and theywereto haveno privateexpenses; forweintendedthem topreservetheirtrue characterof guardians.

Right,he replied.Both the communityof property and the communityof Therewm

families,as I am saying, tend to make them more truly benopri-wareinter-

guardians; they willnot tear the cityin piecesby differingestsamongthem, andabout 'mine" and _notmine;' each man draggingany ac- thereforequisitionwhichhe has made into a separatehouse of his no]awsuitsown,where he has a separatewifeand childrenand private ort_atsforassaultorpleasuresand pains; but allwillbe affectedas faras maybe violencetobythe samepleasuresand painsbecausetheyare all of one e_.opinionaboutwhat is near and dear to them,and thereforetheyall tend towardsa commonend.

Certainly,he replied.And as theyhavenothingbut their personswhichtheycan

call theirown,suits andcomplaintswillhaveno existenceamongthem; theywillbe deliveredfromall thosequarrelsof whichmoneyorchildrenor relationsaretheoccasion.

16o 2¢o lawsuits, no quarrels, no meannesses.

Rtp_ Of coursethey will.I.'. Neitherwill trials for assaultor insult ever be likelyto

o_,uco_,oeeur amongthem. For that equals shoulddefend them-selves againstequalswe shall maintainto be honourableand rig_ ; we shall make the proteetionof the person a 46Smatterof necessity.

Thatis good,he said.Yes; andthere isa furthergood in the law; viz.thatif a

manhas a quarrelwithanotherhe willsatisfyhis resentmentthen andthere, andnotproceedto moredangerouslengths.

Certainly.To the elder shall be assigaaedthe duty of ruling and

chastisingtheyounger.Clearly.Nor canthere be a doubtthat the youngerwillnot strike

or do anyother violenceto an elder,unless the magistratescommandhim; nor will he slight him in any way. Forthere are two guardians,shameand fear,mightyto preventhim : shame,whichmakesmen refrainfromlayinghandsonthosewho are to themin the relationof parents; fear,thatthe injuredonewillbe succouredby the otherswho are hisbrothers,sons,fathers.

That is true, he replied.Then in everywaythe lawswill helpthe citizensto keep

the peacewithoneanother?Yes, therewillbe nowantof peace.

Fromhow Andas the guardianswillneverquarrelamongthemselvesmanyothertherewillbe nodanger of the rest of the city beingdividedevilswill

ourcitizenseitheragainstthemoragainstone another.be_iver- Nonewhatever.ed!

I hardlylikeevento mentionthelittlemeannessesofwhichthey willbe rid,for theyare beneathnotice:such,for ex-ample,as the flatteryof the rich by the poor,and all thepains and pangswhich men experiencein bringingup afamily,and in findingmoneyto buy necessariesfor theirhousehold,borrowCmgandthenrepudiating,gettinghowtheycan, and giving the moneyinto the hands of womenandslaves to keep--the manyevils of so manykindswhichpeoplesufferin this way are mean enoughand obviousenough,and not worth speakingof.

r

Our citizens mare blessed titan Olym_Oicvictors. I61

Yes, he said, a man has no need of eyes in order to R_perceivethat. I1.

And fromall theseevils theywillbe delivered,and their soaR^m,GLAUCON.life willbe blessedas the lifeof Olympievictorsand yetmoreblessed.

Howso?The Olympicvictor,I said,isdeemedhappyin receivinga

partonlyofthe blessednesswhichis securedto our citizens,who have won a more gloriousvictoryand have a morecompletemaintenanceat the public cost. For the victorywhich they have won is the salvationof the wholeState;and the crown with which they and their childrenarecrownedis the fulnessof all that life needs; they receiverewardsfrom the handsof their countrywhile living,andafterdeathhavean honourableburial.

Yes,he said,andgloriousrewardsthey are.Doyou remember,I said,howin the courseofthepreviousAnswerto

466discussionasomeonewho shall be namelessaccusedus of thechargeofAdei-makingourguardiansunhappy--theyhadnothingandmightmantusthathave possessedall things--to whomwe repliedthat,if an wemadeourcitizensoccasionoffered,we mightperhapshereafterconsiderthis unhappyquestion,but that, as at present advised,wewouldmakeour fortheir

guardianstruly guardians,and that we were fashioningthe owngood.State with a view to the greatest happiness,not of anyparticularclass,hut of thewhole?

Yes, I remember.Andwhatdo yousay,nowthat the lifeofour protectorsis TheirUfe

made out to be far better and nobler than that ofOlympicnotto beCol!q_edvictors--isthe lifeof shoemakers,or anyotherartisans,or of withthathusbandmen,to becomparedwith it? ofcitizensinordinary

Certainlynot. st_e_.At the same timeI ought here to repeatwhatI havesaid Hewhoseeksto be

elsewhere,that if anyof ourguardiansshall try to behappymorethanin sucha manner thathewill ceaseto be a guardian,andis ag_ard_nnot contentwiththissafeandharmoniouslife,which,inour isnaught.judgment,is of all lives the best, but infatuatedby someyouthfulconceitof happinesswhichgets up intohis headshallseek to appropriatethe wholestateto himself,thenhe

i Pages419,42o{t.bl

I62 'Half is morethornt/w whole.'

Re#_/k willhave to learn howwiselyHesiod spoke,when he said,v. 'halfis morethanthe whole.'

soc_,,_, If he wereto consultme, I shouldsayto him : StaywhereGt_trr_._t*.youare, whenyou have theofferof sucha life.

Thecorn- You agreethen,I said,thatmenandwomenareto havemonway a commonwayof lifesuch aswe havedescribed--commonof life in-eludes education,commonchildren; andtheyaretowatchoverthecommoncitizensin commonwhetherabidingin the cityorgoingouteducation,comm_a to war; they are to keepwatchtogether,andto hunt to-church, getherlikedogs; andalwaysandinall things,as faras theyCotnmonse_ees are able,womenare to sharewiththe men? And in soanddutiesdoing theywill do what is best, and will not violate,butofmenandpreservethe naturalrelationof the sexes.WOmen.

I agreewithyou, he replied.The enquiry,I said, has yet to be made,whether such a

communitywill be foundpossible--asamongotheranimals,so alsoamongmen--and if possible,in whatwaypossible?

You have anticipatedthe questionwhich I was abouttosuggest.

There is no difficulty,I said, in seeinghow war will becarriedon bythem.

How?Thechil- Why, of coursetheywillgoon expeditionstogether; anddr_to will take with them anyof theirchildrenwho are strongaccompanytheir enough,that,after the mannerof the artisan'schild, theyparentson may lookon at the work which theywill have to dowhenmilitaryexpedi- theyare grownup; andbesideslookingon theywillhaveto467tions; helpandbeof use inwar, andto waitupontheirfathersand

mothers. Didyouneverobservein theartshowthepotters'boyslookonandhelp,longbeforetheytouchthewheel?

Yes, I have.Andshallpottersbemorecarefulineducatingtheirchildren

andin givingthemtheopportunityof seeingandpractisingtheirdutiesthan our guardianswillbe?

Theideaisridiculous,hesaid.Thereisalsotheeffecton theparents,withwhom,aswith

otheranimals,the presenceof theiryoungoneswillbe thegreatestincentivetovalour.

Thatis quitetrue,Socrates; and yet if theyaredefeated,whichmayoftenhappenin war,howgreatthe dangeris !

Tke ckiMren must see War. 163

the childrenwill be lost as well as their parents,and the Reined,Statewillneverrecover, v'.

True,Isaid;butwouldyouneverallowthemtorunanyrisk? So_a_s.GLAUOON.

I amfar fromsayingthat.Well, but if theyare evertorun a risk shouldtheynotdo

so on someoccasionwhen,if theyescapedisaster,theywillbe the betterforit?

Clearly.Whether the futuresoldiersdo or do notsee war in the butear,

days of their youthis a very importantmatter,for the sake mustbetaken thatofwhichsomerisk mayfairlybeincurred, theydonot

Yes, veryimportant, run_yseriottsThis then mustbe ourfirststep,--to makeour childrenrisk.

spectatorsof war; but we mustalsocontrivethatthey shall _be securedagainstdanger; then allwillbe well.

True.Their parentsmaybe supposednot tobe blindto the risks

of war, but to know,as far as humanforesightcan, whatexpeditionsaresafeand whatdangerous?

That maybeassumed.And they will take them on the safe expeditionsand be

cautiousabout thedangerousones?True.And they willplace them under the commandof experi-

encedveteranswhowillbe their leadersand teachers?Very properly.Still,thedangersof warcannotbe alwaysforeseen; there

is a gooddealof chanceaboutthem?True.Then againstsuch chancesthe childrenmust be at once

furnishedwithwings,in order that in the hourof need theymayflyawayand escape.

Whatdoyou mean? he said.I meanthat wemustmountthemonhorsesin theirearliest

youth,andwhentheyhavelearntto ride,takethemon horse-backto see war: thehorsesmustnot bespiritedandwarlike,but the must tractableand yet the swiftestthat can be had.In thiswaytheywillget an excellentviewof what is here-

468after to be their own business;and if there is danger theyhaveonlyto followtheir elder leadersandescape.

x64 The rewards and distinctions of tteroes.

Repubh'c I believethatyouareright,hesaid.v. Next,as to war; what are to be the relationsof your

so_A_ soldiersto one anotherand to their enemies? I shouldGutuco_.be inclinedto proposethatthesoldierwholeaveshisrankorTheoaward

istobede-throws away his arms, or is guiltyof any other act ofgradedinto cowardice,shouldbe degradedintotherankofa husbandmana lowerrank. or artisan. Whatdoyou think?

By allmeans,I shouldsay.And he who allowshimselfto be takenprisonermayas

wellbe madea presentof to his enemies; he is their lawfulprey,andletthemdowhattheylikewithhim.

Certainly.Thehero But theherowho has distinguishedhimself,whatshallbeto receive done to him? In the firstplace,he shallreceivehonourhonourfromhis in the armyfrom hisyouthfulcomrades; everyone of themcomradesinsuccessionshallcrownhim. Whatdoyousay?andfavourfromhis I approve.beloved, Andwhat do you say to his receivingthe right handof

fellowship?To thattoo, I agree.Butyouwillhardlyagreetomynextproposal.Whatis yourproposal?Thatheshouldkissandbekissedbythem.Mostcertainly,and I shouldbe disposedto gofurther,and

say: Let no one whomhe hasa mindto kiss refuseto bekissedbyhimwhiletheexpeditionlasts. So thatif therebea loverin thearmy,whetherhis lovebeyouthor maiden,hemaybe moreeagertowinthe prizeof valour.

Capital,I said. That the braveman is to have morewivesthanothershasbeenalreadydetermined: andheis tohavefirstchoicesinsuchmattersmorethanothers,in orderthathemayhaveasmanychildrenas possible?

Agreed.andtohave Again, there is anothermannerin which,accordingtopn_=_ence,Homer,braveyouthsshouldbe honoured;forhe tellshowanda largershareof Ajax_, afterhe had distinguishedhimself in battle, wasmeatsand rewardedwithlongchines,whichseemsto be a complimentdrinks;

appropriateto aheroin theflowerof hisage,beingnotonlya tributeofhonourbutalsoa verystrengtheningthing.

I Iliad,vii. 3aL

'Nop_ebut tAe brave deserve tAe fair.' 165

Mosttrue,he said. Re_uldlcv.Then in this, I said,Homershallbe ourteacher;andwetoo,at sacrificesandon the likeoccasions,willhonourthe SOCrATeS.GLAUCON.braveaccordingto themeasureof theirvalour,whethermenorwomen,withhymnsandthoseotherdistinctionswhichwewerementioning; alsowith

'seatsof precedence,andmeatsandfullcups';'andinhonouringthem,we shallbeat thesametimetrainingthem.

That,he replied,is excellent.Yes,I said; andwhena man diesgloriouslyin warshall

we not say,inthefirstplace,thathe isofthegoldenrace?To be sure.Nay,havewe nottheauthorityof Hesiodfor affirmingthataLsotobeworshippedwhentheyaredead afterdeath.

469 'Theyareholyangelsupontheearth,authorsofgood,avertersofevil,theguardiansofspeech-giftedmen'?*

Yes; andweaccepthis authority.We mustlearnof thegodhowwearetoorderthe sepulture

of divineand heroic personages,and what is to be theirspecialdistinction; andwe mustdoashe bids?

By allmeans.And in ages to comewe will reverencethemand kneel

before theirsepulchresas at the gravesof heroes. Andnot onlytheybutanywhoare deemedpre-eminentlygood,whetherthey die fromage, or in anyotherway,shallbeadmittedto thesamehonours.

Thatisveryright,hesaid.Next,howshalloursoldierstreattheir enemies? What Behaviour

aboutthis? toenemies.

In whatrespectdoyoumean?Firstof all,in regardto slavery? Doyou thinkit right

thatHellenesshouldenslaveHellenicStates,orallowothersto enslavethem,if theycanhelp? Shouldnot theircustombeto sparethem,consideringthedangerwhichthereis thatthe whole race mayone day fall underthe yoke of thebarbarians?

To sparethemis infinitelybetter.I Iliad,viii.t62. ' ProbablyWorksandDays,IaIfoil.

I66 How skull war soldiers treat tlwir enemies7

Re_'/c Then no Helleneshouldbe ownedby themas a slave;//. thatis a rulewhich theywillobserveand advisethe other

social.s, Hellenestoobserve.GLAUCON.

NoHenene Certainly,he said; they will in this way he unitedshallbe againstthe barbariansand will keep their handsoff onemadea another.slave.

Next as to the slain; ought the conquerors,I said, totakeanythingbuttheirarmour? Does not the practiceofdespoilingan enemyaffordan excuse for not facingthebattle? Cowardsskulkaboutthe dead,pretendingthattheyarefulfillinga duty,andmanyan armybeforenowhas beenlostfromthis loveof plunder.

Verytrue.Thosewho And is there not illiberalityand avaricein robbingafaltinbattlecorpse, andalsoa degreeof meannessandwomanishnessinare not to

bede- makingan enemyof the deadbodywhen thereal enemyhasspoil_, flownawayandleft only his fightinggearbehindhim,--is

not this ratherlike a dog whocannotget at his assailant,quarrellingwiththe stoneswhichstrikehiminstead?

Verylike a dog,hesaid.Thenwe mustabstainfromspoilingthedeadorhindering

theirburial?Yes,hereplied,we mostcertainlymust.

Thearms Neithershallweofferup armsat the templesof the gods,axe°fHelleneSnotto least ofall thearmsof Hellenes,if wecare to maintaingood47obeofrere_feelingwithother Hellenes; and,indeed,we havereasonattmlaes; to fearthattheofferingof spoilstakenfromkinsmenmaybe

a pollutionunlesscommandedby thegodhimself?Very true.Again,as to the devastationof Hellenicterritoryor the

burningof houses,whatis to be thepractice?MayI havethepleasure,hesaid,of hearingyouropinion?Bothshouldbe forbidden,in myjudgment;I wouldtake

theannualproduceandnomore. ShahI tellyouwhy?Praydo.

norHel- Why,yousee, thereisa differenceinthe names'discord'lenicterri-and 'war,'and I imaginethat there is also a differenceintorydevas-

tared, theirnatures; the one is expressiveof what is internalanddomestic,theotherofwhatis externalandforeign; andthefirstof thetwois termeddiscord,andonlythesecond,war.

Wars Or tIdlenes witk Hellenes and $arkarians. I67

That is a veryproperdistinction,he replied. Re_OublicAnd may I not observewith equal propriety that the v.

Hellenic race is all united together by ties of blood and so.aT.,,friendship,and alienandstrangeto thebarbarians?

Verygood,he said.And thereforewhen Hellenesfightwith barbariansand

barbarianswith Hellenes, they will be describedby us asbeingatwar whentheyfight,andbynatureenemies,and thiskindofantagonismshouldbecalledwar; butwhenHellenes Hellenicfightwith one another we shall say that Hellas is then in wadareisonly a kinda stateof disorderanddiscord,theybeingbynaturefriends; of_seordandsuchenmityis tobe calleddiscord, not in-tendedto

I agree, belasting.Considerthen, I said,when that whichwe haveacknow-

ledgedto be discord occurs,and a city is divided,if bothpartiesdestroythe landsandburnthe housesofoneanother,how wickeddoes the strife appear! No true lover of hiscountrywouldbringhimselfto tear in pieceshis ownnurseand mother: There might be reason in the conquerordeprivingthe conqueredoftheir harvest,but still theywouldhavethe ideaofpeacein their hearts andwouldnot meantogoonfightingfor ever.

Yes, he said,that is a better temperthanthe other.And will not the city, which you are founding,be an

Helleniccity?It oughttobe, he replied.Then willnotthe citizensbe goodandcivilized?Yes, verycivilized.And willtheynot be loversof Hellas,andthinkofHellas Thetoverof his own

as their ownland,and share inthe commontemples? citywillMostcertainly. _asobeaAnd any differencewhich arises amongthem will be loverOfHeBas.

471regardedbythemas discordonly--aquarrelamongfriends,whichis notto becalleda war?

Certainlynot.Thentheywillquarrelasthosewhointendsomedaytobe

reconciled?Certainly.Theywillusefriendlycorrection,butwillnotenslaveor

destroytheiropponents;theywillbecorrectors,notenemies?

I68 Wken will Socrates come to tke pdnt

x_,/4/c Just so./1. And as they are Hellenes themselvesthey will not de-

so_A_, vastateHellas,norwill theyburnhouses,norever supposeGtatucot_.thatthewholepopulationof a city--men,women,andchil-Hellenes

shoulddealdren--are equallytheirenemies,for theyknowthattheguiltn_lcUywithofwar isalwaysconfinedto a fewpersonsandthat the manyHellenes ;andwith are their friends. And for all these reasons they will bebarbarians unwillingto wastetheir lands and rase their houses; theiras Hellenesnowdeal enmity to them will only last until the many innocentwithone sufferers have compelledthe guilty few to give satisfac-another, tion?

I agree, he said, that our citizensshould thus dealwiththeir Hellenicenemies; andwithbarbariansas theHellenesnowdealwithoneanother.

Then let us enact this lawalso for our guardians:--thatthey are neither to devastatethe lands of Hellenes nor toburn their houses.

Agreed; and we may agree also in thinking that these,like allourpreviousenactments,are verygood.

Theearn- But still I must say,Socrates,that if youare allowedtoplaint ofGlaucon go onin thiswayyouwill entirelyforget the other questionrespect- which at the commencementof this discussionyou thrustingthe aside:--Is such an order of things possible,and how,if athesitationofSoezates.all? For I am quite ready to acknowledgethat the plan

which you propose,if only feasible,would do all sorts ofgoodto the State. I will add,what you have omitted,thatyour citizenswill be the bravest ofwarriors,andwill neverleave their ranks, for they will all know one another,andeachwillcall the otherfather,brother,son; and if you sup-pose the womento join their armies,whether in the samerank or in the rear, either as a terror to the enemy,or asauxiliariesin case of need, I knowthat theywill then beabsolutelyinvincible; and there are many domesticad-vantageswhich mightalso be mentionedand whichI alsofullyacknowledge: but,as I admitall theseadvantagesandas manymoreas youplease,if only this Stateof yourswereto comeinto existence,we need say no more about them;assumingthen the existenceof the State,let us ,nowturn tothe question of po"_ibilityand ways and means--the restmaybe left.

.r

Tke tkird and zreatest wave. I69

472 If I loiterZfor a moment,you instantlymake a raid upon 8epubl/cme,I said,and have no mercy; I have hardlyescapedthe v.firstand secondwaves,and you seemnot to be aware that so_T_Gta_uco_.you are now bringing upon me the third, which is the Socratesgreatestandheaviest. When you have seenandheard the excusesthird wave,I think you will be more considerateand will himselfa_makesacknowledgethat somefear and hesitationwasnatural re- ortwore-spectinga proposalso extraordinaryas that whiehI have markspre-paratorynowtostate andinvestigate, toa

The moreappealsofthissort whichyoumake,hesaid,the effort.more determinedare we that you shall tell us how such aState is possible: speakout andat once.

Let me begin by remindingyou that we foundour wayhither in thesearchafterjusticeandinjustice.

True,he replied; butwhatofthat?I was only going to ask whether,if we havediscovered

them,we aretorequirethat the justmanshouldin nothingfailof absolutejustice; or maywe be satisfiedwithan ap-proximation,andtheattainmentinhimof a higherdegreeofjusticethanis tobefoundin othermen?

Theapproximationwillbeenough.We wereenquiringintothenatureof absolutejusticeand

intothecharacterof theperfectlyjust,andintoinjusticeandthe perfectlyunjust,thatwe mighthaveanideal. Wewereto lookat these in orderthat we mightjudgeof our own ix)Theidealis_thappinessandunhappinessaccordingtothestandardwhichstandardtheyexhibitedand thedegreeinwhichwe resembledonlywhichCallll_them,butnotwithanyviewofshowingthattheycouldbeperfecOyexistin fact. realized;

True,hesaid.Woulda painterbe any theworsebecause,afterhaving

delineatedwithconsummateartan idealof a perfectlybeau-tifulman,hewas unableto showthat anysuchmancouldeverhaveexisted?

He wouldbenonetheworse.Well,andwerewe notcreatinganidealofa perfectState?To besure.Andis ourtheorya worsetheorybecauseweare unableto

a Readingo,r_-F't_n_#b,_.

17o TAw actual falls slwrt of tAWideal.

Re/_Uc prove the possibilityof a citybeing ordered in the mannerv. described?

SOnATas, Surelynot, he replied.GLAuComThatis the truth,I said. But if, at yourrequest,I amto(2)_t

nonethe tryand showhowandunderwhatconditionsthe possibilityisworsefor highest,I mustaskyou,havingthis in view,to repeatyourthis. formeradmissions.

Whatadmissions?I wantto knowwhetheridealsare ever fullyrealizedin 473

language? Does not the wordexpressmorethanthe fact,andmustnotthe actual,whatevera manmaythink,always,in the natureof things,fall shortof the truth? What doyousay?

I agree.Then you mustnot insiston my provingthatthe actual

Statewill in everyrespectcoincidewith the ideal: if weareonlyable to discoverhowa citymaybe governednearlyaswe proposed,you will admitthat we havediscoveredthepossibilitywhichyoudemand; andwillbecontented. I amsurethatI shouldbecontented--willnotyou?

Yes, I will.(3)A1- Let menextendeavourto showwhatis thatfaultin Statesthough which is the cause of their presentmaladministration,andthe idealcannotbe what is the least changewhichwillenablea State to passreaU_, into thetruerform; andlet thechange,if possible,be of oneorleor twochanges,thingonly,or, if not,of two; at anyrate,let thechangesbeorrather asfewandslightaspossible.a singlechange. Certainly,he replied.mightrevo- I think,I said,thattheremightbe a reformof theStateiflutionize aState. only one changewere made,which is not a slightor easy

thoughstill a possibleone.Whatis it? hesaid.

Socrates Nowthen,I said,I go to meet thatwhichI likento thegoesforthgreatestof the waves; yet shall the wordbe spoken,evento meet the

wave. thoughthe wavebreakand drownme in laughteranddis-honour; anddo youmarkmywords.

Proceed.I said: UnKI_ilosoiOhersare tn'_gs,or the Mugs and

pqncesof this worldhave thespiritand p_ver of philosophy,and p_liticalgreatnessand _visdommeet in one, and rinse

When 2kAilosot_lwrsare kinffs, x7I

commonernatureswho pursueeitherto the exclusionof the Re_tlcotherare comt_2kdto stand aside,citieswiUneverhave rest v.from theirevils,--no,nor thehumanrace,as I believe,--andSoe_Aa_,GLAtm.o_then only will this our State have a possibilityof life and 'Citiesbeholdthe light of day. Such was the thought, my dear willneverGlaucon,whichI wouldfainhaveuttered ifit hadnot seemed ceasefromill untiltooextravagant;fortobe convincedthatinnootherStatecan theyarethere behappinessprivateor publicis indeeda hard thing, governedbyphilo-

Socrates,whatdoyou mean.'? I wouldhaveyouconsidersophers.'that the word which you have uttered is one at whichnumerouspersons,and very respectablepersonstoo, in a Whatwm

474figure pullingofftheir coats all in a moment,and seizing theworldanyweaponthat comes to hand,will run at youmightand saytothis?main, before you know where you are, intending to doheavenknowswhat; and ifyou don'tpreparean answer,andputyourselfin motion,youwill be 'pared bytheir finewits,'and nomistake.

Yougotme into the scrape,I said.And I wasquite right ; however,I willdo all I canto get

you out of it; but I can onlygiveyou good-willand goodadvice,and, perhaps,I may be able to fit answers to yourquestionsbetterthananother--thatis all. And now,havingsuch an auxiliary,you must do your best to showthe un-believersthat youare right.

I oughtto try, I said,since you offerme such invaluableassistance. And I thinkthat, if there is to be a chanceof _t whoisourescaping,we mustexplainto themwhomwe meanwhen aphilo_-pher?we saythatphilosophersare to rule in theState; thenweshallbeableto defendourselves: Therewillbediscoveredto besome natureswhooughtto studyphilosophyandtobeleadersinthe State; andotherswhoarenotborntobe philo-sophers,andaremeanttobe followersratherthanleaders.

Thennowfora definition3he said.Followme,I said,and I hopethatI mayin somewayor

otherbeabletogiveyoua satisfactoryexplanation.Proceed.I daresay that you remember,andthereforeI need not Parandof

remindyou,thata lover,if he isworthyof the name,ought thek_ver.tOshowhis love,not tosomeone partofthatwhichhe loves,buttothe whole.

172 Thedefinitionof a ffu'loso_her.Re_ic I reallydo not understand,and thereforebeg of you to

It. assistmymemory.So_,T_. Anotherperson,I said,mightfairlyreplyas youdo; butaGLAtmO_.

The lover manof pleasurelike yourselfoughtto knowthatallwhoareofthefair inthe flowerof youthdosomehowor otherraisea pangorlovesthememotionin a lover'sbreast,andare thoughtby him to beall ;

worthyof his affectionateregards. Is not this a waywhichyouhavewiththe fair: one has a snubnose,andyoupraisehis charmingface; the hook-noseof anotherhas,you say,aroyallook; whilehe whois neithersnubnorhookedhas thegraceof regularity:the darkvisageis manly, the fairarechildrenof the gods; and as to the sweet 'honeypale,'astheyarecalled,whatis the verynamebutthe inventionofaloverwhotalksin diminutives,andis notaversetopalenessifappearingon the cheekof youth? In a word,thereis noexcusewhichyouwillnotmake,and nothingwhichyouwill475"notsay,in ordernot to lose a singleflowerthatbloomsinthespring-timeofyouth.

If you makeme an authorityin mattersof love, forthesakeoftheargument,I assent.

the lover Andwhatdo you sayof loversofwine? Do younot seeofwines themdoing the same) They are glad of any pretextofall wines ;

drinkinganywine.Verygood.

thelover And the same is trueof ambitiousmen; if they cannotofhonourcommandan army,theyarewillingto commanda file; andall honour ;

if theycannotbe honouredby reallygreat and importantpersons,theyare gladto be honouredbylesserandmeanerpeople,--buthonourofsomekindtheymusthave.

Exactly.Oncemorelet me ask: Does he whodesiresanyclassof

goods,desirethewholeclassor a partonly?The whole.

theph_o- Andmaywe notsayof the philosopherthathe is a lover,sopher,or notofa partof wisdomonly,butofthewhole?lover of_dora.all Yes, ofthewhole.knowledge.Andhe whodislikeslearning,especiallyin youth,whenhe

hasno powerofjudgingwhat is goodand what is not,suchan one we maintainnot to be a philosopheror a lover ofknowledge,just as he whorefuseshis foodis not hungry,

The trv2 #kilosol_twr and tlw irrigators. 173

and may be said to have a bad appetiteand not a good Rep_one? v.

Verytrue,hesaid. o_t_os.Whereashewhohas a tastefor everysortof knowledge

andwhois curiousto learnandis neversatisfied,maybejustlytermeda philosopher? AmI notright?

Glauconsaid: If curiositymakesa philosopher,youwill Underfindmanya strangebeingwillhavea title to thename. All knowledge,however,the loversof sightshavea delightin learning,and must arenottothereforebe included. Musicalamateurs,too, are a folkbeine_ud_

sightsandstrangelyout of placeamongphilosophers,fortheyare the sounds,orlastpersonsin theworldwhowouldcometoanythinglikea underthe

loversofphilosophicaldiscussion,if theycouldhelp,while they run know,e.aboutat theDionysiacfestivalsas if theyhad let out their musical

ears to hearevery chorus"whetherthe performanceis in amateursand thetownor country--thatmakesno difference--theyare there, tike.Now are we to maintainthatall these and anywhohavesimilartastes,aswell as the professorsofquiteminorarts,arephilosophers?

Certainlynot,I replied; theyareonlyanimitation.He said: Whothenarethe truephilosophers?Those,I said,whoareloversofthevisionoftruth.Thatis alsogood,he said; butI shouldlike toknowwhat

youmean?To another,I replied,I mighthave a difficultyin ex-

plaining; but I am surethatyou will admita propositionwhichI amabouttomake.

Whatis theproposition?That sincebeautyis the oppositeof ugliness,they are

two?Certainly.

476 Andinasmuchas theyaretwo,eachof themis one?True again.Andof just andunjust,good andevil,andof everyother

class,the sameremarkholds: takensingly,eachof them isone; butfromthevariouscombinationsofthemwithactionsandthingsandwithone another,theyare seenin allsortsoflightsandappearmany?

Very true.Andthis is thedistinctionwhichI drawbetweenthesight-

174 TAings beautiful and absolute l_uO,.

R_u loving,art-loving,practicalclass and those of whomI amv. speaking,andwhoare aloneworthyof the nameof philo-

soe_T_._sophers.G_at_Howdoyoudistinguishthem? he said.The loversof soundsand sights,I replied,are, as I con-

ceive,fondof fine tonesandcoloursand formsandall theartificialproductsthataremadeout of them,buttheirmindis incapableof seeingor lovingabsolutebeauty.

True,he .replied.Fewaretheywhoareableto attainto thesightofthis.Verytrue.And he who,havinga sense of beautifulthingshas no

senseof absolutebeauty,or who,if anotherleadhimto aknowledgeof thatbeautyis unableto follow--ofsuchan oneI ask, Is he awakeor in a dreamonly? Reflect: is notthe dreamer,sleepingor waking,one wholikensdissimilarthings,whoputsthe copyin the placeof therealobject?

I shouldcertainlysaythatsuchanonewasdreaming.Trueknow- But take thecaseofthe other,whorecognisestheexistenceledgeistheof absolutebeautyand is able to distinguishthe idea fromabilitytodistinguishthe objectswhichparticipatein the idea,neitherputtingthelx_t_n objectsin the placeof the ideanorthe ideain theplaceoftheoneandmany.theobjects--ishea dreamer,oris heawake?_w_n He iswideawake.theideaand

obj_ Andmaywenot saythatthe mindof the onewhoknowswltichpar-has knowledge,and that the mindof the other,whoopinestakeofthe only,has opinion?idea.

Certainly.But suppose that the lattershouldquarrelwith us and

dispute our statement,can we administerany soothingcordialor adviceto him, without revealingto him thatthereis sad disorderin his wits?

We mustcertainlyofferhimsomegoodadvice,he replied.Come,then,and let us thinkof somethingto sayto him.

Shallwe beginby assuringhim thathe is welcometo anyknowledgewhichhe mayhave,andthatwe arerejoicedat hishavingit? Butwe shouldlike to askhima question: Doeshe whohas knowledgeknowsomethingor nothing? (Youmustanswerforhim.)

I answerthathe knowssomething.

Bdng, not 6dng, theintermediate, x75Somethingthat is or is not? RtpddlcSomethingthat is ; for how can thatwhichis not ever be u.

known? so_._GI.AL_-_'ON°

477 Andare weassured,after lookingat the matterfrommany Thercisanpointsof view;that absolutebeingis or may be absolutelyintermedi-known,butthat theutterlynon-existentis utterlyunknown? atebetweenbeing and

Nothingcanbe morecertain, notbeing.Good. But ifthere be anythingwhichis ofsuch a nature andacor-respondingas to be and not to be, thatwillhavea placeintermediateintmanedi-

betweenpurebeingand theabsolutenegationofbeing? atebetweenYes, betweenthem. ignoranceand know-And, as knowledgecorrespondedto beingandignoranceledge.This

ofnecessityto not-being,forthatintermediatebetweenbeing intermedi-ateis aand not-beingtherehas to be discovereda correspondingfacultyintermediatebetween ignoranceand knowledge,if there termedbesuch? n#nion.

.Certainly.Dowe admitthe existenceof opinion?Undoubtedly.As beingthe samewithknowledge,or anotherfaculty?Anotherfaculty.Then opinion and knowledgehave to do with different

kinds ofmattercorrespondingtothisdifferenceoffaculties?Yes.Andknowledgeis relativeto beingandknowsbeing. But

beforeI proceedfurtherI willmakea division.Whatdivision?I willbeginby placingfacultiesin a class bythemselves:

theyare powers inus, and in all other things,bywhichwedo as we do. Sight and hearing,for example,I shouldcallfaculties. HaveI clearlyexplainedthe classwhichI mean"t

Yes, I quiteunderstand.Then let me tell you myviewaboutthem. I do not see

them,and thereforethe distinctionsoffigure,colour,and thelike, which enable me to discern the differencesof somethings,do not apply to them. In speakingof a facultyIthink onlyof its sphere and its result; and thatwhichhasthe samesphereand the sameresult I call thesamefaculty,but that which has another sphere and another result Icalldifferent. Wouldthat be your wayofspeaking?

I76 K_ledge, ig_ora_e, o_inion.

Rv'_bZic Yes./i. And willyou be so very good as to answer one more

So_T_, question? Wouldyou saythat knowledgeis a faculty,or inwhatclasswouldyouplaceit ?

Certainlyknowledgeis a faculty,and the mightiestof allfaculties.

And is opinionalsoa faculty?Certainly,he said; for opinionis that withwhichwe are

able to forman opinion.And yet you were acknowledginga little whileago that

knowledgeis not the sameas opinion?Opinion Why, yes, he said: how can anyreasonablebeing ever478dU_fromidentifythatwhichis infalliblewiththatwhicherrs?knowledgebecausethe An excellentanswer,proving, I said, that we are quiteoneerrs consciousof a distinctionbetweenthem.and theother is Yes.unerring. Thenknowledgeandopinionhavingdistinctpowershaye

alsodistinctspheresor subject-matters?That is certain.Being is the sphere or subject-matterof knowledge,and

knowledgeis to knowthe natureof being?Yes.

Andopinionis to havean opinion?Yes.

And do we knowwhatwe opine? or is the subject-matterofopinionthe sameas the subject-matterof knowledge?

Nay, he replied, that has been already disproven; ifdifferencein faculty implies differencein the sphere orsubject-matter,and if, as wewere saying,opinionand know-ledgeare distinctfaeulties,thenthe sphereof knowledgeandofopinioncannotbe thesame.

Then if beingis thesubject-matterofknowledge,somethingelsemustbe the subject-matterofopinion?

Yes, somethingelse.Italsodif- Well then, is not-beingthe subject-matterof opinion? or,.letsfrom rather, how can there be an opinionat all aboutnot-being?zgnoranos,whichis Reflect: whena man has an opinion,has he notan opinion_ed about something? Can he have an opinion which is anwithnothing, opinionaboutnothing?

Impossible.

Tke interval ketween keing and nog-k_ng. 177

He who has an opinionhas an opinionabout someone xe/_l_thing? v.

Yes. soc_r_,GLAt_C.O_.

And not-beingis not one thing but, propertyspeaking,nothing?

True.Ofnot-being,ignorancewas assumedto be thenecessary

correlative; of being,knowledge?True,hesaid.Thenopinionis not concernedeitherwith beingor with

not-being?Not witheither.Andcanthereforeneitherbe ignorancenorknowledge?Thatseemsto betrue.Butis opinionto be soughtwithoutandbeyondeitherof Itsplaceis

them,in a greaterclearnessthanknowledge,or ina greaternottobesought

darknessthanignorance? withoutIn neither, orbeyondknowledgeThen I supposethat opinionappearsto youtobe darkerorignor-

thanknowledge,butlighterthanignorance? _ce.butbetweenBoth; and in nosmalldegree, them.Andalso tobe withinand betweenthem?Yes.Thenyouwouldinferthatopinionis intermediate?No question.Butwerewe not sayingbefore,that if anythingappeared

to beof a sortwhichisand isnot at thesame time,thatsortofthingwouldappearalsotolie in the intervalbetweenpurebeing and absolutenot-being;and that the correspondingfacultyis neitherknowledgenor ignorance,butwillbe foundin the intervalbetweenthem?

Trne.And in thatintervalthere has nowbeendiscoveredsome-

thingwhichwe callopinion?Therehas.Then what remains to be discoveredis the objectwhich

partakesequallyof the natureof beingand not-being,andcannot rightly be termed either, pure and simple; thisunknownterm, when discovered,we may truly call thesubjectof opinion,and assigneachto theirproperfaculty,--

N

178 The2#un_dngriddk.

Rt/_ the extremestothe facultiesofthe extremesand the meantov. the facultyof themean.

Soc_Tts, True.This beingpremised,I wouldask thegentlemanwhois of479The abso-

luteness of opinion that there is no absoluteor unchangeableidea oftheoneandbeauty--inwhoseopinionthe beautifulis the manifold--he,the rela-tivenessof I say,your lover of beautifulsights,who cannotbear to bethemany.toldthatthe beautifulis one,and thejust is one,or thatany-

thing is one--to him I wouldappeal,saying,Willyou be soverykind, sir, as to tell us whether,of all these beautifulthings,there isonewhichwill not be foundugly; or of thejust, whichwill not be foundunjust; or of the holy,whichwillnotalsobe unholy?

No,hereplied; thebeautifulwill in somepointofviewbefoundugly; andthesameis trueoftherest.

Andmaynotthemanywhichare doublesbe alsohalves?--doubles,thatis, ofonething,andhalvesof another?

Quitetrue.And thingsgreatand small,heavyand light,as they are

termed,willnot be denotedby theseanymorethan bytheoppositenames?

True; both these and the oppositenameswill alwaysattachtoall ofthem.

Andcananyoneof thosemanythingswhicharecalledbyparticularnamesbe said to be this ratherthannot to bethis?

He replied: Theyarelike thepunningriddleswhichareaskedat feasts or the children'spuzzleaboutthe eunuchaimingat the bat,withwhathe hit him,as theysayin thepuzzle,and uponwhatthe batwas sitting. The individualobjectsofwhichI amspeakingare alsoa riddle,andhaveadoublesense: norcan youfix theminyourmind,eitherasbeingor not-being,or both,or neither.

Thenwhatwillyoudo withthem? I said. Cantheyhavea betterplacethanbetweenbeingand not-being? Fortheyare clearlynot in greaterdarknessor negationthan not-being,ormorefulloflightandexistencethanbeing.

Thatis quitetrue,he said.Thusthenwe seemtohavediscoveredthatthemanyideas

whichthemultitudeentertainaboutthe beautifulandabout

The opposition of kno_ledg'e and oplm'on. I79

all other things are tossingabout in some regionwhich is ._'epub&half-waybetweenpurebeingandpurenot-being.9 v.

We have. so_T_,GLAUCON.

Yes; and wehad beforeagreedthat anythingof thiskindwhich we might find was to be described as matter ofopinion,and not as matter of knowledge; beingthe inter-mediatefluxwhich is caughtand detained by the interme-diatefaculty.

Quite true.Then those who see the many beautiful,and who yet Oph_o_is

neither see absolutebeauty,nor can followany guidewho thelmow-ledge,notpoints the way thither; who see the many just, and not oftheabso-absolutejustice,and the like,--suchpersons maybe said to lute.butofhaveopinionbut not knowledge? themany.

That is certain.But thosewhosee the absoluteandeternalandimmutable

maybesaid to know,and not tohaveopiniononly .9Neithercanthat bedenied.The oneloveandembracethe subjectsof knowledge,the

otherthose of opinion? The latter are the same,as I dare48osay you will remember,who listenedto sweet soundsand

gazeduponfaircolours,but wouldnot toleratetheexistenceofabsolutebeauty.

Yes, I remember.Shall wethen be guiltyof any improprietyin callingthem

loversof opinionrather than loversof wisdom,andwilltheybe veryangrywithus forthus describingthem?

I shall tell themnotto be angry; noman shouldbeangryat what is true.

But thosewholovethe truth in each thingare tobe calledloversof wisdomandnot loversof opinion.

Assuredly.

N2

BOOK VI.

Rvt/_/l_ ANDthus,Glaucon,afterthe argumenthas gone a wearyst_h." way,thetrueand the falsephilosophershaveat lengthap- 484soo_T_ pearedin view.Ca.Avcos.

I do not think,he said, that the way couldhave beenshortened.

Ifwehad I supposenot, I said; andyet I believethatwe mighttime,we have had a better view of both of them if the discussionmighthaveanearer couldhavebeen confinedto this one subjectand if thereviewof thetreeand were not manyotherquestionsawaitingus, whichhe whofalsephilo-desiresto see inwhatrespectthe lifeof thejustdiffersfromsopher, thatof theunjustmustconsider.

Andwhatis thenextquestion? he asked.Surely,I said,the one whichfollowsnext in order. In-

asmuchas philosophersonlyare ableto grasp the eternaland unchangeable,and thosewhowanderin the regionofthe manyandvariablearenotphilosophers,I mustaskyouwhichofthe twoclassesshouldbethe rulersof ourState?

Andhowcanwe rightlyanswerthatquestion?Whichof Whicheverof the two are bestableto guardthe lawsandthemshaJlinstitutionsofour State--let thembe ourguardians.beourgu_-aians_ Verygood.Aquestion Neither,I said,cantherebe anyquestionthattheguardianharcUyto whois to keepanythingshouldhaveeyes ratherthannobeasked.

eyes?There canbe noquestionof that.And are not thosewhoare verilyand indeedwantingin

theknowledgeofthetruebeingof eachthing,andwhohavein their souls no clearpattern,and are unableas with apainter'seyeto lookattheabsolutetruthandtothatoriginalto repair,and havingperfectvisionof the other world toorderthe lawsaboutbeauty,goodness,justicein this,if not

T/tequalitlesof t/t, #MlasM/dcnat#re. 18Ialready ordered, and to guard and preserve the order of Rtl_blkthem--arenot suchpersons,I ask, simplyblind? vI.

Truly,he replied,theyaremuchin thatcondition, sock,s.GtatmoN.And shall they be ourguardianswhenthere are others

who,besidesbeingtheir equalsin experienceand fallingshortof themin no particularof virtue,alsoknowthe verytruthof eachthing?

Therecan be no reason,hesaid,for rejectingthosewho485havethisgreatestof all greatqualities; theymustalways

havethefirstplaceunlesstheyfailinsomeotherrespect.Supposethen,I said,thatwe determinehowfartheycan

unitethisandtheotherexcellences.Byall means.In thefirstplace,aswe beganbyobserving,the natureof Thephilo-sopherisathephilosopherhas to beascertained.We mustcometoan towrof

understandingabouthim,and,whenwe havedoneso, then, trutha_dofalltrueif I amnotmistaken,we shallalsoacknowledgethat suchan being.union of qualitiesis possible,andthat thosein whomtheyareunited,andthoseonly,shouldbe rulersin theState.

Whatdoyoumean?Letus suplx?.sethatphilosophicalmindsalwaysloveknow-

ledge of a sortwhichshowsthemthe eternalnaturenotvaryingfromgenerationandcorruption.

Agreed.Andfurther,I said,let us agreethattheyare loversof all

truebeing; thereisno partwhethergreateror less, ormoreor less honourable,whichtheyarewillingto renounce; aswe saidbeforeofthe loverandthemanof ambition.

True.

And if they are to be whatwe weredescribing,is therenotanotherqualitywhichtheyshouldalsopossess?

Whatquality?Truthfulness:they will never intentionallyreceiveinto

theirmindfalsehood,whichis theirdetestation,andtheywilllovethetruth.

Yes, thatmaybesafelyaffirmedof them.'Maybe,'myfriend,I replied,is nottheword; sayrather,

'must be affirmed:' forhewhosenatureis amorousof any-thingcannothelp lovingall that belongsor is akinto theobjectofhisaffections.

I82 TIm sjbeclalorof all time and all existence.

Re_Zlc Right,he said./i"/. And is thereanythingmoreakinto wisdomthan truth?

soc_T_ Howcan therebe ?GIAVO_.Can the samenature be a lover of wisdomanda lover of

falsehood?Never.The true lover of learning then must from his earliest

youth,as faras in himlies, desireall truth?Assuredly.But then again, as we know by experience,he whose

desiresare strongin one directionwillhavethemweakerinothers; they will be like a streamwhichhas been drawnoffintoanotherchannel.

True.Hewinbe He whosedesiresare drawntowardsknowledgein everya_,orbedinform will be absorbed in the pleasures of the soul, andtheplea-suresofthewill hardly feel bodilypleasure--I mean, if he be a truesoul.and philosopherandnot a shamone.thereforetemperateThatis mostcertain.andthere- Such an one is sure to be temperateand the reverseverseofcovetousof covetous; for the motives which make another manormean. desirous of having and spending, have no place in his

character.Very true.Anothercriterionof the philosophicalnaturehasalsotobe 486

considered.What is that?There shouldbe no secret corner of illiberality;nothing

can be more antagonisticthan meanness to a soul whichis ever longing after the whole of things both divine andhuman.

Mosttrue,he replied.Inthemg- Thenhowcanhe whohas magnificenceof mindandis thenificenceofspectatorof all timeand allexistence,think muchof humanhiscontem-plationshe life ?willnot He cannot.thinkmuchothumaa Or cansuchanone accountdeathfearful?_fe. Noindeed.

Then the cowardlyand mean naturehas no part in truephilosophy?

. mW

Ig ideatheptu'losopt_ris[_rf_t. x83Certainlynot. R,_u_Or again: can he whois harmoniouslyconstituted,whois vI.

not covetousor mean, or a boaster,or a coward--canhe, Secures,G_vc.o_.I say,everbe unjustor hard in hisdealings?

Impossible.Then you will soonobservewhethera man is just and Hewinbe

gentle,or rude and unsociable; these are the signs whichofagentle,sociable,distinguisheven in youth the philosophicalnature from harmoni-the unphilosophical, ousnature;a loverof

True. learning,

There is anotherpointwhichshouldbe remarked, havingagoodme-Whatpoint? moryandX,Vhetherhe has or has not a pleasure in learning; for movingspontane-

no one will love that whichgives him pain, and in which ouslyintheaftermuchtoilhe makeslittleprogress, worldof

Certainlynot. being.Andagain,if he is forgetfulandretainsnothingofwhathe

learns,willhe not bean emptyvessel?That is certain.Labouringin vain, he must end in hating himselfand

his fruitlessoccupation?Yes.Then a soulwhichforgetscannotberankedamonggenuine

philosophicnatures; we must insist that the philosophershouldhavea goodmemory?

Certainly.Andoncemore,the inharmoniousand unseemlynaturecan

onlytendto disproportion?Undoubtedly.And do you considertruth to be akin to proportionor

to disproportion?To proportion.Then,besidesotherqualities,wemusttryto finda naturally

well-proportionedand graciousmind,whichwillmovespon-taneouslytowardsthetruebeingof everything.

Certainly.Well,and do notall thesequalifies,whichwe havebeen

enumerating,go together,and are they not,in a manner,necessaryto a soul, whichis to havea full andperfectparticipationof being?

I84 In fact, says Adei_nantus, Agis tag reverse of #erfecA

R,:_czc They areabsolutelynecessary,hereplied. 487FL Andmustnot thatbea blamelessstudywhichheonlycan

soc_,_, pursuewho has the git_of a good memory,and is quickGLAVCON,_o,_A_ to learn,--noble,gracious,thefriendoftruth,justice,courage,cone_u- temperance,whoarehis kindred?sioa: Thegod of jealousyhimself,he said, couldfindno faultWhata_am_esswithsucha study.studythen And to men likehim,I said,whenperfectedbyyearsandisphiloso-phy_ education,andto theseonlyyou willentrustthe State.Nay,says Here Adeimantusinterposedand said: To these state-Adeiman-ments,Socrates,no onecanoffera reply; butwhenyoutalktus, youcanprove in thisway,a strangefeelingpassesoverthe mindsof your

_ anything,hearers: They fancythat they are led astray a little at_ butyour• hearersareeachstep in theargument,owingto theirownwantof skill

uncon- inaskingandansweringquestions; theselittlesaccumulate,vincedan and at the end of the discussionthey are foundto havethesame.

sustained a mightyoverthrowand all their formernotionsappearto be turnedupsidedown. Andas unskilfulplayersof draughtsare at last shutup by theirmoreskilfuladver-sariesandhavenopiecetomove,sotheytoofindthemselvesshut up at last; for theyhave nothingto sayin this newgameofwhichwordsare the counters; andyet all thetimetheyarein theright. Theobservationis suggestedtome bywhatis nowoccurring. Foranyone of us might say,thatalthoughin wordshe is notableto meetyouat eachstepof

Commonthe argument,he seesasafactthatthevotariesofphilosophy,opinion whentheycarryon the study,notonlyin youthas a partofdeclares

education, butas the pursuitof their matureryears,mostphersto of thembecomestrangemonsters,nottosayutterrogues,andbeeitherroguesor thatthosewhomaybe consideredthebestof themaremadetoeless, uselessto theworldbytheverystudywhichyouextol.

Well,anddoyouthinkthatthosewhosayso arewrong?I cannottell,he replied; butI shouldliketo knowwhatis

youropinion.Socrates. Hearmyanswer;I amofopinionthattheyarequiteright.insteadof Then howcanyoubejustifiedin sayingthatcitieswillnotdenyingthisstate-ceasefromeviluntilphilosophersrule inthem,whenphiloso-merit,ad- phersareacknowledgedby usto be of nouse tothem"_mrsthetruthofit. You ask a question,I said, to whicha reply can only

begivenin a parable.

The _ara$1e of the stu'p. I85

Yes,Socrates; and that isa wayof speakingtowhichyou z'_arenotat all accustomed,I suppose, vI.

I perceive,I said, that you are vastlyamused at having so___T_,A_zr',,,nm'us.plunged meinto such a hopelessdiscussion;but now hear A parable.

488the parable,and then you will be still more amusedat themeagrenessof myimagination: forthe mannerin whichthebestmen are treated in their own Statesis sogrievousthatnosinglethingonearthis comparableto it ; andtherefore,ifI am topleadtheir cause,I musthaverecourseto fiction,andput together a figure made up of many things, like thefabulous unions of goats and stags which are found inpictures. Imagine then a fleetor a ship in which there is Thenoblea captainwhois taller andstrongerthananyofthe crew,but captainwhosehe is a little deaf and has a similarinfirmityin sight,and sensesarehis knowledge of navigationis not much better. The ratherdaU

(thepeoplesailorsare quarrellingwithoneanotherabout thesteering-- intheireveryoneis of opinionthathehasa rightto steer,thoughhe betterhasneverlearnedthe artof navigationand cannottellwho mind);themutinoustaughthimor whenhe learned,andwill furtherassertthat er_ (the

mobof po-it cannotbetaught,andtheyarereadyto cut in piecesany liticians).onewhosaysthecontrary. Theythrongaboutthe captain,andthebeggingandprayinghimtocommitthe helmtothem; andif pilot(thetruephilo-at any time they do not prevail,but others are preferredsopher).to them,they kill the othersor throwthem overboard,andhavingfirstchainedup thenoble captain'ssenseswithdrinkor somenarcoticdrug,they mutinyand take possessionofthe ship and makefreewith the stores; thus, eating anddrinking,they proceedon theirvoyagein such mannerasmight be expectedof them. Him who is their partisanandcleverlyaids themin theirplot forgetting the shipoutof the captain'shands into theirown whetherby forceorpersuasion,they complimentwith the nameof sailor,pilot,ableseaman,andabusethe othersort ofman,whomtheycalla good-for-nothing; butthat the true pilotmustpayattentionto the year and seasonsand skyand stars and winds,andwhateverelse belongsto his art,if he intendsto be reallyqualifiedfor the commandof a ship,andthathe mustandwill be the steerer,whetherother peoplelike or not--thepossibilityof thisunionofauthoritywiththesteerer'sarthasneverseriouslyenteredintotheirthoughtsorbeenmadepart

T86 WkyislbMlos_kyin suckezdlrepute._R_t/t of theireallJng*. Now in vesselswhichare in a state of489

vI. mutinyandbysailorswho are mutineers,howwill the trueso,_T_, pilotbe regarded? Will he not becalledbythema prater,a,_mt_a_rtrs.

star.gazer,a good-for-nothing?Ofcourse,saidAdeimantus.

Theinter- Then youwillhardlyneed,I said,toheartheinterpretationpretation,of the figure,whichdescribesthe true philosopherin his

relationto theState; for youunderstandalready.Certainly.Thensupposeyounowtakethisparableto the gentleman

whoissurprisedat findingthatphilosophershaveno honourin theircities; explainit to himandtrytoconvincehimthattheirhavinghonourwouldbefarmoreextraordinary.

I will.T_.se- Say to him, that, in deemingthe best votariesof philo-kmn_of sophyto be uselessto the restof theworld,he isright; butphiloso-phersarisesalso tell him to attributetheiruselessnessto the faultofoutofthe thosewhowill not use them,andnot to themselves. Theunwilling-heSSof pi_otsh_ _hc__mankindto him--thatis not the order of nature;neitherare 'the wtsemakeuseofthem. togo tothe doorsof therich'--the ingeniousauthorofthis

sayingtolda lie--but the truth is, that,whena manis ill,whetherhebe richor poor,to thephysicianhemustgo,andhe whowantsto begoverned,to himwhois ableto govern.The rulerwhois goodfor anythingoughtnot to beg hissubjectsto beruledbyhim; althoughthe presentgovernorsof mankindare of a differentstamp; theymay be justlycomparedto the mutinoussailors,andthe true helmsmentothosewho are called by them good-for-nothingsand star-gazers.

Preciselyso,he said.Therear For thesereasons,andamongmenlike these,philosophy,_es of the noblestpursuitof all, is not likelyto be muchesteemedphilosophyberprofess-bythose of the oppositefaction; not that the greatestandinggfo,ow-most lasting injury is done to her by"_ opponents,but

by"he='.c.w=:-prof_gTotlower_;l-h- _, you

1 Or,applying&rw__ _pt4_r_, to themutineers,' Butonlyunderstanding(J_'._b_n,_)that he (the mutinouspilot) mustrule in spite of otherpeople,neverconsider_ that thereil anart of commandwhichmaybe pntctisedincombinationwiththepilot'sart.'

Th_noblenatureof thephilas_her. I87suppose the accuserto say, that the greater numberof them Rep,,/e_are arrant rogues,andthebestare useless; inwhichopinion ;1I.I agreed, so:,_r_,Amumuctv_

Yes.And the reason whythe good are uselessl_asngwk_been

explai_True.Then shallwe proceedto showthat the c_n .9f the Thecot-

majorityis _also_ble, andthat this is not to belaid to ruptionof- philosophythe chargeofphilosophyanymorethan the other? dueto

Byall means, manyAnd let us ask and answerin turn,firstgoingbackto the causes.

49odescriptionof the gentle and noble nature. Truth, as youwill remember,washis leader,whomhe followedalwaysandinall things; failingin this,he wasan impostor,andhad nopartor lot in true philosophy.

Yes,that wassaid.Well, and is not this one quality,to mentionno others,

greatlyatvar/ancewithpresentnotionsof him?Certainly,he said.And have we not a right to say in his defence,that the l_ltbefore

true lover of knowledgeis alwaysstrivingafter being--that consid_ngthis,letusis his nature; he will not rest in the multiplicityof in- re_nurae-dividualswhich is an appearanceonly,butwill go on---the ratethequalitiesofkeen edgewill not be blunted,nor the force of his desire tbephi_a-abateuntilhe haveattainedthe knowledgeofthe true nature pher:of everyessencebya sympatheticand kindredpowerin thesoul, and by that power drawing near and minglingandbecoming incorporate with very being, having begottenmind and truth, he will have knowledgeand will live andgrowtruly,andthen, andnot till then, willhe ceasefromhistravail.

Nothing,he said, can be morejust than sucha descriptionof him. hisloveof

And will the love of a lie be anypart of a philosopher'sessence.nature? Willhe not utterlyhatea lie? dtnah,d _lstiee.

He will. _es hisAndwhentruth is the captain,we cannotsuspectanyevil othervirm_ and

ofthe bandwhichhe leads? natural

Impossible. gifts.

I88 Wky do sofew attain to tkis per)reefing?

Rt/_¢_ Justice andhealthof mindwill be of the company,andvI. temperancewill followafter?

soc_Tts, True, he replied.Atmatamwrt_s.

Neitheris thereany reasonwhyI shouldagainsetin arraythe philosopher'svirtues,as you will doubtlessrememberthat courage,magnificence,apprehension,memory,were hisnaturalgifts. And you objectedthat,althoughnoonecoulddenywhat I then said,still, if you leavewords and look atfacts,the personswhoare thus describedare someof themmanifestlyuseless,and the greaternumberutterlydepraved;we were then led to enquire into the groundsof these ac-cusations,and have nowarrived at the pointof askingwhy

estionof necessitybroughtusdefinitionof the true philo-

sopher.Exactly.

Therm- Andwe havenext to considerthecorrEptionsofthephilo-sonswhy sophicnature,why so manyare spoiledandso few escapephn,mphi-catnaturesspoiling--Iamspeakingofthosewhoweresaidto beuselesssoeasily butnotwicked--and,whenwe have uv,,_J wld_d_c,,,,_,_iI1 49tdeteriorate,spe-'b-_of the imitatorsof philosophy,what mannerof men

are theywho aspire aftera professionwhich is abovethemandofwhich theyareunworthy,andthen,bytheirmanifoldinconsistencies,bringuponphilosophy,and uponall philo-sophers,thatuniversalreprobationof whichwespeak.

Whatarethesecorruptions? he said.(t)There I will see if I can explainthem to you. Everyone willarebuta admitthata naturehavingin perfectionall the qualitiesfew of

them ; whichwe requiredin a_ph_her_ is a rareplantwhichis seldom_._m-amo_=_e_: -°

Rareindeed.And whatnumberlessand powerfulcausestend to destroy

theserare natures!What causes?

(_)andtheyInthe firstplace thereare theirownvirt_ courage,maybedis-temperance,and the restof thee ofwhichpraise-tractedfromphito-,worthyqualities(and this is a mostsingularcircumstance)sophyby destroysand distracts fromphilosophythe soulwhichis thetheirownvirtu_; possessorof th".Zq_'__-- ........

That is verysingular,he replied.

2 "

"Corruplio opt(mi pessima.' 189

Then there are all the ordinarygoods of life--beauty, Xve_/./_wealth,strength,_ and great connections'ifi theState--you under_tandthe sor_uf ddngs__a cor- s_=,_T_ruptinganddistracti_t.

t uiiu_g__; but I shouldlike to knowmore preciselyandalso,{3),bythe

whatyou meanaboutthem. ordinarygoodsofGrasp the truthas awhole,i said,and in the rightway; life.

youwill thenhavenodifficultyin apprehendingtheprecedingremarks,andtheywillnolongerappearstrangetoyou.

Andhowam I to do so? he asked.Why, I said, we knowthat all germsor seeds,whether

vegetableor animal,when they fail to meet with propernutrimentor climateor soil, in proportionto their vigour,are all the moresensitiveto thewant of a suitableenviron-ment,for evil is a greater enemy to what is good than towhatisnot.

Very true.Thereisear._n insupposingthat the finest_ whe.._n14)The

under_ receivem i_n'ur_thanthe inferior, _erna-tUla_ more

because-t_ontrast i_er. tiabletoinjurythanCertainly. theinferior.And may we not say, Adeimantus,that the mostgifted

minds,whentheyareill-educated,becomepre-eminentlybad?Donotgre_ ofpureevil springoutofa fulness_ure ruinedh_ucation ratherthan fromanyinferiority,whereasweaknatures arescarcely_ap_%l_hyvery_iea_goodor verygreae_l . _ .........

Th__a_l-e right.492 Andour philosopherfollowsthe same analogy--heis like (s)Theygrenotcor-

a plantwhich,havingpropernurture,mustnecessarilygrow ruptedbyand mature into all virtue,but, if sown and planted in an privatealien soil,becomesthe most noxiousof allweeds,unlesshe sophists,butcom-be preservedby somedivinepower. Doyou reallythink,as pdk_lbypeoplesoottensay,thatouryoutharecorruptedbySophists,theopinkm...___ ---.-.:-._ of theorthat privateteachersofthe artcorruptthemin anydegreewoe_dmeet-worthspeakingof? Arenotthe publicwhosaythesethings ingintheassemblythe greatestof all Sophists? And do they not educateto orinsomeperfectionyoungandold,men andwomenalike,andfashionother#acethemaftertheirownhearts? ofresort.

When is thisaccomplished? he said.

I9o The un_ual contest.

Rep_ic When theymeettogether,and theworld sits downat anvI. assembly,orin a courtof law,or a theatre,ora camp,or in

A_L anyotherpopularresort,and thereis a great uproar,andtheypraisesome thingswhichare beingsaid or done,andblameotherthings,equallyexaggeratingboth, shoutingandclappingtheirhands,andthe echoof the rocksandthe placein whichthey are assembledredoublesthe soundof thepraiseor blame--at such a timewill not a young man'sheart,as theysay,leapwithinhim? Will anyprivatetrain-ingenablehim to standfirmagainstthe overwhelmingfloodof popularopinion? or will he be carriedawayby thestream? Will he not have the notionsof good and evilwhichthe publicin generalhave--hewilldo as theydo, andas theyare, suchwillhe be?

Yes,Socrates;necessitywillcompelhim.(6)The And yet, I said,there is a stillgreaternecessity,whichothercom-pulsionof has notbeenmentioned._otence What is that?anddeath. The gentleforce of attainderor confiscationor death,

which,as youare aware,thesenewSophistsandeducators,whoarethepublic,applywhentheirwordsare powerless.

Indeedtheydo; andin rightgoodearnest.Nowwhatopinionof anyotherSophist,or of anyprivate

person,can be expectedto overcomein such an unequalcontest?

None,hereplied.Theymust No, indeed,I said,even to makethe attemptis a greatbesaved,ifatan.bypiece of folly; there neitheris, nor hasbeen,nor is everthepowerlikelytobe, anydifferenttypeof character1whichhashadnoofood, othertrainingin virtuebutthatwhichis suppliedbypublic

opinion_--I speak,myfriend,of humanvirtueonly; whatismorethanhuman,astheproverbsays,is notincluded: forIwouldnothaveyouignorantthat,in thepresentevil stateofgovernments,whateveris savedand comesto-_a-_ssavedbyth_-wer*_ aswe mayCrh_y_y: 493

I quiteassent,hereplied.Thenletmecraveyourassentalsotoa furtherobservation.Whatareyougoingtosay?Why,thatall thosemercenaryindividuals,whomthemany

Or,taking_rao/kin anotherRme,' trainedto virtueontheirp_l_iple_* =-- _

The fatal/bower of popular ol_'nion. 19x

call__and whomtheydeemtobetheir adversaries,do, Republicin _ teachnothingbuttheo inion at is /1/.to say, the opinionsof theirassemblies;andthis is their _,A_vzmm'rt_.wisdom. I mightcomparethemto a manwho shouldstudyThegreatthetempersanddesiresof a mightystrongbeastwhois fed brute;hisby him--he wouldlearnhowto .ap_£_chand_ behaviourand temperalso at what_timesand fromwhat causeshe is dangerous(thepeopleorthe reverse,andwhatis themeaningof his severalcries, lookedatfr_ tl_irand bywhatsounds,whenanotheruttersthem,he is soothedworse_d_).or infuriated; and you may suppose further, that when,bycontinuallyattendinguponhim,he hasbecomeperfectinall this, he calls his knowledgewisdom,and makesof it asystemor h-rt_-w-tii_he proem, althoughhe hasno real notion of what he means by the principlesorpassionsof whichhe is speaking,but calls this honourableand that dishonourable,or goodor evil, or just or unjust,all in accordancewith the tastes and tempersof the greatbrute. Goodhe pronouncesto be that in whichthe beastdelightsand evil to be that whichhe dislikes; and he cangive no other account of them except that the just andnoble are the necessary,having never himselfseen, andhavingno powerof explainingtoothersthe natureof either,or the differencebetween them, which is immense. Byheaven,wouldnot such an one he a rareeducator?

Indeedhe would.And in what way does he who thinks thatwisdomis

the discernmentof the tempersand tastes of the motleymultitude,whetherin paintingormusic,or,finally,inpolitics,differfromhimwhomI havebeendescribing? Forwhena Hewhomanconsortswiththe many,andexhibitsto themhis poem assochteswiththeor otherworkof art or the servicewhichhe hasdone the peoplewillState,makingthemhisjudges_whenhe is notobliged,the conformtotheirtastesso-callednecessityof Diomedewill obligehim to produceandwinwhateverthey_.._se. And yet the reason_-----g-_eutterlyprodu_onlywhatludicrouswhichtheygiveinconfirmationoftheirown pleasesnotionsaboutthehonourableand good.Didyoueverthem.hearanyofthemwhichwerenot?No,noram Ilikelytohear.Yourecogn/sethetruthofwhatIhavebeensaying? Then

iPuttinga commaafter_ _ld_m,.

,92 T/reyoung'A ki/_des.'Re_ let me ask you to considerfurther whether the worldwilt

VI. everbe inducedtobelievein theexistenceof absolutebeautySO_AT_,ratherthanof the manybeautiful,or of theabsolutein each494_.,s.

kindratherthanof themanyin eachkind?Certainlynot.Thentheworldcannotpossiblybea philosopher?Impossible.Andthereforephilosophersmustinevitablyfallunderthe

censureof theworld?Theymust.And of individualswho consortwith the moband seek

to pleasethem?That is evident.Then,do you see any wayin which the philosophercan

bepreservedin his callingto the end? and rememberwhatwe were saying of him, that he was to have quicknessand memoryand courage and magnificence-these wereadmittedby us to be the truephilosopher'sgifts.

Yes.Theyouth Will not suchan one fromhis earlychildhoodbe in allwhohas thingsfirstamongall,especiallyif hisbodilyendowmentsaregreatbodilyaM likehismentalones?mentalgiftsCertainly,hesaid.willbeaauered Andhis friendsand fellow-citizenswillwant touse himasfromhis hegets olderfor theirownpurposes?childhood. No question.

Fallingat his feet, they will makerequeststo him anddohimhonourandflatterhim.becausetheywantto getintotheirhandsnow,thepowerwhichhe willonedaypossess.

Thatoftenhappens,hesaid.Andwhatwill a mansuchas he is be likelyto do under

suchcircumstances,especiallyif he be a citizenof a greatcity,richandnoble,anda tallproperyouth? Will henotbefullofboundlessaspirations,andfancyhimselfableto mana_theaffairsof Hellenesandofbarbarians,andhavinggot suchnotionsintohis headwill he not dilateandelevatehimselfin the fulnessof vainpompandsenselesspride?

To be surehewill.and_ng Now,whenhe is in thisstate of mind, if someonegentlyincapableofhavingcomesto himand tells himthathe is a fool and mustget

PM_y tl_ unprotected nsaide_. _93

understanding,whichcanonlybegot byslavingfor it,doyou /e_thinkthat,undersuchadversecircumstances,he wiltbeeasilyinducedtolisten? s_._A_s,ADEm_trv_

Far otherwise, reason,wiUAnd even if there be someone who through inherent beea_

goodnessor naturalreasonablenesshas had his eyesopened_-aw_awayfi_om

a little andishumbledandtaken captivebyphilosophy,how philos_willhisfriendsbehavewhentheythinkthattheyarelikelyto phy.losetheadvantagewhichtheywerehopingto reapfromhiscompanionship?Will they not do and say anythingtopreventhimfromyieldingtohis betternatureandtorenderhis teacherpowerless,usingto this endprivateintriguesaswellaspublicprosecutions?

495 Therecanbenodoubtof it.Andhowcanone whois thuscircumstancedeverbecome

a philosopher?Impossible.Thenwere we not fight in sayingthat even the very Thevery

qualitieswhichmakea mana philosophermay,if he be ill- quaUtieswhicheducated,diverthimfromphilosophy,noless thanfichesand makeatheiraccompanimentsandtheother so-calledgoodsof life? _ aphi-losopher

We were quiteright, mayalsoThus,my excellentfrien_ is broughtaboutall thatruin diverthimfromphi-

and failurewhichI havebeen describingof the naturesbest losophy.adaptedto the bestof all pursuits; theyare natureswhichwe maintainto be rare at any time; this beingthe class Greatha-out of which come the men who are the authors of the raresalonearecapa-greatest evil to States and individuals;and also of the bte,eithergreatestgoodwhenthe tidecarriesthemin thatdirection; ofgr_tgood,orbuta smallman neverwas the doerofanygreatthingeither greatevil.to individualsorto States.

Thatis mosttrue,he said.Andso philosophyis leftdesolate,with her marriagerite

incomplete: forherownhavefallenawayandforsakenher,andwhiletheyare leadinga falseandunbecominglife,otherunworthypersons,seeingthatshe hasno kinsmento beherprotectors,enterin anddishonourher; andfastenuponherthe reproacheswhich,as you say,herreproversutter,whoaifm_ of hervotariesthatsomeare goodfor nothing,andthat thegreaternumberdeservethe severestpunishment.

0

I94 PMlosopky in her law estate.

Ietp_VibticThat is certainlywhatpeoplesay.• Yes; and what else wouldyou expect, I said,when youso_.^T_s,think of the puny creatureswho, seeing this land open toADI_IMAtr_JS,

them--a landwellstockedwithfairnamesandshowytitles--The attrac-tivenessof like prisonersrunning out of prison into a sanctuary,takephilosophya leap out of their trades into philosophy;thosewhodo sotothe_- being probablythe cleveresthands at their own miserablegar.

erafts? For, althoughphilosophybe in this evil case, stillthere remainsa dignityaboutherwhichis not to be foundin the arts. And many are thus attractedby her whosenatures are imperfectand whose souls are maimedanddisfiguredby their meannesses,as their bodies are by theirtradesand crafts. Is not this unavoidable?

Yes.Are they not exactlylike a bald little tinkerwho has just

got outof duranceand comeinto a fortune; he takes a bathand puts on a newcoat,and is deckedout as a bridegroomgoingto marryhis master's daughter,who is left poor anddesolate?

A mostexactparallel. 496What willbe the issueof such marriages? Will theynot

be vileand bastard?There can be noquestionof it.

The,,,tsaZ- And whenpersonswhoare unworthyofeducationapproachzi_,_ceof philosophyand make an alliancewith her who is in a rankphiloso-phy. abovethem,what sort of ideasand opinionsare likelyto be

generated? 1Will theynot be sophismscaptivatingto theear1,havingnothingin themgenuine,or worthyofor akintotruewisdom?

Nodoubt,he said.Feware Then,Adeimantus,I said,theworthydisciplesofphilosophythe worthywillbe buta smallremnant: perchancesomenobleandwell-disciples: educatedperson,detainedby exilein her service,who in the

absenceofcorruptinginfluencesremainsdevotedtoher ; orsomeloftysoulborn in a mean city, the politiesof whichhecontemnsand neglects; and there maybe a giftedfewwholeave thearts, whichtheyjustlydespise,and cometo her ;-or peradventurethere are somewho are restrained by ourfriend Theages'bridle; for everythingin the lifeof Theages

I Or ' will theynotdeJerveto be calledsophisms,'....

The internal sign of Socrates. 195

conspire4todiverthimfromphilosophy; but ill-healthkept Republichim awayfrom polities. Myown ease of the internal sign vI.is hardlyworth mentioning,for rarely, if ever, has such a So_,AT_,ADEIMA_US.monitorbeen givento any other man. Those who belongto this small class have tasted how sweet and blessedapossessionphilosophyis, and have also seen enoughof themadnessof the multitude; and they knowthat nopoliticianishonest,nor is there any championofjustice at whosesidethey may fight and be saved. Such an one may be corn-andthesepared to a man who has fallen amongwild beasts--hewill areunabletoresistnot join in the wickednessof his fellows,but neither is he themad-able singlyto resist all their fierce natures,and therefore nessoftheworld ;seeing that he would be of no use to the State or to hisfriends,andreflectingthat he wouldhave to throwawayhislifewithoutdoinganygoodeithertohimselforothers,he holdshis peace,andgoeshis ownway. He is like onewho,in the theythere-stormofdustand sleetwhichthe drivingwindhurriesalong, foreinorder toretires under the shelter of a wall; and seeing the rest of escapethemankindfullofwickedness,he is content,if onlyhe can live stormtakeshelterhis own lifeand be pure fromevil or unrighteousness,and behindadepartin peaceandgood-will,withbrighthopes, wallandlive their

Yes, hesaid,andhewillhavedonea greatworkbeforehe ownlit_.departs.

A greatwork--yes; but not the greatest,unlesshe find497a State suitableto him; for in a State whichis suitable

to him,hewillhavea largergrowthandbe the saviourofhiscountry,as wellas ofhimself.

Thecauseswhyphilosophyis in suchan evilnamehavenowbeensufficientlyexplained: the injusticeof thechargesagainstherhasbeenshown--isthere anythingmorewhichyou wishtosay?

Nothingmoreonthatsubject,hereplied; butI shouldliketo knowwhichof thegovernmentsnowexistingis in youropiniontheoneadaptedto her.

Notanyofthem,I said; andthatispreciselytheaccusationNoexistingwhichI bringagainst them--notone of them is worthyStatesuitedto philoso-of the philosophicnature,and hence that natureis warpedphy.and estranged;--as the exotic seed which is sown in aforeignlandbecomesdenaturalized,and is wontto be over-poweredand toloseitselfin the newsoil,evenso this growth

02

I96 How flhilose_ky is amt haw it ¢agkt to & studied.

Rve_./._ of philosophy,insteadof persisting,degeneratesand,receivesanothercharacter. Butif philosophyeverfinds in the Statesoc_,zs, thatperfectionwhichshe herselfis,thenwillbe seen thatsheAtmalg_rtus.

is in truthdivine,and that all other things,whethernaturesof men or institutions,are but human;--and now, I know,thatyouare goingto ask,What thatStateis :

No,he said; thereyou are wrong,for I wasgoingto askanotherquestion--whetherit is the Stateofwhichwe are thefoundersand inventors,or someother?

Evenour Yes, I replied, ours in most respects; but you mayownState remembermysayingbefore,thatsomelivingauthoritywouldrequirestheaddition of alwaysbe required in the State having the same idea oftheliving the constitutionwhichguided you when as legislatoryouauthority.

werelayingdownthe laws.Thatwassaid,he replied.Yes,butnot in a satisfactorymanner; youfrightenedus by

interposingobjections,whichcertainlyshowedthatthe dis-cussionwouldbe longanddifficult; andwhatstill remainsisthe reverseof easy.

What is thereremaining?The questionhow the study of philosophymay be so

orderedas nottobe the ruinof theState : All greatattemptsare attendedwithrisk ; 'hard is thegood,'as mensay.

Still,he said, letthe pointbe cleared up,and the enquirywillthenbe complete.

I shall notbe hindered,I said, byanywantof will,but, ifat all, bya want of power: my zeal you maysee for your-selves; and pleaseto remarkin whatI amaboutto sayhowboldlyand unhesitatinglyI declarethatStatesshouldpursuephilosophy,notas theydonow,but ina differentspirit.

In whatmanner?Thesuper- At present,I said, the students,gfphilosophyare quite498_.ialsttmyyoung; beginningwh_ _ ast boo , t eyofphiloso-phywhichdevoteonly the _m_ from moneymakingandhouse-,xistsinthe_ch':p/ii;ffUT_ hn__e_ve_tho-'_-_oTfhem_'_oarepresentday. reputedto have mostof the philosophicspirit,when they

comewithinsightof thegreatdifficultyof thesubject,I meantakethem_selvesoff. In afterlifewheninvitedbyelse,theymay,perhaps,goandheara lecture,and

aboutthistheymakemuchado,forphilosophyisnotconsidered

Plu'loso_hy,when truly unders/ood, is laved, not haled. 197

by themto be their properbusiness: at last, whentheygrow Rtt_blicold, in most eases they are extinguishedmore truly than v.r.Heracleitus'sun, inasmuchastheyneverlight up again1. soo_r_s,AD]_MA_rrT_'_

Butwhatoughtto be theircourse?Ju_site. In childhoodand youth their study,

and what philosophythey learn, should be suited to theirtenderyears: duringthis periodwhiletheyare growinguptowardsmanhood,the chiefandspecialcareshould_giventotheir_bodiesthat theymayhavethemto use in the serviceof philosophy;as life advancesand the int_[ectbegins tomat_._ let them increase the gymnasticsof the soul; butwhenthe strengthof ourcitizensfailsandis past civil andmilitaryduties,thenlet _e._mr_tnge_t w!ll_nd enlargein nose__, as we intend themto live happilyhere, andtocrownthis lifewitha similarhappinessin another.

How truly in earnestyou are, Socrates! he said; I amsure of that; and yet mostof your hearers, if I am notmistaken,are likelyto be still more earnest in their oppo-sitionto you,and willnever be convinced; ThrasymachusThrasyma-

thus onceleastof alL more.

Donotmakea quarrel,I said,betweenThrasymachusandmetwhohaverecentlybecomefriends,although,indeed,wewereneverenemies; forI shallgo onstrivingto theutmostuntil I either converthim and othermen,or do somethingwhichmayprofit_hemagainstthe daywhentheyliveagain,andholdthe likediscourseinanotherstateofexistence.

Youarespeakingof a timewhichis notverynear.Rather,I replied,of a timewhichis as nothingin com- Thepeo#e

parisonwith eternity. Nevertheless,I do not wonderthat hatephilo-sophy be-themanyrefuseto believe; for theyhavenever seen that causetheyof whichwearenowspeakingrealized; theyhaveseenonly haveonlyknownbada conventionalimitationof philosophy,consistingof wordsandcon-artificiallybroughttogether,not likethese of ourshavinga venaonalimitationsnaturalunity. But a humanbeingwho in wordandwork orit.is perfectlymoulded,as far as he canbe, intotheproportionand likenessof virtue--sucha manrulingin a citywhich

499bearsthe sameimage,theyhavenever yetseen,neitheronenormanyof them--doyouthinkthattheyeverdid.9

t Heracleit-as said that the sun was extinguishedevery evening and relightedeverymorning.

i9 8 The t_tler mind of the world.

Rep,_llc No indeed.VI. No,myfriend,and theyhaveseldom,if ever,heardfree

so_u,_ and noblesentiments; such as men utter when they areearnestlyand by everymeans in their powerseeking aftertruthfor the sake of knowledge,while they lookcoldlyonthesubtletiesof controversy,of whichtheendis opinionandstrife,whethertheymeetwiththemin the courtsof laworin society.

They are strangers, he said, to the words of whichyouspeak.

And this was what we foresaw,and this was the reasonwhytruthforcedus to admit,not withoutfearand hesitation,that neithercitiesnor States nor individuals_i._ev_K_erattainperfectionunh_"i'h_small class of philosopherswhomwetermeduselessbut not corruptare pr0v_c0mpelled,whether theywi![__mot,ao-tak.e_careof the State,and untila like necessitybe laidon the State to obeythem1;or untilkings, or if not _ the"_yms--of°'king_rprince,/aredivinelyinspiredwith a true love of true philosophy. Thateither_ff o-t_fi'_g_h_ 1-r_-_-a'_ TfnqSt_'gl_lw"t_ee noreasonto affirm: if theywere so,we might indo_lyridiculed__as._dr.e.amer_a_lati_ionaries.Am I not right?

Quite right.Some- If then, in the countlessagesof the past, or at thepresentwhere,at hour in someforeignclimewhich is far"awayand beyondsome time_there may our ken, the perfectedphilosopheris or has been or here-havebeen after shall be compelledby a superior power to have theor may beaphiloso-chargeof the State,weare readytoassert to thedeath, thatpheTwhothis our constitutionhas been, and is--yea, and will beis also therulerofa wheneverthe Museof Philosophyis queen. There is noState. impossibilityin all this; thatthereis a difficulty,we acknow-

ledgeourselves.Myopinionagreeswithyours,he said.Butdoyoumeanto saythatthis is not theopinionof the

multitude?I shouldimaginenot,he replied.0 myfriend,I said,do notattackthemultitude: theywill

changetheirminds,if, notin an aggressivespirit,butgently

I Reading swr'os6_ or _wr'_Jo4s.

The_Okiloso_Aerhas ]usconversationin keaven, x99and with the view of soothingthem and removing their z'e_u_dislikeof over-education,you showthemyour philosophers vzasthey reallyare and describeas you werejust nowdoing soo.,T_,

500their characterand profession,and then mankindwill see AD_,,_N_,thathe ofwhomyou are speakingis not such as they sup-posed--if theyviewhim in this newlight, theywill surelychange their notionof him,and answer in another strain*.Who can be at enmitywith onewho loves them,who thatis himselfgentle and free fromenvywill be jealousof onein whomthere is no jealousy? Nay,letmeanswerfor you,thatin a fewthis harsh tempermaybe foundbut not in themajorityof mankind.

I quiteagreewithyou, he said.Anddo younot also think,as I do, that the harsh feeling The feeling

which the manyentertain towardsphilosophyoriginatesin againstphi-losophyis

the pretenders, who rush in uninvited,and are alwaysreallyaabusing them, and finding fault with them, who make feeling

againstpersons instead of things the themeof their conversation? pretendedand nothingcan be more unbecomingin philosophersthan philoso-this. pherswho

axealwaysIt is mostunbecoming, talking

• For he, Adeimantus,whosemind is fixedupontruebeing, aboutper-SONS.hassurelyno timeto lookdownuponthe affairsofearth,orto be filledwith maliceand envy,contendingagainstmen;his eye is everdirectedtowardsthingsfixedandimmutable,Thetruewhichhe sees neitherinjuringnor injuredbyoneanother,philoso-pher,whobut all in order moving accordingto reason; these he hashiseyeimitates,andto thesehe will,as faras he can,conformhim- fixedupoaimmutableself. Can a manhelp imitatingthatwithwhichhe holds principles.reverentialconverse? willfashion

Impossible. Statesaftertheheaven-And the philosopherholdingconversewith the divine]yimage.

order,becomesorderlyanddivine,as far as the natureofman allows; but like every one else, he will sufferfromdetraction.

Ofcourse.

I Reading_ _al tgv o_rwO_wr_uwithouta question,and _x_xolavvoi: or,retainingthequestionandtaking_A_oiva,ad_aa,ina newsense: ' Doyoumeanto sayreallythat,viewinghimin thislight, theywill beof anothermindfromyours,andanswerinanotherstrain?'

2oo The form and likeness of God.

Ret_ubllc And ifa necessitybe lalduponhimof fashioning,notonlyvz himself,but human nature generally,whetherin States or

so_T_, individuals,into that whichhe beholdselsewhere,will he,ADEIMAICrUS,

think you, be an unskilfulartificerof justice, temperance,andeverycivilvirtue?

Anythingbut unskilful.And if the worldperceivesthat whatwe are sayingabout

him is the truth, willthey be angrywith philosophy.9 Willthey disbelieveus,when we tell them that noState can behappy which is not designed by artists who imitate theheavenlypattern.9

Theywill not be angryif they understand,he said. Buthowwillthey drawout the planof whichyou are speaking.9 5oi

Hewall They will beginby taking the State and the mannersofbeginwith men, from which, as from a tablet, they will rub out thea ' tabularasa"and picture,and leave a cleansurface. This is no easy task.therein- But whether easy or not, herein will lie the differencescribehisLaws. betweenthem and everyother legislator,--theywill have

nothingto do either with individualor State, and will in-scribe no laws,until they have either found_or themselvesmade,a cleansurface.

They willbe veryright,he said.Havingeffectedthis,they willproceedto tracean outline

of the constitution?No doubt.Andwhenthey are filling in thework, as I conceive,they

willoftenturn their eyes upwardsand downwards: I meanthat they will first look at absolutejustice and beautyandtemperance,and again at the human copy; andwillmingleand temper the variouselementsof life into the imageof aman; and this they will conceiveaccordingto that otherimage,which,when existingamong men, Homer calls theformandlikenessof God.

Very true,he said.And onefeaturethey willerase, and anothertheywillput

in, until theyhavemadethe waysof men, as faras possible,agreeableto thewaysof God?

Indeed, he said, in no way could they make a fairerpicture.

And now,I said, arewebeginningto persuadethosewhom

Onesaviour of a Statel_ossiMe i# tke courseof ages. 2oi

you describedas rushingat us withmightand main,that the ReB*blicpainterof constitutionsis such an one as wewere praising; vI.at whomthey were so very indignantbecauseto his hands SO_AT_,AD_M_wecommittedthe State; andare theygrowinga little calmer The ene-atwhattheyhavejustheard? miesofphi-

Muchcalmer,ifthere isanysense inthem. losophy,Why, wherecan theystill findanyground for objection"_.hearWhenthethey

Will they doubt that thephilosopheris a loverof truth and truth,aregradually

being? propi-Theywouldnotbe sounreasonable, tiated.Or thathis nature,beingsuch as we havedelineated,is

akinto thehighestgood?Neithercantheydoubtthis.But again,will they tell us that such a nature,placed

underfavourablecircumstances,will not be perfectlygoodandwise if anyeverwas? Or will theyprefer thosewhomwehaverejected?

Surelynot.Thenwill theystill be angryat oursaying,that,untilphi-

losophersbear rule,States andindividualswillhaveno restfromevil,nor willthis ourimaginaryStateever be realized?

I thinkthattheywillbe less angry.Shallwe assumethat they are not only less angry but andat

5o2quitegentle,andthattheyhavebeenconvertedandforverb' lengthbe-comequiteshame,iffornootherreason,cannotrefuseto cometo terms? gentle.

By allmeans,he said.Then let us supposethat the reconciliationhas been Theremay

effected. Willanyone denytheotherpoint,thattheremay havebeenone son ofbe sonsof kingsor princeswhoarebynature philosophers? akinga

Surelyno man,he said. philoso-pherwhoAndwhenthey havecomeintobeingwillanyonesaythat hasre-

they mustof necessitybe destroyed; that theycan hardlymainedun-corruptedbe saved is not deniedeven by us; but that in the whole andhasacourseof ages no singleone of themcan escape--whowill Stateobe-dientto hisventureto affirmthis? will.

Whoindeed!But,saidI, one is enough; let therebeone manwhohas

a cityobedientto hiswill,andhe mightbringintoexistencethe idealpolityaboutwhichtheworldisso incredulous.

Yes,oneis enough.

2o2 Tke secondeduca_'on, lasting tkrougk life.

Reikublt'c The ruler mayimposethe lawsand institutionswhichweVL havebeendescribing,and the citizensmaypossiblybewilling

So_RAT_.to obeythem?._EIMANTL'S.

Certainly.Andthat others shouldapprove,ofwhatwe approve,isno

miracleor impossibility?I thinknot.Butwe havesufficientlyshown,in whathas preceded,that

all this,if onlypossible,is assuredlyforthe best.We have.

Oureonsti- And now we saynot only that our laws, if they couldbetutionthen enacted,wouldbe forthe best, but also thatthe enactmentofisnotun-attainable,them,thoughdifficult,is not impossible.

Verygood.Andso withpain and toilwe havereached the endof one

subject, but more remains to be discussed;--how and bywhat studies and pursuits will the savioursof the constitu-tion be created,and at what ages are they to apply them-selvesto theirseveralstudies?

Certainly.Recapitu- I omitted the troublesomebusiness of the possessionoflation. women,andthe procreationofchildren,and the appointment

of the rulers, becauseI knewthat the perfectStatewouldbeeyedwith jealousyand was difficultof attainment; but thatpieceof clevernesswas notof muchserviceto me,for I hadto discussthemall the same. The womenandchildrenarenowdisposedof,but the otherquestionofthe rulers mustbeinvestigatedfrom the very beginning. We were saying,asyou will remember,that they were to be lovers of theircountry,triedby the test ofpleasuresand pains,and neither5o3in hardships,nor in dangers,norat anyothercriticalmomentwere to lose their patriotism--hewas to be rejectedwhofailed,but he whoalwayscameforthpure, like gold tried inthe refiner's fire, was to be made a ruler, and to receivehonours and rewardsin life and after death. Thiswas thesort of thingwhichwas beingsaid, and then the argumentturned aside and veiled her face; not likingto stir thequestionwhich has now arisen.

I perfectlyremember,he said.Yes,myfriend, I said, and I then shrank from hazarding

The lraininz of the rulers. _o3

the boldword; hutnowlet medare to say--that the perfect Republicguardianmust be aphilosopher, v.r.

Yes,he said, let that be affirmed. So_,_T_,ADEI_/crlJ_.And donot suppose that therewillbe manyof them; for The g_ard-

the gifts whichwere deemedby us to be essential rarely Janmustbegrowtogether; they aremostlyfoundin shredsandpatches, aphiloso-pher,and

What doyou mean? he said. aphiluso-You are aware,I replied, that quickintelligence,memory,phermust

be a personsagacity,cleverness,and similarqualities,do not often grow ofraretogether, and that persons who possess them and are at gifts.the same time high-spiritedand magnanimousare not so Thecon-constitutedby nature as to live orderlyand in a peacefultrastofthequickandand settled manner; they are driven any way by their im- solidtern-pulses,and all solidprinciplegoesout of them. peraments.

Very true, he said.On the other hand, those steadfast natures which can

better be dependedupon,which in a battleare impregnableto fear and immovable,are equallyimmovablewhen there isanythingto be learned; theyare alwaysina torpidstate,andare apt to yawnandgoto sleepoveranyintellectualtoil.

Quitetrue.And yetwe were sayingthat bothqualitieswerenecessaryTheymust

in those towhomthe highereducationis to be imparted,and beunited.

whoare to share in anyofficeor command.Certainly,he said.And willthey be a classwhichis rarelyfound?Yes,indeed.Then the aspirantmust not onlybe tested in those labours Hewhois

and dangers and pleasureswhichwe mentionedbefore,but toholdcommandthere is anotherkindofprobationwhichwe did not mentionmustbe--he must be exercisedalso in manykindsofknowledge,to testedinmanykindsseewhetherthe soulwillbe able toendure thehighestofall, ofknow-

504or willfaintunderthem,as inanyotherstudiesandexercises,ledge.Yes,he said,you arequite right in testinghim. Butwhat

doyoumean bythe highestof allknowledge?You mayremember,I said, that we dividedthe soul into

threeparts; anddistinguishedthe several naturesofjustice,temperance,courage,andwisdom?

Indeed, he said, if I had forgotten,I shouldnot deserveto hear more.

204 The longer road.

Rtl_ublic And doyourememberthe wordof cautionwhichpreceded_'L the discussionof them_?

so_A_, Towhatdoyou refer?AO_MA_TUS.We weresaying,if I amnot mistaken,that he whowantedThe shorter

expositionto see them in their perfectbeautymust take a longerandofeduea-morecircuitousway,at the endof whichthey wouldappear;tion, whichhasbeen but thatwe couldadd on a popularexpositionof themon aalready level with the discussionwhich had preceded. And yougiven,in- replied that such an expositionwouldbe enough for you,adequate.

and so the enquirywascontinuedin what to me seemedtobe a very inaccuratemanner; whetheryou were satisfiedornot, it is for youto say.

Yes, he said, I thoughtand the others thought that yougaveus a fairmeasureoftruth.

But,my friend,I said, a measureof such thingswhichinanydegreefallsshortof the whole truthis not fair measure;for nothing imperfectis the measureof anything,althoughpersons are too apt to be contentedand think that theyneed search no further.

Not an uncommoncasewhenpeopleare indolent.Yes, I said; and there cannot be any worse fault in a

guardianofthe Stateandof the laws.True.

Theguard- The guardian then, I said, mustbe required to take theJan must longer circuit,and toil at learning as well as atgymnastics,take thelongerroador he willneverreach the highestknowledgeof allwhich,asof the we werejust nowsaying,is his propercalling.higherlearning, What,he said,is there a knowledgestill higher than this

--higher thanjusticeandthe other virtues?Yes,I said,there is. And ofthevirtuestoowemustbehold

not the outlinemerely,as at present--nothingshort of themost finishedpictureshouldsatisfyus. When little thingsare elaboratedwith an infinityof pains, in order that theymay appear in their full beautyand utmostclearness,howridiculousthatweshouldnot thinkthe highesttruths worthyof attaining the highestaccuracy!

A right noble thought2; but do you suppose that we1 Cp. IV. 435 D.2Or,separatingxalmix-,from_t//_QI,,'True,hesaid,andanoblethought':

or_*ov_'_8,m,bOt_maybeagloss.

The idea of good. 205

shall refrain from asking you what is this highest know- l_e?ublicledge? _1.

Nay, I said,ask ifyouwill; but I amcertainthatyou have so_,_DEIMANTL_.

heard the answermany times,and now you either do not whichleadsunderstandme or, as I rather think,you are disposedto be upwardsat

505troublesome; for you have oftenbeen told that the idea of lasttotheideaofgood is the highest knowledge,and that all other things good.becomeusefuland advantageousonly by their use of this.You can hardly be ignorant that of this I was about tospeak, concerningwhich,as you have often heard me say,we knowso little; and,withoutwhich,anyother knowledgeor possessionof any kind willprofit us nothing• Do youthink that the possessionof all other things is of anyvalueifwe donot possessthegood? or the knowledgeof allotherthingsif wehavenoknowledgeofbeautyandgoodness?

Assuredlynot.Youare furtheraware that mostpeopleaffirmpleasureto Butwhatis

be thegood,but thefinersort ofwitssay it is knowledge_ thegood?• SomesayYes. pleasure,Andyou are aware too that the latter cannotexplainwhat othersknowledge,

they mean by knowledge,but are obliged after all to say whichtheyknowledgeofthe good? absurdlyexplainto

Howridiculous! meanYes, I said, that they shouldbeginbyreproachinguswith knowledge

our ignoranceof the good,andthen presumeourknowledgeofthegood.of it--for the goodtheydefineto be knowledgeof the good,just as if weunderstoodthemwhentheyuse the term 'good'--this isof courseridiculous.

"Mosttrue,he said.And those who make pleasure their good are in equal

perplexity; for they are compelledto admit that there arebadpleasuresas wellas good.

Certainly.And thereforeto acknowledgethat bad andgood are the

same?True.There can be no doubt about the numerousdifficultiesin

whichthisquestionis involved.Therecan be none.Further, dowe not see that manyarewillingto do or to

206 T/_ uature of good.

8epu_/ic haveor to seem to be what is just and honourablewithoutv/. the reality; but no one is satisfiedwith the appearanceof

So_RATES,good--the realityis whatthey seek; in thecaseof thegood,ADEIMANTUS.appearanceis despisedbyeveryone.

Very true,he said.Everyman Of this then,whicheverysoul of manpursuesand makespursuesthe the endof allhis actions,havinga presentimentthat there isgood, butwithout suchan end, and yet hesitatingbecauseneitherknowingtheknowingnature nor having the same assuranceof this as of other 5o6the natureofit. things,and thereforelosingwhatevergoodthere is in other

things,--of a principlesuch and so great as this ought thebest men in our State,to whomeverythingis entrusted,tobe in the darknessofignorance?

Certainlynot, he said.I am sure, I said, that he who does not knowhow the

beautifuland the just are likewisegoodwillbe but a sorryguardianof them; and I suspectthat no onewhois ignorantof thegoodwillhavea trueknowledgeofthem.

That, he said, is a shrewdsuspicionofyours.And if we onlyhave a guardianwho has this knowledge

our Statewillbe perfectlyordered?Theguard- Of course,he replied; but I wish that you wouldtell meJanought whetheryou conceivethis supremeprincipleof the goodtoto knowthese be knowledgeor pleasure,or differentfromeither?things. Aye,I said, I knew allalongthat a fastidiousgentleman_

like you wouldnot be contentedwith the thoughtsof otherpeopleabout these matters.

True, Socrates; but I must say that onewholike you haspassed a lifetimein the study of philosophyshould not"bealwaysrepeating the opinionsof others, and never tellinghis own.

Well, but has any one a right to say positivelywhat hedoesnot know?

Not, he said,with theassuranceof positivecertainty; hehas no right to dothat: but he maysaywhathe thinks,as amatterofopinion.

And do you not know,I said, that all mere opinionsarebad,and the best of themblind? Youwouldnot denythat

1Reading_'_10KaAd_: or reading&_tpKoA_s,' I quitewell knewfromtheveryfirst,that you,&:c.'

Tke old story of lke many and tke absolute. 2o7

thosewhohaveanytrue notionwithoutintelligenceare only Republiclikeblindmenwhofeeltheir wayalongthe road? VL

Verytrue. so_,T_,ADEIMANTUS_

And doyouwish tobeholdwhatis blind and crookedand 6_co_.base,whenotherswilltell youof brightnessandbeauty?

Still, I must imploreyou, Socrates,said Glaucon,not toturn awayjust as youare reachingthe goal; if youwillonlygive such an explanationof the good as you havealreadygivenof justice and temperanceand the other virtues, weshallbe satisfied.

Yes,myfriend,and I shallbe at leastequallysatisfied,but WecanonlyattainI cannothelp fearingthat I shall fail,and that my indiscreet totbezealwill bringridiculeuponme. No,sweetsirs, let us not thingsof

at present askwhat is the actual nature of the good,for to mindthroughreach what is now in my thoughtswould be an effort too thethingsgreat for me. Butof thechildofthe goodwhois likesthim, ofsense.I would fainspeak, if I couldbe sure that you wished to The'child'ofthehear--otherwise,not. good.

Byall means,he said, tell usabout thechild,andyou shallremainin our debtfor theaccountof theparent.

5o7 I do indeedwish, I replied, that I could pay, and youreceive,the accountof the parent, and not, as now;of theoffspringonly; take,however,this latter bywayof interest_,andat thesame timehavea care that I do not rendera falseaccount,althoughI have no intentionof deceivingyou.

Yes,wewill takeall the care that wecan: proceed.Yes,I said, but I mustfirstcometo an understandingwith

you,and remindyou of whatI havementionedin thecourseof thisdiscussion,andat manyothertimes.

What?The old story,that there is a manybeautifuland a many

good,and so of other thingswhichwe describeand define;to allof themthe term 'many' isapplied.

True,he said.Andthere isan absolutebeautyandan absolutegood,and

of otherthings towhich the term 'many' is appliedthere isan absolute; for they may be broughtunder a single idea,whichis calledthe essenceof each.

Very true.I A playupon_Jl¢o_whichmeansboth 'offspring'and ' interest.'

uo8 Sight,theeye,andtAesun.Re_ubllc The many,as we say, are seen but not known,and the

vz. ideasare knownbut not seen.so_, Exactly.GLAUCO_.

And what is the organ with which we see the visiblethings?

The sight, he said.Andwith the hearing,I said,we hear, andwith the other

sensesperceivethe otherobjectsof sense?True.

Sightthe Buthaveyou remarkedthat sightis byfar themostcostlymostcorn-and complexpieceof workmanshipwhichtheartificeroftheplex of thesenses, sensesevercontrived?

No,I never have,he said.Then reflect: has the ear or voiceneed of any third or

additionalnature in order that theone maybe able to hearand theother to be heard?

Nothingof thesort.No, indeed,I replied; and the sameis trueof most,ifnot

all, the other senses--youwouldnot say that any of themrequiressuchan addition?

Certainlynot.Butyou see that withoutthe additionof someothernature

there is noseeingor beingseen?How doyoumean?

and,unlike Sight being,as I conceive,in the eyes,and he who hastheother eyeswantingto see; colourbeing alsopresent in them,stillseuseS,re-quiresthe unless there be a third nature speciallyadapted to theaddition purpose, the owner of the eyes will see nothing and theof a thirdnaturebe- colourswill be invisible.foreitcan Ofwhatnatureare you speaking?be used.Thisthird Of that whichyouterm light, I replied.natureis True, he said.light. Noble, then, is the bond which links together sight and 508

visibility,and greatbeyondotherbondsby nosmalldifferenceof nature; for light is their bond, and light is no ignoblething?

Nay,he said, thereverseofignoble.And which,I said, of the gods in heavenwouldyou say

was the lord of this element? Whose is that light whichmakesthe eye tosee perfectlyand thevisibletoappear?

The 'lord of ligkt' is tke child of the good. 209

You meanthe sun, asyouandallmankindsay. xepublicMaynot the relationof sightto this deitybe describedas vz.

follows9 so_T_,• GLAUCON.

How?Neither sight nor the eye in whichsight resides is the

sun?No.Yet ofall theorgansof sense the eye is the mostlike the Theeye

sun9 likethe• sun, but

Byfar themostlike. notthesame with

And the power which the eye possesses is a sort of it.effluencewhich is dispensedfrom the sun?

Exactly.Then the sun is not sight, but the authorof sightwho is

recognisedbysight?True, he said.And this ishe whomI call thechildofthe good,whomthe

goodbegatinhis own likeness,tobe in thevisibleworld,inrelationtosightandthe thingsofsight,whatthegoodis in theintellectualworldin relationtomindand the thingsof mind:

Willyou be a littlemoreexplicit? he said.Why, you know,I said, that the eyes, when a person

directs them towardsobjectson which the light of day isno longershining,but the moon and stars only,see dimly,and are nearly blind; they seem to have no clearnessofvisionin them?

Verytrue.Butwhen theyare directed towardsobjectson whichthe Visibleoh-

sun shines,theysee clearlyandthere is sightin them9 jectsare to• be _en

Certainly. onlywhenAnd the soul is like the eye: when restinguponthat on thesunshines upon

whichtruth and beingshine, the soulperceivesand under- them;truthstands, and is radiant with intelligence; but when turned isonlyknown

towards the twilightof becomingand perishing, then she wheninu-has opiniononly, and goes blinkingabout, and is first of minatedbythe idea of

one opinion and then of another, and seems to have no good.intelligence?

Just so..Now,thatwhichimpartstruth to the knownand the power

of knowingto the knoweris whatI wouldhaveyouterm theP

2Io of" isib/eandinvi qbZe.

Ry,_///¢ ideaofgood,an__is youwilldeemtobe thee._useofscieneC,and of _ in so faras the latterbecomesthe subjectofs_:_, kno_edge; beautifultoo,as are both_ruthandknowledge,Theic_ you will be right in esteemingthis other natureas moreotg_t beautifulthan either; and,as in thepreviousinstance,light509lm_gfnerthan andsightmaybe trulysaid to belikethesun,andyetnottoscienceortruth(the bethesun,so in thisothersphere,scienceandtruthmaybeobjectivedeemedto be likethe good, but not the good; the goodthan thesubjective),has a placeof honouryet higher.

Whata wonderof beautythatmust be,he said,whichisthe authorof scienceandtruth,andyet surpassestheminbeauty; foryou surelycannotmeanto saythatpleasureisthegood?

God forbid,I replied;but mayI askyou to considerthe. imagein anotherpointof view?

In whatpointof view?Youwouldsay, wouldyou not, thatthe sun is not only

the authorofvisibilityin all visiblethings,butofgenerationand nourishmentand growth,though he himself is notgeneration?

Certainly.Asthesun In like mannerthe good maybe said to be notonlytheisthecauseauthorof knowledgeto all thingsknown,butof theirbeingofgenera-tioa,sotheandessence,andyet thegood isnotessence,butfarexceedsgoodisthe_,_. of essencein dignityandpower.beingand Glauconsaid,witha ludicrousearnestness: Bythelightof,_..--.me.heaven,howamazing!

Yes, I said,andtheexaggerationmaybe set downtoyou;foryoumademeuttermyfancies.

Andpraycontinueto utterthem; at anyratelet us hearifthereis anythingmoreto be saidaboutthe similitudeof thesun.

Yes, I said,thereis a greatdealmore.Thenomitnothing,howeverslight.I wiltdo mybest,I said; butI shouldthinkthat a great

dealwillhaveto be omitted.I hopenot,hesaid.You have to imagine,then, that there are two ruling

Thes/_d/'_/_-/'_//s(_///, 21i

powe_and that one of themis set over the intellectualRt/w/,,'/cworld,the otherover thevisible. I do not sayheaven,lest 1.',r.you shouldfancy that I am playingupon the name(o¢_oa_,So_¢_,6_'_). MayI suppose that you have this distinctionof thevisibleandintelligiblefixedin yourmind?

I have.Now take a line whichhas been cut into two unequal_ Thetwo

parts,anddivideeachofthem again in the sameproportion,spheresofsightandand suppose the two maindivisionsto answer,one to the knowledgevisibleand the otherto the intelligible,and then comparearerepre-seatedbyathe subdivisionsin respectof their clearnessand wantof linewhichclearness,and you will find that the first section in the isdividedinto two

51osphere of the visibleconsistsof images. And by imagesI unequalmean,in the first place,shadows,and in the secondplace, parts.reflectionsinwaterand in solid,smoothand polishedbodiesand the like : Doyou understand?

Yes, I understand.Imagine,now,the other section,of which this is only the

resemblance,to includethe animalswhichwe see, andever-thingthat growsor ismade.

Verygood.Wouldyounot admitthat both thesectionsofthisdivision

have differentdegrees of truth, and that the copyis to theoriginalas the sphere of opinionis to the sphere of know-ledge?

Mostundoubtedly.Nextproceedto considerthe manner in whichthe sphere

ofthe intellectualis to be divided.In whatmanner?Thus :JThere are twosubdivisions,in the lowerof which Images

andhypo-the soul uses the figuresgiven by the formerdivisionas theses.images; theenquirycan onlybehypothetical,and insteadofgoingupwardsto a principledescendsto theotherend; inthehigherofthe two,the soulpassesoutof hypotheses,andgoes upto a principlewhichis abovehypotheses,makingnouseof images*as in the formercase,butproceedingonly inandthroughtheideasthemselves.

I do notquiteunderstandyourmeaning,hesaid.

! Readingtundra. _Reaxliag_p Jxd_d_&,ws,,

uIu The useof kylbotAesesin eittu,r division.

,Vt,_l/c Then I will try again; you will understandme bettervI. when I have made some preliminaryremarks. You are

so_,T=, awarethat studentsof geometry,arithmetic,and thekindredGtaLt0cot_.sciencesassume the odd and the evenand the figuresand

The hypo-theses o¢ threekindsof anglesand the like in theirseveralbranchesmathema- of science; these aretheirhypotheses,whichtheyand everytiCS.

bodyaresupposedto know,andthereforetheydo notdeigntogive anyaccountof them either to themselvesor others;hut theybeginwiththem,andgo on until they arriveat last,and in a consistentmanner,at theirconclusion?

Yes,he said, I know.In both Anddo you not knowalsothat althoughthey makeuseofspheres thevisibleformsandreasonaboutthem,theyare thinkingnothypothesesareused. of these,but of the idealswhich theyresemble; not of theinthelowerfigureswhichtheydraw,butof the absolutesquareand thetaking theformof absolutediameter,and so on--the formswhichtheydraworimages, make,and whichhave shadowsand reflectionsin waterofbut in theh_herthe theirown,are convertedbytheminto images,but theyareso_as- reallyseeking to beholdthe things themselves,which caneendsabovehy- onlybeseenwiththeeye ofthe mind?pothesesto That is true. 5'the ideaofgood. And ofthiskindI spokeas the intelligible,althoughin the

searchafter it the soul is compelledto usehypotheses; notascendingto a first principle,becauseshe is unable to riseabovethe regionof hypothesis,but employingtheobjectsofwhichthe shadowsbeloware resemblancesin their turn asimages, they having in relation to the shadows and re-flectionsof them a greater distinctness,and therefore ahigher value.

I understand, he said, that you are speakingof theprovinceof geometryand the sisterarts.

Dialectic AndwhenI speakof theotherdivisionof the intelligible,bythehelpyOUwillunderstandme to speakofthat other sort of know-ot hypo-theses risesledgewhichreasonherself attainsbythe powerof dialectic,abovehy. using the hypotheses not as first principles,but only as j lpother, hypotheses--thatis to sa); as stepsand pointsof departure /t

into a world whichis abovehypotheses,in order that she ]lmay soar beyondthem to the first principleof the whole;[Iandclingingto this and then to that whichdependson this,]]by successivesteps she descendsagainwithout __of -

The four faculties. 2x3

any sensibleobject,fromideas,through ideas,and in ideas Rt#_,/,_she ends. VL

I understandyou,he replied; notperfectly,foryou seem so_A_Gt._zocot,t.to me to be describinga taskwhichis reallytremendous;but,at anyrate,I understandyoutosaythatknowledgeandbeing,whichthescienceof dialecticcontemplates,areclearerthan the notionsof the arts,as they are termed,whichproceedfromhypothesesonly: thesearealsocontemplatedby the understanding,and not by the senses: yet, becausetheystart fromhypothesesanddonot ascendtoa principle,thosewho contemplatethemappearto you not to exercisethehigherreasonuponthem,althoughwhena firstprincipleis addedto themtheyare cognizablebythe higherreason.And the habitwhichis concernedwith geometryand the Returntocognatesciences I supposethat you wouldterm(under-psycho-|ogy.standing"_3ndnot reason_ being-intermediatebe_wec,,opinionandreason.

You havequiteconceivedmymeaning,I said; andnow, Fourfa-correspondingto these four_di_sions, let there be fourculties:.'7"-- Reason,un-facultiesin the soul--reason answeringto the highest, aerstand-understandingto the second,faith (or conviction)to the ing.faith,perceptionthird,and perceptionof shadowsto the last--andlet there ofshadow.be a scale of them,and let us supposethat the severalfacultieshaveclearnessin thesamedegreethattheirobjectshavetruth.

I understand,he replied,and give my assent,and acceptyourarrangement.

BOOK VII.

,e_zzzb.;,_ANDnow, I said, let me show in a figure how far our st.._la,nature is enlightenedor unenlightened:--Behold! human 514

so_^_, beings living in an undergroundden, which has a mouthG_ocoN.T_den, open towardsthe light and reachingall along the den;

l_son-here theyhave beenfromtheirchildhood,and havetheirers: legs and necks chainedso that they cannotmove, andthelightatadistance;can only see before them, being prevented by the chains

from turning round their heads. Aboveand behind thema fireis blazingat a distance,and betweenthe fireandtheprisoners there is a raised way; and you will see, if youlook,a low wall built along the way, like the screenwhichmarionetteplayershave in front of them, over whichtheyshowthe puppets.

I see.thelow And doyou see, I said, menpassingalongthewall carry-wall, and ing all sorts of vessels,and statues and figuresof animalstheroofingfiguresof madeofwoodandstoneand variousmaterials,whichappear515whichthe over thewall? Someof themare talking,otherssilent.shadowsares_non You haveshownmea strange image,and theyare strangetheoppo-prisoners.sitewalloftheden. Like ourselves,I replied; and they see only their own

shadows,or the shadowsof one another,whichthe firethrowson theoppositewallof thecave?

True, he said; how couldthey see anythingbut theshadowsiftheywereneverallowedto movetheirheads?

Andof the objectswhicharebeingcarriedin likemannertheywouldonlysee theshadows?

Yes,he said.Andif theywereableto conversewithoneanother,would

they not supposethattheywerenamingwhatwas actuallybeforethem_?

I Reading._p#m.a.

T/w worm of shadows and of reali/ies. 2x5

Very true. ,e¢_//,And supposefurther that the prison had an echowhich VIL

camefrom the other side, wouldtheynot be sure to fancy s___r_whenone of thepassers-byspokethat thevoicewhichthey Thermion-heardcamefromthepassingshadow? erswould

Noquestion,he replied, mistaketheshadows

To them,I said,the truthwouldbe_iterallynothingbutthe forr_diti_.shadowsof theimages.

Thatis certain.And nowlook again,and see whatwill naturallyfollowif

theprisonersare releasedand disabusedof their error. Atfirst,whenanyof them is liberatedand compelledsuddenlyto stand up and turn his neck round and walk and looktowardsthe light,he will suffersharp pains; the glarewilldistress him, and he will be unable to see the realitiesofwhich in his former state he had seen the shadows; andthen conceivesomeone saying to him, that what he sawbeforewasan illusion,but thatnow,whenhe is approachingnearer to being and his eye is turned towards more realexistence,he has a clearervision,wwhatwillbe his reply?Andyoumayfurtherimaginethathis instructoris pointingAndwhento theobjectsas theypass and requiringhimto namethem, released.theywould--will he not be perplexed? Will he not fancythat the stmpersistshadowswhichhe formerlysaw are truer than the objects inmain-tainingthewhicharenowshownto him? superior

Far truer, truthoft_And ifhe iscompelledto lookstraightat the light,willhe _adows.

nothavea pain inhis eyeswhichwillmakehim turnawaytotake refuge in the objectsof visionwhichhe can see, andwhich he will conceive to be in realityclearer than thethingswhicharenowbeingshowntohim?

True, he said.Andsupposeoncemore,that he is reluctantlydraggedup when

a steep and ruggedascent,and held fast until he is forced draggedupward_into the presence of the sun himself,is he not likelyto be they

516pained and irritated? When he approachesthe light his be_by_eyeswillbe dazzled,andhe willnotbe able to see anything oflight.atall ofwhatare nowcalledrealities.

Notall in a moment,he said.He will require to growaccustomedto the sightof the

7 ,_

2t6 The prisoners re#urn teat of the h'ght into the den.

Republicupperworld. And first he will see the shadowsbest,nextt:IL the reflectionsof men and other objectsin the water,and

_,A,_, then the objects themselves; then he will gaze upon theG_ucor_.light of the moon and the stars and the spangledheaven;andhe will see thesky andthe stars bynightbetter thanthesun or the lightof thesun byday ?

Certainly.At length Last of all he will be able to see the sun, and not meretheywill reflectionsof him in the water, but he will see him in hissee thesunandunder-own proper place, and not in another; and he will con-standhis templatehim as he is.nature.

Certainly.He will then proceed to argue that this is he who gives

the seasonand the years,and is the guardian of all that isin the _4sibleworld, and in a certainway the cause of allthings which he and his fellowshave been accustomedtobehold?

Clearly, he said, he would first see the sun and thenreasonabouthim.

TheywouldAnd when he rememberedhis old habitation,and thethenpity wisdomof the den and his fellow-prisoners,do you nottheir oldcompan-supposethat he would felicitatehimselfon the change,andions of the pitythemden.

Certainly,he would.And if theywerein the habitofconferringhonoursamong

themselveson thosewhowere quickestto observe thepass-ing shadowsand to remarkwhich of themwentbefore,andwhichfollowedafter,andwhichweretogether;andwhowerethereforebestable to drawconclusionsas to the future,doyouthink that he would care for such honoursandglories,or envythe possessorsof them? Would he not say withHomer,

'Better to be the poorservantof a poormaster,'

and to endure anything,rather than think as they do andliveaftertheir manner?

Yes, he said, I think that he wouldrather sufferanythingthan entertain these false notionsand livein this miserablemanner.

Imagineoncemore, I said,such an one comingsuddenly

Tire inlerpretation of tke ikarakle. 217

out ofthe sunto be replacedin his old situation; wouldhe RepublicVII.not be certainto havehis eyesfullof darkness?

SOCRATF_SI

To be sure, he said. G_co,.And if there were a contest,andhe had to competein Butwhen

measuringthe shadowswith the prisonerswhohad never theyre-517movedout of the den,while his sightwas still weak, and turnedthedent°

beforehis eyes had becomesteady (and the timewhichtheywouldwouldbeneededto acquirethis newhabitof sightmightbe seemuchworsethanveryconsiderable),wouldhe notbe ridiculous? Menwouldthosewhosayof himthat up hewentand downhe camewithouthis hadleftit.nevereyes ; -andthat itwasbetternot evento thinkof ascending;andifanyone tried to loose anotherandleadhimup tothelight, let themonlycatchthe offender,and theywouldputhimto death.

No question,hesaid.This entire allegory,I said,you maynowappend,dear Thepn_o,_

Glaucon,to the previousargument; the prison-houseis the _Softhesight.Worldworldof sight,the lightof the fire is thesun,and youwill thelightofnot misapprehendme if you interpretthe journeyupwardsthethefiresun.isto be the ascent of the soul into the intellectualworldaccordingto my poorbelief,which,at your desire, I haveexpressed--whetherrightlyor wronglyGodknows. But,whethertrue or false,my opinionis that in the worldofknowledgethe ideaof goodappearslastof all,and is seenonlywith an effort; and,whenseen, is alsoinferredto betheuniversalauthorof all thingsbeautifulandright,parentof lightandof the lordof lightin thisvisibleworld,and theimmediatesourceof reasonand truth in the intellectual;andthat this is the powerupon whichhe whowouldactrationallyeitherin publicor private life musthavehis eyefixed.

I agree,hesaid,as faras I amableto understandyou.Moreover,I said, you must not wonderthatthosewho

attain to this beatificvision are unwillingto descendtohumanaffairs; for theirsoulsare ever hasteningintotheupperworldwhere they desire to dwell; whichdesireoftheirsis verynatural,if ourallegorymaybe trusted.

Yes,verynatural.And is thereanythingsurprisingin onewhopassesfrom

divinecontemplationsto theevil stateof man,misbehaving

2x8 ' T/ie 1/gM of tke/vary /s /k O,e.'

"/_t_/k himselfina ridiculousmanner; if_whilehis eyesareblinkingvii. and before he has becomeaccustomedto the surrounding

soct^_, darkness,he is compelledto fight in courts of law, or-inGt_uo_.other places,about the images or the shadowsof imagesNothing

_di- of justice,and is endeavouringto meetthe conceptionsofnaryinthe thosewhohaveneveryet seenabsolutejustice?p_r_ng Anythingbutsurprising,he replied.una_to Anyone who has commonsensewill rememberthat the5_8seein thedark. bewildermentsof the eyes areof twokinds,and arisefromTheeyes twocauses,eitherfromcomingoutof thelightor fromgoingmayhe intothe light,whichis trueof the mind'seye, quiteasmuchblindedintwoways. as of the bodilyeye; andhe whoremembersthis whenheby_ sees anyone whosevisionis perplexedandweak,will notor by defectoflight, be tooreadyto laugh; he will firstaskwhetherthat soul

of man has come out of the brighterlife, and is unableto see becauseunaccustomedto thedark,orhavingturnedfromdarknessto the day is dazzledby excess of light.And hewill counttheonehappyin his conditionand stateof being,and he willpitythe other; or,if he havea mindto laughatthesoulwhichcomesfrombelowintothe light,therewill be morereasonin this thanin the laughwhichgreetshim who returnsfromaboveout of the lightintotheden.

That,he said,is a veryjustdistinction.

TheL_a- But then, if I am right, certain professorsof educationversionofthesouris mustbe wrongwhen theysay that theycan put a knowledgetheturninginto thesoulwhichwasnot there before,like sightintoblind

t roundthe eyes.

eyefromdarkness Theyundoubtedlysay this,he replied.to1ight. Whereas,ourargumentshowsthatthepowerandcapacity

of learningexists in the soul already; and thatjustas theeye was unableto turnfromdarknessto lightwithoutthewholebody,so toothe instrumentof knowledgecanonlybythemovementof thewholesoulbe turnedfromtheworldofbecomingintothatof being,and learnbydegrees toendurethesight of being,andof the brightestand bestof being,orinotherwords,of thegood.

Very true.And must there not be some art whichwill effectcon-

yersionin the easiestand quicltestmanner; notimplanting

%° ...

Ttm duties of tlwse wtm kave seen tAe ligkt, uI9

the facultyof sight,for that exists already,hut has been Re_tuturned in thewrongdirection,and is lookingawayfromthe wrLtruth_ s_**_

Yes,he said,suchanartmaybepresumed. Thevi_ueAnd whereasthe otherso-calledvirtuesof the soul seem ofwisdom

to be akinto bodilyqualities,foreven when theyare not hasadi-vinepoweroriginallyinnate they can be implantedlaterby habitand whichmayexercise,the virtueof wisdommorethananythingelsecon- beturnedeitherto-tains a divine elementwhichalwaysremains,and by this w_-dsgoodconversionisrenderedusefulandprofitable; or, on the otherortowardsevil.

5x9hand,hurtfulanduseless. Didyouneverobservethenarrowintelligenceflashingfromthe keeneye of a cleverrogue--howeagerhe is,howclearlyhis paltrysoul sees the waytohis end; he is thereverseof blind,buthis keeneye-sightisforcedintothe serviceof evil,andhe is mischievousin pro-portionto his cleverness?

Very true,he said.Butwhatif therehadbeena circumcisionof suchnatures

in the daysof theiryouth; andtheyhad beenseveredfromthosesensualpleasures,suchas eatinganddrinking,which,likeleadenweights,wereattachedtothemattheirbirth, andwhich dragthem downand turnthe vision of their soulsuponthe things that are below--if, I say, they hadbeenreleasedfromthese impedimentsandturnedin theoppositedirection,the verysamefacultyin themwouldhaveseenthetruthas keenlyas theysee what theireyes are turnedtonow.

Verylikely.Yes,I said; andthere is anotherthingwhichis likely,or Neither

rathera necessaryinferencefromwhat has preceded,that theunedu-catednorneitherthe uneducatedanduninformedofthe truth,noryet theo_-thosewhonevermakeanendof theireducation,willbe able educatedwillbeministersof State; not the former,becausethey have no goodset-single aim of dutywhich is the rule of all their actions,rantsofprivateas well as public;nor the latter,becausetheywill _ st,_notactat all exceptuponcompulsion,fancyingthat theyarealreadydwellingapartin the islandsof theblest.

Verytrue,he replied.Then,I said,the businessof uswho are the foundersof

the Statewill be to compel the best mindsto attain that

2_o Tke du'ldreu of ligkt will descod

Re_,a_ knowledgewhichwe havealreadyshown to he the greatestV/L ofall--theymustcontinueto ascenduntiltheyarriveatthe

so_. good; butwhenthey haveascendedand seen enoughWeGtat_x:m*.mustnot allowthemto doas theydonow.

Whatdo youmean?Menshould I meanthattheyremainin theupperworld: butthismustascendto notbeallowed; theymustbe madeto descendagainamongtheupperworld,but the prisonersin the den,andpartakeof theirlaboursandtheysaouldhonours,whethertheyareworthhavingor not.alsoreturntome But is not thisunjust? he said; oughtweto givethemalower, worselife,whentheymighthavea better?

You haveagainforgotten,my friend,I said,the intentionof the legislator,whodid not aimat makinganyone classintheState happyabovethe rest; the happinesswas to be inthe wholeState,and he held the citizenstogetherby per-suasionandnecessity,makingthembenefactorsofthe State,and thereforebenefactorsof one another; to this end he52ocreatedthem,not to pleasethemselves,but tobe his instru-mentsin bindinguptheState.

True,hesaid,I hadforgotten.Theduties Observe,Glaucon,that therewill be no injusticein tom-ofphiloso-phers, pelling our philosophersto have a care and providenceof

others; we shallexplainto themthatin otherStates,menof theirclassare notobligedto sharein the toilsofpolitics:and this is reasonable,for theygrowupat theirownsweetwill, and the governmentwould rathernot have them.Being self-taught,they cannotbe expectedto show anygratitudefora culturewhichthey haveneverreceived. Butwe havebroughtyouintotheworldto be rulersof thehive,kings of yourselvesand of the other citizens,and haveeducatedyoufar betterand moreperfectlythantheyhavebeeneducated,andyouare betterableto sharein thedouble

_robli- duty. Whereforeeach of you,whenhis turn comes,mustgatioustotheireou,-go downto the general undergroundabode,and get the

_l in- habitof seeingin the dark. Whenyou haveacquiredthedut_them habit, you will see ten thousand times better thanthe in-totakepartinhergo- habitantsof the den, and you will knowwhat the several_m_t. imagesare,andwhattheyrepresent,becauseyouhaveseen

thebeautifulandjust andgoodin theirtruth. AndthusourState,whichis alsoyours,willbe a reality,andnota dream

and g4ve ligkt to llte inlwAitants of the den. 2_I

only,and willbe administeredin a spiritunlikethatofother Rel_ticStates,in whichmen fightwith one anotherabout shadows vii.onlyand are distractedin the strugglefor power,whichin so¢_,_Gt_uco_.their eyes is a great good. Whereas the truth is that theState in which the rulers are most reluctantto govern isalwaysthe best and mostquietlygoverned,and the State inwhichtheyare mosteager,theworst.

Quitetrue,he replied.And will our pupils,when they hear this, refuse to take

their turn at the toilsof State,when theyare allowedtospendthe greaterpart of their timewith one anotherin theheavenlylight?

Impossible,he answered; for theyare just men,and the Theywillcommandswhichwe imposeupon them are just; there can bewillingbutnotbeno doubtthateveryoneofthemwill takeofficeas a stern anxioustonecessity,and notafter the fashionof our present rulers of rule.State.

Yes, my friend, I said; and there lies the point. You Thestates-521mustcontriveforyour futurerulers anotherand a betterlife nmnmustbeprovided

than that of a ruler,and then you mayhave a well-orderedwithaState; foronlyin the Statewhichoffersthis, will theyrule betterlifethanthatwhoare trulyrich,not in silverand gold,but in virtueand ofaruler;wisdom,which are the true blessingsof life. Whereas if andthenhewillnotthey go to the administrationof public affairs, poor and covetoffice.hungeringafter their own private advantage,thinkingthathence they are to snatch the chief good, order there canneverbe; for theywillbe fightingaboutoffice,and thecivilanddomesticbroilswhich thus arisewill be the ruin of therulersthemselvesandofthe wholeState.

Mosttrue,he replied.And theonly lifewhichlooksdownuponthelifeofpolitical

ambitionis thatof true philosophy. Do you knowof anyother?

Indeed,I donot,he said.And those who govern ought not to be lovers of the

task? For)if theyare, there will be rival lovers,and theywillfight.

Noquestion.Who thenarethosewhomweshallcompeltobeguardians?

Surelytheywillbe the menwho are wisestaboutaffairsof

222 TI_first a_.._o'Med_aiio_.R_c State,andbywhomthe State is bestadministered,andwho

at the same time haveother honoursand anotherand asoo_ betterlifethanthatof politics?

They are the men,and I willchoosethem,he replied.And now shall we considerin whatway such guardians

will be produced,and how they are to be brought fromdarknesstolight,--as someare said to haveascendedfromthe worldbelowto the gods?

By allmeans,he replied.Thetrain- The process,I said,is not the turningoverof an oyster-ingoftheshell_,butthe turninground of a soul passing from a daygtlsxdialls.

whichis little better than night to the true day of being,that is, the ascent from below2,whichwe affirmto be truephilosophy?

Quiteso.What Andshouldwe notenquirewhatsortof knowledgehastheknowiedgepowerofeffectingsucha change?willdrawthesoul Certainly.upwarOs? Whatsort of knowledgeis therewhichwould draw the

soul frombecomingto being? And another considerationhas justoccurredto me: You willrememberthatour youngmen are tobe warriorathletes?

Yes, thatwassaid.Then thisnewkindof knowledgemusthaveanadditional

quality?What quality?Usefulnessin war.Yes, if possible.

Re¢apitu- Therewere twoparts in ourformerschemeof education,latioa. werethere not?The first Just so.educationhaatwo Therewasgymnasticwhichpresidedover the growthandpart_mu- decayof thebody,and maythereforeberegardedas havingsicandgymnast_,to dowithgenerationand corruption?True.

Then that is not the knowledgewhichwe are seekingto 522discover?

In allusiontoa gamein whichtwoparties fledor ptmmedaccordingasan oyster-shellwhichwas thrownintothe air fellwiththedarkor light side

Pala_edes in gke_Olay. 223

NO, Re._ubli¢• But what do you say of music, what also entered to a VII.

certainextent into our formerscheme? so_A_G_t_coN.Music,he said,asyouwillremember,was thecounterpart

ofgymnastic,and trainedtheguardiansbytheinfluencesofhabit,by harmonymakingthem harmonious,by rhythmrhythmical,butnot givingthem science; and the words,whetherfabulousor possiblytrue,hadkindredelementsofrhythmand harmonyin them. But in musictherewasnothing which tendedto that good whichyou are nowseeking.

Youaremostaccurate,I said,inyourrecollection; inmusictherecertainlywasnothingof thekind. Butwhatbranchofknowledgeis there,my dearGlaucon,whichis of thedesirednature; sincealltheusefulartswerereckonedmeanbyus?

Undoubtedly; and yet if music and gymnasticare ex-cluded,andtheartsare alsoexcluded,whatremains?

Well, I said, there may be nothingleft of our specialsubjects;andthenwe shallhaveto takesomethingwhichisnotspecial,butof universalapplication.

Whatmaythatbe?A somethingwhichall artsandsciencesandintelligencesTherere-

USe in common,andwhicheveryonefirsthas tolearnamongmainsforthesecondthe elementsofeducation, education,

Whatis that? arithmetic;Thelittlematterof distinguishingone,two,andthree--in

aword,numberandcalculation:--donotallartsandsciencesnecessarilypartakeof them?

Yes.Thenthe artof warpartakesof them?To be sure.ThenPalamedes,wheneverhe appearsin tragedy,proves

Agamemnonridiculouslyunfitto be a general. Did youneverremarkhowhe declaresthathe hadinventednumber,and had numberedthe ships andset in arraythe ranksofthearmyatTroy; which impliesthat theyhad neverbeennumberedbefore,andAgamemnonmustbe supposedliterallyto havebeenincapableof countinghis ownfeet--howcouldhe if hewasignorantof number? Andif thatis true,whatsortof generalmusthe havebeen?

224 The mentaltraininggivenbyArithmetic.Rep_Z/c I should say a very strange one, if this was as you

VIZ say.so_,_, Canwe denythat a warrior should have a knowledgeofGta_cos.

arithmetic?Certainlyhe should,if he is to have the smallestunder-

standingof militarytactics,or indeed,I shouldrather say,ifhe is to be a manat all.

I shouldlike to knowwhetheryou have the same notionwhichI haveofthis study?

What isyour notion?thatbeing It appearsto me to bea studyof the kind whichwe area study seeking,and whichleadsnaturallytoreflection,but never to 523whichleadsnaturallytohavebeenrightlyused;forthetrueuseofitissimplyreflection,todrawthesoultowardsbeing.for

Willyouexplainyourmeaning?hesaid.Iwilltry,Isaid;andIwishyouwouldsharetheenquiry

withme,andsay'yes'or'no'whenIattempttodistinguishinmy own mindwhatbranchesofknowledgehavethisattractingpower,inorderthatwe mayhaveclearerproofthatarithmeticis,asIsuspect,oneofthem.

Explain,he said.reflectionis I meantosaythatobjectsof senseareoftwokinds; somearousedbycontradict-of themdo not invite thoughtbecausethe sense is an ade-oryimpres-quatejudgeof them; whilein thecaseof otherobjectssensesense.Si°nsof is so untrustworthythat furtherenquiryis imperativelyde-

manded.Youare clearlyreferring,he said,to themannerinwhich

the sensesare imposeduponby distance,andbypaintinginlightandshade.

No, I said,thatis notat allmy meaning.Thenwhatis yourmeaning?Whenspeakingof uninvitingobjects,I meanthosewhich

do not pass fromone sensationto the opposite; invitingobjectsare thosewhichdo; in this lattercase the sensecomingupon the object,whether_it a distanceor near,gives no morevivid ideaof anythingin particularthanofitsopposite. An illustrationwillmakemymeaningclearer:--here arethreefingers--alittle finger,a secondfinger,anda middlefinger.

Verygood.

The comparison of sensible objects. 225

You maysupposethat theyare seenquiteclose:And here Republiccomesthepoint, vii.

What is it9 soc_._,• GLAUCON.

Eachof themequallyappearsa finger,whetherseen in the Nodiffi-middleor at the extremity,whetherwhiteor black,or thick eultyinor thin--it makesno difference; a finger is a fingerall the simplel_er-same. In these cases a man is not compelledto ask of ception.thought the question what is a finger? for the sight neverintimatesto the mindthat a fingeris otherthan a finger.

True•And therefore,I said,as we mightexpect,there isnothing

here whichinvitesor excitesintelligence.There is not, he said.But is this equallytrue of the greatnessand smallnessof Butthe

the fingers? Can sightadequatelyperceivethem? and is no sa.mesensesat the samedifferencemadebythe circumstancethat oneof the fingers timegiveis in themiddleand anotherat the extremity? And in like differentimpres-manner does the touch adequatelyperceivethe qualitiesof sionswhichthicknessor thinness,of softnessor hardness? And so of areatfirstindistinctthe other senses; do they give perfect intimationsof such andhaveto

524matters? Is not their modeof operationon thiswise--the bedistin-sense which is concernedwith the qualityof hardness is guisbedbythemind.necessarilyconcernedalso with the qualityof softness,andonly intimatesto the soul that the samething is felt to bebothhardand soft?

Youare quiteright,he said.And must not the soul be perplexed at this intimation

whichthe sense givesof a hardwhich is alsosoft? What,again,is the meaningoflight andheavy,if thatwhichis lightis alsoheavy,andthat whichis heavy,light?

Yes,he said,these intimationswhichthe soulreceivesareverycuriousandrequireto be explained.

Yes¢I said, andin these perplexitiesthe soul naturally Theaidofsummonstoher aidcalculationandintelligence,that shemay numbersisinvokedinsee whether the several objectsannouncedto her are one ordertoremovetheor tWO. confusion.

Title,

And ifthey turn out to betwo,is noteach ofthemoneanddifferent?

Certainly.Q

226 Tke sli_tulali_g #ower of o_bosition.

/e_ Andif eachis one,andbotharetwo,shewill conceivetheVII,two as in a stateof division,for if theywereundividedthey

So_._T_,couldonlybeconceivedof asoneGLAtg:ON° °

True.Theeyecertainlydidsee bothsmallandgreat,butonlyin

a confusedmanner;they werenotdistinguished.Yes.

Thechaos Whereas the thinkingmind, intendingto light up thethenbeginschaos, was compelledto reverse the process,and look attobede-fined, smallandgreatas separateandnot confused.

Verytrue.Was not this the beginningof the enquiry 'What is

great?' and 'What is small?'Exactlyso.

Tbepart- And thus arose the distinctionof the visible and theingoftim intelligible.visibleandintelligible. Mosttrue.

ThiswaswhatI meantwhenI spokeofimpressionswhichinvitedthe intellect,or the reverse--thosewhichare simul-taneouswith oppositeimpressions,invite thought; thosewhichare notsimultaneousdonot.

I understand,he said,andagreewithyou.Andto whichclassdounityandnumberbelong?I donotknow,hereplied.

Thoughtis Thinka little and you will see that what has precededarousedbythecon-will Supplythe answer; for if simple unity could betradiction adequatelyperceivedby the sight or by anyother sense,oftheone then,as weweresayinginthecaseof thefinger,therewouldandmany.

be nothingto attracttowardsbeing;hutwhenthereis somecontradictionalwayspresent,and one is thereverseof oneandinvolvestheconceptionof plurality,thenthoughtbeginsto bearousedwithinus, and the soulperplexedandwantingto arriveata decisionasks'Whatisabsoluteunity?' Thisisthewayinwhichthestudyof theonehas a powerofdrawing5a5andconvertingthemindto thecontemplationoftrue being.

Andsurely,hesaid,thisoccursnotablyin thecaseofone;forwe see the same thingto be both one and infiniteinmultitude?

"Yes,I said; and this beingtrue of one must be equallytrue ofall number?

Aritl_,netie to be tile flrsg study of t],.eguardians. 227

Certainly. R,_,bZ/cAnd allarithmeticandcalculationhavetodowithnumber? vii.YeS, SocxA-n_,

And theyappearto leadthemindtowardstruth?Yes, ina veryremarkablemanner.Then this is knowledgeof the kind for whichwe are Arithmetic

seeking,havinga doubleuse,militaryandphilosophical; for hasaprac-ticalandthe manof war mustlearn the art of numberor he willnot alsoaphi-knowhow to arrayhis troops,and the philosopheralso, losophicaluse, thebecausehe has to rise outof thesea of changeandlayhold _ttertheoftrue being,and thereforehe mustbe anarithmetician, higher.

That is true.And ourguardianis bothwarriorandphilosopher?Certainly.Then this is a kind of knowledgewhich legislationmay

fitlyprescribe; and we must endeavourto persuade thosewhoare tobe the principalmenof our State togo and learnarithmetic,not as amateurs,but theymustcarryon thestudyuntil theysee the natureofnumberswith themindonly; noragain,likemerchantsor retail-traders,witha viewto buyingor selling,but for the sakeof their militaryuse,and of thesoul herself; and becausethis will be the easiestway for"her topass frombecomingto truth andbeing.

That is excellent,he said.Yes, I said, and now having spoken of it, I must add

how charmingthe science is! and in how manyways itconducesto our desired end, if pursuedin the spirit of aphilosopher,and notof a shopkeeper!

Howdo youmean?I mean,as I wassaying,that arithmetichas a very great Thehigher

and elevatingeffect,compellingthe soul to reason about .arithmetic• IS COn-

abstract number,and rebellingagainst the introductionof c_raed,visibleor tangibleobjectsinto the argument. You know notwithvis_le orhow steadilythe masters of the art repel and ridiculeany tangibleonewhoattemptsto divideabsoluteunitywhenhe is calcu- abj_-ts,butwith ab-lating, andifyoudivide,theymultiply1 takingcarethatone s_cthUm-shallcontinueone andnotbecomelost infractions. _-rs.

i Meaning either (x) that they integrate the numberbecause they deny thepossibility of fra_ions ; or (2) that division is regardedby them as a process ofmultiplleation, for the fractions of one continnc to be units.

228 Order of Studies, I) AritAmetic, 2) Geometry.

Re_//_ That is very true.Now, supposea person were to say to them: O my526So_,TEs.friends,what are thesewonderfulnumbersaboutwhichyouGutt_os.

are reasoning,in which,as yousay, there is a unitysuchasyou demand,and eachunit is equal,invariable,indivisible,whatwouldthey answer?

They would answer,as I should conceive,that they werespeakingof those numberswhichcan only be realized inthought.

Then you see that this knowledgemay be truly callednecessary,necessitatingas it clearlydoes the useof thepureintelligencein theattainmentof pure truth?

Yes ; that isa markedcharacteristicof it.Thearith- And have you further observed,that those who have ameti_anis natural talent for calculationare generallyquick at everynaturallyquick,and other kind of knowledge; and even the dull, if they havethestudyofhad an arithmeticaltraining, althoughthey may derive noarithmeticgiveshim otheradvantagefrom it, alwaysbecomemuchquickerthansungreatertheywouldotherwisehavebeen.quickness.Very true, he said.

Andindeed,you wiltnot easilyfinda moredifficultstudy,andnot manyas difficult.

Youwillnot.And,for all these reasons,arithmeticis a kind of know-

ledgein whichthe best naturesshouldbe trained,andwhichmustnot be givenup.

I agree.Let this then be made one of our subjectsof education.

And next, shallwe enquirewhetherthe kindredsciencealsoconcernsus?

You meangeometry?Exactlyso.

C,eometry Clearly, he said, we are concernedwith that part ofhaspraeti-geometrywhichrelates to war; for in pitchinga camp, orcalappli-cations; takingup a position,or closingor extendingthe linesof an

army, or any other militarymanoeuvre,whether in actualbattleor on a march,it willmake all the differencewhethera generalisor is nota geometrician.

Yes, I said, but for that purpose a very little of eithergeometryor calculationwillbe enough; the questionrelates

T]_ a_tvantages of/he sludy of geot_try. 229

ratherto the greater and more advancedpartof geometry-- R_h_whether that tends in any degree to makemore easy the vii.visionof the idea of good; and thither,as I was saying,all so,_T_,things tend whichcompelthe soul to turn her gaze towards thesehow-that place,where is the full perfectionof being,whichshe everateought,byallmeans,tobehold, triflingin

eoml_4.,$onTrue, hesaid. withthatThen ifgeometrycompelsus toviewbeing,it concernsus ; greaterpartofthe

if becomingonly,it doesnotconcernus? scienceS27 Yes,that iswhatwe assert, whichtendstowardsthe

Yetanybodywhohas theleastacquaintancewithgeometrygood,willnotdenythatsucha conceptionof the scienceis inflatcontradictionto the ordinarylanguageofgeometricians.

Howso?They havein viewpracticeonly,andare alwaysspeaking,

in a narrow and ridiculousmanner,of squaringandextend-ing and applyingand the like--they confusethe necessitiesof geometrywith those of daily life; whereasknowledgeisthe real objectof thewholescience.

Certainly,he said.Then mustnot a further admissionbemade?What admission?That theknowledgeat whichgeometryaims is knowledgeandiscon-

ofthe eternal,andnot ofaughtperishingandtransient, eemedwiththeeternal.That,he replied,maybereadilyallowed,and is true.Then, my noble friend,geometrywill drawthe soul to-

wardstruth,and createthe spiritof philosophy,andraiseupthatwhichisnow unhappilyallowedtofalldown.

Nothingwillbe more likelyto havesuchan effect.Thennothingshouldbe moresternlylaiddownthan that

the inhabitantsof your fair city shouldby all meanslearngeometry. Moreoverthe sciencehas indirecteffects,whichare notsmall.

Ofwhatkind? hesaid.There are the militaryadvantagesof whichyouspoke,I

said; and in all departmentsof knowledge,as experienceproves,anyonewhohasstudiedgeometryis infinitelyquickerof apprehensionthanonewhohas not.

Yes indeed,he said,thereis an infinitedifferencebetweenthem.

23o Solid geometry sAouldl_recede3) solids in motion.

_'_/ic Thenshallwe proposethis as a secondbranchof know-VII.ledgewhichouryouthwillstudy?

so¢_, Let us doso,he replied.Gt.a_oa_

And supposewe makeastronomythe third--whatdo yousay?

Astrono- I am stronglyinclinedto it, he said; the observationofmy,liketheprevious the seasonsand of months and years is as essentialto thesciences,generalas it is to thefarmeror sailor.isatfirst I am amused,I said, at your fear of the world,whichp_-d byG_u_n makesyouguardagainstthe appearanceof insistinguponforitsprac-uselessstudies; andI quiteadmitthe difficultyof believingticaluses.

thatin everymanthereis aneyeof the soulwhich,whenbyother pursuits lost and dimmed,is by these purifiedandre-illumined; and is more preciousfar than ten thousandbodilyeyes,forbyit aloneis truthseen. Nowtherearetwoclassesof persons: one classof thosewhowill agreewithyou andwill takeyourwordsasa revelation; anotherclassto whomtheywillbe utterlyunmeaning,andwhowillnatur-5=8ally deemthemto beidle tales,fortheysee no sortof profitwhich is to be obtainedfromthem. And thereforeyouhad betterdecideat once with whichof the twoyou areproposingto argue. Youwillvery likelysay withneither,and that your chiefaimin carryingon the argumentis youi-ownimprovement; at the sametimeyou do not grudgetoothersanybenefitwhichtheymayreceive.

I think that I shouldprefer to carryon the argumentmainlyon myownbehalf.

Correction Then take a stepbackward,forwe havegonewrongin theofthe order ofthe sciences.Older.

Whatwas themistake? hesaid.After planegeometry,I said, we proceededat once to

solidsin revolution,insteadof takingsolidsin themselves;whereasafter the seconddimensionthe third,whichis con-cernedwithcubesanddimensionsof depth,oughtto havefollowed.

That is true, Socrates; but so littleseemsto be knownasyet aboutthesesubjects.

Why, yes, I said,and for two reasons:--in the firstplace,no governmentpatronises them; this leads to a want ofenergyin the pursuit of them,and theyare difficult; in the

'If tke government would only take it up.' 231

secondplace,studentscannot learn themunlesstheyhave a Rt_lic

director. But then a directorcan hardlybe found,and even vii.ifhe could,as mattersnowstand, thestudents,whoare very So_,_,_,O_t_zoH.conceited,would not attend to him. That, however,would Thepi_-be otherwiseif thewholeStatebecamethe directorof these ab_con-studiesandgavehonourto them; then discipleswouldwant ditionofsolklto come,and therewouldbe continuousand earnest search, geom_w.and discoverieswouldbe made; sinceevennow,disregardedas they are by the world,and maimedof their fair propor-tions,andalthoughfioneof their votariescan tellthe useofthem, still these studies force their way by their naturalcharm,andvery likely,ifthey hadthe helpof the State,theywouldsomedayemergeinto light.

Yes,he said,there is a remarkablecharminthem. But Ido not clearly understandthe changein the order. Firstyoubeganwitha geometryof planesurfaces?

Yes,I said.And youplacedastronom_next, andthenyou madea stepbackward?Yes, andI havedelayedyoubymyhurry; the ludicrousThemotion

stateof solidgeometry,which,in naturalorder, shouldhaveofsol_s.followed,mademe pass over this branchand go on toastronomy,ormotionof solids.

True,hesaid.Thenassumingthat the sciencenowomittedwouldcome

into existenceif encouragedby the State, let us go on toastronomy,whichwillbefourth.

The rightorder,he replied. Andnow,Socrates,as you _ueonrebukedthe vulgarmanner in whichI praisedastronomygrows_-timental

529before,mypraise shallbe given in your ownspirit. For aboutas-every one, as I think,must see that astronomycompelstronomy.the soul to lookupwardsand leads us fromthisworldtoanother.

Everyone but myself,I said; to everyone else thismaybe clear, butnot to me.

Andwhatthenwouldyousay?I should rather say that those who elevateastronomy

intophilosophyappearto me to makeus look downwardsandnotupwards.

Whatdoyoumean? he asked.

i=_:_-," =o

23u 4) Astronomy one form of tAe motion of solids:

A'e-a_ You, I replied, have in your mind a truly sublimecon-VII. ceptionof our knowledgeof the things above. And I dare

Soc_,_s, say thatif a personwereto throwhis head backand studyGt.Auco_.the frettedceiling,you wouldstill thinkthathis mindwasHe is re-

b_edby the percipient,and not his eyes. And you are very likelyso:rates, right,and I may be a simpleton: but, in my opinion,that

knowledgeonly whichis of beingand of the unseencanmakethe soul look upwards,and whethera mangapesattheheavensor blinkson the ground,seekingto learnsomeparticularof sense, I would deny that he can learn, fornothingof thatsort ismatterof science; his soulis lookingdownwards,notupwards,whetherhiswaytoknowledgeis bywateror by land,whetherhefloats,or onlylies onhisback.

whoex- I acknowledge,he said,thejustice of your rebuke. Still,plainsthat l should like to ascertainhowastronomycan be learned inthe higherastronomyanymannermore conduciveto that knowledgeof whichweisanab- are speakingstract sci-ence. I will tell you, I said: The starry heavenwhichwe

beholdis wroughtupona visible ground,and therefore,althoughthe fairest and most perfect of visible things,mustnecessarilybedeemedinferiorfar to the truemotionsof absoluteswiftnessand absoluteslowness,which arerelativeto each other,and carrywith themthatwhichiscontainedin them,in the truenumberand in every truefigure. Now, these are to be apprehended by reasonandintelligence,butnotbysight.

True,hereplied.The spangledheavensshouldbe usedas a patternand

witha viewto thathigherknowledge; their beautyis likethe beautyof figures or picturesexcellentlywrought bythe hand of Daedalus,or some other great artist, whichwe maychanceto behold; anygeometricianwhosaw themwouldappreciatethe exquisitenessof their workmanship,buthe wouldneverdreamof thinkingthat in themhecouldfindthe trueequalor the true double,or thetruth of anyotherproportion. 530

No,he replied,suchan ideawouldbe ridiculous.Andwillnota trueastronomerhavethesamefeelingwhen

he looksat the movementsof the stars? Will he not thinkthat heaven and the things in heaven are framedby the

7

5) Harmonics, another form. 233

Creatorof them in the mostperfectmanner? But he will Rep_,_never imaginethat the proportionsof night and day,or of VlLboth to the month,or of the month to the year; or of the so_,GL_COK.stars to theseand to one another,and anyother things thatare materialand visiblecanalsobe eternal and subject tono deviation--thatwouldbe absurd; and it isequallyabsurdto takesomuchpainsin investigatingtheir exacttruth.

I quiteagree,thoughI never thoughtof thisbefore.Then, I said, in astronomy,as in geometry,we should The

employproblems,and let the heavensaloneif we would lmowledgeof astro-approach the subject in the right way and so make the hornyornaturalgiftof reasonto beof anyrealuse. geometryis tobe

That, he said, is a work infinitelybeyondour presentattainedbyastronomers, the use of

abstrac-Yes,Isaid;andtherearemanyotherthingswhichmust,ions.

alsohaveasimilarextensiongiventothem,ifourlegislationistobeofanyvalue.Butcanyoutellme ofanyothersuitablestudy?No,hesaid,notwithoutthinking.Motion,Isaid,hasmanyforms,andnotoneonly;twoof

themareobviousenougheventowitsnobetterthanours;andthereareothers,asI imagine,whichmaybeleRtowiserpersons.Butwherearethetwo?Thereisasecond,Isaid,whichisthecounterpartofthe

onealreadynamed.Andwhatmaythatbe?Thesecond,Isaid,wouldseemrelativelytotheearstobeWhat_-

whatthefirstistotheeyes;forIconceivethatastheeyestronomyisto the eye,aredesignedto lookupat the stars,so are theears to hear harmonicsharmoniousmotions; andthese are sister sciences--asthe aretotheear.Pythagoreanssay,and we, Glaucon,agreewiththem?

Yes, hereplied.Butthis, I said, is a laboriousstudy,and thereforewe

had better go and learnof them; and they will tell uswhetherthereare anyotherapplicationsof thesesciences.At the sametime,we mustnot lose sightof ourownhigherobject.

Whatis that?There is a perfectionwhichall knowledgeoughtto reach,

234 Harmonics: em_'rical, Pythafforean, ideal.

Republ/_and whichour pupilsought also to attain,and not to fallvii. short of,as I was sayingthattheydid in astronomy. For

so_,T_, in the scienceof harmony,as you probablyknow,thesame53'Or.Jmco_.

Theymust thing happens. The teachers of harmony compare thebesmdied soundsand consonanceswhich are heard only, and theirwithaviewlabour,likethatof theastronomers,is invain.to thegoodandnot Yes,by heaven!he said; and 'tis as goodas a playtoafterthe hear them talking about their condensednotes, as theyfashionoftheempi- callthem; they put their ears closealongsideof the stringstiesorevenlikepersonscatchinga soundfrom theirneighbour'swall'-ofthePy- one set of them declaringthat they distinguishan inter-thagorea_s.mediatenoteand havefoundthe leastintervalwhichshould

betheunitofmeasurement; the othersinsistingthatthetwosoundshavepassedintothesame--eitherpartysettingtheirearsbeforetheirunderstanding.

Youmean,I said,those gentlemenwho tease andtorturethe stringsand rack themon the pegs of the instrument:I mightcarryon themetaphorandspeakafter theirmannerof theblowswhichthe plectrumgives,andmakeaccusationsagainstthestrings,bothof backwardnessandforwardnesstosound; butthiswouldbe tedious,andthereforeI willonlysaythattheseare not themen,andthatI amreferringto thePythagoreans,of whomI wasjust nowproposingtoenquireaboutharmony. For they too are in error, like the astro-nomers;theyinvestigatethenumbersof theharmonieswhichare heard,buttheyneverattainto problems--thatis to say,theyneverreachthenaturalharmoniesof number,or reflectwhysomenumbersare harmoniousandothersnot.

That,he said,is a thingof morethanmortalknowledge.A thing,I replied,whichI wouldrathercalluseful; thatis,

if soughtafterwitha viewto the beautifulandgood; butifpursuedinanyotherspirit,useless.

Verytrue, hesaid.Anthese Now, when all these studies reach the point of inter-studies communionandconnectionwithoneanother,andcometobemustbe_aT_tatedconsidered in their mutualaffinities,then, I think,but notmmone tiltthen,willthe pursuitof themhaveavaluefor ourobjects;another.

otherwisethereis no profitin them.t Or,'close alongsideof theirneighbour'sinstruments,as if to catchasound

fromthem.'

The revelation of dialectic. _35

I suspectso ; but you are speaking,Socrates,of a vast Re_z_work. vii.

What do you mean? I said; the preludeor what? Do soc_m,Gt_.uco_.you not knowthat all this is but the preludeto the actualstrainwhichwe have to learn? For you surely wouldnotregardtheskilledmathematicianasa dialectician?

Assuredlynot, he said; I have hardlyever knowna Wantofmathematicianwhowascapableofreasoning, reasoningpower in

But do you imaginethat men who are unableto give mathema-532andtakea reasonwillhavetheknowledgewhichwe require ticians.

of them?Neithercanthisbesupposed.Andso,Glaucon,I said,wehaveat lastarrivedatthehymnt_ect_

of dialectic. This is that strainwhichis of theintellectonly, proceedsby reasonbutwhich the facultyof sight will neverthelessbe foundonly,with-to imitate;for sight,as you mayremember,was imaginedoutanyhelp ofby us after a while to beholdthe real animalsand stars, sense.and last of all the sun himself. And so with dialectic;when a personstarts on the discoveryof the absoluteby the lightof reason only,and withoutany assistanceofsense,and perseveresuntil by pureintelligencehe arrivesat the perceptionof the absolutegood,heat lastfindshim-self at the end of the intellectualworld,as in thecaseofsightat the endof the visible.

Exactly,hesaid.Thenthisis theprogresswhichyoucalldialectic?True.But the releaseof the prisonersfromchains,and their Thegra-

translationfromtheshadowsto the imagesand to thelight, dualac-quirementandthe ascentfromthe undergrounddento the sun,while ofdia_in hispresencetheyarevainlytryingto lookon animalsand bythc_r-s-_itof theplants and the lightof the sun,butareableto perceiveeven artsantici-with their weakeyes the imagest in the water [whichare paredinthe alle-divine_[andaretheshadowsof trueexistence(notshadowsof goryoftheimageseastbya lightof fire,whichcomparedwiththesunis den.onlyanimage)--thispowerof elevatingthehighestprinciplein the soul to the contemplationof thatwhichis best inexistence,withwhichwe maycomparethe raisingof that

t OmittingJ_a_0a_ _rpbr_vdwpa_a.Theword0,_ isbracketedbyStalllmum.

236 Z)ialectic alone ascends to a first principle.

Republicfacultywhichis the very lightof thebodyto the sightofthatVII. which is brightest in the material and visibleworld--this

soc,A,,_,powerisgiven,as I wassaying,byall that study andpursuitGL^_CON. of thearts whichhas beendescribed.I agree in whatyou are saying,he replied,whichmaybe

hard tobelieve,yet,fromanotherpointof view,isharderstillto deny. This however is not a themeto be treated of inpassingonly, butwillhave to be discussedagain and again.Andso,whetherourconclusionbe trueor false,letusassumeall this,and proceed at once fromthe preludeor preambleto the chiefstrain ', and describethat in likemanner. Sa3;then, what is the nature and what are the divisionsofdialectic,and what are the paths which lead thither; forthesepathswillalsoleadto our finalrest.

The nature Dear Glaucon,I said, you will not be able to followme533of dialecticcanonlrbehere,thoughI woulddomybest,andyoushouldbeholdnotanrevealedto imageonly but the absolute truth, accordingto my notion.thosewho Whetherwhat I toldyou would or would not have been ahave beenstudentsof realityI cannot ventureto say ; but you wouldhave seenthepre|i- somethinglike reality; of thatI amconfident.minarysci-ences, Doubtless,he replied.

But I must also remindyou, that the power of dialecticalonecan reveal this,andonlyto onewhois a discipleof theprevioussciences.

Ofthat assertionyou maybe as confidentas ofthe last.And assuredlyno onewill argue that there is any other

methodof comprehendingby any regular process all trueexistenceor of ascertainingwhat each thing is in its ownnature; for the arts in general are concernedwith thedesiresor opinionsof men,or are cultivatedwitha viewtoproductionand construction,or for the preservationof suchproductionsand constructions;and as to the mathematicalscienceswhich,as we were saying,have someapprehensionof true being--geometryandthelike--theyonlydreamaboutbeing,but never can theybehold thewakingrealityso longas theyleavethe hypotheseswhichtheyuseunexamined,andare unable to give an accountof them. For when a manknows not his own first principle,andwhen the conclusion

' AplayuponthewordJ,dg.os_whichmeansboth'law'and'straia.'

' Why should we dispute aboug names ._' 237

and intermediatesteps are alsoconstructedout of he knows Republicnot what,how can he imagine that such a fabricof con- vH.ventioncan ever becomescience? So_AT_,

Impossible,he said. G_oN.Then dialectic,anddialecticalone,goesdirectlyto the first whichare

principle and is the only sciencewhich does awaywith her hand-maids.hypothesesin order to makeher ground secure; the eyeofthe soul,whichis literallyburiedin an outlandishslough,isby her gentleaid liftedupwards; andshe usesas handmaidsand helpers in the work of conversion,the scienceswhichwe havebeendiscussing. Customterms themsciences,butthey oughtto havesomeothername,implyinggreaterclear-ness than opinionandless clearnessthan science: and this,in our previoussketch,was calledunderstanding. Butwhyshould we dispute aboutnames whenwe have realities ofsuch importanceto consider?

Why indeed,he said,when anyname will do which ex-presses the thoughtof themindwithclearness?

At any rate, we are satisfied,as before, to have four Twodivi-divisions"two for intellectand two for opinion,and to call sionsofthemind,intel-the first division science, the second understanding, the tectandthird belief,and the fourthperceptionof shadows,opinion opinion,eachhaving534beingconcernedwithbecoming,and intellectwithbeing; and twosub-so to makea proportion:-- divisions.

Asbeingis tobecoming,so ispureintellecttoopinion.And as intellectis toopinion,so issciencetobelief,andunder-

standingto theperceptionofshadows.But let us defer the further correlationand subdivisionofthesubjectsof opinionand of intellect,for itwill be a longenquiry,manytimeslonger than thishasbeen.

Asfar as I understand,he said, I agree.Anddo youalsoagree, I said,indescribingthedialectician

as onewhoattainsa conceptionof theessenceofeachthing?And he who does not possessand is thereforeunable toimpart this conception,in whateverdegree he fails, mayin that degreealsobe said tofail in intelligence? Will youadmitsomuch?

Yes,he said; howcan I denyit?And youwouldsaythesameoftheconceptionofthegood?

Untilthe personis able to abstractanddefinerationallythe

238 Dialecgieg_ co,lug-same._'e_/c idea of good,and unless he can run the gauntlet of all

vii. objections,and is readyto disprovethem,not by appealssm_, to opinion,butto absolutetruth,never falteringat anystepGr_tToa_

of the argument--unlesshe can do all this,youwouldsayNo truthwm,=hd_sthat he knows neitherthe idea of good nor any othernotreston good; heapprehendsonlyashadow,ifanythingat all,whichtheideaof .good IS given by opinionand not by science;--dreaming and

slumberingin this life, before he is well awakehere, hearrivesat theworldbelow,and has.hisfinalquietus.

In allthatI shouldmostcertainlyagreewithyou.Andsurelyyouwouldnothavethechildrenof yourideal

State,whomyou arenurturingand educating--ifthe idealever becomesa reality--youwouldnot allowthe futurerulers to be likeposts1,havingno reasonin them,and yetto be set in authorityoverthe highestmatters?

Certainlynot.Thenyou will makea law thattheyshallhavesuch an

educationaswill enablethem to attainthe greatest skillinaskingandansweringquestions?

Yes,he said,youandI togetherwillmakeit.oughtto Dialectic,then,as youwillagree, is thecoping-stoneofthehave a highpLa_. sciences,andis setoverthem; no othersciencecanbeplaced

higher--the natureof knowledgecan no furthergo?I agree,he said.But towhomwe are to assign these studies,and inwhat 535

waythey are to be assigned,are questionswhichremain tobe considered.

Yes,clearly.You remember,I said,howthe rulers werechosenbefore?Certainly,he said.

Theha- Thesamenaturesmuststill bechosen,andthepreferencetmlgifts again given to the surest and the bravest,and, if possible,_arerequiredin to the fairest; and, having noble and generous tempers,thea_ect-they should also have the naturalgiftswhichwill facilitateician:atowardly theireducation.under- Andwhatarethese?gaading;agood "Suchgiftsas keennessand readypowersof acquisition;tt,_ory; for the mindmore often faintsfromthe severityof study

7_, literally_lines,'probablythestarting-pointofa_urse.

The uagural and acquired qualigiesof tke dialeetidan. 239

than from the severityof gymnastics:the toil is more en- RejOuMietirelythe mind'sown,and is notsharedwith the body. P'II.

Verytrue, he replied, so_.G_c.oJ.

Further,he of whomwe are in searchshouldhavea good strengthofmemory,and be an unweariedsolid manwho is a lover of char_ter;labourin anyline; or he willnever be able to endurethegreat amountof bodilyexerciseand to go throughall theintellectualdisciplineandstudywhichwe requireof him.

Certainly,he said; he musthavenaturalgifts.The mistakeat present is,that thosewhostudyphilosophy

have no vocation,and this, as I was beforesaying, is thereason why she has fallen into disrepute: her true sonsshouldtakeher bythe hand andnot bastards.

What do youmean?In the first place, her votaryshould not have a lame or industry;

halting industry--I mean, that he should not be half in-dustriousand half idle: as, for example,when a man is aIoverof gymnasticand hunting, and all other bodilyexer-cises,but a hater rather than aloverof the labourof learningor listeningor enquiring. Or the occupationto whichhedevoteshimself may be of an oppositekind, and he mayhavetheother sort oflameness.

Certainly,he said.Andas to truth, I said,is not a soulequallyto be deemed loveof

halt and lame which hates voluntaryfalsehoodand is ex- truth;tremelyindignantat herself and otherswhen theytell lies,but is patient of involuntaryfalsehood,and does not mindwallowinglikea swinishbeast in the mire of ignorance,andhas noshameat beingdetected?

To be sure.536 And, again, in respect of temperance,courage,magnifi-tl_moral

cence, and every other virtue, should we not carefullyvi_aes.distinguish between the true son and the bastard? forwhere there is no discernmentof such qualitiesstates andindividualsunconsciouslyerr ; and the state makesa ruler,and the individuala friend,of one who,beingdefectiveinsomepart ofvirtue,is in a figurelameor a bastard.

That is very true, he said.Allthese things,then, willhave to becarefullyconsidered

by us ; and if only those whomwe introduceto this vast

240 The graining of tke dialectician.

Re#a_/,_systemof educationand trainingaresoundin bodyandmind,I.'I/. justice herselfwill have nothingto sayagainstus, andwe

so_T,_, shall be the savioursof the constitutionand of the State;G_voa_.but, if our pupils are men of anotherstamp,the reversewill happen,and we shall pour a still greaterflood ofridiculeon philosophythanshe hasto endureatpresent.

Thatwouldnotbe creditable.Socrates Certainlynot, I said; and yet perhaps, in thus turningplaysa jest intoearnestI amequallyridiculous.littlewithhimselfand Inwhatrespect?hissub- I had forgotten,I said, thatwe were not serious,and_t. spokewith toomuchexcitement. For when I saw philo-

sophy so undeservedlytrampledunderfootof menI couldnothelpfeelinga sort of indignationat the authorsof herdisgrace: andmyangermademetoovehement.

Forthe Indeed! I waslistening,anddidnot thinkso.studyof ButI, whoamthe speaker,felt thatI was. And nowletdialectictheyoungme remind you that, although in our former selectionwemustbe choseold men,wemustnot do so in this. Solonwasunderselected.

a delusionwhenhe said that a man whenhe growsold maylearn many things--for he can no more learn much thanhe can run much; youth is the timefor any extraordinarytoil.

Of'course.Thepre- And,therefore,calculationandgeometryandall theotherffminaryelementsof instruction,whichare a preparationfor dialectic,studiesshould shouldbe presentedto the mindinchildhood; not,however,becorn- underany notionof forcingoursystemof education.mencedinchildhood.Why not?butnever Becausea freemanought not to be a slave in the acqui-forced.

sition of knowledgeof any kind. Bodily exercise, whencompulsory,does no harm to the body; but knowledgewhich is acquired under compulsionobtains no hold onthe mind.

Very true.Then, my good friend, I said, do not use compulsion,hut

let earlyeducationbe a sort of amusement; youwill thenbe 537betterable tofindout the naturalbent.

That is a veryrationalnotion,he said.Doyou rememberthatthe children,too,were tobe taken

TAe order of tAe kiKtter education, u4t

to see the battle on horseback;and that if there were no Re/_//cVII.danger they were to be broughtclose up and, like young

hounds,haveataste of bloodgiventhem? So_**T_,G_.avco_.Yes,I remember.The same practicemay be followed,I said, in all these

things--labours,lessons,dangers--and he who is most athomein allof themoughtto be enrolledin a selectnumber.

Atwhatage?At the age when the necessarygymnasticsare over: the Theneees-

periodwhether of two or three years whichpasses in this sarygym-nasticssort of trainingis uselessfor anyotherpurpose; for sleep mustbeand exerciseare unpropitiousto learning"and the trial completedfirst.of whois first in gymnasticexercises is one of the mostimportantteststo whichouryoutharesubjected.

Certainly,he replied.After thattimethosewho are selectedfromthe classof Attwenty

twentyyearsoldwill bepromotedto higherhonour,andthe yearsofagethedis-scienceswhich theylearned withoutanyorder in theirearly cipleswilleducationwill now be brought together, and they will be begintobetaughttheable to see the natural relationshipof themto one another correlationandto true being, ofthesol-

Yes, he said, that is the only kindof knowledgewhichences.takeslastingroot.

Yes,I said; andthe capacityforsuch knowledgeis thegreatcriterionof dialecticaltalent: the comprehensivemindisalwaysthedialectical.

I agreewithyou,he said.These, I said,are the pointswhichyou mustconsider;Atthirty

andthose whohavemost of this comprehension,andwho themostpromising

are moststeadfastin their learning,and in their militarywinheand other appointedduties,when they have arrived at the placedinaage of thirty will have to be chosen by you out of the _ecteaass.select elass, and elevatedto higher honour; and you willhave to prove them by the help of dialectie,in order tolearnwhichof them is able to give up the use of sightandtheothersenses,and incompanywithtruth to attainabsolutebeing: And here, myfriend,greatcautionis required.

Why great caution? ThegrowthDo you not remark,I said, howgreatis the evil whichofscepti-

dialectichas introduced? eismR

2_2 Tke dangerof dialecticalstudies.

R_//l_ Whatevil? hesaid.The studentsofthe artarefilledwithlawlessness.so_aT_, Quitetrue,he said.GL_tmON.

Do you think thatthere is anythingso veryunnaturalor inexcusablein theircase? or willyou makeallowanceforthem?

Inwhatwaymakeallowance?inthe I wantyou, I said, by way of parallel,to imagineasandsof supposititioussonwho is broughtup in great wealth; hetheyoangtaustrateais one of a great and numerousfamily,and has many538bytheeaseflatterers. Whenhe growsup to manhood,he learnsthatof a suppo-_iatio-_ his allegedare not his realparents; but whothe realareson. he is unable to discover. Can you guesshow he willbe

likelyto behavetowardshis flatterersand his supposedparents,firstof all duringthe periodwhenhe is ignorantofthefalserelation,andthenagainwhenheknows? Or shallI guessforyou?

If youplease.whoeea_s ThenI shouldsay,thatwhilehe is ignorantof the truthtohonourhewillbe likelyto honourhis fatherandhis motherandhishisfatherwhenhe supposedrelationsmorethanthe flatterers; he willbe lessdiscoversinclinedto neglectthemwhenin need,or to door sayany-thatheis thing againstthem; and he will he less willingto disobeynot his

father, themin anyimportantmatter.He will.But whenhe hasmadethe discovery,I shouldimagine

thathewoulddiminishhishonourand regardfor them,andwouldbecomemoredevotedtotheflatterers; theirinfluenceoverhimwouldgreatly increase; he wouldnow live aftertheirways,and openlyassociatewith them,and, unless hewereofan unusuallygooddisposition,hewouldtroublehim-selfno moreabouthissupposedparentsor otherrelations.

Well, all that is veryprobable. But how is the imageapplicableto the disciplesofphilosophy?

In this way: you knowthat thereare certainprinciplesaboutjusticeandhonour,whichweretaughtus in childhood,andundertheirparentalauthoritywe havebeenbroughtup,obeyingandhonouringthem.

Thatis true.Thereare also oppositemaximsand habitsof pleasure

They undermine recdved o;_'nia_sand beliefs. 243

whichflatterandattractthe soul,butdonot influencethose Re_lle

of uswhohaveany senseof right,and theycontinueto obey vii.and honourthemaximsoftheir fathers, soc_T_,_ot_ocoH.True.

Now, when a man is in this state,and the questioningsomenspiritaskswhat is fairor honourable,and he answersas the whobeamtoanalyselegislatorhas taught him, and then argumentsmany and thefirstdiverse refute his words,until he is driveninto believingprinciplesofmoralitythat nothingis honourableanymore than dishonourable,or ceasetore-jUStand goodanymore than the reverse,and so of all the spectthem.notionswhichhe mostvalued,doyou think thathe willstillhonourand obeythemas before?

Impossible.Andwhenhe ceasesto think themhonourableand natural

539as heretofore,and he fails to discoverthe true, can he beexpectedto pursueanylifeotherthan thatwhichflattershisdesires?

He cannot.Andfrombeinga keeperofthe lawhe is convertedintoa

breakerof it?Unquestionably.Nowall this is verynaturalin studentsof philosophysuch

as I havedescribed,and also,as I wasjust nowsaying,mostexcusable.

Yes,he said; and, I mayadd,pitiable.Therefore, that your feelingsmay not be movedto pity

about our citizenswho are now thirty years of age, everycare mustbe takenin introducingthemto dialectic.

Certainly.There is a danger lest theyshould tastethe dear delight Youngmen

too early; for youngsters,as you mayhaveobserved,when arefondofpuningthey firstget thetaste in theirmouths,arguefor amusement,truthtoand are alwayscontradictingand refutingothersin imitationpiecesandthusbringof those who refute them; like puppy-dogs,they rejoice in disgracepullingand tearingat allwhocomenear them. uponthem-selvesand

Yes,he said, there is nothingwhichtheylike better, uponphi-And when they have made manyconquestsand received losophy.

defeatsat the hands of many, they violentlyand speedilyget into a wayofnot believinganythingwhichtheybelievedbefore,and hence,notonlythey,butphilosophyand all that

R 2

244 The differepztpursuits of menat differentages.Republic relates to it is apt to havea bad namewith the rest of the

VII. world.so_,aT_, Too true,he said.Gu_oN,

Butwhen a man beginsto getolder,he willno longerbeThe dialec-ticianand guiltyof suchinsanity; he willimitatethedialecticianwhoistheeristie,seekingfortruth, andnot the eristic,whois contradictingfor

the sake of amusement,and the greater moderationof hischaracterwill increaseinsteadof diminishingthe honourofthe pursuit.

Verytrue,he said.And did we not make specialprovisionfor this, when

we said that the disciplesof philosophywere to be orderlyand steadfast, not, as now, any chance aspirant or in-truder?

Very true.Suppose,I said,the studyof philosophyto take the place

ofgymnasticsandtobe continueddiligentlyandearnestlyandexclusivelyfortwice the numberofyearswhichwerepassedin bodilyexercise--willthat be enough?

Thestudy Wouldyou saysix or fouryears? he asked.dphiloso- Say fiveyears,I replied; at theend of the timethey mustphyto con-tinue for be sentdownagainintothe den andcompelledto holdanyfiveyears;militaryor other officewhichyoung men are qualifiedto3o-35. hold: in thiswaytheywillget their experienceof life, and

there will be an opportunityof tryingwhether,when theyare drawnall mannerof waysbytemptation,theywillstandfirmor flinch.

Andhowlongis this stageof their livesto last? 540Duringfir- Fifteenyears,I answered; and when they have reachedteenyears,fiftyyears of age,then let thosewhostill surviveandhave35-5o,theyaretohold distinguishedthemselvesin everyactionof their livesandinoffice. everybranchof knowledgecomeat lastto theirconsumma-At the end tion: the timehas nowarrivedatwhich theymustraisetheof thattime eye of the soul to the universallight which lightens alltheyaretolivechieflythings,andbeholdthe absolutegood; for thatis thepatternin thecon-according to which they are to orderthe State and thetemplationofthegood,lives of individuals,and the remainderof their own livesbutocca- also; makingphilosophytheirchiefpursuit,but,whentheirsionaUytoreturnto turncomes,toilingalso at politicsand rulingforthe publicpolitics, good, not as though they were performingsome heroic

The means 3y whick our State may 3e realized. 245

action,butsimplyasa matterof duty; and whentheyhave Republicbrought up in eachgenerationothers like themselvesand vH.left themin their place to be governorsof the State, then So_,T_G_uco_.they willdepartto the Islands of the Blestand dwellthere ;and the citywillgive them publicmemorialsand sacrificesand honourthem,ifthePythianoracleconsent,as demigods,but if not, as in anycaseblessedanddivine.

You are a sculptor,Socrates,and have made statues ofour governorsfaultlessin beauty.

Yes,I said, Glaucon,and of ourgovernessestoo; for youmust not suppose that what I have been saying appliesto men only and not to women as far as their naturescan go.

There you are right, he said, sincewe have made themto share in all things likethe men.

Well, I said, and you would agree (would you not?)that what has been said about the State and the govern-ment is not a mere dream, and although difficultnot im-possible, but only possible in the way which has beensupposed; that is to say,when the true philosopherkingsare born in a State, one or more of them,despising thehonoursof this present worldwhich they deem mean andworthless,esteemingaboveall things right and the honourthat springsfromright,and regardingjusticeas thegreatestand most necessaryof all things,whoseministersthey are,and whoseprincipleswillbe exaltedby themwhen they setin order their owncity?

Howwill theyprtsceed?They willbegin by sendingout into the country all the Practical

inhabitantsofthe citywho are morethan ten yearsold,and measuresfor thewilltakepossessionof their children,whowillbe unaffectedspeedybythe habitsof their parents; these theywill train in their foundationof theown habits and laws,I meanin the lawswhichwe have State.given them: and in this way the State and constitutionof whichwe were speakingwill soonest and most easilyattainhappiness,and the nationwhichhas sucha constitu-tionwillgainmost.

Yes, that will be the bestway. And I think,Socrates,thatyou haveverywell describedhow,if ever, sucha con-stitutionmightcomeintobeing.

246 Tke end.

Re_ViLublicEnoughthen of the perfectState, and of the man whobears its image--thereis no difficultyinseeinghowwe shall

so¢_, describehim.Gt_vco_.There is no difficulty,he replied; and I agreewithyou in

thinkingthat nothingmoreneedbe said.

BOOK VIII.

StelOla.ANDSO,Glaucon,we havearrivedat the conclusionthatin Republic543 the perfectStatewivesand childrenare to be in common; viii.

and that all educatio_ p'_gfi_t_sofwar and peaceare Soe_ATr_,Gta_uco_.

also to be common,and the best philosophersand the Recapitu-bravestwarriorsare to be their kings? lationof

That, repliedGlaucon,has beenacknowledged. BookV.Yes, I said; and we have further acknowledgedthat_

the governors,when appointed themselves,will take their\soldiersandplacetheminhousessuchas weweredescribing,|whichare commonto all, and contain nothing private,or]individual; and about their property, you rememberwhat/we agreed?

Yes, I rememberthat no one was to have any of theordinary p0sse.ssionsof mankind; they were to be warriorathletes and guardians,receivingfromthe other citizens,inlieu of annual payment,only their maintenance,and theywere to takecareof themseel_'7_--andofthew-_holeState.

True, I said; and now that this divisionof our task isconcluded,letus find the point at whichwe digressed,thatwe mayreturn into theold path.

There is no difficultyin returning; you implied,then as Returntonow,that you hadfinishedthe descriptionof the State: you theendofBookIV.said that sucha Statewas good,and that the manwasgoodwhoansweredto it,although,as nowappears,you hadmore

544excellent things to relate both of State and man. Andyousaid further,thatif thiswas the trueform,thenthe otherswerefalse; and of the false forms,yousaid, as I remember,that therewerefourprincipalones,andthat theirdefects,andthe defectsof the individualscorrespondingto them,wereworthexamining. Whenwehadseenall the individuals,andfinallyagreedas towhowasthebestandwhowasthe worst

248 The four forms of government,

Rei#ublie of them,we were to considerwhether the best was notvII£ also the happiest, and the worst the most miserable. I

soc_Tzs,askedyou whatwerethe four formsof governmentof whichGLAt_CO_Z,you spoke, and then Polemarchusand Adeimantusput intheirword; and you beganagain,and havefoundyourwaytothe pointat whichwe havenowarrived.

Your recollection,I said,is mostexact.Then, like a wrestler,he replied,you mustput yourself

again in the same position; and let me ask the samequestions,and do you give me the same answer whichyou wereaboutto giveme then.

Yes, if I can, I will,I said.I shall particularlywish to hear what were the four

constitutionsof whichyouwerespeaking.Fourim- Thatquestion,I said,iseasilyanswered: the fourgovern-perfecteonoment_t.Q_whichI"spoke,so far as theyhavedistinctnames,stitutions.theCretanare, _rst_those of Creteand_ whichare generallyorSpartan,applau_d ; what is termed O_garch_comesnext; this isOligarchY.Demo.not equallyappr_nd is a"ffts_ of governmentwhichemey, teemswithevils:_hirdlv_democracy,whichnaturallyfollowsTyranny.

oligarchy,although_ifferent :and_es tyranny,greatand famous,whichdiffers from tlTetw-a_-I1,and is thefourthandworstdisorderofa State. I do notknow,doyou?of anyotherconstitutionwhichcanbesaidto havea distinctcharacter.Thereare lordshipsandprincipalitieswhichareboughtand sold, and some other intermediateforms ofgovernment.Buttheseare nondescriptsand maybefoundequallyamongHellenesandamongbarbarians.

Yes,he replied,we certainlyhearof manycuriousformsofgovernmentwhichexistamongthem.

Statesare Do you know, I said, that governmentsvary as thelikemen, dispositionsof men vary, and that there must be as manybecause

theyare of the one as there are of the other? For we cannotJ_t _r,raadeupofsuppose that States are madeof'oak and rock,'and not/]_#/ Jram. out of the _es which are in them,and which//'¥_//

in a figureturn the scale_ drawotherthingsafter them? '¢-.!

Yes, he said, the States are as theg.!_n are; theygrowoutof humancharacters. -'_"-_ -_......_

Then ifthe constitutionsofStatesare five,the dispositionsof individualmindswiltalsobe five?

and tAefour individuals who anwwer to tAem. 249

Certainly. Repubh'cHim who answers to aristocracy,and whom we rightly viii.

545calljustandgood,we havealreadydescribed, soo_,We have. c_o,.Then let us nowproceed to describe the inferiorsort of

natures,being the contentiousand,ambitious,who answer.\to the Spartan polity; also the ohgarchlcal,democratieal,and tyrannical. Let us place the mostjust by the side ofthe most unjust, and when we see themwe shall be ableto comparethe relative happinessor unhappinessof himwho leads a life of pure justice or pure injustice. Theenquirywillthen be completed. Andwe shallknowwhetherwe ought to pursue injustice,as Thrasymachusadvises,orin accordancewiththe conclusionsof the argumentto preferjustice.

Certainly,he replied,wemustdo as you say.Shall we followour old plan,which we adoptedwith a TheState

view to clearness,of taking the State first and then pro- andthein-ceedingto the individual,and beginwith the governmentof ,_ividual.honour?--I knowof no name for sucha governmentotherthan timocracy,or perhapstimarchy. We willcomparewiththis the like character in the individual; and, after that,consideroligarchyandthe oligarchicalman; and thenagainwewill turn ourattentiontodemocracyandthe democraticalman; and lastly,we will go and viewthe city of tyranny,and oncemore takea lookinto the tyrant's soul, and try toarriveat a satisfactorydecision.

That way of viewingand judgingof the matter will bevery suitable.

First, then, I said, let us enquire how timoeracy(the nowti-governmentof honour)arises outof aristocracy(thegovern-moeraeyarisesoutofmentof the best). Clearly,all politicalchangesoriginatein aristocracy.divisionsofthe actualgoverningpower; agovernmentwhichis united,howeversmall,cannotbe moved.

Very true,he said.In what way, then, will our city be moved,and in what

mannerwillthe twoclassesofauxiliariesandrulers disagreeamong themselvesor with one another? Shall we, afterthe manner of Homer, pray the Muses to tell us 'howdiscord first arose'? Shall we imagine them in solemn

250 The#ur_Oerof t_ State.

R/_//.,_ mockery,to play and jest with us as if we were children,and to addressus in a lofty tragicvein, makingbelievetosoo_Tn, be in earnest?Gt.Atmvx.

Howwouldthey addressus ?Afterthis manner:--A citywhich is thus constitutedcan 546

hardlybe shaken; but, seeing that everythingwhich hasa beginninghasalsoan end,evena constitutionsuchasyourswillnotlast forever,butwill in timebedissolved. And thisis thedissolution:--In plants that growin the earth,as wellas in animalsthat moveon the earth's surface,fertilityandsterilityof soul and bodyoccur when the circumferencesof thecirclesofeacharecompleted,whichin short-livedexist-encespass overa short space,and in long-livedonesovera

Theintel- longspace. But to the knowledgeof humanfecundityandligeace sterilityall thewisdom_-d_d_n-donof yourrulerswillnot"-whichisalloyed attain; the lawswhichregulatethemwillnotbediscoveredbywithsense an intelligencewhich is alloyedwith sense,butwill escapewillnotknowhow them,andthey willbringchildrenintothe worldwhentheytoregu_teoughtnot. Nowthatwhich is of divinebirthhas a periodbirthsanddeathsin which is containedin a perfectnumber,1but the periodofa_dance humanbirthis comprehendedina numberin whichfirstin-withthenumber crementsby involutionandevolution[orsquaredand cubed]whichcon-obtainingthreeintervalsandfourtermsof like andunlike,trotsthem.waxingand waningnumbers,makeall the termscommen-

surableandagreeableto one another? The base of these(3) with a third added(4)whencombinedwithfive(2o)andraisedto the thirdpowerfurnishestwo harmonies; thefirsta squarewhichisa hundredtimesas great(4oo= 4 x zoo),3and the othera figurehavingone sideequalto theformer,butoblong/consistingof a hundrednumberssquareduponrationaldiametersof a square(i.e. omittingfractions),thesideofwhichis five(7 x 7 = 49 × zoo= 49oo),eachofthem

J i.e. a cyclicalnumber,suchas 6,whichis equalto the sumof its divisorsx, a, 3,so that whenthe circleortimerepresentedby6 is completed,thelessertimesorrotationsrelnesentedby l, 2,3 arealso completed.

Probablythe numbers3,4, 5, 6of whie_,hthethree first--thesidesof thePythagoreantriangle. The terms will then be 33,4"_,53, which together_-6s=216.

s Or the firsta squarewhichis xoo×ioo-_Io,ooo. Thewholenumberwillthenbe iT,Soo_a squareof _oo,andanoblongofloo by75.

' Rending_ a/.

T_ first st_ in _ descent. 25Ibeing less by one (tl_an the perfect square which includes Re#_/dkthe fractions, so. 5o) or less by I two perfect squares of I/Ill.irrational diameters (of a square the side of which is five Soctar_.GL&IIO_.= 5o + 5o = IOO); and a hundred cubes of three (27 × xoo= 2700 + 4900+ 4o0 = 8ooo). Now this number representsa geometrical figure which has control over the good andevil of births. For when your guardians are ignorant of thelaw of births, and unite bride and bridegroom out of season,the children _411not be goodly or fortunate. And thoughonly the best of them will be appointed by their predecessors,still they will be unworthy to hold their fathers' places, andwhen they come into power as guardians, they will soon befound to fail in taking care of us, the Muses, first by under-valuing music ; which neglect will soon extend to gymnastic ;and hence the young men of your State will be less cultivated.In the succeeding generation rulers will be appointed whohave lost the guardian power of testing the metal of your_different races, which, like Hesiod's, are of gold and silver

547and brass and iron. And so iron will be mingledwith silver,and brass with gold, and hence there will arise dissimilarityand inequality and irregularity, which always and in allplaces are causes of hatred and war. This the Muses affirmto be the stock from which discord has sprung, whereverarising ; and this is their answer to us.

Yes, and we may assume that they answer truly.Why, yes, I said, of course they answer truly; how can

the Muses speak falsely .9And what do the Muses say next .9When discord arose, then the two races were drawn Th_dis-

different ways: the iron and brass fell to acquiring money eordm_e landindivi-and land and houses and gold and silver; but the gold and dualtooksilver races, not wanting money but having the true riches in theplaceofcommolltheir own nature, inclined towards virtue and the ancient property.order of things. There was a battle between them, and atlast they agreed to distribute their land and houses amongindividual owners ; and they enslaved their friends and main-tainers, whom they had formerly protected in the conditionof freemen, and made of them subjects and servants; and

i Or, 'co:mistingof twonumberssquareduponirrationaldiameters,'&c.=_loo. ForotherexplanationsofthepassageseeIntroduction.

252 I. Fro_ theperfectstateta a'macr_y.R,puge_-they themselveswereengagedinwarand in keepingawatchvIIL againstthem.

s_T_. I believethat you haverightlyconceivedtheoriginofthechange.

And the newgovernmentwhich thus ariseswill be of aformintermediatebetweenoliga_hy and aristocracy?

Very true. _ --Suchwill be the change,and after the change has been

made,howwill theyproceed? Clearly,the newState,beingin a mean between oliar__ an_ate, willpartly followone and partier, and willalso havesomepeculiarities.

True, he said.In the honour given to rulers, in the abstinenceof the

warrior class from agriculture,handicrafts,and trade ingeneral, in the institution of commonmeals, and in theattention paid to gymnasticsand militarytraining--in allthese respectsthisState willresemblethe former.

True.

TiraoeracyBut in thefearofadmittingphilosophersto power,becausewillretain they are no longer to be had simpleand earnest, but arethemilitaryandreject madeup of mixed elements; and in turning from them tothephilo- passionateand less complexcharacters,who are by naturesophicalcharacter fittedfor war rather than peace; and in the value set by 548oftheper-them upon militarystratagemsand contrivances,and in thefeetState.

wagingof everlastingwars--this Statewill be for the mostpartpeculiar.

f Yes._ Thesoldier Yes, I said; and men of this stamp willbe covetousof

classmiser-lyar_ money,like thosewho live in oligarchies; theywill have acovetous,fiercesecret longing after gold and silver, whichthey will

hoard in dark places,having magazinesand treasuries oftheir own for the deposit and concealmentof them; alsocastleswhichare just nests for their eggs,andin whichtheywillspendlargesumson their wives,or onanyotherswhomtheyplease.

That ismosttrue, he said.And they are miserlybecause they have no means of

openly acquiring the money which they prize; they willspend that which is another man's on the gratificationof

The timocratic man--his origin and ckaracter. 253

their desires,stealingtheirpleasuresand runningawaylike_Xe_l/cVIII,

childrenfromthe law, theirfather: theyhave been schooledI "not bygentle influencesbut byforce,forthey haveneglected CLAUs,,her who is the true Muse, the companionof reason and ao_,M_,_s.philosophy,andhavehonouredgymnasticmorethan music.

Undoubtedly,he said, the formof governmentwhichyoudescribeis a mixtureof goodandevil.

Why, there is a mixture,I said; but one thing, and one Thespiritthing only,is predominantlyseen,--the spirit of e,_,,t_,,_if_ptffambitionr..._omi-and ambition; and these are due to the prevalenceof the naresinpassionateor spiritedelement, suehStates.

Assuredly,he said.Such is the origin and such the characterof this State,

whichhas been describedin outlineonly; the moreperfectexecutionwas not required,for a sketchis enoughto showthe typeofthe mostperfectlyjust and mostperfectlyunjust;and to go through all the States and all the charactersofmen, omitting none of them, would be an interminablelabour.

Very true, he replied.Nowwhatmananswersto this formof government--howThetimo-

didhe comeinto being,andwhat ishe like"_; cradCuncultured,man.I think, saidAdeimantus,that in the spirit of contentionbutfond

whichcharacteriseshim,he is not unlikeour friendGlaucon.ofculture,ambitious,Perhaps, I said,he maybe likehiminthat onepoint; but eonteati-

thereare other respectsinwhichhe isverydifferent, ous,roughwithslaves,Inwhatrespects? andcour-He shouldhavemoreofself-assertionandbelessculti-teousto

vated,andyetafriendofculture"andheshouldbeagoodfreemen;, asoldier,549listener,but no speaker. Such a personis apt to be rough athlete,

withslaves,unlike the educatedman,who is too proudfor hunter;adespiserofthat; andhe willalsobe courteousto freemen,andremark- richeswhileably obedient to authority; he is a lover of power and a young.fondoflovrg.L_honour;claimingtobearuler,notbecauseheisthemwheneloquent,oronanygroundofthatsort,butbecauseheisa hegrowssoldierandhasperformedfeatsofarms;heisalsoaloverold.ofgymnasticexercisesandofthechase.Yes,thatisthetypeofcharacterwhichanswerstotimo-

cracy.Suchanonewilldespiserichesonlywhenheisyoung;

354 TT_e.t£n_ocrat£cman.

Rep_ but as he gets older he will be more and moreattractedtoviii. them, because he has a piece of the avariciousnature in

SOt*ATe,him,andis not single.mindedtowardsvirtue,havinglosthisAD_T-US.bestguardian.

Who wasthat ? saidAdeimantus.Philosophy,I said, temperedwith music,who comesand

takesup her abodein a man,and is the onlysaviourof hisvirtue throughoutlife.

Good,he said.Such,I said, is the timocraticalyouth,and he is like the

timocraticalState.Exactly.His originisas follows:--He is often theyoungson of a

bravefather,whodwellsin an ill-governedcity,ofwhichhe ]declinesthe honoursand offices,andwill not go to law,orexerthimselfin anyway,but is readytowaivehis rights inorder thathe mayescapetrouble.

Andhowdoesthe son comeintobeing?Thetimo- The character of the son begins to developewhen hecratieman hearshis mothercomplainingthat her husbandhas noplaceoften ori-ginates in in the government,of whichthe consequenceis that she hasar_aetionno precedence among other women. Further, when sheagainst hisfather's sees her husbandnot veryeager aboutmoney,andinsteadcharacter,of battlingand railingin the lawcourts or assembly,takingwhichis whateverhappens to him quietly; and when she observesencouragedbyhis that his thoughtsalwayscentre in himself,whilehe treatsmother, her withveryconsiderableindifference,she is annoyed,and

saysto her son that his father is onlyhalfa manand far tooeasy-going:addingall the other complaintsabout her ownill-treatmentwhichwomenare sofondof rehearsing.

Yes, said Adeimantus,they give us plenty of them, andtheir complaintsare so likethemselves.

andby Andyouknow,Isaid,thattheoldservantsalso,whoaresup-theo_dser-posedto be attachedto the family,fromtime to timetalk pri-rants of thehousehold,vately in the samestrain to the son; and if they see anyone

who owesmoneyto his father,or is wronginghim in anyway,and he fails to prosecutethem, theytell the youththatwhenhe growsuphe mustretaliateuponpeopleof thissort, 550and be moreof a man than his father. He hasonly towalkabroadandhe hearsand sees thesame sortof thing : those

I1. From timocracy to oligarchy, u55

whodo their own businessin the cityare calledsimpletons,Republicand held in no esteem,while the busy-bodiesare honoured gill.and applauded. The result is that the youngman,hearing so_r_and seeingall these things-hearing, too, the wordsof hisfather, and havinga nearer view of his way of life, andmakingcomparisonsof himand others--is drawnoppositeways: while his father is watering and nourishing therationalprinciple in his soul, the others are encouraging1the passionateand appetitive; and he beingnot originally]of a bad nature, but having kept bad company,is at last |broughtby theirjoint influenceto a middlepoint, andgives,[up the k_._;-'h ;_withinhim to the middleprinciple-'lof contentiousnessand passion,and becomesarroga_--_tandJambitious.

Youseemto meto havedescribedhis originperfectly.Then wehavenow,I said,the secondformof government

and thesecondtypeof character?We have.Next, letus lookat anothermanwho,as Aeschylussays,

'Is set overagainstanotherState;'

or rather,as ourplan requires,beginwith the State.By allmeans.I believethat oligarchyfollowsnext in order. OligarchyAndwhatmannerofgovernmentdoyou term oligarchy.9A governmentresting ona valuationofproperty,in which

the richhavepowerand the poormanis deprivedofit.I understand,he replied.Ought I not to begin bydescribinghowthe changefrom

timocracytooli_arch)rarises?

Well, I said,no eyesare required in order to seehowtheone passesinto the other.

How?The accumulationof goldin the treas_rivate indivi-arlsesoutot

duals is the ruin of timocracv;they invent illegal modes iaereasm-- ., aeettraula-of expenditure; forwhatdotheyor theirwivescareaboutthe tionandlaw? iaerea_a

expeadi-Yes,indeed, tareamongAnd then one, seeinganother grow rich, seeks to rival theeiti_ns.

256 The evils of oligar¢k),.

Rel_blic him,andthus the greatmassofthe citizensbecomeloversofVIII. money.

So¢_, Likelyenough. /_koglMaL._rrus.

And so they grow richer and richer, and the more theyAsrichesincrease,thinkof makinga fortune the less theythink of virtue; forvirtuede- when riches and virtue are placed together in the scales Jcrea._s :theoneis ofthe balance,the onealwaysrises as the other falls.honoured, True.theother I 6 as richesandrich menare honouredin_5xdespised-/. And mproportion

theone'[ theState, virtueand thevirtuousare dishonoured.f.._.J/cultivated,t /",, Itheother "" Llearly.neglected. Andwhatis honouredis culd-Cated,_and4hat_aichhasno

honouris neglected.That isobvious.And soat last,insteadof lovingcontentionandglory,men

becomeloversof trade and money; they honour and lookupto the richman, and makea ruler of him,and dishonourthepoor man.

Theydo so.Inanoli- They next proceed to make a law which fixes a sumgarehya of moneyas thequalificationof citizenship; thesumishighermoneyqua- .lifieation m one placeand lowerin another,as the oligarchyismore

isestab- or less exclusive; and they allow no one whose property [|ish_. fallsbelowthe amountfixedto haveanyshare in thegovern- /

ment. These changesin the constitutionthey effectbyforceofarms, ifintimidationhas not ah'eadydonetheir work.

Very true.And this,sp_erally, is thewayinwhiclr_garch_N_is established_ " "_-__...)Yes, he said; butwhat are the characteristicsof this form

of government,and what are the defectsof whichwe werespeaking_?

A ruler is First ofall, I said,considerthe nature of thequalification.electedbe- Just think what would happenif pilots were to be choseneatmeheisrich: accordingto their property, and a poor man were refusedWhowoulapermissiontosteer, eventhoughhe werea better pilot?eteeta pilotonthis Youmeanthat theywouldshipwreck?principle? Yes; and isnot this true ofthe governmentof anything_?

I shouldimagineso.a Cp. st_pra,544C. _ Omitting_ q'_.

TIw evils of oligarchy. _.57

Excepta city?--or wouldyou includea city? ge_#li¢Nay, he said, the case of a city is the strongestof all, viii.

inasmuchas the rule of a city is the greatestand most soc_T_difficultof all. _--r_.

This, then,willbe thefirstgreatdefectofoligarchy?Clearly.Andhere is anotherdefectwhichis quiteas bad.What defect?The inevitabledivision: such a State isnot one,but two Theex-

States,the oneof poor,the otherof richmen; and theyare trcmedi-visionoflivingon the same spot and alwaysconspiringagainstone classesinanother, sucha

State.That,surely, isat leastas bad.Another discreditablefeature is, that, for a like reason, Theydare

they are incapableof carryingon anywar. Either theyarm notgotoWar.the multitude,andthen they are moreafraidof themthan ofthe enemy; or, if they do not call them out in the hourof battle, they are oligarchs indeed, few to fight as theyare few to rule. And at the same time their fondnessfor moneymakesthemunwillingto paytaxes.

How discreditablelAnd, as we said before,under such a constitutionthe i

552same persons have too many callings--they are husband- Jmen, tradesmen,warriors,all inone. Doesthat lookwell?

Anythingbut well.There isanotherevilwhichis,perhaps,the greatestof all,

and towhichthis State first beginsto be liable.What evil?A man maysell all that he has, and anothermayacquire Theruined

his property; yet after the sale he may dwell in the city man.whohasnooc-of whichhe is no longera part, being neither trader, nor cupation.artisan,nor horseman,nor ho_plite,but onlya poor,helpless onceaspendthrift,creature, nowa pau-

Yes,thatis an evilwhichalsofirstbeginsin this State. per,stillexistsin theThe evil is certainlynot preventedthere ; for oligarchiesState.

haveboththe extremesof greatwealthandutterpoverty.True.But think again: In his wealthy days, while he was

spendinghis money,was a man of this sort a whit moregood to the State for the purposes of citizenship? Or

s

_$8 Theflying and walldng drones, stingers or sgingless.

R#lic did he only seem to be a member of the ruling body,viii. althoughin truth he was neither ruler nor subject,but just

so__,, a spendthriR?AtlD_tliIANTtr_

As you say, he seemed to be a ruler, but was only aspendthrift.

Maywenotsaythatthisis the drone in the housewhoislike the drone in the honeycomb,and that the one is theplagueof thecityas theother is of the hive?

Just so,Soerates.

l And God has made the flying drones, Adeimantus,allwithoutstings,whereasof the walkingdrones he has madet some without stings but others have dreadful stings; ofI the stinglessclass are those who in their old age end as

paupers; of the stingerscomeall the criminalclass,as theyare termed.

Mosttrue, he said.Where Clearlythen,wheneveryou see_paupersin a State,some-thereare where in that neighbourhoodthere are hi_d'_, awaythievespaupers,

thereare and cut-pursesand robbers of temples,and all sorts ofthieves malefactors.

Clearly.Well, I said, and in oligarchicalStates do you not find

paupers.9Yes, he said; nearly everybodyis a pauperwho is not

a ruler.and other And may we be so boldas to affirmthat there are alsocriminals.

manycriminalsto be foundin them,rogueswho havestings,andwhomthe authoritiesare carefultorestrainbyforce.9

Certainly,wemay be sobold../ ] The existenceof such personsis to be attributedto want

_; of education, ill-training,and an evil constitutionof the/ State?: True.

Such,then, is the formand suchare theevilsof oligarchy;and theremaybe manyotherevils.

Very likely.Then oligarchy,or the formof governmentin which the553

rulers are electedfor their wealth,maynow be dismissed.Letus next proceedto considerthe natureand originof theindividualwhoanswersto thisState.

,#

From gke timocragical to tke oliKarchical man. 259

Byallmeans, lCepublicDoesnot the timoeraticalmanchangeinto the oligarchical viii.

onthiswise? s_,,_.ALi;_MANTUS.

How? TheruinofA timearrives when the representativeof timocracyhas the timo-

a son: at firsthe beginsbyemulatinghis fatherandwalkingcraticaimng_in his footsteps,but presentlyhe sees him of a sudden birthtothefounderingagainst the State as upona sunkenreef,and he oligarchi-cal.and all that he has is lost; he may havebeen a generalorsome other high officerwho is brought to trial under aprejudice raised by informers,and either put to death, orexiled,or deprivedof the privilegesof a citizen,and all hispropertytakenfromhim.

Nothingmorelikely.And the son hasseen and knownall this--he is a ruined Hisson

man, and his fear has taught him to knockambitionand beginslifearuinedmanpassionheadforemostfromhis bosom'sthrone; humbledby andtakespovertyhe takesto money-makingand bymeanand miserly tomoney-savingsandhard work gets a fortune together. Is not such making.an _)nelikelyto seat the concupiscentandcovetouselementon thevacant throne and to sufferit to play the greatkingwithinhim,girt withtiara andchainand scimitar?

Mosttrue, he replied.Andwhenhe has madereason and spiritsit downonthe

groundobedientlyoneithersideoftheirsovereign,andtaughtthem to knowtheir place,he compelsthe one to think onlyof how lesser sums may be turned into larger ones, andwillnot allowthe otherto worshipand admireanythingbutriches andrichmen,or tobe ambitiousof anythingsomuchas the acquisitionofwealthandthe meansof acquiringit.

Ofallchanges,hesaid,thereis nonesospeedyorsosureasthe conversionofthe ambitious_outhinto the avariciousone.

Andthe avarimous,I said, mthe-ohgarchlcalyouth?Yes,he said; at anyrate the individualout of whom he TheoU-

cameis like the Stateoutof whicholigarchycame. garchicalmanandLet us thenconsiderwhetherthereisanylikenessbetweenstatere-

them. sembleoneanotherin554 Verygood. theirtmti-

First, then,they resembleone another in the valuewhich matio=ofthey set uponwealth? wealth:

S2

26o The individual and tke Slate again.

_'epubt_ Certainly.viii. Also in their penurious, laborious character; the indi-

S_,AT_,vidualonlysatisfieshis necessaryappetites,and confineshisADEIM_I"U_.

in their expenditureto them; his other desires he subdues,undertoilingand the ideathat theyare unprofitable.saving True.ways,intheirwant He isa shabbyfellow,whosaves somethingout of every-ofeultiva- thingand makesa purse for himself; and this is the sort oftion.

manwhomthevulgarapplaud.IshenotatrueimageoftheStatewhichhcrepresents?Hc appearstome tobeso; atanyratemoneyishighly

valuedbyhimaswellasbytheState.Youseethatheisnotamanofcultivation,Isaid.Iimaginenot,hesaid;hadhebeeneducatedhewould

neverhavemadeablindgoddirectorofhischorus,orgivenhimchiefhonour_.Excellent!Isaid.Yetconsider:Mustwc notfurther

ladmitthatowingtothiswantofcultivationtherewillbcfoundinhimdronelikedesiresasofpauperandrogue,whichareforciblykeptdownbyhisgeneralhabitoflife.9True.Doyouknowwhereyouwillhavetolookifyouwantto

discoverhisrogueries.9WheremustIlook?

Theoli- Youshouldsee himwhere he has somegreatopportunitygarehiealofactingdishonestly,as in theguardianshipof an orphan.mankeepsup a fair Aye.outside, It willbe clear enoughthen that in his ordinarydealingsbuthe hasonlyanen-whichgive hima reputationfor honestyhe coerceshis badforcedvir-passionsbyan enforcedvirtue" not makingthemsee thattueandwilleheatwhen theyarewrong,or tamingthembyreason,butby necessityh_can. andfearconstrainingthem,andbecausehe tremblesforhis

possessions.To besure.Yes, indeed,my dear friend,but you will findthat the

naturaldesires of the drone commonlyexist in him all thesamewheneverhe hasto spendwhatisnothis own.

ReadingKal_-lpat_r_. E_,_ b"l_,&,accordingto Sehneider'sexcel-lent emendation.

III. From oligarchy to democracy. _6i

Yes, and they will be strong in him too. Ret_ublicVIII.The man, then, will be at war with himself; he will be two

men, and not one • but, in general, his better desires will be so_,Arr_,# _DEIMANTU_q,

found to prevail over his inferior ones.True.For these reasons such an one will be more respectable

than most people; yet the true virtue of a unanimous andharmonious soul will flee far away and never come near him.

I should expect so.555 And surely, the miser individually will be an ignoble com- Hismean-

petitor in a State for any prize of victory, or other object of nessinacontest; hehonourable ambition ; he will not spend his money in the saveshiscontest for glory ; Soafraid is he of awakening his expensive moneyandloses theappetites and inviting them to help and join in the struggle ; prize.in true oligarchical fashion he fights with a small part onlyof his resources, and the result commonlyis that he losesthe prize and saves his money.

Very true.Can we any longer doubt, then, that the miser and money-

maker answers to the oligarchical State ?

_of this the origin and nature have I_moeracystil_onsidere_s ; and then we will enquire into the ofariseStheOUtex_ways of t_ratic man, and bring him up forjudgment, travagance

That, he said, is our method, andindebt-ednessofWell, I said, and how does the change from oligarchy men of

into democracy arise ? Is it not on this wise ?--The good at familyandwhich such a State aims is to become as rich as possible, a position,desire which ls_ff'trm'ati'abte'." _ ....

What then ?The rulers, being aware that their power rests upon their

wealth, refuse to curtail by law the extravagance of thespendthrift youth because they gain by their ruin; theytake interest from them and buy up their estates and thusincrease their own wealth and importance ?

To be sure.There can be no doubt that the love of wealth and the

spirit of moderation cannot exist together in citizens of thesame state to any considerable extent ; one or the other willbe disregarded.

262 '_uo_/o.'•¢_ Thatis tolerablyclear.vii/. And in oligarchicalStates,from the generalspreadof

soc_._, carelessnessand extravagance,men of good family haveA_zMa_rr_s.

oftenbeenreducedto beggary?Yes,often.

whoremain And still they remainin the city; there they are, readyin the eity.andforma to stingand fullyarmed,andsomeof themowemoney,somedangerous[ have forfeitedtheir citizenship;a third class are in bothclass ready

toheada _predicaments; and theyhateandconspireagainstthosewho!

revolatioa._havegot their property,and againsteverybodyelse,and areeager forre__

That is true.On the other hand, the men of business,stoopingas they

walk,and pretendingnot evento see thosewhomtheyhavealreadyruined,insert their sting--that is,their money--intosomeone else who is not on his guard against them,andrecover the parent sum many times over multipliedintoa familyofchildren: and sothey makedrone and pauper toaboundin the State.

Yes,he said,thereare plentyofthem--thatis certain. 536Tworeme- The evilblazesup likea fire; and theywillnotextinguishstrictlonsdies:(t)re-it;either by restrictinga man'suse of his own property,oronthefreebyanother remedy:

_f Whatother? _-__Y; One which is the next b_az.and has the ad_X'_e of /tractstohe(_)°_n"compellingthe citizens to _ookto their characte_/:--Letmadeata there be a general rule that, eve@ one sh_/e'nterItqt_l'S OWn

voluntqL.___¢=-.'=='_.athisown"Phk_andd.he_will be lessorris scandalousmoney-making,and the e_,ilso! whi_we werespeakingwillbegreatlylessenedin the State.

Yes,they willbegreatlylessened. 1At present the governors,inducedby the motiveswhich:

I have named,treat their subjectsbadly; while they and "-..their adherents,especiallytheyoung men of the governingclass, are habituated to lead a lifeof luxuryand idleness\xboth of bodyand mind; theydo nothing,and are incapabletofresistingeitherpleasureor pain. |

Very true. ]They themselvescare only for making money,and me[

as indifferentas thepaupertothecultivationof virtue..A

J

T/re oh'garcAyfalls sick. 263

Yes, quiteas indifferent. Rept,blicSuch is the stateof affairswhichprevailsamongthem. /_'//T.

Andopenrulersandtheirsubjectsmaycomeinoneanother'sSo_way,whetheron a journeyor on someother occasionof The sub-meeting,on a pilgrimageor a march,as fellow-soldiersor ject_d_fellow-sailors;ayeand they mayobservethe behaviourof covertheweaknessofeachotherin theverymomentof danger--forwheredanger theirrulers.

is, there is no fear thatthe poorwill be despisedby therich--andvery likelythe wiry sunburntpoorman may_beplacedinbattleatthe sideof a wealthyone whohas neverspoilthis complexionandhas plentyof superfluousflesh--when hesees suchanone puffingandat his wits'-end,howcan he avoiddrawingthe conclusionthatmen like himare _%\onlyrichbecauseno one has thecourageto despoilthem?And whenthey meetin privatewill not peoplebe sayingto oneanother'Ourwarriorsarenotgoodformuch'?

Yes, he said, I am quiteawarethat this is theirwayof talking.

And, as in a bodywhich is diseasedthe additionof a AsUghttouchfromwithoutmaybringonillness,andsometimeseven cause,in-ternalorwhen there is no externalprovocationa commotionmay external0arise within--in the same waywhereverthere is weaknessmaypro-duce revo-in theStatethereis alsolikely tobe illness,ofwhichtheoc- lu_on.casionmaybe veryslight,theonepartyintroducingfromwith-outtheiroligarchical,theothertheirdemocraticalallies,andthentheStatefailssick,andisat warwithherself;andmay

557be attimesdistracted,evenwhenthereis noexternalcause.\ Yes,surely., Andthendemocracycomesintobeingafterthe poorhave Suchisthe

conqueredtheiropponents,slaughteringsomeand banishingo_./ nature of..... some, while to the remainderthey give an equalshare democr_y.

offreedomandpower; andthisis the formof governmentinwhichthemagistratesarecommonlyelectedbylot.

Yes,hesaid,thatis thenatureof democracy,whethertherevolutionhas beeneffectedby arms,or whetherfearhascausedtheoppositepartytowithdraw.

Andnowwhat is their mannerof life,andwhatsortof agovernmenthave they? foras the governmentis, suchwillbe the man.

Clearly,he said.

264 The characteristicsof democracy.Rt_b/_ In the firstplace,are theynot free; and is not the city

viii. full of freedomand frankness--aman may say and dos,x-_, whathelikes9 .........ADE_LCtNTU_ "

'Tis saidso, he replied.Democracya,owsa And where freedomis, the individualis clearlyable tomantoao orderforhimselfhis ownlifeashe pleasesas he likes, "and there- Clearly........forecon- Theninthis kindofStatetherewillbethegreatestvarietyrains thegreatest ofhumannatures?varietyof Therewill.charactersandconsti- This,then,seemslikelyto be the fairestof States,beingtutions, likean embroideredrobewhichis spangledwitheverysort

offlower1. Andjustaswomenandchildrenthinka varietyof coloursto be of all thingsmostcharming,so there aremanymen to whomthis State,whichis spangledwiththemannersand charactersof mankind,willappearto be thefairestof States.

Yes.

Yes,mygoodSir, andtherewillbe no betterin whichtolookfora government.

Why?Becauseof the libertywhichreignsthere--theyhavea

completeassortmentof constitutions; and he who has amindtoestablisha State,aswe havebeendoing,mustgotoa democracyashewouldto a bazaaratwhichtheysell them,andpick out the one that suits him; then,when he hasmadehischoice,hemayfoundhisState.

He willbe sure tohavepatternsenough.Thelaw And there beingno necessity,I said,for you to governinfansinto this State,even if youhavethe capacity,orto be governed,abeyance.

unlessyoulike,or to go to warwhenthe restgo towar, orto be at peacewhenothersare at peace,unlessyou are sodisposed--therebeingno necessityalso,becausesome lawforbidsyou to holdofficeor be a dicast,that you shouldnot holdofficeor be a dicast,if you have a fancy--isnotthis a way of life which for the momentis supremelyde-558lighfful?

For the moment,yes.

i Omitting *'lp_v ; _.

Tke nalure aud origin of tke democratic man. 265

And is not their humanityto the condemned*in some Relmbliccasesquitecharming? Have you not observedhow, in a VIII.democracy,many persons, althoughthey have been sen- so_,T_,Av_rrL's.tented to death or exile,just staywhere theyare andwalkaboutthe world--the gentlemanparades like a hero, andnobodyseesor cares?

Yes, he replied,manyandmanya one.See too, I said, the forgivingspirit of democracy,andthe Anp_n-

'don't care' about trifles,andthe disregardwhichshe shows cipk_oforderandof all the fineprincipleswhichwesolemnlylaiddownat the goodtastefoundationofthecity-as whenwesaidthat,exceptin thecase aretram-

pied underof somerarelygiftednature,there neverwillbea goodman footbywhohasnotfromhischildhoodbeenusedtoplayamidthingsdemocracy.ofbeautyandmakeof thema joy anda study--howgrandlydoesshe trampleall these fine notionsof oursunderherfeet,nevergivinga thoughtto the pursuitswhichmakeastatesman,and promotingto ho_nou_anyonewhoprofesses.....to be the people'sfriend.

,. Yes,she is ofa noblespirit.,. ,- These and other kindred characteristicsare proper to

. ,j" democracY,wllieh-is a c-_-rmmg-h-g-__medlt_ fu_lof \{._ varieWanddisor_svensing a sort of equalityto 1!

W_ knowher well.Considernow, I said,what mannerof man the individual

is, or rather consider,as in the case of the State, how hecomesintobeing.

Verygood,he said.Is not this the way--he is the son of the miserlyandoli-

garchicalfatherwhohas trainedhimin hisownhabits?Exactly.And,likehis father,hekeepsunderbyforcethepleasuresWhichare

whichare of thespendingandnot of thegettingsort, beingthen_ees-gary andthosewhichare calledunnecessary? whichtheObviously. unueees-

garyplea-Would you like,for the sakeof clearness,to distinguishsures?

whichare the necessaryand whichare the unnecessarypleasures?

I should.i Or, _the philosophical temper of the condemacd.'

u66 Tke necessaryand unnecessarydesires and pleasures.

Re/_,_,_'c Arenot necessarypleasures thoseof whichwe cannotgetviii. rid, and of which the satisfactionis a benefitto us? And

so_.,_, they are rightlycalledso,becausewe are framedby natureADE_MANTUS.to desire bothwhat is beneficialandwhat is necessary,andNecessary

d_res_,- cannothelp it.not be got True. 559riaof. We are notwrongthereforein callingthemnecessary?

We are not.And the desiresof whicha man mayget rid, if he takes

painsfrom hisyouthupwards--ofwhichthepresence,more-over,doesnogood,andin someeasesthe reverseof good--shallwenot beright in sayingthatall theseareunnecessary?

Yes,certainly.Supposeweselectan exampleof eitherkind,in order that

wemayhavea generalnotionof them?Verygood.Will not the desire of eating,that is, of simplefood and

condiments,in so faras theyare required for health ands_be ofthe necessaryclass?

That iswhat I shouldsuppose.The pleasureof eatingis necessaryin twoways; it doesus

• goodandit is essentialto the continuanceof life?: Yes.

butmaybeL But thecondimentsareonlynecessaryinso faras theyareindulgedto goodforhealth?excess.

Certainly.IllustrationAnd the desire whichgoes beyondthis, of more delicateuakenfromfood,or other luxuries,whichmightgenerallybe got rid of,eatinganddrinking,if controlledand trainedinyouth,and is hurtfulto the body,

and hurtful to the soulin the pursuitof wisdomandvirtue,maybe rightlycalledunnecessary?

Verytrue.May we not say that these desires spend, and that the

othersmakemoneybecausethey conduceto production?Certainly.And of thepleasuresof love,and all other pleasures,the

sameholdsgood?True°

And the drone of whomwe spokewas he whowas sur-feitedin pleasuresand desiresof thissort, andwas the slave

From lhe olizarchical to /he democratical man. _67

of the unnecessarydesires, whereas he who was subject xepublicto the necessaryonlywasmiserlyandoligarchical? viii.

Verytrue. soe_T_s,ADEIMA_tTUS,

Again, let us see how the demoeraticalman grows outof theoligarchical: the following,as I suspect,is commonlythe process.

What is the process? ....:_::_--_.,When a young man who has been broughtup as we Theyoung_.

werejust nowdescribing,in a vulgarand miserlyway,has oligarchis l:led awayby j:tasted drones'honeyand has cometo associatewithfierce hiswildas-and craftynatureswho are ableto provide for himall sorts soeiates. .J

of refinementsand varietiesof pleasuremthen,as youmay ..._imagine,the changewillbegin of the oligarchicalprinciple_'fj_withinhiminto thedemocratieal?

Inevitably.And as in the city like was helpinglike,and the change Thereare

waseffeetedbyan alliancefromwithoutassistingonedivisionamestoeither partof the citizens,so too theyoungmanis changedbya classof ofhisha-desirescomingfromwithoutto assistthe desireswithinhim, ture.that whichis akinandalike again helpingthat whichis akinand alike?

Certainly.And if there be any allywhichaids the oligarchicalprin-

ciple within him, whether the influenceof a father or ofkindred,advisingor rebukinghim,then there arises in his

56osoul a factionand an oppositefaction,and he goes to warwithhimself.

It mustbe so.And thereare timeswhenthe demoeraticalprinciplegives

way to the oligarchical,and some of his desires die, andothers are banished; a spirit of reverenceenters into theyoungman'ssoulandorder is restored.

Yes, he said, that sometimeshappens.Andthen, again,after theold desireshavebeendrivenout,

freshonesspringup,whichare akinto them,andbecausehetheir fatherdoesnot knowhowto educatethem,waxfierceand numerous.

Yes,he said, that isapt to bethe way.They drawhimto his old associates,and holdingsecret

intercoursewiththem,breedandmultiplyin him.

268 The paraMe of lke prodigal.

Republic Very true.viii. At length they seize upon the eitadel of the young man's

so_ soul, which they perceive to be void of all accomplishments_DEIMANTU_.and fair pursuitsandtruewords, which make their abode inthe minds of men who are dear to the gods, and are theirbest guardians and sentinels.

None better.False and boastful conceits and phrases mount upwards

and take their place.They are certain to do so.

Thepro- And so the young man returns into the country of theavessofthe lotus-eaters, and takes up his dwelling there in the face ofoligarchicyoungmanall men ; and if any help be sent by his friends to thetoldinan oligarchical part of him, the aforesaid vain conceits shutallegory.

the gate of the king's fastness ; and they will neither allowthe embassy itself to enter, nor if private advisers offer thefatherly counsel of the aged will they listen to them orreceive them. There is a battle and they gain the day, andthen modesty, which they call silliness, is ignominiouslythrust into exile by them, and temperance, which they nick-name unmanliness, is trampled in the mire and cast forth ;they persuade men that moderation and orderly expenditureare vulgarity and meanness, and so, by the help of a rabbleof evil appetites, they drive them beyond the border.

Yes, with a will.And when they have emptied and swept clean the soul of

him who is now in their power and who is being initiated bythem in great mysteries, the next thing is to bring back totheir house insolence and anarchy and waste and impudencein bright array having garlands on their heads, and agreat company with them, hymning their praises and callingthem by sweet names ; insolence they term breeding, and 56Ianarchy liberty, and waste magnificence, and impudencecourage. And so the young man passes out of his originalnature, which was trained in the school of necessity, intothe freedom and libertinism of useless and unnecessarypleasures.

Yes, he said, the change in him is visible enough.Hebe- After this he lives on, spending his money and labour andcom_ ;t

rake;but time on unnecessary pleasures quite as much as on necessary

Liberty, eguality, multiformity. 269

ones; but if he be fortunate,andis not toomuchdisordered Republicin his wits, when years haveelapsed,and the heyday of viii.passion is over--supposingthat he then re-admitsinto the SO_RAT_S,ADEIMANTU$.

citysomepart ofthe exiledvirtues,anddoes notwhollygive healsohimselfup to their successors--inthat case he balanceshis sometimespleasures and lives in a sort of equilibrium,putting the stopsshortin hisgovernmentof himself into the hands of the one which careerandcomesfirst andwinsthe turn; andwhenhe has hadenough givesway

topleasuresof that, then into thehandsof another; he despisesnoneof goodandthembut encouragesthemall equally, bad indif-

Verytrue,he said. ferently.Neitherdoes he receiveor letpass into the fortressany He rejects

true word of advice; if any one says to him that some alladvice,pleasures are the satisfactionsof good and noble desires,and others of evil desires,and that he ought to use andhonoursomeand chastiseand masterthe others--wheneverthis is repeated to him he shakes his head and says thattheyare all alike,and thatone is as goodas another.

Yes,he said; that is thewaywithhim.Yes, I said, he livesfromdayto day indulgingtheappetite passinghis

ofthe hour; andsometimeshe is lappedindrinkandstrains lifeinthealternationofthe flute; then hebecomesawater-drinker,andtries toget fromonethin; thenhe takes a turn at gymnastics; sometimesidlingextremetoanother.and neglectingeverything,then oncemore living the lifeofa philosopher; often he is busywithpolitics,and starts tohis feet and says and does whatevercomesinto his head;and, if he is emulousof anyone whois a warrior,off he isin thatdirection,or ofmenofbusiness,oncemoreinthat. Hislifehas neither lawnor order; and this distractedexistencehe termsjoy andblissand freedom; andso he goeson.

Yes, he replied,he is all libertyandequa!ity.............. =-:==......Yes, I said; his life _s'_ifold and an Heis'not

epitomeof the lives of many;--he answers to the State one,butall man-whichwe described as fair and spangled. And many a kind'sman and many a womanwill take him for their pattern, epitome.'and many a constitutionand manyan exampleof manners i/is containedinhim. /t/

just so.56-- Let himthen be set overagainstdemocracy;he maytruly

be calledthe democraticman.

27° IV. From democracy to tyranny.

Republic Let thatbe hisplace,he said.viii. Last of all comes the most beautifulof all, man and

So_.AT_,Statealike,tyrannyand the tyrant; these we have now toADI_IMANTUS.consider•Tyrannyanathe Quite true,he said.tyrant. / Say then, myfriend, In what mannerdoes tyrannyarise?

.._j/ --that it hasa democraticoriginis evident.{_ Clearly.lAnd doesnot tyrannyspring from democracyin thesame \I_anner as democracyfromoligarchy--Imean,aftera sort? j

How?The insati- The good which oligarchyproposed to itself and theabledesireofwealthmeans bywhichit was maintainedwas excess of wealth--cremesa am I notright?demandfor Yes.democracy,theinsati- And the insatiabledesire of wealthand the neglectof allabledesireother thingsfor the sake of money-gettingwas alsothe ruinoffreedomcreatesa of oligarchy?demandfor True.tyranny.

And democracyhas her own good,ofwhichthe insatiabledesirebringsher todissolution?

Whatgood?Freed._m_I_r_ep_liedswhi_cha.__asthey.tell you in a demo-

cracy, is the glory of the State--and that therefore in ademocracyalonewill thefreemanof naturedeign todwell.

Yes; the sayingis in everybody'smouth.I was going to observe,that the insatiabledesire of this

and the neglectof other things introducesthe change indemocracy,whichoccasionsa demandfor tyranny.

How so?When a democracywhich is thirstingfor freedomhasevil

cup-bearerspresiding over the feast, and has drunk too'_deeplyof thestrongwineof freedom,then, unlessher rulers tare very amenableand give a plentifuldraught,she calls ]themto accountand punishes them,and says that theyare Jcursedoligarchs.

Yes,he replied,a verycommonoccurrence.Freedom Yes, I said; and loyalcitizensare insultinglytermedbyin the end her slaves who hug their chains and men of naught; sherli_tns

anarchy,wouldhave subjectswho are like rulers,and rulerswhoare

The extreme of liberty. 27x

likesubjects: these are men afterher ownheart,whomshe Republicanpraisesand honoursboth in privateand public. Now, in VIII. )sucha State,can libertyhaveanylimit"_ so___,• ADF.JMANTUS.

Certainlynot.Bydegrees the anare__ay into privatehouses,

and endsbygettingamongthe animalsa .... rrg- .----Howdoyou mean?I meanthat thefathergrowsaccustomedto descendto the

levelof his sonsand to fear them,and the sonis ona level )withhis father,he havingno respect or reverencefor either [ . 'of his parents; and this is his freedom,and the merleisX_].....equalwith the citizenand the citizenwith themerit,aridthe)

563strangeris quiteas goodas either.Yes, he said,that is theway.And thesearenot the onlyevils,I said--there areseveral Theinver-

lesserones: In such a state of societythe master fearsand sionofall. -- social rela-flattershis scholars,and the scholarsdespise theirmasters tions.and tutors; young and old are all alike; and the y__ngman is_t with the old,and is readyto competewithhimin wordor deed; and old men condescendto theyoungand are full of pleasantryand gaiety; they are loth to bethought moroseand authoritative,and thereforethey adoptthemanners ofthe..young.

Quite true,he said.The last extreme of popular liberty is when the slave

boughtwithmoney,whethermale or female,is just as free ;h 'as his or her purchaser; nor must I forget to tell of t e_..__

Why not,as Aeschylussays,utter thewordwhichrisestoour lips?

That is what I am doing,I replied; and I must add that _'r_domno onewhodoes not knowwouldbelieve,howmuchgreater Iam°ngthe' animals.

is the libertywhichthe animalswhoare underthe dominionof man have in a democracythan in any otherState: fortruly,theshe-dogs,as the proverbsays,are as goodas theirshe-mistresses,and the horses and asses have a way ofmarchingalongwithall the rightsanddignitiesof freemen;andthey will run at anybodywho comesin theirwayif hedoes not leave the road clear for them: and all thingsarejustreadytoburstwithliberty.

272 Extrem, s l_ass into e:vlremes.

Rtpubli¢ When I take a countrywalk,he said,I oftenexperienceviii. what you describe. You and I have dreamedthe same

so:_.Es, thing.ADEn_tcrvr,.Andaboveall, I said,and as the resultofall, see howsen-No law, no

authority,sitivethecitizensbecome; theychafeimpatientlyatthe leasttouchofauthority,and at length,asyou know,theyceasetocareevenforthelaws,writtenor unwritten; theywillhaveno oneover them.

Yes,he said,I knowit toowell.Such,myfriend,I said,is the fair and gloriousbeginning

out of whichspringstyranny.Gloriousindeed,he said. Butwhatis thenext step?The ruin of oligarchy is the ruin of democracy; the '\

t same disease magnifiedand intensified by liberty over- \mastersdemocracy--thetruthbeingthattheexcessiveincrease \t of anythingoftencausesa reactionin the oppositedirection; 564

andthis is thecasenot only in the seasonsand in vegetable /andanimallife,butaboveall in formsof government. /

f True.The excessof liberty,whether in States or individuals,Seemsonlyto pass intoexcessofslavery.

Yes, the naturalorder.

l Andso tyrannynaturallyarises out of democracy,andthemostaggravatedformof tyrannyandslaveryout ofthe mostextremeformof liberty?

Aswe mightexpect.Thecorn- That, however,was not, as I believe, your question--mon evilofoligarchyyOUratherdesiredto knowwhatis thatdisorderwhichisanddemo-generatedalike in oligarchyanddemocracy,andis the ruincracy is the of both?classof idlespend- Just so. hereplied.thrifts. Well, I said,I meantto refer to the class of idle spend-

thrifts, of whomthe more courageousare the leaders andthe more timid the followers,the same whom we werecomparing to drones, some stingless, and others havingstings.

A veryjust comparison.Ilhtstra- These two classesare the plaguesof everycityin whichtion. theyare generated,beingwhatphlegmand bile areto the

body. And the good physicianand lawgiverof the State

A new kind of drone. 273

ought,like the wise bee-master,to keep them at a distance Republicand prevent,if possible,their ever comingin ; and if they VIII.haveanyhowfoundawayin,then he shouldhavethemand so_,___,ADEI_/ANTUS,their cellscutout asspeedilyaspossible.

Yes, byallmeans,he said.Then, in order thatwemaysee clearlywhatweare doing, Altogether

letus imaginedemocracyto be divided,as indeedit is, into threeclassesin a

three classes; for in the4first,place freedomcreates rather democracy.more drones in the demo'craticthan there were in theoligarchicalState.

That is true.And inthe democracythey arecertainlymoreintensified.Howso?Becausein the oligarchicalState they are disqualified(OThe

and driven from office,and therefore they cannot train dronesorspend-or gatherstrength; whereasin a democracythey are almost thriftswhothe entire ruling power, and while the keener sort speak aremorenumerousand act, the rest keep buzzing about the bema and do and aetivenot suffera word to be said on the other side; hence in thanintheoligarchy.democraciesalmosteverythingis managedbythe drones.

Then there is anotherclasswhichis alwaysbeingseveredfromthe mass.

What is that?They are the orderlyclass,whichin a nationof traders is (2)The

sure to be therichest, orderlyorwealthyNaturallyso. c_swhoTheyarethemostsqueezablepersonsandyieldthelargestarefeduponby

amountof honeyto thedrones, the drones.Why, he said,there is little to be squeezedoutof people

whohavelittle.And this is called thewealthyclass,and the drones feed

uponthem.565 That isprettymuchthe case,he said.

The peopleare a thirdclass,consistingof thosewhowork (3)Thewith their own hands; they are not politicians,and have workingclass who

/not muchto liveupon. This, whenassembled,is the largest alsogetaandmostpowerfulclassin a democracy, share.True, he said; but then the multitudeis seldomwillingto

congregateunlesstheyget a littlehoney.T

274 The protector devdot_esinto a tyrant.

Republic And do they not share? I said. Do not their leadersVIII. deprivethe richof their estatesand distribut_among

s_T_, the people; at'lh-'6"same_m_takk_g.._o -restagethe_'_'_" lar_s-?

Why, yes,he said, to that extentthe peopledoshare.Thewell- Andtheperso_aken fromthemarecom-to-aohavepelledtodefendthe-mselvesbeforethepe-'op]'eas tlae);b_stcan?to defendthemselves What elsecantheydo?againstthe And then, althoughthey mayhave no desireof change,people.

the otherschargethemwithplottingagainstthepeopleandbeingfriendsof oligarchy?

True.

Andtheendis thatwhentheysee thepeople,not oftheir• ownaccord,but throughignorance,and becausetheyareI deceived to dothem thenat lastbyinformers,seeking wrong,

they are forced to becomeoligarchs in reality; they do notwish to be, but the sting of thedrones tormentsthem andbreedsrevolutionin them.

/ Thatis exactlythe truth._-_.._ Thencomeimpeachmentsandjudgmentsandtrialsofone

_'-_ another.True.

Thepeople_" The l_ople have alwa_ssome ehampjgJL_homthe_sethave a pro-tectorwho,over themand nurse into_ess.whenonce Y_t is their way.hetastes Fhisand noother is the rootfromwhicha tyrantsprings;blood, isconvertedwhenhe firstappearsabovegro_dtie?_'_r_otector.into a ty- Yes,_fh_,irlsquiteclear.rant.

Howthen does a protectorbeginto changeintoa tyrant?Clearlywhenhe doeswhat the man is said todo in the taleof theArcadiantempleof LycaeanZeus.

What tale?The tale is that he who has tasted the entrailsof a single

humanvictimmincedupwith the entrailsof othervictimsisdestinedto becomea wolf. Didyou neverhear it?

0 yes.And theprotectorof thepeopleis likehim; havinga mob

entirelyat his disposal,he is not restrained from sheddingthe blood of kinsmen; by the favouritemethodof falseaccusationhe bringsthem into court and murdersthem,

The early days of his power. 275

makingthelifeof manto disappear,andwithunholytongue8ep_/kandlips tastingthe bloodof hisfellowcitizens; somehe kills VIII.and others he banishes,at the same time hinting at the so,_s.AD_A_r t.'S.abolitionof debtsandpartitionof lands: andafter this,what

566willbe his destiny? Musthe not either perishat thehands _\_.._of his enemies,or frombeinga man becomea wolf--thatis,//a tyrant?

Inevitably.This, I said,is he whobeginsto makea partyagainstthe

rich?The same.Aftera whilehe is drivenout,but comesback, in spiteof Afteratirae

his enemies,a tyrantfullgrown, heisdrivenout,That isclear, butcomesAnd if they are unable to expel him, or to get him _ckafan-blown ty-

condemnedto deathby a publicaccusation,they conspireto rant.assassinatehim.

Yes,he said,thatis theirusualway.Then comesthe famousrequest fora bod__hiv.h_i_The body-

the device of all those who havegot thus far in their guard.tyrannicalcareer--' Letnot the peopl¢'s.fr_d,' a_theysay,'be lostto them.'

Exactly.Thepeoplereadilyassent; all theirfearsare for him--they

havenonefor themselves.Very true.And when a man who is wealthy and is also accused

of beingan enemyofthe peoplesees this,then,my friend,astheoraclesaid to Croesus,

'By pebblyHermus'shorehe fleesandrests not,andis notashamedtobea cowardV

And quite right too,said he,for if he were,he wouldneverbe ashamedagain.

But if he is caughthe dies.Of course.And he,the protectorofwhomwe spoke,is to be seen:not Theprotec-

' lardingthe plain'withhis bulk,buthimselfthe overthrower.totstand-mg up mofmany,standingupin the chariotofStatewiththereinsin thechariot

hishand,no loner rotectorbut t i of State.t Herod. i. 55.

T2

u76 His increasingun/m/mlarity.

Re_¢/c Nodoubt,hesaid.viii. Andnowlet us considerthe happinessof theman,and

S0C_T,_,alsooftheStateinwhichacreaturelikehimis generated.Yes,hesaid,letusconsiderthat.At first,in__i power:he ;gfillO_..smiles,

andhe saluteseveryone,*_hg_he ,-,,,_,_t_;=he__be calleda whoi? inrbJjcandalsoinpriva_r___-,t Ai_l-_qh-ti_lg_landt_hepeopl-6"'_ffdhis follow_ " kindandgoo_['_everyone!

_he said.Hestirsup Butwhenhehasdis[_o. ' i s_by_cpnquestWars, and

impo_- or treaty,andthereis nothipg.taXear_fromsd_m_.then._heis 567isheshis alwaysst-T'r_tig'_'up_m_ war or_9.thcr.,_9__x_d_._thatthesubje_t_by peoplemayrequirea leade_the imposi-tion of "I_be sure,

taxes. Hashe notalsoanotherobject,whichisthattheymaybeimpoverm_y pa_sL andthu_)_¢i_nipelledtodevoTC_elves to their_t-afly__wantsa_)dtherefo_ lesslikeytiytoconspireagainsthim.9

L'T6-_'fy.

Andifanyofthemaresuspectedbyhimofhavingnotions

offre-_dom,andb___gii_!t_r, hewillhaveag_de t_hem b_placingthemat the

l me__e_emy_ _-these_rca_ox_s. _e tyrantmustbealways[[ettin_upa war.

Nowhe beanstogrowunpopular.Anecessaryresult.Thensomeofthosewhojoinedin settinghimup,andwho

ateinpower,speaktheirmindsto himandtooneanother,andthemorecourageousof themcastinhis teethwhatisbeingdone.

Yes,thatmaybeexpected.Hegets __nt, ifhe meanstorule,mustgetridof them;ridofhishe can_ whilehe hasa frien_d_9_n_ejlc_ywhois

_oaow_rs.He cannot.Andthereforehe mustlookabouthi_m_ndseewhois

v * nTwhoiShigh-m se, W/,oisw a thy;

Euripides and tke tragedians. 277

happy man, he is the enemyof them all, and must seek Red,lieoce_i _galnsrthem whethere_ or no, tmt'dhe has 11111.madea purgationoftheState. so_aT_Anw_,-.a,,,tr_

Yes,he said, anda rarepurgation.Yes, I said,notthe sortof purgationwhichthephysiciansHispurga-tionoftim

makeof the body; fortheytakeawaytheworseand leavestate.the betterpart,buthe doestae reverse.

If he-isto rute, I-suppose_"_3_he cannothelp himself."dWhat a blessedalternative,I said:--to be compelledto

weltonlywiththe manybad,and to be bythemhated,or•notto liveat all!Yes,that is the alternative.Andthe moredetestablehis actionsare to the citizensthe

more sat_lt_lli_cLAJle._gggggr.._evotionin/hem will herequi_ ? ......

Certainly.And whoare the devotedband, andwherewillhe procure

them?They willflockto him,he said,of their ownaccord,if he

paysthem.By the dog! I said, here are more drones,of everysort More

andfromeveryland. drones.Yes, he said,there are.Butwillhe not desireto get themonthe spot?How do youmean?He will rob the citizens of their slaves; he will then set

themfreeandenrol themin his body-guard.To be sure,he said; and hewillbe ableto trust thembest

of all.What a blessedcreature,I said,must this tyrantbe; he Heputsto

568has put to death the othersand has these forhis trusteddeathhis........... friendsandfriends, liveswith"_e_, he said' theyare quiteof his sort. theslaves' whomhe

'Yes, ] said, and these are the new citizens whom he has hasentran-calledintoexistence,whoadmirehimandarehis companions,chised.whilethegoodhateandavoidhim.

Of course.Verily,then,tragedyis a wisethingandEuripidesa great Euripi_s

tragedian, andthetragediansWhy so?

f_

278 Tke ways and meansof tke tyrang.

Rq_blic Vqhy, becausehe istheauthorofthepregnantsaying,viii.soc_Tr,, 'Tyrantsarewisebylivingwit_ wise;'A,,,,,,A_os.andheclearlymeantto saythatthe),arethewisewhomtheprat_ tyrantmakeshiscompanions.tyranny,whichisan _5_h-_saM-_,_ praisestyrannyasgodlike; andexcellent manyotherthingsof thesamekindaresaidbyhimandbyreasonforexpelling theotherpoets.them from Andtherefore,Isaid,thetragicpoetsbeingwisemenwillourState.

forgiveus andanyotherswholiveafterourmannerif wedo notreceivethemintoourState,becausetheyare theeulogistsoftyranny.

Yes,hesaid,thosewhohavethewitwilldoubtlessforgiveUS.

But theywill continueto go to othercitiesandattractmobs,andhirevoicesfairandloudandpersuasive,anddrawthecitiesoverto tyranniesanddemocracies.

Verytrue.Moreover,theyarepaidforthisandreceivehonour--the

greatesthonour,asmightbeexpected,fromtyrants,andthenextgreatestfromdemocracies; butthehighertheyascendour constitutionhill,the moretheirreputationfails,andseemsunablefromshortnessofbreathtoproceedfurther.

True.Butwearewanderingfromthesubject:Letus therefore

returnandenquirehowthetyrantwillmaintainthatfairandnumerousandvariousandever-changingarmyofhis.

Thetyrant I_ hesaid,thereare sacredtreasuresin thecity,he will]seizes_theconfiscateands___-flneg of/

attain ......... ; -" " "in the ___.._a_._k d,,,,_m_hthe/temples, taxeswhtchhe w_uld_ _r-"adae__.hazeto imposeupontheJand when ..........thesefail p_-_ple.......feedsupon"_nd whenthesefail?the people.

Why,clearly,he said,thenhe andhisbooncompanions,whethermaleorfemale,wiltbemaintainedoutofhisfather'sestate.

You meanto say that thepeople,fromwhomhe hasderivedhisbeing,willmaintainhim_ompa_[gn_s ?

Yes,hesaid; theycannothelpthemselves.Butwhatifthe peoplefly intoa passion,andaverthata

Liberty/,asses into tAe worst form of slavery. 279

grown-upson oughtnot to be supportedby his father,but Re_.btic569that thefathershouldbe supportedbythe son? The father uIH. i

did not bring himinto being,or settlehim in life,in order So_*TE_, •ADRIMANTUS.

that when his son becamea man he shouldhimselfbe the Theyrebel,servant of his own servants and should supporthim and andthenhis rabbleof slavesand companions; butthathis son should hebeatshis ownprotect him,and that by his help he mightbe emancipatedparent,i.e.from the governmentof the rich and aristocratic,as they thepeople.are termed. And so he bidshimand his companionsdepart,just as any other father might drive out of the house ariotoussonand his undesirableassociates.

By heaven,he said, then the parentwilldiscoverwhat amonsterhe has beenfosteringin his bosom; and,when hewants to drivehimout,he will findthathe is weakand hisson stro_

Why, you do not mean to say that the tyrant will usevio_ce ? What ! beathis fatherif he opposeshim?

Yes,he will,havingfirstdisarmedhim.Then he is a parricide,and a cruel guardianof an aged

parent; and this is real tyranny,aboutwhich there can beno longera mistake: a_s, the peo_wb___auldescapethesmokewhich is the slaveryoffreemen,has falleninto the fire which is the t__an_.yof slaves. Thus li._e_y,get-ttngout-o_'and reaso_ses into theharshestandbitterest'f6"_-'_s_13/-'_ry....... "

True,_Very well; and may we not rightlysay that we have

sufficientlydiscussedthe natureof tyranny,and the mannerof the transitionfromdemocracyto tyranny?

Yes,quiteenough,he said.

BOOK IX.

Republic LAST of all comesthe tyrannicalman; aboutwhomwe st_Ix. have once more to ask, how is he formed out of the 57_

So_.AT_democratieal? and how does he live, in happiness or inADEIMANTUS,

misery?Yes,he said, he is the onlyone remaining.There is, however,I said, a previous question which

remainsunanswered.What question?

Adigres- I do not think that we have adequatelydeterminedthesionhavingnature and numberof the appetites,and untilthis isaccom-a purpose.

plishedthe enquirywillalwaysbe confused.Well, he said, it is not toolate to supplytheomission.

Thewild Very true, I said; and observethe point which I wantbeastlatentto understand: Certain of the unnecessarypleasuresandin _an

peersforth appetites I conceive to be unlawful; every one appearsmsleep, to havethem,but insomepersonstheyare controlledbythe

lawsandbyreason,and the better desiresprevailoverthem

--either they are whollybanishedor they becomefewandweak; while in the case of others they are stronger, andthereare moreof them.

Whichappetitesdo youmean?I mean those whichare awakewhen the reasoningand

human and ruling power is asleep; then the wild beastwithinus,gorgedwith meat or drink,starts up and havingshakenoffsleep,goes forth to satisfyhis desires; andthereis no conceivablefollyor crime--notexceptingincestor anyother unnaturalunion,or parricide,or theeatingof forbiddenfood--whichat sucha time,whenhehaspartedcompanywithall shameand sense,a manmaynot be readyto commit.

Mosttrue,he said.Thecon- But when a man's pulse is healthy andtemperate,andtrast of thetemperatewhen beforegoing to sleep he has awakenedhis rational

The picture of the democratical man. 28I

powers, and fed them on noble thoughts and enquiries, Ret_bliecollectinghimselfin meditation; afterhavingfirst indulged Ix.his appetitesneither toomuehnor too little,but just enough so_A_,to laythemto sleep,andpreventthemandtheir enjoymentsmanwhose

572andpainsfrominterferingwith the higherprinciple--whichpassionshe leavesin thesolitudeof pure abstraction,free to contem-areunderthe controlplateand aspire to theknowledgeof the unknown,whether ofreason.in past, present,or future: when again he ha____sallayedthepassionateele_f he has a quarrelagainst anyone--Isay,w_ pacifyingth_r_w_irrationalprinciples,herousesup the thirCw_i_, beforehe takes hisrest,then, as youknow,he at_fi'_ truth mostnearly,and is leastlikelyto be thesportof fantasticandlawlessvisions.

I quiteagree.In sayingthis I havebeen runningintoa digression; but

the point which I desire to note is that in all of us, evenin good men, there is a lawlesswild-beastnature, whichpeers out in sleep. Pray, considerwhether I amright,andyou agreewithme.

Yes, I agree.And now rememberthe characterwhich we attributed Recapitu-

to the democraticman. He was supposedfromhis youth lation.

upwardsto have been trained under a miserlyparent,whoencouragedthesavingappetitesin him,butdiscountenancedtheunnecessary,whichaimonlyat amusementandornament?

True.And then he got into the companyof a more refined,

licentioussortof people,and takingtoall their wantonwaysrushed into the oppositeextreme from an abhorrenceofhis father'smeanness. At last, beinga better man than hiscorruptors,he wasdrawn in both directionsuntil he haltedmidwayand leda life,not of vulgarandslavishpassion,but

of whathe deemedmoderateindulgencein variouspleasures.

After this manner the democratwas generatedout of theoligarch?

Yes,he said; that wasour viewof him,and isso still.And now, I said, years willhave passedaway,and you

must conceivethis man,such as he is, to havea son, whois broughtup in his father'sprinciples.

I can imaginehim.

_82 T_ democraz_ma4s[_assesintotl__yran_icaL

_¢_/_ Thenyou mustfurtherimaginethe samethingto happenIX.to the sonwhichhas alreadyhappenedto the father:--he is

soo_ drawninto a perfec'dylawlesslife,whichbyhis seducersis._ termedperfectliberty; and his father and friends take

partwithhis moderatedesires,and theoppositepartyassistthe opposite ones. As soon as these dire magiciansand

:/_ tyrant-makersfindthattheyarelosingtheirholdon him,they573•_ "_ contriveto implantin hima masterpassion,to be lordover

_f his idle and spendthriftlusts_a sort of monstrouswingeddrone--thatis the onlyimagewhichwilladequatelydescribehim.

Yes, he said,that is the onlyadequateimageof him.And when his other lusts, amidcloudsof incense and

perfumesand garlandsand wines,and all the pleasuresofa dissolutelife,now let loose, comebuzzingaroundhim,nourishingto the utmost the sting of desirewhich theyimplantin his drone-likenature, then at last this lordofthe soul,havingMadnessforthecaptainof hisguard,breaksout into a frenzy; and if he finds in himselfany goodopinionsor appetites in processof formation1, and thereis in himanysenseof shameremaining,to thesebetterprin-ciples he puts an end, and casts them forth until he haspurgedawaytemperanceand broughtin madnessto the full.

The tyran- Yes,he said, that is the wayin whichthe tyrannicalmanai_ man is generated.is made upofl_tsand Andis not thisthe reasonwhyof oldlovehas beencalledappetites,a tyrant?Love, I shouldnotwonder.dffmk,

madnessf Further,I said,has nota drunkenmanalsothe spiritof

an_h_t /a tyrant?formsof He has.tyranny. And youknowthat a manwho is derangedand notright

in his mind,will fancythat he is able to rule,notonlyovermen,butalsooverthe gods?

Thathe wilLAnd the tyrannicalman in the true sense of the word

comesintobeingwhen,eitherunderthe influenceof nature,or habit,or both,he becomesdrunken,lustful,passionate?0 myfriend,isnot that so?

-_ IOr,'opinionsorappetitessuchasarcdeemedtobegood.'

The j_ic_re of the tyrauuieal man. u83

Assuredly. Rt_/cSuchis the manand such is hisorigin. And next,how IX.

doeshe live? Soc_,_,Suppose,as peoplefacetiouslysay,you wereto tellme.I imagine,I said,at thenextstepin his progress,thatthere

will be feastsand carousalsand revellingsand courtezans,and all that sort of thing; Love is the lord of the housewithinhim,andordersall theconcernsofhis soul.

Thatiscertain.Yes; and everyday and every night desiresgroveup

manyand formidable,and theirdemandsare many.Theyare indeed,he said.His revenues,if he hasany,aresoonspent.True.Then comesdebt andthe cuttingdownof hisproperty.Of course.When he has nothingleft,mustnothis desires,crowdingHise_av.s

in the nest likeyoungravens,be cryingaloudforfood; and becomegreaterand574he, goadedon bythem,and especiallyby love himself,who hismeans

is ina mannerthe captainof them,is in a frenzy,and wouldless.faindiscoverwhomhe candefraudor despoilofhisproperty,in order thathe maygratifythem?

Yes, that is s0areto bethe case.He must havemoney,no matter how,if he is to escape

horridpainsandpangs.He must.Andas in himselftherewasa successionof pleasures,and Hewillrobhis

thenewgotthe betterof the oldand tookawaytheirrights,fatherandSOhe beingyoungerwillclaimto havemore than his father mother.and his mother, and if he has spent his own share of theproperty,he willtake a sliceof theirs.

Nodoubthe will.And if his parentswillnot giveway,thenhe willtry first

of alltocheatand deceivethem.Verytrue.And if he fails,thenhe willuseforceandplunderthem.Yes,probably.And if the old manand womanfight for their own,what

then, my friend? Will the creaturefeel any compunctionat tyrannizingoverthem?

!! u84 Tke early days of tAe tyrang..

: R,'t_ Nay,he said, I shouldnotfeelat allcomfortableabouthis> IX. parents.

so_,. But, O heavensVAdeimantus,on accountof some new-ADUI_CL_S,

HewiUpre-fangledlove of a harlot,who is anythingbut a necessaryfertheloveconnection,can youbelievethat he wouldstrikethe motherofagirlor whoishis ancient friendand necessarytohis veryexistence,a youthtohisaged andwouldplaceherunder theauthorityof theother,whenparents, sheis broughtunderthesameroofwithher; orthat,underand my

be likecircumstances,hewoulddo thesameto hiswitheredoldin_-ed father,first andmostindispensableof friends,for thesaketo strikethin. of some newly-foundbloomingyouthwho is the reverse

ofindispensable?Yes, indeed,hesaid; I believethathewould.Truly,then,I said,a tyrannicalson is a blessingto his

fatherand mother.He is indeed,he replied.

Hetams He first takes theirproperty,and when that fails, andhighway-pleasuresare beginningto swarmin the hive of his soul,m_t_, robstemla_, thenhebreaksintoa house,or steals thegarmentsof somelosesan nightlywayfarer;nextheproceedstocleara temple.Mean-hisearlyprinciples,whiletheoldopinionswhichhe hadwhena child,andwhichandbe- gavejudgmentaboutgoodand evil,areoverthrownbythosecomesinwaking otherswhichhave just been emancipated,and are nowther_tythe body-guardof love and share his empire. These in hisevildreamwhichhe democraticdays,whenhe was stillsubjectto the lawsandtohadin his father,wereonlylet loose in the dreamsof sleep. Butsleep. now that he is underthe dominionof Love,he becomes

alwaysand in wakingrealitywhathe was then veryrarelyand ina dreamonly; he willcommitthe foulestmurder,oreat forbiddenfood, or be guiltyof any otherhorridact.Love is his tyrant,and lives lordlyin him and lawlessly,575andbeinghimselfa king,leadshimon,as a tyrantleadsaState,to theperformanceof anyrecklessdeed by whichhe

Hegatherscanmaintainhimselfandtherabbleof hisassociates,whetherfonowersthose whomevil communicationshave broughtin fromabouthim.

without,or those whomhe himselfhas allowed to breakloosewithinhim by reasonof a similarevil naturein him-self. Havewe not herea pictureof hiswayof life?

Yes, indeed,he said.And if thereareonlya fewof them in the State,and the

Tt_ changewhichcomesoverMm. 285rest of the people are well disposed, they go awayand /¢tp_'cbecomethebody-guardormercenarysoldiersof someother IX.tyrantwho mayprobablywantthemfora war; and if there soc_r_,is no war, they stay at homeand do manylittle piecesofmischiefin thecity.

What sort ofmischief?For example,they are the thieves,burglars, cut.purses,

foot-pads,robbers of temples, man-stealersof the com-munity; or if they are able to speak they turn informers,and bear falsewitness,and takebribes.

A small catalogue of evils, even if the perpetratorsofthemare fewin number.

Yes,I said; but small and great are comparativeterms, Apavateand all these things,in the miseryand evilwhichthey inflict personcando but little

upona State, do not comewithin a thousandmiles of the harmintyrant" when this noxious class and their followersgrow eompari-P son of thenumerousand becomeconsciousof their strength,assisted tyrant.by the infatuationof the people,they choosefrom amongthemselvesthe onewho has most of the tyrant in hisownsoul,andhimtheycreatetheir tyrant.

Yes,he said, andhe willbe the mostfit tobe a tyrant.If the peopleyield,wellandgood; but if theyresisthim,

as he beganbybeatinghis own fatherandmother,so now,if he hasthe power,he beatsthem,andwill keephis dearold fatherlandor motherland,as theCretans say, in sub-jectionto hisyoungretainerswhomhehas introducedto betheir rulersandmasters. This is the endof his passionsanddesires.

Exactly.Whensuch menare onlyprivateindividualsand before Thebeha-

they get power, this is their character; they associateviourofthetyrant toentirelywith their ownflatterersor readytools; or if they hisearlywantanythingfromanybody,theyin their turnare equallysupporters.readyto bowdownbeforethem: theyprofesseverysortof

576affectionfor them; butwhentheyhavegainedtheirpointtheyknowthemno more.

Yes,truly.Theyare alwayseitherthe mastersor servantsandnever Heis

the friendsof anybody; the t_antnever tastesoftrue free- eitheralWaysdomor friendship. _ _ ................

u86 T/w dista_e l_wecu _'ug and tyrant.

R/XO_." Certainlynot.Andmaywe notrightlycallsuchmentreacherous?Noquestion.

o_o_. Alsotheyareutterlyunjust,if wewererightinournotionmasteror ofjustice?servant. Yes,he said,andwewereperfectlyright._lways,r_ch,_- Letus then sumup in a word,I said,the characterof theous. worstman: he is thewakingrealityof whatwedreamed.unjust, Mosttrue.thewaking Andthisis he whobeingby naturemostof a tyrantbearsrealityofourdn_a_,rule,and the longerhe lives themoreof a tyranthe becomes.a tyrantby Thatis certain,saidGlaucon,takinghis turntoanswer._, atyrantin Andwillnot he who hasbeen shownto be thewickedest,fact. be also the most miserable? and he who has tyrannized"r_k_ longest and most, most continuallyand trulymiserable;are also themo_tmiser-althoughthis maynot be the opinionof men in general?able. Yes,hesaid,inevitably.._.keman,.. And must not the tyrannicalmanbe like the tyrannical

and man the democraticalState;likesmte'/_State, thedemocraticall|and the sameofthe others?#|

Certainly.Andas Stateis to Statein virtueandhappiness,so is man

in relationto man?To besure.

Theoppo- Thencomparingouroriginalcity,whichwasundera king,site of the -

They are the oppositeextremes,he said, for one is theverybestand the otheris the veryworst.

Therecan be nomistake,I said,as to whichiswhich,andthereforeI willat onceenquirewhetheryouwouldarriveata similardecisionabouttheirrelativehappinessandmisery.Andherewe mustnotallowourselvesto bepanic-strickenatthe apparitionof the tyrant,who is only a unit and mayperhapshavea fewretainersabouthim; butlet usgo as weought into everycornerof the cityand lookall about,andthen we willgiveouropinion.

A fairinvitation,he replied; and I see, as everyonemust,-'_ that a tyranny4s the wretchedestformof government,and

the ruleof a kingthe happiest.

T/_./_u/_ci-_n_ a/_,r_/z_g. 287

And in estimatingthe men too, mayI not fairlymakea _/j_x.%377like request,that I should have a judgewhosemind canenterintoandsee throughhumannature? he mustnot be so_s,likea childwho looksat the outsideand is dazzledat the fpompousaspectwhichthe tyrannicalnatureassumestothe[beholder,butlet himbe onewhohas a clearinsight. May!supposethatthe judgmentis givenin the hearingof us allbyonewhois abletojudge,andhasdweltin the sameplacewithhim,andbeenpresentat his dailylife andknownhimin his familyrelations,wherehe maybe seenstrippedofhistragedyattire,and awainin the hourof publicdanger--heshall tell us aboutthe happinessandmiseryof the tyrantwhencomparedwithothermen?

Thatagain,he said,is a veryfairproposal.Shall I assumethatwe ourselvesareableandexperienced

judgesandhave beforenowmetwithsucha person? Weshallthenhavesomeonewhowillanswerourenquiries.

Byall means.Let measkyounot to forgettheparallelof theindividual

and the State; bearingthis in mind,and glancingin turnfromone to the other of them,will you tell me their re-spectiveconditions?

"_Vhatdoyoumean? he asked.Beginningwiththe State,I replied,wouldyou saythata TheState

is not free,citywhichis governedbya tyrantis freeor enslaved? buten-

bemorecompletel enslaved, staved.Nocity, hesaid,can __Andyet, asyousee, therearefreemenas well as masters

in sucha State?Yes,he said,I see thatthereare---afew; but thepeople,\

speakinggenerally,and the best of them are miserably)degradedand enslaved.Thenif the manis like the State, I said,mustnot the L_ea

same rule prevail9 his soul is full of meannessand slave,the• tyrant.isvulgarity--thebest elementsin him are enslaved; and fundthere is a small rulingport,which is also the worstand meanness,and themaddest, mhegpart

Inevitably. ofhimis •madness.Andwouldyousay thatthe soulofsuchan oneis thesoul

of a freeman,or of aslave?He has thesoulofa slave,in myopinion.

288 ttalpinessandr4iuryC justandunjust.R¢_¢_ Andthe Statewhichis enslavedundera tyrantisutterly

Ix. • incapableofactingvoluntarily?soo_, Utterlyincapable.GLAu_.

And also the soulwhich is undera tyrant(I amspeakingThecitywhichis of the soul takenas a whole)is least capableof doingwhatsubject,o she desires; there is a gadflywhichgoadsher,and she ishimisgoadedby fulloftroubleandremorse?agadfly; Certainly.

Andis the citywhichis undera tyrantrichorpoor?Poor.

poor: And the tyrannicalsoul mustbe alwayspoor andinsati-578able?

True.And must not such a State and such a man be always

fulloffear?Yes, indeed.

atnof Is thereanyStatein whichyouwillfindmoreof lamenta-mi_my, tionandsorrowandgroaningandpain?

Certainlynot.And is there anymanin whomyouwill findmoreof this

sort of miserythan in the tyrannicalman,who is in afuryof passionsanddesires?

Impossible.Reflectingupon these and similarevils, you held the

tyrannicalStateto be the mostmiserableof States?AndI wasright,he said.

Aisothe Certainly,I said. Andwhenyousee thesameevilsin thetyraaaie_tyrannicalman,whatdo yousayof him?manismostmiserable. I say thathe is by farthemostmiserableofall men.Yetthereis There,I said,I thinkthatyou are beginningto gowrong.astmmore What doyoumeanmiserablebeing, I do not think that he has as yet reachedthe utmostthetyran- extremeof misery.nicatmanwhoisa Then who ismoremiserable?p_icvj,- One ofwhomI amaboutto speak.ra_t. Who is that?

He whois of a tyrannicalnature,and insteadof leadinga privatelife has been cursedwith the furthermisfortuneof beinga public tyranL

Fromwhathasbeensaid,I gatherthatyou areright.

Tke tyrant like tke owner of slaves. 289

Yes,I replied,but in this highargumentyoushouldbea R4_uelittlemorecertain,andshouldnotconjectureonly; for ofall Ix.questions,thisrespectinggoodandevil is the greatest, so_a_,........ GL_.Verytrue,he _1.---]'tiT-----'--

Letmethenofferyouan illustration,whichmay,I think,throwa lightuponthissubject.

Whatis yourillustration?The case of rich individualsin citieswho possessmany Incities

slaves: fromthem you may forman ideaof the tyrant'stherearemany greatcondition,for they both haveslaves; the only differenceis stave-thathe hasmoreslaves, owners,and

they helpYes, that is the difference, toprotectYou knowthat theylive securelyand havenothingto onean-

apprehendfromtheirservants? other.Whatshouldtheyfear?Nothing. Butdoyouobservethe reasonof this?Yes; the reasonis,thatthewholecityis leaguedtogether

fortheprotectionofeachindividual.Verytrue, I said. But imagineone of these owners,the Butsup-

mastersayof somefiftyslaves,togetherwithhis familyand poseaslave-ownerandpropertyandslaves,carriedoffbya god into thewilderness,hisslavescarriedoffwhere thereare nofreementohelp him--willhenot bein an intotheagonyof fear lesthe and hiswifeand childrenshouldbe put _lderness.to deathbyhis slaves? whatwill

happen579 Yes,hesaid,he willbe inthe utmostfear. then?SuchThetimehas arrivedwhenhe willbe compelledtoflatter isthecon-ditionof

diversof his slaves,and makemanypromisesto themof thetyrant.freedomand other things,muchagainsthis will--he willhaveto cajolehis ownservants.

Yes, he said,thatwillbe the onlywayof savinghimself.And supposethe samegod,whocarriedhimaway,to sur-

roundhimwithneighbourswho willnot sufferone mantobe the masterof another,andwho, if theycouldcatchtheoffender,wouldtakehislife?

His case will be still worse,if you supposehim to beeverywheresurroundedandwatchedbyenemies. Heis the

Andis not thisthesortof prisonin whichthetyrantwill daintiestofan menand

be bound--hewhobeingbynaturesuchaswehavedescribed,hastoon-is fullofaUsortsof fearsandlusts? His soulis daintyand dexethehardshJl_greedy,and yet alone,of all men in the city,he is never ofaprm_;

U

29o Tk¢ real .tyra_ gke real slave.

x_a allowedto goon ajourney,or to.see the thingswhichotheriX. freemendesireto see, buthe livesin his holelikea woman

so_tw, hiddenin thehouse,and is jealousof anyothercitizenwhoGL_,_OH,

goesintoforeignpartsandseesanythingof interest.Verytrue,hesaid.

Mis_able Andamidevilssuchasthesewillnothe whois ill-governedi_himself,in his ownperson--thetyrannicalman,I mean--whomyouheisstillmoxemiser-just nowdecidedto be the mostmiserableof all--willnotheabhifhe beyetmoremiserablewhen,insteadof leadinga privatelife,laeinapublic he isconstrainedbyfortunetobea publictyrant? He hastostaaon, be masterof otherswhenhe is notmasterof himself:he is

likea diseasedor paralyticmanwho iscompelledtopasshislife,notin retirement,butfightingandcombatingwithothermen.

Yes, he said,the similitudeis mostexact.IIethen Is nothiscase utterlymiserable? anddoesnot the actualleaasalife tyrantleada _vorselifethanhe whoselifeyoudeterminedtoworsethantheworst,be theworst?

Certainly.in unhappi- He whois the realtyrant,whatevermenmaythink,is thehess, real slave,and is obligedto practisethe greatestadulation

andservility,andto be theflattererofthevilestofmankind.He has desires whichhe is utterlyunableto satisfy,andhasmorewantsthananyone,andis trulypoor,if youknowhowto inspectthewholesoulof him: all his life longhe isbesetwithfearandis fullof convulsionsanddistractions,evenas theStatewhichheresembles: andsurelytheresemblanceholds?

Verytrue,hesaid.a_li_ Moreover,as we were saying before,he growsworse58o_uxl- fromhavingpower: he becomesand is of necessitymorehess.

jealous,morefaithless,moreunjust,morefriendless,moreimpious,than he was at first; he is the purveyorandcherisherof everysort of vice,andthe consequenceis thathe is supremelymiserable,andthathemakeseverybodyelseasmiserableashimseff.

Nomanof anysensewill disputeyourwords.Theurn- Comethen,I said,andas thegeneralumpirein theatricalp_deeidesthat contestsproclaimstheresult,doyoualsodecidewhoin your

opinionis first in thescale of happiness,andwhosecond_

Tt_ first, u_on wMck follows Citesuo_ triM. 291

and inwhatorder the others follow: there are fiveof them Re/hal02in all--theyare the royal, timoeratical,o_al, de;gao- Ix.cratical,tyrannical. "" _ s,mm_

The dme_mnwillbe easilygiven,he replied; they shall c._o,.be chorusescomingon the stage,andI mustjudge theminthe order inwhieh they enter,bythe criterionof virtueandvice,happinessandmisery.

Need we hire a herald, or shall I announce,that the son thebestisof Ariston [the best]has decided thatthe bestand justest thehap#-estandtlmis also the happiest,and that this is he who is the most worstistheroyal man and king over himself; and thatthe worstand mostmiser-able.mostunjustmanis alsothe mostmiserable,and thatthisis Thisishe who being the greatesttyrantof himselfis also the pr_lama-greatesttyrantof his State? fi_ofthemnofAris-

Makethe proclamationyourself,he said. ton.And shall I add, ' whetherseen or unseenby gods and

men' ?Letthe wordsbe added.Then this, I said, willbe our first proof; and there is

another,whichmayalsohavesomeweight.Whatis that? \Thesecondproof isderivedfromthe natureof thesoul_ Proof,de-

seeing that the individualsoul, like the State, has beer_rivedfromdividedbyus intothreeprinciples,the divisionmay,I think4 thethreeprinciplesfurnisha newdemonstration, j ofthesoul.

Of whatnature?Itseemsto methattothesethreeprinciplesthreepleasures

correspond; also threedesiresandgoverningpowers.Howdoyoumean? he said.Thereis one principlewithwhich,as we weresaying,a

man learns,anotherwithwhichhe is angry; the third,havingmanyforms,has no specialname,but is denotedby thegeneraltermappetitive,fromthe extraordinarystrengthandvehemenceof the'desires of eatingand drinkingand theother sensualappetiteswhichare the mainelementsof it;

58xalsomoney-loving,becausesuchdesiresaregenerallysatisfiedbythe helpof money.

Thatis true,he said.If we were to say that the lovesand pleasuresof this (tlTh¢

third partwere concernedwith gain, we shouldthen be app_it_:U2

29u Tl_e tkree classesof men and tkree kinds of pleasure.

Re._b/_ able to fallback on a single notion; and might truly andIX. intelligiblydescribethis part of the soul as lovinggainor

soo_. money.I agreewithyou.Again,is notthepassionateelementwhollyset on ruling

andconqueringandgettingfame?True.

(a)The Supposewecallitthe contentiousor ambitious--wouldtheambit_,_: termbe suitable?

Extremelysuitable.(a)The On the other hand,everyone sees that the principleofpdncifleof knowledgeis whollydirectedto the truth,and cares lessknowledgeandtruth than eitheroftheothersforgainor fame.

Far less.' Loverof wisdom,'' loverof knowledge,'are titleswhich

wemayfitlyapplyto thatpartofthesoul?Certainly.One principleprevailsin the souls of one class of men,

anotherin others,as mayhappen?Yes.

Then we may begin by assumingthat there are threeclassesof men--lovers of wisdom,loversof honour,lovers

Exactly.And there are three kinds of pleasure,Whichare their

severalobjects?Very true.

Eachwin Now,if you examinethe three classesof men,andaskofdepreciatethemin turnwhichof theirlives is pleasantest,eachwillbetheothers,butonly foundpraisinghis own anddepreciatingthat of others : thethephik_o-money-makerwillcontrastthe vanityof honourorof learningpherhasthepowerif they bringnomoneywith the solidadvantagesofgoldandtojudge, silver?

True,he said.And the loverof honour--whatwillbe hisopinion? Will

he not think that the pleasureof riches isvulgar,whilethepleasureof learning,if it bringsno distinction,is allsmokeandnonsenseto him?

Very true.

The pkiloso_lur 'judges all, and is judged of none.' 293

Andare we to supposet, I said,that the philosophersets Re#d_/canyvalue on other pleasuresin eomparisonwith the plea- lX.sureof knowingthe truth,and in that pursuitabiding,ever socrates,Ot.AtmON.

learning,not so far indeed from the heaven of pleasure.9becameheDoes he not call the other pleasuresnecessary,under the alonehasidea that if there were no necessityfor them, he would extztience

of the high-rathernothavethem? estplea-

There canbe nodoubtof that,he replied, sur_andisalso ac-

Since,then,thepleasuresof eachclassand the lifeof each qtmintedare in dispute,and the questionis notwhich lifeis moreor withthelower.58_less honourable,or betteror worse,butwhichis the morepleasantor painless--howshallwe knowwhospeakstruly.9

I cannotmyselftell, he said.Well, butwhatought to be the criterion.9 Is anybetter

thanexperienceandwisdomandreason9There cannotbe a better,he said.Then, I said, reflect. Of the three individuals,which

has the greatest experienceof all the pleasures whichwe enumerated? Has the lover of gain, in learning thenatureof essentialtruth,greater experienceof the pleasureof knowledgethan the philosopherhas of the pleasureofgain.9

The philosopher,he replied,has greatly the advantage;forhe ha__of_fi6ce_ymtw_S _n-own_'t_'_t_SVthe_-ot_6i'pleasuresfromhis childhoodupwards: but theloverofgainin allhis experiencehas notofnecessitytasted--or,I shouldrather say,evenhad he desired,couldhardlyhave tasted-- I

t thesweetnessof learningand knowingtruth.Then the lover ofwisdomhas a greatadvantageover the

loverof gain,for he hasa doubleexperience?Yes,verygreat.Again,hashegreaterexperienceofthepleasuresofhonour,

or the loverof honourofthe pleasuresof wisdom?Nay,he said, all threeare honouredinproportionas they

attaintheir object; for the richman and the bravemanandthe wise man alike havetheir crowdof admirers,and asthey all receive honour they all have experienceof thepleasures of honour; but the delightwhichis to be found

t ReadingwithGrasereandHermaun.d old_eea,andomittingo_b,,whichisnotfoundinthebestMSS.

_94 The higher #ltasure a_revcd _ lt_w,tdg]:erfar.u/_.

R_'c in the knowledgeof true beingis lu-mwntothe ph_erIx. only.

Soc_r_, His experience,then, wilt enablehimto judgebetterthanGtaucoM.any one?

Far better.T_phUo- And he is the only one who has wisdomas well as ex-sopher periennce? -'----almmlmv-aag_th Certainly.j_t Further,the veryfacultywhich is the instrumentof judg-andexperi-en_, meritis notpossessedby thecovetousor ambitiousman,but

onlybythe philosopher?What faculty?Re_ja_.,_JLhwhom, as we were saying,the decision

ought to rest.

And reasoningis peculiarlyhis instrument?Certainly.If wealthand gain were the criterion,then the praise or

blameof the lover of gainwould surelybe the most trust-worthy?

Assuredly.Orif honouror victoryorcourage,in thatcasethe judg-

mentoftheambitiousor pugnaciouswouldbe thetruest?Clearly.

the But since experienceand wisdomand reason are thejudges--whichhe

approvesI The onlyinferencepossible,he replied,is thatpleasuresarethetrue/whichare approvedbythe loverof wisdomandreasonarehe_ |the truest.{t)tl_love And so we arriveat the result,tha_the_pteasureof theofwisdom,intellig_.-pa_g.-oL2J_-_/_.p.l.___f_6three/583{a}theloveofhonour,an_rin_s_ t_e{3}and pleasantestlife.lowesttheloveof Unquestionably,hesaid,thewisemanspeakswithauthoritygain. whenheapprovesofhisownlife.

Andwhatdoesthejudgeaffirmto be the lifewhichis next,andthepleasurewhichis next?

Clearlythatof tim soldierand loverof honour; who isnearerto himselfthanthemoney-maker.

Lastcomesthe loverofgain?

_'i_

T/w tMrd trial. 295

Verytrue,hesaAd. RepvldicTwieeinsuccession,then,hasthejustmanoverthrownthe Ix.

unjustin thisconflict; andnowcomesthe thirdtrial,whichso_,_T_G.LA_ON.

is dedicatedtoOlympianZeusthe saviour: asagewhispersTr_eplea-in myear thatno pleasureexceptthat ofthewiseisquite_u__nottrueandpure--allothersarea shadowonly; andsurelyremive_tabsolute.thiswillprovethegreatestandmostdecisiveoffalls?

Yes,thegreatest; hutwillyouexplainyourself?I willworkout the subjectand youshall answermy

questions.Proceed.Say,then,is notpleasureopposedtopain?True.Andthereis a neutralstatewhichis neitherpleasurenor

pain?Thereis.Astatewhichis intermediate,andasortofreposeof the

soulabouteither--thatis whatyoumean?Yes.

Yourememberwhatpeoplesaywhentheyaresick?Whatdotheysay?Thatafterallnothingis pleasanterthanhealth. Butthen

theyneverknewthisto be thegreatestof pleasuresuntiltheywereill.

Yes,I know,hesaid.Andwhenpersonsaresufferingfromacutepain,youmustThestates

haveheardthemsaythatthereis nothingpleasanterthanto intermedi-atebetweenget ridoftheirpain? plea._ure

I have. andpainare termed

Andthereare manyothereasesofsufferinginwhichthe pleasuresormererestandcessationofpain,andnotanypositiveenjoy-painsonlyin relationment,is extolledbythemasthegreatestpleasure? totheir

Yes,hesaid; atthetimetheyarepleasedandwellcontentopposites.tobeatrest.

Again,whenpleasureceases,thatsortofrestor cessationwillbepainful?

Doubtless,hesaid.Thentheintermediatestateof restwillbe pleasureand

willalsobepain?Soitwouldseem.